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THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



;7 



THE 



MANUAL OF DATES: 



A DICTIONAEY OF EEFEEENCE 



I 



ALL THE HOST IMPOETAls^T EYENTS IN THE HTSTOET OE MANXIND TO 
BE EOUND IN AUTHENTIC EECOEDS. 



BY 



GEOEGE Hf TOWNSJELSD. 




Lo:NDO]sr: 

ROUTLEDGE, WAENE, & ROUTLEDGE, 

FAEEINGDON STEEET; 

NEW YOEK: 56, WALKEE STEEET. 

1862. 



Ti4- 



COX AND WYiVIAy,' PEli:TEES, GREAT QUEEN STHEET, 
LINCOLN's-INN FIEI/DS. 



6\ of Tnt. 

14 '03 



PEEFACE. 



IT lias been tlie aim of tlie Author to render The 
Manual of Dates a concise and trustworthy com- 
pendium of the principal events of Ancient and Modern 
times. As the value of a Book of General Keference 
must necessarily depend upon the character of the sources 
whence information is derived, the Writer has, in all 
cases, consulted the best authorities ; and their statements 
have been carefully considered and compared. On dis- 
puted points, conflicting accounts have been submitted 
to rigid scrutiny, and the view supported by the most 
conclusive evidence has been invariably adopted. 

Biographies, with the exception of short notices of 
English sovereigns, are not included in the alphabetical 
arrangement ; but the reader will find that the lives of 
many great men of every age and country are illustrated 
in various articles. 

In so large a collection of facts — the number of Articles 
in the volume being nearly double that contained in any 
similar work — certain errors and inaccuracies could not 
by any possibility be avoided. The critical reader, who 
understands the labour involved in the extensive researches 
required for a Book of this kind, can make due allowance 
for the same. The Author will feel greatly obliged to 



VI PREFACE. 

Critics and Correspondents if they will kindly point out 
inaccuracies, that they may be corrected in a future Edition. 

The work is furnished with a carefully-prepared Index, 
and a list of the principal Authorities. 

The Author deems it only an act of justice to Messrs. 
Cox & Wyman, to express his warm commendation of the 
very great care which they have bestowed on the Printing 
of this Work. 

London, Se^temher, 1862. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 



Amongst the numerous Works which have been consulted in this Manual, 
the following may be mentioned : — 



Alison's History of Europe, from the Commence- 
ment of the French Revolution in 1789 to the 
Restoration of the Bourbons iu 1815. 9th edit. 
12 vols. 1853-55. 

Alison's History of JJurope, from the Fall of Napo- 
leon in 1815 to the Accession of Louis Napoleon 
in 1853. 8 vols. 1852-59. 

Almanac de Gotha. 1787 to 1862. 16mo. 

Anderson's History of Commerce. 

Annals of England : an Epitome of English History. 

3 vols. 1855-57. 

Annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century. By 

' Sir E. Cust. 5 vols. 1858-60. 
Annual Register. 

Arnold's History of Rome. 3 vols. 1838-43. 
Asiatic Register. 
Baker's Chronicle of the Kings of England, with a 

Continuation by E. Phillips. 1730. 
Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary. 
Berry's Dictionary of Heraldry. 4to. 
Bohn's Antiquarian Library. Various Works. 
Bohn's Classical Library. Various Works. 
Bohn's Scientific Library. Various Works. 
Bohn's Standard Library. Various Works. 
Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. 

3rd edit. 1853. 
British Almanac and Companion. 1829, &c. 
Broughton's Historical Dictionary of all Religions, 

from the Creation of the World to this Present 

Time. 1756. Folio. 
Bum's Ecclesiastical Law, by Robert Phillimore. 

9th edit. 4 vols. 1842. 
Calendars of State Papers. 
Camden's Britaunia. By Richard Gough. 2nd edit. 

4 vols. 1806. 

Carte's History of England. 4 vols. 1747. 

Cave's Antiquitates Apostolicas. 

Cave's Antiquitates Ecclesiasticse. 

Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. 7 vols. 
1849. 

Clinton's Fasti Hellenici. 3 vols. 1834-51. 

Clinton's Fasti Romani. 2 vols. 1845-50. 

Collier's Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain. 

Comyn's History of the Western Empire. 

Cotton's Fasti Ecclesise HiberuiciB. 4 vols. ; supple- 
ment, 1 vol. 1847-60. 

Creasy's History of the Ottoman Turks. 

Cunningham's Handbook of London. 1850. 

Dictionnaire de la Conversation, et Supijl^ment. 

Disraeli's Amenities of Literature. 2 vols. 18.59. 

Disraeli's Curiosities of Literature. 3 vols. 1858. 

Ducange's Glossarium ad Scriptores Medise et Infimse 
Latinitatis. 6 vols. ; supplement, 4 vols. 1733-36. 

Dugdale's Monasticum Anglicanum. 6 vols. 1817-30. 

Dugdale's Origin es Juridiciales. 1666. 

Ecclesiastical and Civil History. By the Rev. Geo. 
Townsend, D. D. 2 vols. 1847. 

Encyclopsedia Britannica. 8th edit. 

Encyclopedia Metropolitana. 4to edit., and the 
revised treatises iu 8vo. 

Encyclopsedia of Antiquities. By the Rev. T. D. Fos- 
broke. 2 vols. 1843. 

English Cyclopoedia. By Charles Knight. 

Fairholt's Costume in England. 1846. 

Fiulay's Greece under the Romans. 1844. 



Finlay's History of Greece and Trebizond. 1851. 

Finlay's Histoiy of the Byzantine Empire. 1853. 

Foss's Judges of England. 6 vols. 1848-57. 

Froude's History of England. 6 vols. 1856-60. 

Gibbon's History of the Fall and Decline of the Ro- 
man Empire. By W. Smith. 8 vols. 1854-55. 

Grote's History of Greece. 12 vols. 1846-56. 

Guizot's History of Civilization. 

Gwilt's Encyclopsedia of Architecture. 3rd edit. 1854 

Hale's New Analysis of Chronology and Geograpliy, 
History and Prophecy. 2nd edit. 4 vols. 1830. 

Hallani's England. 9th edit. 3 vols. 1857. 

Hallam's Middle Ages. 11th edit. 3 vols. 1855. 

Hallam's Literary History. 5th edit. 4 vols. 1855. 

Hamilton's East-India Gazetteer. 2 vols. 1828. 

Herbelot's BibliothSque Orientale. 1697. 

Historical Notes, 1509—1714. Compiled by F. S. Tho- 
mas. 3 vols. 1856. 

Historical Register. 

Hook's Church Dictionary. 6th edit. 

Home's, Rev., Introduction to the Critical Study 
and Knowledge of the Holy Scripture. 10th edit. 

4 vols. 1856. 
Humboldt's Cosmos. Bohn's edit. 

Hume and Smollett's History of England, continued 

by the Rev. T. S. Hughes. New edit. 18 vols. 

1854-55. 
Knight's London. 6 vols. 1841-44. 
Knight's Popular History of England. Vols. I. to VI. 
Koch and Schoell's Histoire abr^gSe des Traitfis 

dePaix. 15 vols. 1817-18. 
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopsedia. 
Lascelles' Liber Munerum pubUcoram Hibemise. 

2 vols. 1724. 
Layard's Nineveh and its Remains. 5th edit. 
Layard's Nineveh and Babylon. 
Le Neve's Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanse. By T. Duffus 

Hardy. 3 vols. 1854. 
Lewis's Credibility of Early Roman History. 2 vols. 

1855. 
Liber Albus. 
Mahon's, Lord, History of England. 2nd edit. 7 vols. 

1839-54. 
Marsden's History of Christian Churches and Sects. 

2 vols. 18.56. 

Martin's Histoire de France. 4th edit. 

McCulloch's Dictionaiy of Commerce and Commercial 
Navigation. 1859. 

Mill's British India. 

Milman's Histoiy of Latin Christianity. 6 vols. 
1854-55. 

Montfaucon's l'Antiquit6 expliqu6e. 5 vols. ; sup- 
plement, 5 vols. 1719-24. 

Moreri's Dictionnaire Historique. 

Mo^heim's Ecclesiastical History. 4 vols. 1850. 

Mliller's Historv of the Literature of Ancient Greece. 

3 vols. 18.58. 

Mure's Language and Literature of Ancient Greece. 

5 vols. 1850-57. 

Nares's Glossaiy, edited by James O. Halliwell and 

Thomas Wright. 2 vols. 1859. 
National Cyclopoedia and Supplement. 
Notes and Queries. 1st and 2nd series. 
Palmer's Origines Liturgicre. 4th edit. 2 vols, 1845. 
Parry's Parliaments and Councils of England. 



TUl 



BOOKS OF EErERENCE. 



Petrie and Shai-pe's Monumenta Historica Britan- 

nica. 1848. 
Pictorial History of England. 8 vols. 1849. 
Prescott's Charles the Fifth. 2 vols. 18-57. 
Presoott's Ferdinand and Isabella. 2 vols. 
Prescott's History of the Conquest of Mexico. 2 

vols. 1860. 
Prescott's History of the Conquest of Peru. 2 vols. 
Prideaux's Old and New Testament connected. 2 

vols. 1845. 
Public Records and State Papers. 
Quarterlv Review. 
Rapia's Histoiy of England. By N. Tindal. 2nd 

edit. 4 vols. 1732-47. 
EawUuson's Herodotus. 4 vols. 
Eees's Encycli^pasdia. 
Richard et Giraud's BibliothSque Saerfie. 29 vols. 

1822-27. 
Riddle's Ecclesiastical Chronology. 1840. 
Robertson's History of the Christian Church. 
Robinson's Theological Dictionary. 4th edit. 1844. 
Rudiug's Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain. 

3rd edit. 3 vols. 1840. 
Russell's History of Modern Europe. 4 vols. Edit. 

1856. 
Russell's Modern Europe epitomized. 
Rymer's Fcedera. Folio. 
Salmon's Chronological Historian. 3rd edit. 2 vols. 

1747. 
Sharon Turner's History of England. 
Sharpe's History of Egypt. 4th edit. 2 vols. 1859. 
Sheppard's Fall of Rome. 1861. 
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 
Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biogi-aphy 

and Mythology. 3 vols. 



Smith's Dictionaiy of Greek and Roman Geography. 

2 vols. 
Statutes at Large. 
Statutes of the Realm. 

Stephens's New Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- 
land. 4th edit. 4 vols. 18.58. 
Stevens's History of the Ancient Abbeys, Monasteries, 

Hospitals, Cathedral and Collegiate Churches. 

2 vols. 1722-23. 
Stowe's Survey of London and Westminster. 2nd 

edit. 2 vols. 1720. 
Tanner's Notitia Monastica. By James Nasmith. 

1787. 
Thulwall's History of Gree'^e. 8 vols. 1845-52. 
Thornton's Gazetteer of the TeiTitories imder the 

Government of the East-India Company. 181 
Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of England. 

FoUo. 1840. 
Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of "Wales. 

Folio. 1841. 
Tonilin's Law Dictionary. 4th edit. 2 vols. 1835. 
Towusend's Historical and Chronological Ai-range- 

nient of the Bible. 
Turner's Histoiy of England. 6th edit. 12 vols. 

1836-39. 
Tytler's Histoiy of Scotland. 3rd edit. 7 vols. 

1845. 
Ure's Dictionai-y of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. 

By Robert Hunt. 5th edit. 1860. 
Wade's British Histoiy. 5th edit. 1847. 
Wharton's Law Lexicon. 
White's History of England. 1860. 
Wilkinson's Dalmatia and Montenegro. 2 vols. . 
Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians. 
Wright's History of Ii-eiand. 3 vols. 



A NEW 

MANUAL OF DATES 




Aarsatt, or Aegovia (Switzerland), which 
for some time formed part of Berne, was 
made an iadependent canton by the Act of 
Mediation, published Feb. 19, 1803, Part of 
the Frickthal, which Austria, by the sixth se- 
cret article of the treaty of Campo-Formio, in 
1797, had relinquished, was incorporated with 
it, in consequence of which a treaty between 
Argovia and Baden was signed at Aarau, 
Sept. 17, 1808. By the new constitution, 
finaUy settled ia 1815, Aargau ranks amongst 
the twenty -two Swiss cantons. A diet assem- 
bled at its chief town, Aarau, on the invasion 
of Switzerland by the French iu 1798, was 
the last summoned under the old confedera- 
tion. An insurrection occurred in Aargau, 
Jan. 10, 11, and 12, 1841 ; and in 1844 the 
people demanded the expulsion of the Je- 
suits. The castle of Habsburg, the seat of 
the ancestors of the imperial family of Aus- 
tria, is situated in this canton, 

Abacot. — Mention of the cap of state 
worn by some of our kings occurs in the 
Chronicle of Fabyan, who includes amongst 
the spoils that fell into the hands of Ed- 
ward rV., after the battle of Hexham (1463), 
' Henry the Sixth's " bycoket, gamysshed 
with ii. crownes of golde, and fret with perle 
and ryche stone." This account is repeated 
by later authors. Grafton uses the term 
" abococket," and Camden says : " In that 
fatal battle fought here, 1463, on the plains 
called the Levels, was taken the cap of state 
called Ahacot, adorned with two rich crowns." 
Abakcat (Battle) . — At this place, in Peru, 
Almagro, during the civil war amongst its 
Spanish conquerors, gaiaed a complete vic- 
tory over Alvarado, July 12, 1537. 

Abattoib.— By 4 & 5 Hen. VII, c. 3 (1490), 
butchers were made subject to a fine for 
slaughtering beasts within the walls of the 
j city of London. The act extended to all 
j towns of England except Berwick and Car- 
1 lisle. The butchers having constructed 
drains to carry off the filth, &c., petitioned 
i to be relieved from its operation, and this 
was done by 24 Hen. Vm. c. 16(1533), Stow 
j (Survey, b. v. ch. 12) relates that on the 
visitation of the plague in the reign of Eliza- 
beth, an ingenious Italian gentleman and 
physician assigned one great cause of it to 
be the killing of cattle within the city, and 
proposed that slaughter-houses should be 
erected in the suburbs of Loudon and other 
cities. By a decree of Napoleon, dated Feb. 9, 



1810, it was ordered that five abattoirs, or 
public slaughter-houses, should be erected in 
the vicinity of Paris. They were opened in 
1818. Eoule and ViUejuif each contained 32 
slaughter-houses ; Grenelle 48 ; and Menil- 
montant and Montmartre each 64 ; making 
in aU 240 slaughter-houses. Similar estab- 
lishments have been erected in the precincts 
of aU large towns in France. The abattoir 
erected in Edinburgh in 1851 was the first 
introduced into the United Kingdom. Peti- 
tions for the removal of Smithfield, and the 
substitution of these useful estabhshments, 
were presented to Parhament April 23, 
1833 ; and abattoirs form part of the new 
Cattle-market in Copenhagen-fields, opened 
June 13, 1855, 

Abbacomites. — Lay-abbots, who, during 
the Middle Ages, obtained from the sove- 
reign certain monasteries in the way of bene- 
fices, became very nimierous in France, and 
several decrees on the subject are found in 
the records of the jperiod. Fosbroke (British 
Monachism, c. vii. p. 83) states that " there 
were anciently lay-abbots, which, it seems, 
was owing to the laity seizing the church 
lands, and leaving only the altar and tithes 
to the clergy. Lay-abbots were also called 
Abbacomites, and Abbates milites, — 'noble 
abbots,' and 'knightly abbots.' They were 
great persons, under whose protection the 
monasteries voluntarily placed themselves; 
but these protectors became their oppres- 
sors. They had another title, that of ' Com- 
mendatory Abbots,' and often filled the first 
offices in the court and army." Bernard, the 

J'^oungest of Charles Martel's six sons, was 
ay-abbot of the monastery of Sithin, or St. 
Quentin, in the middle of the 8th century ; 
and Prince Eugene, when he made his first 
campaign (1683), was commendatory abbot 
of two ancient monasteries. 

Abbassabad. — ^This Persian fortress was 
captured by the Eussians July 31, 1827, a 
battle having been fought here June 20 ; and 
another, called the battle of Djevan-Boulak, 
July 18. The Eussians were victorious in 
each encounter, 

Abbassides. — This race wrested the scep- 
tre of the Saracens from the house of the Om- 
miades, and occupied the caliphate for more 
than five centuries. They were descendants 
of Abbas-Ben- Abul-MotaUeb, tmcle of the 
Prophet. Gibbon remarks : " In the visible 
separation of parties, the green was conse- 



ABB 

crated to the Fatimites ; the Ommiades were 
distinguislied by the white ; and the black, as 
the most adverse, was nattirally adopted by 
the Abbassides. Their turbans and garments 
were stained with that gloomy colour : two 
black standards, on pikestaves nine cubits 
long, were borne aloft in the van of Abu 
Moslem ; and their allegorical names of the 
night and the shadow obscurely represented 
the indissoluble union and perpetual succes- 
sion of the line of Hashem." They rebelled 
against the Ommiades, 746, and gained seve- 
ral victories. Merwan 11., the fourteenth 
and last cahph of the Ommiades, having suf- 
fered a terrible defeat on the banks of the 
Zab, fled into Egypt, and was slain in a 
mosque at Busir, on the banks of the !Nile 
(Feb. 10, 750). Abul Abbas, or Al Saffah 
(the Sanguinary), became the first caliph of 
the Abbassides ; and their empire lasted until 
Feb. 20, 1258, when the Mongol leader, Ho- 
lagou Kian, stormed Bagdad, and put Mos- 
tasem, the last of the race, to death. The 
Abbassides removed the seat of empire from 
Damascus to Bagdad, in 762. The following 
is a complete hst of these caliphs, with the 
date of their elevation to power : — 



Abnl Abbas 750 

Al Mansur 754 

AlMahdi 775 

Al Hadi 785 

Haroun Al Kashid . . 786 

Al Amin 809 

Al Mamiin 813 

Al Motassem 833 

AlWathek 841 

Al Motawakkel .... 847 

Al Mostanser 861 

AlMostain 862 

AlMotaz 866 

AlMohtadi 869 

Al Motamed 870 

AlMotatlhed 892 

AlMoktafi 902 

AiMoktader 908 

Al Kaher 932 



A.D. 

AlEadM 934 

Al Motaki 940 

AlMostakfl 944 

AlMoti 945 

AlTai 974 

Al Kader 991 

AlKaim 1031 

AlMoktadi 1075 

AlMortader 1094 

AlMostarshed 1118 

AlEashid 1135 

AlMoktafi 1136 

Al Mostanjed 1160 

AlMostadM 1170 

AlNaser 1180 

AlZaher 1225 

Al Mostanser 1226 

Al Mostasem 1240 



Abbaye (Prison of) . — ^Among the fearful 
scenes enacted under the rule of Danton, Eo- 
bespierre, and their associates, may be men- 
tioned the terrible massacres at the prisons 
of Paris in the year 1792. The prison of the 
Abbaye, in which many of the Swiss sol- 
diers, and members of the aristocracy, were 
immured, was the first assailed. The attack 
commenced at 3 o'clock in the morning of 
the 3rd of September, when many of the 
wretched inmates were put to death, under 
circumstances of unparalleled atrocity. A 
mock tribunal was formed for the trial of 
the unfortunate captives. 

Abbess, the lady superior of a religious 
house of females. Martene says that the 
abbesses, in early times, exercised some of 
the spiritual functions belonging to the 
priesthood, and even confessed their nuns. 
This practice having led to various incon- 
veniences, was suppressed. Bingham (Antiq. 
b. vii. 0. 3, s. 13), referring to the statement 
in the Saxon Chronicle, that abbesses were 
present at the council held at Becancelde, in 
Kent, in 691, remarks : ♦' It is justly noted 
2 



ABB 

by learned men as a new thing, to find ab- 
besses, as well as abbots, subscribing in the 
council of Becancelde, in Kent, anno 694, 
and that before both presbyters and tem- 
poral lords, as the author of the Saxon Chro- 
nicle reports it. For this is the first time 
we meet with any such thing in the records 
of the ancient church." 

Abbeville (Treaties), — Wolsey met 
Francis I. here, and, on the part of Henry 
VIII., concluded three treaties with the 
French king, Aug. 1, 1527 ; they were rati- 
fied at Amiens, Aug. 18. 

Aebet, a religious house, presided over 
by an abbot or abbess, into which persons 
retired, dwelling in seclusion fi"om the world. 
In times of persecution, the primitive Chris- 
tians took refuge in mountains, caves, and 
desert places, and were afterwards collected 
together and formed into rehgious commu- 
nities. The practice arose during the De- 
cian persecution, in the middle of the 3rd 
century. St. Antony, one of the fathers of 
Christian hermits, formed his ceU at Phaim, 
in Upper Egypt, between the Eed Sea and the 
Nile, in 305. Hilarion, about the same pe- 
riod, according to Mosheim, introduced the 
system into Syria and Palestine. St. Pacho- 
mius was the first to introduce regular mo- 
nasteries. He built several in the Thebais, 
in Egypt, during the 4th century. Bing- 
ham says (Antiq. b. vii. c. 1, s. 4), " Till the 
year 250 there were no monks, but only 
ascetics, in the Church : from that time to the 
age of Constantino monachism was confined 
to the anchorets hving in private cells in 
the wilderness : but when Pachomius had 
erected monasteries in Egypt, other coun- 
tries presently followed the example, and so 
the monastic life came to its fuU maturity in 
the Church." By some decrees of the council 
of Saragossa, in Spain, 381, prohibiting clerks 
from leaving their ministry to take monastic 
vows, and also specifying the age at which 
virgins might take the veil, it is evident that 
in this part of Europe monastic institutiona 
were established at an early period. St. 
Martin, bishop of Tours, built a monastery 
at Poitiers in the 4th century. Cassian 
founded two, one for moiiks and the other 
for nuns, at Marseilles, about 409. Twelve- 
religious houses were estabhshed in Italy, 
within 40 miles of Eome, by St. Benedict, in 
529, that of Monte Cassino, erected on the site 
of an ancient temple of Apollo, in Campania, 
being the chief. St. Benedict was the first 
to institute monastic vows and rules. One 
founded in the isle of Bardsey at the end of 
the 5th, and another at Bangor-Iscoed in 
the beginning of the 6th century, are sup- 
posed to have been the first monasteries in 
England. An estabhshment of the kind was 
founded at Benchor, in Ireland, about 520. 
St. Columba foimded one in the isle of Huy, 
or lona, in 565 ; and the abbey of Old Mel- 
rose was founded before the end of that 
century. By 27 Henry Vni. c. 28 (1536), 
all monasteries and rehgious houses not pos- 
sessing more than £200 per annum were 
suppressed 3 and by 31 Henry VIII. c. 13. 



ABB 

(1539), all institutions of the kind were abo- 
Hshed. They amounted to 186 greater and 
374 lesser monasteries, besides 48 houses of 
the Knights Templars; making a total of 
608. The income was estimated at £137,000 
per annum. 

A:bbot, or Abb at. — The term is derived 
from the Syriac abha and the Hebrew ab, 
the Greek form being abbas, a father. When 
hermits, or holy men, formed themselves into 
rehgious societies, one of their number was 
chosen as a chief. The monks must not, 
however, be confounded with ascetics, for, as 
Bingham states, "there were always ascetics 
in the Church, but not always monks retir- 
ing to the deserts and mountaius, or Hving 
in monasteries and cells, as in after-ages." 
The practice of dwelling together in com- 
munities, and under a chief, arose with St, 
Pachomius, in the reign of Constantine. 
They were first styled j&chimandrites, and 
the use of the term "abbot" commenced in 
472. The custom for an abbot to be in 
orders originated in the 6th century. Ab- 
bots gradually grew important, were called 
to councils, and aspired to an ascendancy 
over bishops. In order to check this ten- 
dency, the coimcilof Chalcedon (451) enacted 
that " aU monks, whether in city or country, 
shall be subject to the bishop, and concern 
themselves in no business, sacred or civil, 
out of their own monastery, except they 
iave his Mcense and permission upon urgent 
occasion so to do." In spite of this, and 
other stringent laws, the abbots managed 
to engross power. Hence arose mitred 
abbots, who wore a mitre, and had absolute 
authority. They were exempt from diocesan 
jurisdiction, having episcopal authority 
within their precincts. In England, they 
had a seat in parhament, and were called 
abbots sovereign, or general, to distinguish 
them from other abbots. At the Eeforma- 
tion, according to some authorities, there 
were 26 and two priors. Fuller mentions 27 
parhamentary abbots and two priors. There 
were also crosiered abbots, from the crosier 
or pastoral staff, which they bore in the 
right hand, and not as the bishops, in the 
left. Abbots ruling over establishments 
having several branches, were styled cardi- 
nal abbots, and, on the continent, the titles 
of prince-abbots, field-abbots, and abbot- 
counts were used. In olden times, instead 
of the benediction since employed at what 
is called the consecration, the abbot was 
invested with the cowl, the pastoral staff 
was placed in his hand, and the shoes on 
his feet. 

Abbot op Fools, or MiSRiri;!;, called in 
Scotland, the " Abbot of Unreason," was a 
master appointed during the Middle Ages, 
to preside over the Christmas festivities. 
This mock prince was frequently crovmed, 
and attended with aU the paraphernalia of 
royalty. A similar custom prevailed in many- 
parts of France, and is evidently derived, 
aa Prynne declares, from the ancient Siatur- 
nalia. The Abbot of Unreason was sup- 
pressed by the Scotch legislature in 1555. 



ABD 

The allowance granted to an abbot of Mis- 
rule by a nobleman early in the 16th cen- 
tury, according to an entry in the Earl of 
Northumberland's Household Book, was 
one pound. The "Abbot of Misrule" was 
changed into " Lord of Misrule," at the Ee- 
formation. 

Abbot of Htjt, or Iona, also Icohnkill, 
an island on the west coast of Scotland. 
This island, Bede (b. iii. c. 4), writing at the 
commencement of the 8th century, ssys, 
" was always governed by a presbyter- 
abbot, under whose power the whole pro- 
vince, and the bishops also, were subjected, 
after an unusual manner, pursuant to the 
example of the first foimder, who was not a 
bishop, but only a presbyter and a monk." 
This statement gave rise to a controversy 
©n church government, in the 17th century. 
Bingham (b. vii. c. 3, s. 14), referring to 
Bishop Lloyd on Church Government, con- 
tends that Bede speaks of " only one small 
part of Scotland ; " and this subjection was 
not in spirituals. Indeed it seems to have 
been " an acknowledgment of some civil 
jurisdiction over the bishops, which may veiy 
well consist with their superiority in spiri- 
tuals." {See Abbey.) 

Abbotsfoed (Scotland) stands near the 
abbot's ford on the river Tweed, between 
two and three miles from Melrose, and 30 
from Edinburgh. Scott purchased the pro- 
perty in 1811, and the present residence was 
completed in 1824. 

Abdication. — The most remarkable in- 
stances of the abdication by rulers, of su- 
preme power, are those which have occurred 
under no pressure of poMtical exigencies, 
but from the promptings of purely personal 
motives. The act of abdication committed 
by James II. of England was not formal, 
but constructive : he had deserted the 
throne, and parhament declared it vacant. 
The abdications of Napoleon I., of Louis 
Philippe, and of many other rulers, were 
compulsory ; and it is only by a perversion 
of the meaning of the word, that it can be 
applied to such transactions. 

B.C. 

79. Sylla, the dictator. 

A.D. 

305, Mayl. The emperor Diocletian, called by 
Gibbon " the first example." Maximiuian 
abdicatedat the same time, but re-assnmed 
the pxirple in 306. 

747. Carloman, eldest son of Charles Martel, abdi- 
cated and became a monk. 

1294. Peter Morone, the hermit pope, elevated to 
the papal chair as Celestine V., July 5, 
abdicated Dec. 13, and retired to his old 
mountain hermitage, above the pleasant 
valley of Sulmona, in the Abruzzi. 

1555, Oct. 25. Charles V. resigned the imperial 
dignity. He abdicated the Spanish throne 
in 1556. 

1654, June 16. Queen Christina of Sweden abdi- 
cates. 

1730. Victor-Amadjeus II., Sardinia. 

1809, March 29. Gustavus IV., Sweden. 

1814, April 6. Napoleon I., France. 

1830, Aug. 2. Charles X., France. 

1848, Feb. 24. Louis Philippe, France. 

1848, March 21. Louis Charles, Bavaria. 

1848, Dec. 2. Ferdinand I., Austria. 

1849, March 26. Charles Albert, Sardinia. 

3 



ABE 

Abecedaeiaks. — This branch of the sect 
of Anabaptists -was founded, in the 16th 
century, by Stork, a disciple of Luther. 
He maintained that all Imowledge only 
prevented men from attending to the 
divine instruction invrardly communicated, 
and refused to learn anything, even the 
alphabet : hence their peculiar designa- 
tion. 

Abelites, sometimes called Abelians, a 
sect of heretics that sprung up at Hippo, in 
Africa, during the 4th century. They mar- 
ried, but abstained from inatrimonial inter- 
course, following, as they pretended, the 
example of Abel, because no mention is 
made in Scripture of his children. Wlien a 
man and a woman entered this society, they 
adopted a boy and a girl. The heresy was 
not of long duration. It is generally sup- 
posed to have commenced just before the 
final separation of the Eastern and Western 
empires, under Arcadius (393), and to have 
terminated during the reign of Theodosius 
the Younger (414^-450). 

Abencereages and Zegeis, two Moorish 
famUies, whose quarrels are said, by some 
writers, to have deluged Granada with blood 
(1478—1490). 

Abensbeeg (Battle), April 20, 1809, be- 
tween the Austrians and the French. " The 
Austrians," says Alison, "were not routed 
at any point, and no artillery was taken; 
nevertheless, they had to lament the loss of 
8,000 men; the archduke Charles's commu- 
nications with Landshut were thrown open 
to the enemy ; they had been deprived of the 
advantages of the initiative ; and, what is of 
incalculable importance, had been unsuc- 
cessful in the first considerable action of the 
campaign." The results were, that Land- 
shut fell on the 21st, the battle of Eckmiihl 
was fought on the 22nd, and Eatisbon cap- 
tured on the 23rd of April. 

Abeedeek (Scotland) is supposed to have 
formed the seat of a settlement during the 
3rd century. The episcopal see was trans- 
ferred hither from MortUch, Banffshire, by 
David I., in 1137; and George Haliburton, 
promoted in 1682, was the last bishop. Old 
Aberdeen was made a free royal burgh in 
1154. In 1296, Edward I. passed through 
this city, after defeating and deposing John 
BaUiol. The castle was taken, and the for- 
tifications were levelled, in 1308 ; and the 
city was burned by the English in 1336. 
Ifew Aberdeen was then erected, and be- 
came an important seat of commerce during 
the Middle Ages, but suffered greatly from 
the wars between England and Scotland. 
King's College, Aberdeen, was chartered 
by papal bull in 1494, and completed in 1500. 
It is an extensive biulding, containing a 
chapel, library, and museum. Marischal Col- 
lege, in the new town, was founded in 1593 
by George Keith, fifth Earl Marischal. The 
two colleges were united by a deed of union 
in the reign of Charles I. It was repealed 
in 1661. 

Abkedbbn ADHiiasTEATiON', known as 
the " Coalition Ministry," was formed soon 



ABI 

after the resignation of Lord Derby's first 
administration, Dec. 17, 1852, and presided 
over by the fourth earl of Aberdeen. The 
feeble prosecution of the war against Eussia 
by this cabinet rendered it unpopular, and 
its resignation followed the motion for 
inquiry into the state of the army be- 
fore Sevastopol, carried in the House of 
Commons on Jan. 29, 1855, by a ma- 
jority of 157. The cabinet was thus con- 
stituted : — 

Treasury Earl of Aberdeen, 

Lord Chancellor Lord Cranworth. 

President of the Council . .Earl Granville. 

PrivySeal Duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . .Mr. Gladstone. 

Home Secretary Lord Palmerston. 

Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell. 

Colonial Secretaiy Duke of Newcastle. 

Admiralty Sir James Graham, Bai-t. 

Boai-d of Control Sir C. Wood, Bart. 

Secretary at War Mr. Sidney Herbert. 

Public Works Sir W. Molesworth, Bart. 

Without Office Marquis of Lansdowne. 

The following changes occurred : — the earl 
of Clarendon became Foreign Sec. Feb. 21, 
1853, in place of Lord John EusseU, who 
retained a seat in the cabinet, without office, 
and became President of the Council in the 
place of Earl Granville, who was made Chan- 
cellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a 
seat in the cabinet, June 9, 1854. The War 
department was separated from the Colo- 
nies, June 8, 1854. The duke of Newcastle 
retained the former, and Sir George Grey 
acceded to the Colonial secretaryship. Lord 
John Eussell resigned office Jan. 23, 1855 ; 
but as the ministry retired on the 1st Feb., | 
the vacancy was not filled up. {See Palmer- 
ston' s First Administration.) 

Abhoerees.— The elections of 1679 having 
proved unfavourable to the court party, 
Charles 11., by repeated prorogations, pre- 
vented the assembling of the new parliament. 
Petitions praying for the immediate com- 
mencement of the session poured in from 
various parts of the kingdom. The church 
and court party encountered these demon- 
strations by addresses to the king, abound- 
ing in loyal expressions, supporting the pre- 
rogative, and declaring the deepest abhor- 
rence of those who sought to interfere with 
the same by dictating to him with respect 
to the meeting of parhament (1680) . Hence 
the rival parties were called "Addressers, 
or Petitioners," and /'Abhorrers." These 
appellations soon gave place to the well- 
known terms Whig and Tory, that have 
come down to the present day. 

ABiifGDOif Law. — On the capture of this 
town by the earl of Essex (May 25, 1644) , a 
garrison was placed in it by the parliamenta- 
rians. During the various attempts made 
by the royalists to regain this important 
place, a singular custom is said to have pre- 
vailed ; and from this the term "Abingdon 
Law" arose. The cruel practice of the gar- 
rison was to hang aU the Irish prisoners 
without trial; and many Englishmen suf- 
fered, either by design or from accident, 
■dnder this barbarous custom. 



ABJ 

Abjubation Oath.— The last act (13 
Will. III. c. 6) to which the royal assent 
was given by William III. on his deathbed, 
March 2, 1702, required all persons in office, 
members of the universities above 18, mem- 
bers of the legal profession and schoolmas- 
ters, peers and members of parliament, to 
take the oath abjuring the claims of the 
Stuarts. The oath was altered in the reign 
of Queen Anne and put into a new form by 
6 Geo. III. c. 53 (1766). It was changed 
for Eoman Catholics hj 31 Geo. III. c. 32 
(1791), and in 1829 by the Eoman CathoMc 
Eehef Act. By the statute 21 & 22 Vict. 
c. 4S (July 23, 1858) , one oath was substi- 
tuted for the three oaths of Abjuration,Alle- 
giance, and Supremacy. 

ABJUEATioif OF THE Eeaim, was an en- 
gagement, on oath, to quit the realm, and 
never return to it without the king's license. 
The ancient common law of England allowed 
a person who had committed any felony, 
except treason and sacrilege, to make such 
an oath before the coroner within forty days 
after taking sanctuary, ujider the penalty of 
death by hanging if he broke it, unless he 
was a clerk ; in which case he was allowed 
benefit of clergy. Abjuration underwent 
several modifications in the reign of Henry 
VIII., and was abolished as a privilege, 
together with that of sanctuary, in 1624 
(21 James I. c. 28, s. 7). By 35 Eliz. c. 1, 
Eoman Cathohcs and Protestant dissenters 
convicted of having refused to attend the 
service of the Church of England, might be 
required to abjure the realm. Erom this 
act, which was passed in 1593, Protestant 
dissenters were exempted in 1689 (see TotE- 
EATiON Act), but Popish recusants not until 
1791. 

Abo (Finland) . — This city was bmlt by 
Eric IX., king of Sweden, 1157. It was taken 
from the Swedes by the Eussians in 1713 
and 1808 ; and was, with the whole of Fin- 
land, to the Toruea, finally ceded to Eussia 
by the treaty of Frederieksham, Sept. 17, 
1809. A fire occurred here Aug. 22, 1775, 
by which above 200 houses and fifteen mills 
were consumed, and some lives lost; and 
another, Sept. 4, 1827, destroyed 780 build- 
ings, with the university, founded in 1640. 
Abo was made an archbishopric July 20, 
1817. 

Abo (Treaty of), between Eussia and Swe- 
den, August 18 (O.S. 7), 1743, terminated 
the war commenced in 1741. Sweden ceded 
to Eussia, Livonia, Esthonia, and Ingria, 
together with the eastern portion of Finland, 
making the river Kymmene the boundary 
between the two states ; whilst Eussia relin- 
quished to Sweden the remainder of her 
conquests in Finland. 

ABOEiaiNEs, or Abekeigines. — Some 
writers consider the term to represent a 
colony of Greeks, who settled in Italy long 
before the Trojan war. Niebuhr states that 
the name means the inhabitants of the 
country from the beginning, answering to 
the Greek autochthones; and Sir G. C. Lewis 
declares the obvious Latin etymology of | 



ABE 

aborigines to be the true one, adding, " The 
name was applied to a primitive Italian race, 
at a comparatively early date ; but there is 
no ground for adopting the view of Diony- 
sius, which makes it a national appeUation, 
and identifies it with the people having an 
historical existence." Hence the later appli- 
cation of the term to the primitive inhabit- 
ants of any country. 

Aboxtkik (Egypt).— The Turks were de- 
feated here by the French, under Napo- 
leon I., July 25, 1799. On the 8th of March, 
1801, an English army, under Abercrombie, 
effected a landing near this place, and com- 
pelled the French to retreat. (See Wile.) 

Abraham (^ra of), so called from the 
patriarch Abram, commenced, according to 
the best authorities, Oct. 1, 2016 b.c. 

AsEAHAM-MEif, beggars, who roamed 
about the country, on the dissolution of the 
religious houses in the 16th century. They 
were also called "Tom of Bedlam's Men." 
The term " to sham Abraham " is supposed 
to have been derived from the tricks of 
these vagrants. 

Abbahamites, Abeahamians, or Ibeahi- 
MIAH. — A sect of heretics, the followers of 
one Abraham of Antioch, called by the 
Arabs, Ibrahim, who attempted to revive, 
towards the close of the 8th centiuy, the 
errors of the Pauhcians. Several Syrians 
were seduced; but Cyriacus, patriarch of 
Antioch, vigorously opposed the new heresy, 
and it was extingviished in the commence- 
ment of the 9th century. 

Abbahamites. — An order of monks were 
thus named. They rose in the 9th century, 
and were exterminated, on account of their 
idolatry, by the emperor Theophilus (circ. 
835) .-rA modern sect of Abrahamites was 
discovered in Bohemia in 1782. They pro- 
fessed the rehgion of Abraham before his 
circumcision, and held various peculiar opi- 
nions : some were Jews by birth, others 
Protestants, and a few Eoman Catholics. 
They are said to have been called Abra- 
hamites from their doctrine, and Adamites 
from their real or supposed practices. 
Joseph II., in 1783, banished a large number 
of these sectaries to Transylvania and Te- 
meswar, on account of their obstinate refusal 
to incorporate themselves with one of the 
rehgions tolerated by law. These Abraham- 
ites are sometimes called Deists, or Nihihsts. 

Abeantbs (Treaty). — Disgusted at the 
provisions of the treaty of Badajos, con- 
cluded between Portugal and Spain, June 6, 
and ratified June 16, 1801, IS'apoleon overran 
the former kingdom. The war was brought 
to a close by the treaty of Abrantes, signed 
Sept. 29, 1801, by which Portugal agreed to 
shut its ports against England, rehnquished 
one half of Guiana to France, makiiig the 
river Carapanatuba the boundary between 
the possessions of the two states in that 
part of the world. The commerce of France 
was to be placed on the same footing as that 
of the most favoured nations; and, by a 
secret article, Portugal agreed to jpay 
£800,000 for the inxmediate evacuation of 
6 



ABS 

the country by the French troops. This 
treaty having been ratified at Madrid, is 
sometimes named after that city. 

Absentee Tax.— Parry (ParUaments, &c, 
of England, p. 142) notices a petition on Irish 
absenteeism presented to parUament ia 
1380, during the reign of Kichard II. Com- 
plaints were frequently made on this sub- 
ject ; and, in the reign of Henry VIII., the 
estates of several non-resident landlords 
were seized. In 1715, a tax of 4<s. in the 
pound was levied on all profits, fees, pen- 
sions, &c., derived from Ireland, in aU cases 
where the recipients did not reside in that 
coimtry six months in the year. The crown 
reserved the right of giving leave of absence. 
The tax ceased in 1753, and attempts at its 
reimposition were tried, but without success, 
in 1773 and in 1783. A curious debate oc- 
curred in parhament (Saturday, Dec. 12, 
1601) respecting a proposal to fine absen- 
tees from church 12 pence every Sunday. 
It was to be levied by a distress warrant 
from a justice of the peace. The proposal 
was rejected, the numbers being, ayes 105, 
noes 106. Some member called on the 
Speaker to give his vote for the biU.; but 
Cecil said, "The Speaker hath no voice; 
and, though I am sorry for it, the bill is lost, 
and farewell to it." 

AssTiifEifCE. — Many cases of extraordi- 
nary cures effected, and a great age attained, 
by use of spare diet, are mentioned by dif- 
ferent writers. Abstinence from particular 
meats was enjoined upon the Jews by the 
Divine law, and many of the early Chris- 
tians adopted a similar practice. The Eo- 
man CathoUc church has selected special 
seasons and days on which particular kinds 
of abstinence are strictly enforced. Among 
the primitive Christians ia the East, several 
hermits, who retired to the deserts, and 
lived upon bread and water, and even roots, 
are said to have attained an extraordinary- 
age. Amongst the most celebrated may be 
mentioned. 

Years. 

St. Paul the Hermit bom in 228, -who lived 113 

St.Antony „ 251 „ 105 

St. Simeon the Stylite . . „ 350 „ 112 

St. Arsenius, tutor to the 
emperor Arcadiiis .... about 350 „ 120 

Abstineitts, Abstiites-tes, or Abstain-- 
Ees, heretics who appeared in France and 
Spain, early in the 4th century, during the 
persecutions of Diocletian and Maximian. 
They condemned marriage, and the use of 
flesh and wine : some of their opinions were 
borrowed from the Gnostics and Manichas- 
ans. Baronius beheves these heretics to 
have been identical with an Egyptian sect 
eaUed the Hieracitse, or followers of Hieron, 
that arose at the same period, and held simi- 
lar opinions. 

Abtdos, an ancient town on the Asiatic 
shore of the Hellespont, or Dardanelles. It 
is said to have become the seat of a Mile- 
sian colony B.C. 715. Xerxes constructed a 
bridge of boats from this place to the Euro- 
pean side of the Hellespont, over which his 



ABY 

immense army passed into Greece, B.C. 480. 
It is celebrated from the story of Leander, 
who, being in the habit of swimming from 
Abydos to the other side of the Hellespont 
to visit Hero, was at last drowned. Lord 
Byron, who frequently performed this feat, 
ridicules the story. 

Abtdos (Sea-fight), between the Atheniaa 
and the Peloponnesian fleets, in Aug. 41J, 
B.C. The former were -yictorious. 

Abydos (Tablet of), containing a genea- 
logy of the early kings of Egypt, was found, 
in 1818, by Mr. W. Banks, on an interior 
wall of a building at Abydos, an ancient city 
of Upper Egypt. The tablet consists of 
three compartments, and contains twenty-six 
shields of the predecessors of Eameses the 
Great. It has been deposited ia the British 
Museum. 

Abyssinia (Africa), part of the ancient 
Ethiopia, of which the capital was Auxume, 
or Axum. The Abyssinians had a tradition 
that Cush, Noah's grandson, was their first 
progenitor, and that Axum was built in the 
time of Abraham. The fragments of statues 
collected by Bruce (Travels, vol. ii. p. 303) 
are regarded as proofs that the Abyssioians 
embraced Sabaism, or the worship of the 
heavenly bodies, a superstition into which 
Noah's descendants fell. The Abyssinians 
were powerful in the 6th centruy, about 
which period Yemen was subjugated by 
them. In 925 a Jewess, named Sague, sub- 
verted the native dynasty, and destroyed 
Axum. The kingdom was restored in 1255 
by the emperor Iquon Amlaq. Little is 
kiown of its subsequent state xmtil the 16th 
century, when the Portuguese assisted the 
Abyssioians against a powerful enemy. The 
introduction of Eoman Cathohcism, and the 
various struggles to which it led, vriU be 
found under Abyssinian Chuech. 

Abyssinian ^ea. {See Mitndanb Mva. 
OE Alexandria.) 

Abyssinian Chttech, had its origin, ac- 
cording to the best authorities, about the 
year 330, when Frumentius was ordained 
bishop of Axiun, by Athanasius, patriarch 
of Alexandria. Some writers are of opinion 
that the Abyssinians were first converted in 
the apostoHc age, by the eunuch of Queen 
Candace, Sept., 37. (Acts vui. 27—39.) The 
Abyssinians formed a branch of the Jaco- 
bite or Coptic church, holding the Mono- 
physite doctrine of one incarnate nature ; into 
which heresy they fell in the 6th century. 
Little was kno-wn in Europe of the Abyssi- 
nian church until John II., king of Portugal, 
heard of it from some of his subjects who 
had penetrated to the kingdom of Congo, 
in 1486. Marsden (Christian Churches and 
Sects, vol. i.) has investigated this point 
vrith great care. Pedro Cavilham, sent out 
by John II., entered Abyssioia in 1490. A 
treaty was set on foot between the two 
countries in 1509, and it was followed by a 
series of iatrigues, with a view to the subjec- 
tion of Abyssinia poUtically to Portugal, and 
ia spiritual matters to Eome. Oviedo, a 
Jesuit, who had been consecrated bishop of 



F 



ACA 



Hierapolis by the pope, excommunicated 
the whole Abyssinian church, Feb. 5, 1559, 
ia the church of Decome. The mission 
failed, and was recalled by a bull from St. 
Peter's, in 1560. A second Jesuit mission, 
dispatched in 1603, resorted to unjustifiable 
measures, and after a series of struggles, 
obtained the formal submission of the Abys- 
sinian church to Eome, Dec. 11, 1624 : a rup- 
ture soon occurred, and the Latia bishop 
retired from Abyssiuia in 1633. In 1750 the 
society of the Propaganda sent a fresh mis- 
sion of three Franciscan friars, who were 
received with great favour by the coui't ; but 
the people rose in rebellion, and the em- 
peror was forced to expel them. In 1827 a 
Protestant mission, consisting of Dr. Gobat, 
afterwards bishop of Jerus^em, and Mr, 
Iseuberg, was sent to Abyssinia, and its 
labours were continued until 1842, when it 
was withdrawn, through the adverse influ- 
ences of the Church ol Kome and the oppo- 
sition of the Abyssinian priesthood. Mo- 
sheim states that the ^thiopic church con- 
tinues to receive her bishop from Alexandria, 
and is dependent upon it. The religion of 
the Abyssiniaii.s is represented as a com- 
pound of Christianity, [Judaism, and Hea- 
thenism. They practise circumcision, be- 
lieve in sorcery and evil spirits, and make 
use 'of amulets. They pray to the Virgin 
Mary, and for the dead, though not holding 
the Eomish doctrine of purgatory, and do 
not in general beheve in transubstantiation. 
They acknowledge their emperor as the head 
of the church, but the abuna, or patriarch, 
is the controlling ;power. They agree with 
the Greek church m maintaining the pro- 
cession of the Holy Ghost from the Father 
alone. 

AcACiAifS.— The followers of Aeacius, sur- 
named Luscus, or Monophthalmus, because 
he had but one eye, bishop of Cassarea, 
340 — 365 ; and the followers of Aeacius, pa- 
triarch of Constantinople, 471 — 489, were 
known by this name. The former neither 
held, with the Arians, that Christ was a cre- 
ated being, nor with the Semi-Arians, that 
he was of like substance; but simply that 
he was like the Father. — ^Aeacius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, sided with the emperor 
Zeuo, whose Henoticon, or Edict of Union, 
intended to appease the feud between the 
rival churches of Constantinople and Alex- 
andria, was issued in 482, and was drawn 
up, it is supposed, by Aeacius himself. {See 
Henoticon.) The edict was rejected by 
Felix III. in 483, and Aeacius himself was 
-excommunicated for obstinate commimion 
with heretics (July 28, 484) . Aeacius in his 
turn ordered that Fehx, bishop of Kome, 
should be erased from the hst of bishops in 
•communion with the East (Aug. 1, 484). 
Aeacius persisted in his refusal to submit to 
Eome, and died in 489. His supporters were 
called Acacians. Other sects of iieretics 
were thus designated. 

AcADEMiA (Athens), described by Dio- 
genes Laertius as a suburban place of exer- 
cise planted like a grove, and said to be thus 



ACA 

called from an ancient hero, named Heca- 
demus. In this place Plato formed his 
school (B.C. 374), and was succeeded by 
his nephew Speusippus (b.c. 347). From 
this term the modern word academy is de- 
rived. 

Academy. — The custom for learned men 
to form themselves into associations called, 
after the ancient schools, academies, origi- 
nated in Italy in the 15th centviry, and it 
gradually extended over Europe. Hallam 
says (Lit. Hist. vol. i. pt. i. ch. ix.), "Italy 
in the 16th century was remarkable for the 
number of her hterary academies ; institu- 
tions which, though by no means peculiar to 
her, have in no other coxmtry been so gene- 
ral or so conspicuous." The Italian aca- 
demies of that period are remarkable for the 
ridiculous titles, or, as HaUam terms them, 
"names htimorously quaint," by which they 
were known. Florence had its academy of 
" Bran," or "the Sieve;" Perugia, of "the 
Insensate;" Genoa, of "the Sleepy;" 
Sienna, of " the Blockheads ; " and Viterbo, 
of "the Obstinates." DisraeH's theory (Cu- 
riosities of Lit. ii. 489) is, that "the inven- 
tion of these ridiculous titles for literary 
societies was an attempt to throw a sportive 
veil over meetings which had alarmed the 
papal and the other petty courts of Italy, 
and to quiet their fears and turn aside their 
political wrath. They implied the innocence 
of their pursuits by the jocularity with 
which the members treated themselves, and 
were willing that others should treat them." 
The date of the establishment of the most 
celebrated academies is given under the 
names of the places in which they flourished. 
Many Italian towns possessed several, and 
Tirabosehi furnishes tuU details on the aca- 
demies of that part of Europe. 

Acadia (I^Torth America) . — Discovered 
by John Cabot, in 1497. The French settled 
here in 1604, and came into frequent colli- 
sion with the English settlers in Virginia. 
In 1621, Acadia was granted by charter to 
Sir WiUiam Alexander, and its name changed 
to Nova Scotia, which see. 

AcAPUiCO (Mexico). — During the Spanish 
rule in America, a galleon, laden with spe- 
cie, &c., was sent every spring from Acapulco 
to Manilla, It returned in the autumn with 
a costly freight of a different kind. Com- 
modore, afterwards Lord Anson, intercepted 
one of these vessels, worth £313,000, July 1 
(0. S. June 20), 1743. Capt. Hyde Parker 
captured another, valued at hall" a million, 
Oct. 31, 1762, during the siege of Ma- 
nilla. 

ACAENANIA. — This province of ancient 
Greece, according to tradition, received its 
name from Acarnan, son of Alcmaeon, who 
settled at the mouth of the Achelous. The 
Corinthians are said to have founded several 
towns on the coast in the middle of the 7th 
century B.C. The Acarnanians lived in vil- 
lages which were united in a poUtical league. 
Little, however, is known respecting its con- 
stitution. The Acarnanians first came into 
prominent notice about the time of the 
7 



ACC 

Peloponnesian war. They espoused the cause 
of the Amphilochians expelled from Argos 
Amphilochicum by the Ambraeians, B.C. 432, 
and both appUed to the Athenians for aid. 



432. The Athenians defeat the Ambraeians and 
drive thein from Ai^os Amphilochicum. 

430. The Ambraeians foiled in an attempt to reco- 
ver Argos AmphUochieiun. 

429. The Ambraeians induce the Spartans to aid 
them in an attack upon Acarnania, but are 
defeated. 

426. The Acarnanians defeat the Ambraeians and 
their allies at Olpre and at Idomene. Peace 
for a hundred years concluded between Acar- 
nania and Ambracia. 

391. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, invades Acarnania. 

390. The Acarnanians submit to the terms Imposed 
by Agesilaus. 

343. The Athenians send an expedition against the 
Acarnanians, who support the cause of Philip 
of Macedon. 

243. The Acarnanians invade ^tolia, and are com- 
pelled to retire. 

239. The ^tolians invade Acarnania. 

218. The jEtollans, who had conquered a consider- 
able portion of Acarnania, cede it to Philip V., 
in order to obtain peace. 

200. The Acarnanians support Philip V. against 
Rome. 

197. The Acarnanians submit to Home. 

145. Acarnania subject to Rome. 

ACCEPTANTS, or COXSTITUTIO^J'ISTS. — In 
1713, Clement XI. issued his famous consti- 
tution or bull Unigenitus, condemning as 
heretical 101 propositions selected from the 
commentary of Quesnel. This triumph of 
the Jesuits over the Jansenists caused great 
agitation in France, and the two parties were 
called, the Constitiitionists ot Acceptants, and 
the Appellants or Seezisantn. The latter 
appealed to a general council. They were 
imprisoned, and suffered persecution. The 
death of Louis XIV. caused a temporary 
cessation of the strife, and the duke of 
Orleans, as regent, induced the Recusant 
bishops to accept the biill, with certain mo- 
difications. Most of them consented to do so 
for the sake of peace (1720) ; but the Appel- 
lants were again oppressed and persecuted 
(1723). The Unigenitus was made national 
law (1730), and the Appellants continued 
their resistance. 

AccoHDioir. — This musical instrument was 
first introduced into England from Germany 
about the year 1828. 

AcCOUITTAJfT-GEU-EKAL. This officCr of 

the court of Chancery was first appointed 
in 1726, by 12 Geo. I. e. 32,— an "Act for 
secaring the moneys and effects of the suit- 
ors ;" and the office was abolished Oct. 15, 
1841, by 5 Vict. c. 5, s. 15. 

AccrsEBS, False. — The ancient Eomans 
punished false accusers by casting them 
headlong from the Tarpeian rock ; and by a 
subsequent law (Lex Eemmia), they were 
ordered to be burnt in the face. By the 
law of Valentinian and Gratian, in the The- 
odosian code, offenders of this kind, " against 
men's fame and reputation, against their 
fortunes, and against their lives," were 
condemned to the same punishment as that 
to which the person falsely accused would 
hare been subjected, had he been convicted. 



ACH 

Those who endeavoured by false accusa- 
tion to deprive other men of their property, 
were ordered to be prosecuted to the last 
degree, with confiscation and death. The 
early ecclesiastical laws were severe on this 
point. The coimcils of Vanne^ (465) and 
Agda, in France (Sept. 11, 506), imposed a i 
penance upon them, and the first coimcil | 
of Aries (314) obhged them to do penance | 
all their lives . In the earlier periods of 
English, as well as of German history, the 
accuser was obliged to prove the crime, or 
suffer the same punishment the accused 
would have undergone, had he been con- 
victed; and a sinular law was in force in 
the time of Henry III. They were also 
branded in the time of Henry VIII., and 
many severe punishments vnll be found 
recorded in our statute-book. 

AcEPHALi. — The term was first employed 
by ecclesiastical writers, and applied to those 
who followed neither Cyril, nor John of 
Antioch, in the disputes at the council of 
Ephesus (3rd General) (431) . As a natural 
consequence, it was used to describe the 
various divisions of the Eutychians, who 
denied the property of two substances in 
Christ, and contended that there is but one 
nature in his person. They resisted the de- 
cision of the council of Chalcedon (451), and 
were, as Bingham says, "called Acephali, 
that is, tcithout head, because the first au- 
thors of the sect at Alexandria, separated 
from their bishop and held conventicles, 
and gave baptisms in private houses." The 
heresy was revived in 463, and condemned 
in 526. The term has been applied to various 
sects, the members of which follolved no 
particular leader, and came to be applied to 
a body of levellers in this country, in the 
time of Henry I. Cowel, with reference to 
these men, remarks, "Those are called ace- 
phali, who were the levellers of that age, 
and acknowledged no head or superior." 

AcH^Aif League. — This celebrated con- 
federacy, originally formed between twelve 
cities of Achaia, was dissolved by the fac- 
tions that prevailed soon after the death of 
Alexander, B.C. 323. Four of the principal 
cities of Achaia, — Dyme, Patrae, Tritsea, 
and Pharse, united for its restoration, B.C. 
280; ^gium and Bura joined B.C. 275 ; Ce- 
rynea B.C. 274 ; and Leontium, PeUene, and 
iEgira soon after. Aratus formed the idea 
of extending it to the other Grecian states, 
and, having Hberated Sicyon, persuaded 
his feUow-citizens to join the league, B.C. 
251. 



246. Aratus firet appointed general of the League. 
243. Aratus takes Corinth, and annexes it to th» 

League. 
242. Megara and other Grecian cities join the 

League. 
239. Megalopolis joins the League. 
236. Argos, iEgina, &c. join the League. 
227. War between the Achsean League and Sparta. 
226. Tlie Achseans defeated by Cleomenes in., at 

Ladocea. 
221. Cleomenes III. defeated by the Achaeans at the 

battle of SeUasia, and the war brought to a 

close. 



ACH 



War between the ^tolian and the Achsean 
leagues. 

Peace concluded, 

Philopoemen general of the League. 

Philopoemen effects important reforms in the 
League, and defeats the Spartans at Man- 
tinea. 

The League concludes an alliance -with 
Rome. 

The whole of the Peloponnesus included in the 
Achsean League. 

The Messenians separate from the League, hut 
again submit. 

One thousand Achseans can-ied off to Eome. 

Eonie declares war against the Achsean 



147. Miunmius defeats the Achoeans at the battle 
of Leucopetra. 

146. The Achsean League is dissolved, and the 
whole of Southern Greece made a Soman 
province under the name of Achaia. 

AcHAiA, or Ach.s:a, an ancient Grecian 
state, comprising a narrow district of the 
northern Peloponnesus. According to tra- 
dition, it was first peopled by a Pelasgian 
tribe, which was expelled by the lonians. 
Soon after the Dorian migration, the 
Achseans, driven from Argos and Laconia, 
settled in this part of Greece, which, after 
them, was called Achaia (circ. B.C., 104). 
Monarchical institutions are said to have 
prevailed for some time, and upon their 
abolition, the territory of Achaia was divided 
amongst twelve cities. The Achaeans kept 
aloof from the other Grecian states, and 
formed a league, which met first at Hehce, 
and after this city had been swallowed up by 
the sea, b.c. 373, at .^gium. They fought 
with the Athenians and the Boeotians against 
PhUip, at the battle of Chseronea, Aug. 7, 
338 B.C., and were allied with the Spartans 
against Macedon, b.c. 330. Four cities, 
Patrse, Dyme, Tritsea, and Pharae, renewed 
the ancient league B.C. 280. {See Ach^an 
League.) 

Achaia (Principahty of), founded in 1205 
by William of Champhtte, who, with his 
band of followers, subdued one half of the 
Peloponnesus before 1208, when he left it 
in charge of Geffrey ViUehardoin, his baiUy, 
who succeeded to the throne in 1210. He 
was followed by Geffrey II. in 1218, and 
William in 1246. Achaia then became a fief 
of the crown of Naples, and after imder- 
goiag a variety of vicissitudes, terminated 
under Centurione, in 1430, having existed 225 
years. The succession was, however, seve- 
ral times broken before that date, Pinlay 
(Mediaeval Greece and Trebizond, p. 502) 
gives the following chronological last of the 
princes of Achaia and Morea : — 

A.D. 

1205. William of Champlitte. 

1210. Geffrey I. Villehardoin. 

1218. Geffrey n, 

1246. William. 

1277. Isabella, married thrice. 

1. Philip son of Charles of Anjou, king of 
Naples, died 1278. 

2. FlorenzofHainault, 1291—1297. 

3. Philip of Savoy, 1301—1311. 
1311. Maud of Hainault, married thrice. 

1. Guy II., duke of Athens, who died 1308. 

2. Louis of Burgundy, 1313—1315. 

3. Hugh de la Palisse, 1316. 



ACO 

Claimants of the Principality. 

1317—1324. John, count of Gravina, pretended hus- 
band of Maud of Hainault. 
Eudes IV., duke of Burgundy, under 
his brother's will. 

1324—1332. Philip of Tarentum, as lord-paramount, 
in virtue of the forfeiture of Maud, 
and by purchase from Eudes IV. 

1332—1364. Robert, titular emperor of Romania. 

13tj4— 1387. Mary of Bombon, widow of Robert. 

Louis, duke of Bourbon, her nephew, 
died in 1410. 

Suzerains or lords-paramount of Achaia. 

The Latin emperors of Romania, until Baldwin II. 
ceded his rights to Charles of Anjou, king of Na- 
ples, in 1267. 

1267—1285. Charles of Anjou. 
1285—1294. Charles IL, king of Naples. 

Charles II. ceded his rights to his son, Philip of Ta- 
rentum, who married Catherine of Valois, titular 
empress. 

1294-1332. Philip of Tarentum. 
1332—1346. Catherine of Valois, by grant from her 

husband. 
1346—1364. Robert, titular emperor and reigning 

prince of Achaia. 
1364—1373. PhiUp III., titular emperor. 
1373—1383. James de Baux. 

AcHEEN", or Atcheeit. — This kingdom, in 
Sumatra, was first visited by the Portuguese 
in 1509, and by the English in 1602. A fac- 
tory was estabhshed here by the East-India 
Company in 1659, and a commercial treaty 
was concluded by Sir Stamibrd Eafiies in 
1819. 

Ac HO If KT (Shgo), the seat of an Irish 
bishopric, one of the most ancient in that 
country, formerly called Achad-Chaoin and 
Achad-Conair, The church is said to have 
been founded by St. Einian, bishop of Clo- 
nard, about 530, on a site granted by the lord 
of Leney, or Luigny, by which name the 
bishops are known in the earher accounts. 
St. Einian's friend and disciple, iN'athy, was 
the first bishop. In 1607, this see was 
united to that of Killala. In 1834, on its 
voidance, according to the provisions of 
3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, Achonry was, with 
Killala, united vdth Tuam. 

AcHEOMATic Telescopes, invented by 
John DoUond, of London, in 1758. Newton 
himself despaired of constructing these 
glasses. The right of priority is by some said 
to belong to a man whom Humboldt terms 
" the mysterious Chester Moore, of Moore 
HaU, Essex." He is supposed to have in- 
vented them in 1729. 

AciiEA (Battle), now Ockiet, or Oak- 
PIAIN, in Surrey, where Ethehvulf and his 
son Ethelbald defeated the Danes, in 851. 

Acoustics, or the science of sound, was 
known, though imperfectly, at a very early 
period.' Pythagoras, B.C. 540, and Aristotle, 
B.C. 342, understood the mode in which sound 
was transmitted through the air. Kircher 
was the first to show, says Beckmann (vol. i. 
p. 94), that "Alexander the Great had a 
prodigious large horn, with which he could 
assemble his army at the distance of a hun- 
dred stadia, or eight Italian miles." Eoger 
Bacon, in the 13th century, was the first 
who investigated this science experimentally. 
9 



ACR 

He was followed by Galileo, in the 17th 
centTiry, and others. Newton completed his 
mathematical demonstrations in 1700. Euler 
and Lagrange added greatly to the know- 
ledge ol this science, which was placed on 
an independent basis by Chladni, towards 
the close of the 18th century. 

AcEE (Syria), or St. Jean d'Acee, an- 
ciently Accho, called by the Greeks Ptole- 
mais, a fortified city and seaport, famous 
for the sieges it has sustained. It belonged 
originally to the Phoenicians, and after 
changing masters several times, fell imder 
the Roman yoke in the time of Claudius. It 
was taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by Bald- 
win, after a siege of 20 days, in 1104 ; and 
by Saladin in 1187. Its capture by Richard I. 
was the great achievement of the first cru- 
sade. The siege commenced in July, 1189, 
and terminated with the fall of the city, 
Friday, July 12, 1191; soon after which it 
received the name of St. Jean d'Acre, and 
was given to the Knights Hospitallers. The 
Mamelukes gained possession May 18, 1291, 
and the Turks in 1517. Sir Sydney Smith 
•defended it against ]S"apoleon I., and com- 
pelled him to retreat, after a siege of 61 days. 
May 20, 1799. Ibrahim Pasha captured it in 
1832, but it was retaken by an Enghsh and 
Austrian fleet Nov. 3, 18i0 ; and it has since 
remained in the possession of the Turks. 

AcEOPOiiis. — The principal Grecian cities 
contained a kind of stronghold or citadel, 
situated, as the term acropohs indicates, on 
the highest point. That of Athens, of which 
the ruins still remain, was the most cele- 
brated. It consisted ofiseveral public build- 
ings, and was encircled by a strong wall, 
said to have been built by the Pelasgians B.C. 
1057. On the taking of Athens by the Vene- 
tians, 1687, the roof of the Parthenon, one 
portion of the Acropolis, was demolished by 
a bomb. In the Greek war of independ- 
ence, the Acropohs was captured from the 
Turks June 21, 1822 ■; and retaken by them 
May 17, 1827. 

Act op Settlemeis-t. — The death of the 
duke of Gloucester (July 29, 1700), son and 
last surviving child of the Princess Anne, 
afterwards queen, rendered a new settlement 
of the crown necessary, it being unprovided 
for after the death of Wilham HI. and of 
Anne. Accordingly, a measure was intro- 
duced during the session of 1701, to supply 
matters of great importance, omitted in the 
Bill of Rights. This statute (12 & 13 WiU. 
III. c. 2) provided that in case of default of 
issue of William III. and also of the Princess 
Anne respectively, the crown should devolve 
upon the next Protestant in succession, 
Sophia, married to the elector of Hanover, 
and the'heirs of her body, being Protestants. 
It waa further enacted, that the occupant 
of the throne " shall join in communion 
vrith the Church of England as by law esta- 
bhshed ;" that if a foreigner succeeded, the 
nation should not be required to defend any 
foreign dominions without the consent of 
parHament; that the sovereign should not 
leave the country without permission 
10 



ACT 

liament ; that all matters cognizable in the 
privy council should be transacted there, 
and all resolutions taken thereupon signed 
by such of the privy council as should con- 
sent to them; that only those born of Eng- 
hsh parents should be ehgible to a seat at 
the privy councU, in either house of parlia- 
ment, or to hold any office or receive any 
grant under the crown ; that no person serv- 
ing under, ^or receiving a pension from the 
crown, should be capable of serving as a 
member of the House of Commons ; that the 
judges shovild hold upon good behaviour, 
and not be removed except upon the address 
of both houses of parhament ; and that no 
pardon under the great seal of England 
shoidd be pleaded to an impeachment hj 
the Commons (June 12, 1701). The provi- 
sion against the sovereign quitting the king- 
dom without consent of parhament was re- 
pealed in 1715 (1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 51). The 
provision respecting matters to be transacted 
in the privy council was repealed by 4 Anne, 
c. 8, s. 24 (1705), and the general disqualifi- 
cation of pensioners and placemen having 
been found inconvenient was repealed by 
4 Anno, c. 8, s. 25, which statute was re- 
enacted by 6 Anne, c. 7, at the union between 
England and Scotland. Section 25 of 6 Anne, 
c. 7, decreed that the holders of certain 
offices, therein specified, and of all new 
offices or places of profit imder the crown, 
created at any time since Oct. 25, 1705, 
should not be allowed to sit in the House of 
Commons ; and section 26 provided that any 
member accepting any office of profit from 
the crown should vacate his seat, being eh- 
gible to stand again. So numerous are the 
special disqualifications that they have to be 
cohected from at least 116 statutes. 

Act oe Sttpeemacy. — In 1534, by 26 Hen. 
VIII. e. 1, the king was declared "the only 
supreme head in earth of the Church of 
England," and he formally assumed that 
title on the 15th of January. AH beneficed 
ecclesiastics, and all laymen holding office 
under the crown, were obhged by this act 
to take the oath abjuring the spiritual as 
well as the temporal juriscUction of the pope. 
In 1554, by 1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 8, s. 12, 
this law was repealed, but it was restored by 
1 EHz. c. 1, in 1559. The denial of the 
king's sunremaey was declared treasonable 
in 1547, by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12, s. 7. 

Act oe Toleration' (1 Will. & Mary, 
st. 1, c. 18), for the rehef from certain penal- 
ties, of dissenters from the Church of Eng- 
land, except papists and persons denying the 
Trinity, was passed May 24, 1689, and con- 
firmed by 10 Anne, c. 2 (1711) . The clause 
excepting persons denying the Trioity was 
repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 160, July 21, 
1813, and the Roman Cathohcs were reheved 
by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, passed April 13, 1829. 

Act oe Ukifok5iity. — By 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 
c. 1 (Jan. 15, 1549), it was enacted that the 
order of divine worship contained in the 
book drawn up by the commissioners, " by 
the aid of the Holy Ghost," should be the 
only one used after the next Whitsuntide. 



ACT 

Those who refused to use it, or who spoke 
or wrote against it, were fined for the first 
or second offence, and rendered subject 
to forfeiture of goods and imprisonment 
for hfe for the third. This statute was 
confirmed by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 1 (1552), 
repealed by 1 Mary, sesa. 2, c. 2 (1553), and 
restored by 1 Eliz. c. 2 (1559). It formed 
the basis of the Act of Uniformity, com- 
monly so called, passed in 1662 (13 & 14 Car. 
II. c. 4), which contained stringent regula- 
tions with respect to the use of the Book of 
Common Prayer ; received the royal assent 
May 19th, came into operation Aug. 24, 1662, 
and was made perpetual as to the estabhsh- 
ment of the church by 5 Anne, c. 5 (1706), 
and by the Act [of Union, 5 Anne, c. 7. A 
similar act was passed by the Irish parlia- 
ment (17 & 18 Car. II. c. 6) in 1665. 

AcTiAN Games were instituted by Augus- 
tus, in commemoration of his -victory over 
Antony off Actium, B.C. 31, and celebrated 
every fifth year. They were probably a 
revival of an ancient festival, as there was a 
•temple of ApoUo at Actium, mentioned by 
Thucydides (i. 29) and by Strabo (vii.), 
which was enlarged by Augustus. 

AcTiATic, or AcTiAif j3Eba, so called from 
the battle of Actixmi, which secured Augus- 
tus in possession of the Roman empire. This 
•sera dated amongst the Eomans from Jan. 1, 
B.C. 30 J in Egypt, where it prevailed 
till the reign of Diocletian, it dated from 
Aug. 29, B.C. 30; and amongst the Greeks 
of Antioch, by whom it was used as late as 
the 9th century, from Sept. 1, B.C. 30. 

AcTiNOMETEK. — Literally, a meastirer of 
solar rays. This instrument, employed for 
the purpose of ascertaining the intensity of 
-the heat in the direct rays of the sun, was 
invented by Sir John Herschel about the 
year 1820. 

Actium (Sea-fight) .—This decisive en- 
gagement between the fleets of Augustus 
and Antony took place off Actium, a pro- 
montory in Acarnania, Sept. 2, b.c. 31. 
After the battle had lasted some time, Cleo- 
patra took to flight ; Antony followed, and 
Augustus obtained a complete victory, which 
rendered him master of the Roman world. 

AcTOir Bttrs-ei,, or Sheewsbuet (Statute 
of), sometimes called the Statute of Mer- 
•chants, was passed on the 12th of October, 
1283, in a parhament held by Edward I. at 
Acton Burnel, in Shropshire. It enacted 
that a debtor's chattels and devisable bur- 
gages might be sold to pay his debts. This 
enactment was confirmed, and its provisions 
were enlarged, by another Statute of Mer- 
chants, passed at Westminster in 1285. 

AcTEEssES. — The appearance of females 
on the stage is altogether a modem custom. 
It originated on the continent, and was not 
generally adopted in this country imtil the 
reign of Charles II. Anne of Denmark, wife 
of James I., Henrietta, wife of Charles I., 
and ladies of noble family, sometimes filled 
parts in these masques and other dramatic 
entertainments of the time; but they 
were not professional actresses. Prynne 



ACZ 

denounces the attempt made in 1629 to in- 
troduce, according to continental customi. 
Frenchwomen at the Blackfriars theatre. 
This was the first appearance .pf professional 
females on the EngUsh stage . They were, how- 
ever, foreigners ; and much difference of opi- 
nion prevails as to the first English actress. 
Pepys for the first time saw women on the 
stage, Jan. 13, 1662 : Mrs. Cohnan, wife of 
Mr, Edward Cohnan, appeared as lanthe in 
the "Siege of Rhodes," in 1666; and Mrs. 
Mary Saunderson, afterwards married to 
the celebrated Betterton, performed the 
same character at the opening of Better- 
ton's theatre, in April, 1662. The last-men- 
tioned was decidedly the first Enghsh actress 
of celebrity that appeared on our stage. 
The duke of Bolton married Lavinia Eenton, 
and the eccentric earl of Peterborough, after 
the death of his first wife, married Lavinia 
Robinson, " the nightingale." Amongst act- 
resses who have, in later times, been ennobled, 
may be mentioned Miss Farren, who became 
countess of Derby in 1797 ; Miss Mellon, left 
a widow by Mr. Coutts, who became duchess 
of St. Albans in 1827 ; Miss Stephens, mar- 
ried to the earl of Essex in 1838. This hst 
might be much extended. 

Acts op the Apostles. — The 5th and last 
of the historical books of the New Testa- 
ment, was composed by St. Luke, and in- 
scribed to TheophQus. The best critics assign 
it to the year 63. The apostohc fathers in 
the 1st century, and Irenseus and TertuUian 
in the 2nd, ascribed this book to St. Luke. 
This evidence is corroborated by that of 
Origen, Jerome, Augustine, Eusebius, and 
other ecclesiastical writers. 

Acts op Pabliament. — Sir Harris ITico- 
las declares " that the distinction between a 
statute, act, and ordinance of parliament is 
still involved in such obscurity that no po- 
sitive conclusion can be drawn from the 
various statements which have been pub- 
hshed." At the present day, bills which 
have passed through both houses, and re- 
ceived the royal assent, become acts of par- 
liament. (See Paeliament, Statutes, &c.) 

Acts op Sedeeukt. — Ordinances made by 
the judges of the Court of Session (Scotland), 
by virtue of a Scottish act of parhament 
passed in 1540. They frequently dealt with 
curious local and fiscal regulations ; such as 
fixing the price of ale in Edinburgh in 1725 ; 
the sale of bread in 1736 and 1743; of but- 
cher's meat in 1682, 1717, and 1736 ; and of 
fowls in 1669. They imposed a tax for 
cleaning the streets of Edinburgh in 1687 
and in 1691; and an act relative to the 
cleanliness of the premises within the ses- 
sion-house or parhament close, in 1663. 

ACTUAEIES OP GeEAT BeITAIN" AND IeE- 

i/AiTD. — The Institute was established in 
London in 1848. 

AcTUAEiES iir Scotland. — The Faculty 
was estabhshed in Edinburgh in 1856. 

Acz, or Acs (Battle).— Here (July 2, 

1849) the Austrians and Russians retrieved 

their reverse of the previous day between 

Raab and Waitzen, and after a hard-fought 

11 



ADA 

battle, compelled Georgy and the Hunga- 
rians to retire. 

Adamites, or Adamiaits, termed by Bayle 
" a ridiculous sect." They are said to have 
arisen during the 2nd century, one Prodicus 
being their founder. In their rehgious as- 
semblies they appeared naked, in imitation 
of our first parents in their state of inno- 
cence. They made a profession of conti- 
nency, and condemned marriage, because it 
was not known in Paradise, of which they 
reckoned their church an emblem, and 
themselves imitators of Adam and Eve. 
After carefully examining the authorities, 
Leland declares that no such sect existed 
in the early church. Evagrius mentions 
certain male and female ascetics living in Pa- 
lestine during the 5th century, who always 
exposed their bodies to the extremes of heat 
and cold, wearing nothing but a small 
girdle. Attempts to revive some of these 
reputed practices of the Adamites have fre- 
quently been made in modem times, al- 
though it is an error to suppose that Tande- 
mus, or Tanchelin, who committed various 
excesses at Antwerp in 1124, and led many 
persons astray, was an Adamite. This man, 
instead of going naked, was richly appa- 
relled, and fared most sumptuously. Some 
fanatics, seduced by Picard a Eleming, cre- 
ated much commotion in Germany in 1415. 
Picard declared himself to be the son of 
God, and that he was sent into the world as 
a new Adam, to restore the law of nature. 
Having penetrated into Bohemia, this fa- 
natic and his followers were attacked and 
almost exterminated by the Bohemian gene- 
ral Zisca, in 1420. Other efforts have been 
made in various countries to revive some of 
the practices of the Adamites. 

Adda (Combats).— Pressed by the Eus- 
sian and Austrian forces, Moreau retired 
behind the line of this river in the spring of 
1799. His antagonists, after some sharp 
encounters, succeeded in passing the river, 
April 27, 1799. 

Addiitgtos- Administbation- (Geo. III.). 
— The arrangements for this ministry com- 
menced on the 10th of February, 1801, and 
were not completed until the 30th of July. 
It was thus constituted : — 
First Lord of the Treasury and ChanceUor of the Ex- 
chequer, Mr. Addingtou, created Vise. Sidmouth 
Jan. 12, 1805. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. 

President of Council . .Buke of Portland. 

Privy Seal Earl of Westinoi eland. 

Principal Secretaries f ^°F^^ Pelham and Hobart, and 
of State i ^"^^ Jenkmson, created Lord 

I Hawkesbm-y Nov. 16, 1803. 

Admii-alty Earl St. Vincent. 

Board of Control Vise. Le-wisham. 

Secretai-y at War ... .Mr. Charles Yorke. 

Ordnance Earl of Chatham. 

Viscount Castlereagh went to the Board 
of Control July 6, 1802. Mr. Charles Torke 
became (Au^. 17, 1804) one of the principal 
secretaries of state, in place of Lord Pelham, 
who took the chancellorship of the duchy of 
Lancaster, on the resignation of the earl of 
Liverpool. It was dissolved May 10, 1804. 
(See Pitt's Second ADuraiSTKATioif.) 
13 



ADI 



Addiscombe House, near Croydon, once 
the residence of the earl of Liverpool, was 
purchased, in 1809, by the East-India Com- 
pany, and opened by them in 1825, as a col- 
legiate institution for the reception of cadets 
for the whole of their military service, except 
the cavalry. 

Additioital Act. — The settlement of a 
new constitution for France during the Hun- 
dred Days, March 21 — June 17, 1815, was 
intrusted by ISTapoleon I. to a commission, 
of which Benjamin Constant was president. 
The constitution embodied in the "Addi- 
tional act," the work of Constant Eegnaud 
and St. Jean d'Angely, was pubhshed on 
the 2oth of April, and was adopted by the 
Assembly June 1, 1815. On the restoration 
of Louis XVIII., in the royal ordinance 
changing the modes and rules of election, 
dated July 12, 1815, the Additional act of 
IS'apoleon was made the basis of the election 
laws. 

Addled Parliament met Tuesday, April 
5, 1614. The Commons refused to grant 
suppHes until grievances were redressed, 
and sought to abridge the power of the 
crown. James I. dismissed them in anger, 
and imprisoned several members, June 7. 
Not a single act was passed during the short 
session, and it was therefore nicknamed 
" the Addled Parhament." 

Addbessees. (See Abhoheees.) 

Adelaide (South Austraha), the capital, 
was founded by settlers who arrived in the 
colony on the 27th of July, 1836; but it 
was not until March, 1837, that its site was 
fixed and the town lands surveyed. In 1845 
it was made a free port to vessels of all 
nations. Port Adelaide, one of its harbours, 
is about seven miles distant from the town. 
Gold was discovered in the neighbourhood, 
and an assay office estabhshed at Adelaide 
in 1852. Its bishopric was founded in 1847, 
the Eight Eev. Augustus Short, D.D., being 
the first bishop. 

Adelaide Island (Antarctic) was disco- 
vered by Captain Biscoe, Feb. 16, 1832. 

Adelphi Theatee was biult in 1806. A 
new fapade was erected in less than three 
weeks m 1840. The old edifice was pulled 
down, and a new one erected on its site, in 
1858. 

Aden, the Gibraltar of the East, an Ara- 
bian town and seaport, to the east of ^the 
Straits of Babelmandeb. Marco Polo (b.' iii. 
ch. 40) mentions it as a place of importance 
in the 13th century. The Portuguese seized 
it in the 16th century, and the Turks got pos- 
session of it by treachery in 1533. They 
soon after erected extensive fortifications, and 
an aqueduct eight miles in length. It was, 
however, governed by a native prince in 
1708. It was bombarded and taken on the 
19th of January, 1839, by the troops of the 
East-India Company. 

Adige (Battles). — Near this river, in 
Italy, the ancient Athesis, the Cimbri de- 
feated the Eoman army under Quintus Ca- 
tullus B.C. 101. Combats occurred here 
March 26 and 30, 1799, between the French 



ADM 

and the Austrians. The former gained some 
advantages on the first day, but were de- 
feated on the second, leaving 2,000 prisoners 
in the hands of the Austrians. On the 1st of 
April the French army withdrew from the 
line of the Adige, and in an attempt to re- 

tain their position, April 5, were once more 
efeated. 

Administratioks op Great Britain. — 
HaUam (Eng. ui. ch. 15) states: "Accord- 
ing to the original constitution of our mo- 
narchy, the king had his privy council, com- 
posed of the great officers of state, and of 
such others as he should summon to it, 
bound by an oath of fidelity and secrecy, 
by whom all affairs of weight, whether as to 
domestic or exterior poUcy, were debated, 
for the most part in his presence, and de- 
termined, subordinately of course to his 
pleasure, by the vote of the major part. It 
could not happen but that some counciJlors, 
more eminent than the rest should form 
juntos or cabals, for more close and private 
management, or be selected as more confi- 
dential advisers of their sovereign ; and the 
very name of a cabinet council, as distin- 
guished from the larger body, may be found 
as far back as the reign of Charles I. But 
the resolutions of the crown, whether as to 
foreign aUiances or the issuing of procla- 
mations and orders at home, or any other 
overt act of government, were not finally 
taken without the deliberation and assent 
of that body whom the law recognized as 
its sworn and notorious councillors. This 
was first broken in upon after the Eestora- 

tion Thus by degrees it became 

usual for the ministry or cabinet to obtain 
the king's final approbation of their mea- 
sures, before they were laid, for a merely 
formal ratification, before the council . . . 
During the reign of William III., this dis- 
tinction of the cabinet from the privy coun- 
cil, and the exclusion of the latter from 
aU business of state, became more fully es- 
tablished." Thus it was not until after the 
Eevolution, that the cabinet council, as dis- 
tinguished from the privy council, was 
formed. Monarchs had, indeed, before that 
time, been in the habit of seeking advice from 
particular members of the privy council, 
and too frequently from favourites. In the 
earlier days of cabinets, ministers were only 
accountable for their own departments, and 
did not necessarily retire when their leaders 
or colleagues were dismissed. Nor did the 
minister, who was considered the chief, 
always preside over the Treasury. The office 
of prime minister is of more recent date. 
The practice for ministers presiding over par- 
ticular departments of the government to 
form themselves into what is now termed an 
administration,' imder the control of a chief, 
cannot be said to have been established until 
the reign of Queen Anne. The following is 
a list of the administrations that have held 
office from the commencement of her reign, 
each administration being more fuUy de- 
scribed under its title, to be foimd in its 
place in the alphabetical arrangement. 



ADM 



Godolphin 1702 

Harley iTio 

Shrewsbiiry 1714 

Halifax 1714 

Carlisle 1715 

Walpole ifirsi) 1715 

Stanhope • 1717 

Sunderland 1718 

Walpole {second) 1721 

Wilmington 1742 

Pelham 1743 

Broad-Bottom Admi- 
nistration 1744 

Long-lived Admini- 
stration 1746 

Broad-Bottom Admi- 
nistration restored 1746 

Newcastle 17o4 

Devonshire 1756 

Newcastle and Pitt, 
afterwards Lord 
Chatham (^r«<) ..1757 

Bute 1762 

Grenvllle 1763 

Rockingham (first} 1765 
Chatham (secored) ..1766 



Graftou 1767 

North 1770 

E.ockingham(sccond) 1782 

Shelburne 1782 

Coalition 1783 

Yitt {first) 1783 

Addington isoi 

Pitt {second) 1804 

" AU the Talents " . .1806 

Portland 1807 

Perceval 1809 

Liverpool 1812 

Canning 1827 

Goderich 1827 

Wellington 1828 

Grey 1830 

Melbourne {first) . . .1834 

Peel {first) 1834 

Melbourne {second) 1835 

Peel {second) 1841 

Russell 1846 

Derby (first) 1852 

Aberdeen 1852 

Palmerston (^r«<) ..1855 

Derby (second) 1858 

Palmerston (second) 1859 



Admikistkative Eeform Association', 
caUed into existence for the object of insur- 
ing a better administration of affairs in the 
different goverimient departments, attention 
having been directed to the subject by the 
mismanagjement that caused so many sacri- 
fices of lite and property in the Crimea dur- 
ing the winter of 1854 and '55. Meetings 
were held in the Guildhall and at the London 
Tavern, May 6, 1855, when the association 
was formed. A large gathering of the Ad- 
ministrative Keformers took place at Drury- 
lane Theatre, Jime 13 in the same year. 
The Association did not, however, flourish, 
and an attempt at its reorganization in 1856 
proved a failure. 

Administhatoh. — In ancient times, the 
king was entitled to seize the goods of all 
persons who died intestate. This preroga- 
tive was even granted as a franchise to lords 
of manors and others, and afterwards the 
Crown conferred this right on the Church, 
when the Ordinary took possession of the 
goods. The 32nd article of Magna Charta 
(1215) provided against abuses of this prero- 
gative ; but this article was not included in 
the subsequent charter of Henry III. The 
great abuse of this power led to a change, 
and the Statute of Westminster II. (13 
Edw. I, St. i. c. 19), 1285, enacted that the 
Ordinary was boimd to pay the debts of 
the intestate, as far as his goods extended. 
Flagrant abuses continued, and in 1357 (31 
Edw. III. St. i. c. 11) it was enacted that 
the " Ordinaries shall depute the next and 
most lawful friends of the dead person intes- 
tate to administer his goods." Another sta- 
tute (21 Hen, VIII. c. 5) in 1529 enlarged 
the power of the ecclesiastical judge, who 
was empowered to grant administration 
either to the widow or the next of kin, or 
to both of them, at his discretion. By 20 & 21 
Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 25, 1857), which came into 
operation Jan. 1, 1858, the whole of this juris- 
diction was transferred to the "Court of 
Probate," before a single judge, with an 
appeal to the House of Lords. 

Admibal. — This title, which was originally 
13 



ADM 

written ammiral, or amvral, as it still is in 
Freneli, was imported into Europe during 
the Crusades, being a corruption of the Ara- 
bic word amvi', or emir. The Sicilians and 
the Genoese borrowed it from the Saracens 
about the year 1149. This title is said to 
have been first used in France in 1270, and 
in this country later in the same century. 
Nicolas (Hist, of the Koyal Navy, vol. i. p. 
390) says " It will have been seen that at an 
early period of Enghsh history the com- 
manders of fleets were styled ' leaders and 
governors, or justices,' or ' leaders and con- 
stables ' of fleets ; and that in the reign of 
Henry IH. and until the latter part of that 
of Edward I. their usual designation was 
* keepers of the sea-coast,' or * captains and 
keepers of the sea.' " in. & covenant exe- 
cuted at Bruges, March 8, 1297, Sir Wil- 
liam Leyboume was styled "Admiral of the 
sea of the Mng of England." In the ward- 
robe accounts of Edward I. for the year 
1300, Gervase Alard is termed " Admiral of 
the fleet of the Cinque Ports ;" and the first 
commission to an admiral of which there is 
any record, was granted by Edward I. to 
Gervase Alard, and is dated Eeb. 4, 1303. 
The Liber Munerum Pubhcorum Hiber- 
niae contains an order for the payment of 
40s. to John de Athy for expenses he had 
iacurred, Dec. 7, 1335, as admiral of the 
king's fleet in Ireland ; and from the same 
authority we learn that Wm. Spalding was 
created admiral in Ireland by patent dated 
May 26, 1382. 

Admibal (Lord High).— When admirals 
were first appointed in this country, each 
officer of the kind received the command of 
a particular fleet, such as, the Idng's ships 
north, south, or west of the Thames, or the 
fleet of the Cinque Ports. On the 18th of 
July, 1360, Sir John Beauchamp was ap- 
pointed "admiral of the king's southern, 
northern, and western fleets," and this Sir 
Harris Nicolas observes is the first instance 
of the command of all the fleets being vested 
in one person. Beauchamp died m the fol- 
lowing December ; whereupon Sir Eobert 
Herle was (Jan. 26, 1361) appointed to suc- 
ceed him as admiral of the three fleets. 
Many similar appointments followed, and, 
May 9, 1398, John, marquis of Dorset, was 
made admiral of the northern and western 
fleets for life, the Irish fleet having been 
placed imder his direction on the same 
terms. Sir Thomas of Lancaster (second 
Bon of Hen. IV.), afterwards duke of Cla- 
rence, was appointed " Admiral of England " 
Feb. 20, 14^5; and from that period, as 
Nicolas remarks, "there was always an 
admiral of England, who commanded in 
chief all the fleets in England, Ireland, and 
Aquitaine, the office having been held suc- 
cessively by the earls of Somerset and Kent, 
and Sir Thomas Beaufort, who was after- 
wards created earl of Dorset and duke of 
Exeter. Sir Thomas of Lancaster was pro- 
bably the first who took the title of lord high 
admiral, which was borne by an uninter- 
rupted aeries of individual officers till the 
14 



ADM 

20th of November, 1632, when the office was, 
for the first time, put in commission. Dur- 
ing the Commonwealth, the affairs of the 
navy were managed by a committee of par- 
Mament, imtil Cromwell himself undertook 
the direction. The duke of York (after- 
wards James 11.) was lord high admiral 
from the neriod of the Eestoration until the 
22nd of May, 1684, when Charles 11. took 
the office into his own hands, James H. 
resuming it on his accession, in the follow- 
ing year. It was put in commission after- 
his abdication, and remained so till Prince 
George of Denmark was appointed lord 
high admiral of England, May 20, 1702, and 
of Great Britain, on account of the Union, 
June 28, 1707, with a council of four persons 
to assist him. On his death, Nov. 8 (0. S. 
Oct. 28), 1708, the earl of Pembroke was ap- 
pointed his successor, with a similar cotmcil. 
The earl resigned in 1709 ; since which time 
the office has always been in commission, 
except during the interval from May, 1827, 
to September, 1828, in which it was held by 
the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV. 
The only instance of a lord high admiral for 
Ireland, is that of James, Lord Butler, high 
treasurer, created "Great Admiral and, 
Keeper of the Ports in Ireland," by patent. 
May 11, 1535, There was a lord "high ad- 
miral in Scotland from the 15th century 
imtil the Union. A lord high admiral having 
been appointed in France, Eicheheu sup- 
pressed the office in 1627, but it was re- 
estabhshed by Louis XIV. in 1669. 

Admiral of the Fleet. — Until 1851, 
this honorary title, which gives increase of 
half-pay but no command, was conferred 
only upon one officer at a time; but in that 
year it was borne simultaneously by Sir 
Thomas Byam Martin and Sir George Cock- 
burn. 

Admieal 01" THE Bed, — Admirals take 
rank and command in the order of their 
respective squadrons, which are distinguish- 
ed Dy different-coloured flags ; as the red, 
the white, and the blue squadrons. For 
nearly a century after the union between 
England and Scotland in 1707, there was no 
admiral of the red, the Union Jack haviag 
then superseded the red fl^ ; but the latter 
was resumed at the naval promotion which 
took place in 1805, after the battle of Tra- 
falgar. 

Admiealtt (High Court of), erected, 
according to Stowe, in the reign of Edward 
III., though Lord Coke and Prynne assert 
that it existed long before that time. Rich- 
ard n. limited its jurisdiction : it was divided 
into the Instance and the Prize courts, and 
was at first held in Southwark, but after- 
wards removed to Doctors' Commons. In 
early times, the judge of this court was 
merely the deputy of the lord high admiral, 
to whom the regulation of all naval matters 
was intrusted. The criminal jurisdiction of 
the Admiralty Court was, by 7 Vict. c. 2 
(March 5, 1844), transferred to the Court 
of Assize and the Central Criminal Court. 
By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 25, 1857), it was 



ADM 

proTided that on the next vacancy of the 
office of judge of the High Court of Admi- 
ralty, the queen might appoint the judge of 
the Court of Probate to that office, or, if the 
vacancy should first occur in the Court of 
Probate, the judge of the Admiralty Court 
might be appointed. 

Admiralty Hottse (Whitehall) . — Pennant 
says, "The Admiralty office stood originally 
in Duke-street, Westminster; but in the 
reign of King William, was removed to the 
present spot, to the house then called 
WaEingford, I believe, from its having been 
inhabited by the KnoUys, viscounts WaUing- 
ford." Prom the roof of this building. 
Archbishop Usher took a farewell view of 
Charles I. on his way to the place of exe- 
cution, and swooned at the sight. It was 
rebuilt by Eipley (1726), and the screen was 
erected by Adams (1776) . 

Admiealtt Islands (Pacific) were dis- 
covered by the Dutch in 1616. Carteret 
landed on them in 1767, andD'Eutrecasteaux 
in 1793. 

Admonitioit to the Pabliament. — This 
treatise, setting forth the extreme views of 
the Puritans in somewhat intemperate lan- 
guage, was published in 1572. It was the 
joint production of the more active Puritans, 
and was presented to parliament by two of 
their numbei:, Pield and WUcoz, preachers. 
Por this offence they were committed to 
Newgate, and afterwards sentenced to a 
year's imprisonment. Pour editions ap- 
peared in a very short space of time. A 
second admonition was drawn up by Thomas 
Cartwright, and both were answered by 
Whitgift. Cartwright rephed, and the con- 
troversy raged for some time. These bitter 
attacks upon the Established Church were 
suppressed by proclamation, Jidy 22, 1753. 

Adoptians. — The name of a sect, which 
revived the oriental heresy of Nestoriauism 
in a new form in the West (787) . Its authors 
were two Spanish prelates, EHpaud, arch- 
bishop of Toledo, and Pelix, bishop of 
Urgel. They firmly maintained the co- 
equahty of the Son as to his divine nature, 
but asserted that, as to his hnmanity, 
Christ was only the adopted son of the 
Father. These doctrines were condemned 
at the diet and council of Eatisbon, 792, and 
by the council of Prankfort-on-the-Maine 
in 794. The strange theory obtained many 
supporters. 

Adoeno and Peegosi.— Pactions, called 
by HaUam (Middle Ages, i. ch. 3) " equal 
and eternal rivals," by which Genoa was 
distracted during the 14th and 15th cen- 
turies. They belonged to the plebeian and 
commercial aristocracy, who obtained power 
when the old nobility were excluded from 
authority. The Ghibefiines sided with the 
Adomo and the Guelphs with the Pregosi. 
One great struggle between these factions 
commenced in the elevation of Gabriel 
Adomo to the ducal throne, in 1363. The 
Pregosi put the Prench in possession of 
Genoa in 1513, and in the same year (Eo- 
bertson, Charles V. b. xi.) the Adorno again 



ADU 

wrested Genoa from the Pregosi, and placed 
it tmder the power of the emperor. 
Adeiak's Wall. {See Hadeian's Wall.) 
Adeianists. — The term is appMed to two 
different sects. Theodoric (1. i. e. 4, p. 193) 
is the only author who refers to the first 
sect of Adrianists. They were followers of 
Simon Magus, and arose about the year 34. 
The disciples of Adrian Hamstead, an Ana- 
baptist of the 16th centirry, also bore this 
designation. He taught first in Zealand, and 
afterwards in England. 
Adeianople. {See Hadeianople.) 
Adeiatic (Wedding of) . — ^An annual cere- 
mony performed by the doge of Venice on 
Ascension-day, Going with much pomp and 
ceremony in the Bucentaur, or state barge, 
attended by the nobility and foreign am- 
bassadors, he dropped his ring into the water. 
This strange ceremony, denoting the supre- 
macy of Venice, was instituted in 1176, imder 
the following circumstances : — In that year, 
the doge, Sebastiano Ziani, defeated the 
combined fleets of Pisa, Genoa, and Ancona, 
under the command of the emperor Frederick 
the First's son Otho,who was made prisoner 
and carried to Venice. On the return of the 
victorious fleet. Pope Alexander III., at that 
time a fugitive at Venice, presented Ziani 
with his rmg, authorizing Irnn and his suc- 
cessors to proclaim their right to the sove- 
reignty of the Adriatic, and to subject it to 
the rule of Venice, as a wife is subjected to 
that of her husband. 

Adtjlteeation, — Many laws inflicting pe- 
nalties for the admixture of improper ingre- 
dients in articles of consumption, are found 
in the statute-book. By 51 Hen. III. st. vi. 
(1267) bakers were condemned to stand in the 
piUory for offences relating to the assize of 
bread, and brewers to stand in the tumbrel, or 
to undergo some other kind of correction. By 
23 Eliz. c. 8, s. 4 (1581), persons adulterating 
honey with *' any deceyptfullmyxture," were- 
to forfeit the same. A similar penalty was 
attached to the adulteration of wax. By 
1 James I. c. 18 (1604), any person having in 
his possession adulterated hops was to forfeit 
them, and any brewer using them in brewing 
ale or beer, was to forfeit the value of the 
hops so used. In 1776 (17 Geo. III. c. 29) th& 
penalty for the adulteration of tea was a fine 
of £5, or six months' imprisonment. Other 
statutes dealing with adulteration in various 
forms have been passed during the present 
century. The act 6 & 7 WiU. IV. c. 37 (1836), 
repealed former acts for regulating the sale 
of bread sold beyond the city of London 
and ten miles of the Eoyal Exchange. It 
inflicted a fine of not less than £5, or more 
than £10, or imprisonment not exceeding 
six months, for mixing materials other than 
those specified in the act, in the prepara- 
tion of bread. Hard labour was added to 
imprisonment by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 100, s. 29 
(Aug. 7, 1851). 

Adttlteet. — The Jewish law inflicted the 
punishment of death for this offence (Lev. 
XX. 10 ; Dent. xxii. 22). The Eoman punish- 
ment was mutilation. Augustus, after im- 
15 



posing heavy fines and forfeitures on the 
gunty parties, condemned them to long, or 
even perpetual exile. Constantine made the 
crime capital, but Justinian mitigated this 
severity of the punishment. Prescott (Peru, i. 
Introd. c. ii.) says it was treated as a capital 
offence by the Peruvians. The Japanese 
early in. the 17th century cut off the heads 
of both the offending parties, and hewed 
their bodies in pieces. The northern na- 
tions punished the crime with great severity, 
and the ancient Grermans empowered the 
husband to inflict immediate punishment. 
Among the Saxons, a pecuniary fine was 
exacted, according to the rank of the female. 
In Alfred's reign it was punished according 
to the rank of the husband. Canute (1016) 
adjudged the man to exile, the woman to 
have her nose and ears cut off. Adtdtery 
was punished with death by an act of the 
Scottish parliament in 1563. In the time of 
the Commonwealth (1650), adultery was 
made a capital offence ; but the law was re- 
pealed at the Eestoration. In later times, 
redress was usually sought by action in the 
civil courts, until the passing of the new act 
20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1857), by which 
the "Court for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes" was estabhshed. The new legisla- 
tion has facilitated the obtaining of a divorce. 

Advent. — The period of four weeks before 
Christmas. It is not known when this season 
was first consecrated by the Church. The 
earUest notice of Advent is foxmd in a homily 
by Maximus Tauriaensis, in 450. The coun- 
cil of Macon, in 582, ordered a fast to be 
observed from Advent to Christmas. Ad- 
vent Sunday is the Sunday, whether before 
or after, which comes nearest to St. An- 
drew's day (Nov. 30). ' 

Adventuee Bat (Australasia) was dis- 
covered by Capt. Purneaux, in 1773, and 
named after his ship, the Adventure, be- 
loDigiug to Captain Cook's expedition. It 
was visited by Captain Cook in 1777, and by 
Captain BUgh in 1788 and 1792. 

Adventueees. {See Meechakt Adven- 

TUEEES.) 

Adveetisements. — The Parliamentary 
newspaper, the Mercurius Politicus, for 
January, 1652, contains an advertisement, 
probably the first pubhshed in England. It 
announces the pubhcation of the " Irenodia 
Gratulatoria, an Heroick Poem," printed 
by Thos. Newcourt iu 1652. This effusion is 
a panegyric on Cromwell's Irish campaign. 
Advertisements were first subjected to a 
duty by 10 Anne, c. 19 (1712), and* it was 
charged according to length. Some change 
took place, and the duty was reduced in 
1833, from 3s. M. to Is. M. in Great Britain, 
and from 2s. &d. to Is. in Ireland (3 & 4 
Wm. IV. c. 23), and the duty was entirely 
repealed by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 63, s. 5, which 
act received the royal assent Aug. 4, 1853. 

Adveetisin-g Vans.— This ingenious de- 
vice for obtaining publicity led to the intro- 
duction of so many showy vehicles into the 
streets of the metropolis, as to constitute a 
ace, and the use of these vans was 
16 



MGl 

accordingly prohibited from Oct. 1, 1853, by 
16 & 17 Viet. c. 33, s. 16, passed June 28, 
1853. 

Advocate (Queen's). — Foss states that the 
first instance of an advocate being regularly 
employed in the king's affairs occurs in the 
reign of Henry III. During.fourteen years, 
from 38 to 52 Hen. III. (1253—1267), be- 
tween thirty and forty cases in the court are 
recorded, in which Lawrence del Brok 
pleaded for the king, — " sequitur pro rege." 

Advocate (Lord), Scotland, also called 
King's or Queen's Advocate, is the principal 
law-officer of the Crown in Scotland, the 
same as the Attorney-general in England. 
The office of King's Advocate is known to 
have existed in 1479, but it was not until 
1540 that it was raised to the dignity of a 
great office of state. A record of the Court 
of Justicary in 1598 contains the first men- 
tion of a Lord Advocate. 

Advocates (Faculty of), Scotland. — The 
profession of advocate has existed from 
time immemorial in Scotland ; but its mem- 
bers did not form a faculty or society until 
the establishment of the College of Justice 
in 1532. Their number, at first confined to 
ten, is now unlimited, and has for some 
years exceeded 400. This body is presided 
over by a Dean of Faculty. 

Advocates' Libeaet, founded in Edin- 
burgh, by Sir George Mackenzie, about the 
year 1680. It is one of those which have the 
privilege, under the Copyright law, of receiv- 
ing a copy of every new book. 

.^DiLES. — Eoman magistrates, whose 
duty it was to superintend public biiildings, 
highways, weights and measures, &c. They 
were first created B.C. 494, were two in 
momber, and chosen from the plebeians. 
Two patrician sediles {curules) were added 
B.C. 365 ; and Julius Caesar estabhshed two 
more plebeian sediles (cereales), B.C. 45, 
whose business was to look after the supply 
of corn. 

^gina, an island in the Gulf of ^gina, 
with chief town of the same name, cele- 
brated for its naval supremacy. Homer 
says it was occupied by the Achaei, and 
afterwards by Dorians from Argos. It be- 
came subject to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 
B.C. 748. ^gina was a general empormm 
of commerce, had a factory iu Egypt b.c. 
563, and carried on an active trade in corn 
with the countries in the Black Sea. The 
.^ginetans were considered the earliest na- 
vigators of the MgesLU Sea. 



505. The Thebans apply for aid to tte jEgiuetaiis, 
who declare war against Athens. 

500. .Slgina mistress of the sea. 

487. War between Athens and ^gina. 

481. Termination of the struggle. 

480. The ^ginetans send 30 ships to Salamis. 

479. Greek fleet assembles at jEgina. 

460. Athens makes war upon ^gina. 

459. ^gina besieged by the Athenians. 

455. JEgina captured by the Atheui-ans ; its fortifi- 
cations destroyed, and its ships of war sur- 
rendered. 

431. The Athenians expel the Inhabitants, and send 
colonists to the island. 



p 



iEGO 



B.C. 

404. Lysander having collected some of the fonner 
inhabitants, restores them to jEgina. 

388. Incited by Sparta, the restored JSginetans 
declare war against Athens. 

387. The war brought to a close by the peace of 
Autalcidas. 

JEgospotami, or tlie *' Goat's River" (Sea- 
fight) . — In the Thracian Chersonese, off the 
mouth of which the Athenian fleet was sig- 
nally defeated by the Spartans under Lysan- 
der, B.C. 405. This victory was followed by 
the capture of Athens, and the termination 
of the Peloponnesian war. 

MoTjIA-N or BCEOTIAN MlGEATIOX. — The 

Achseans, a people closely aUied to the .ka- 
lians, were, by the great Dorian invasion, 
driven from the Peloponnesus, and, with 
some of the original inhabitants of Bceotia, 
induced to settle in Asia Minor. This hap- 
pened B.C. 1190, B.C. 1124, or B.C. 844, ac- 
cording to various authorities. 

.^Qui, an ancient people of Italy, inha- 
biting the upper valley of the Anio. In 
league with the Volsci, they waged war 
against the Romans (b.c. 471—302), but 
were finally subdued, and their territory 
was annexed to Rome b.c. 302. 

Mb,a, or Era, a fixed point of time, from 
which any number of years is counted, the 
zero, as it were, of the chronological scale. 
The following is a hst of those aeras which have 
been most in use, with the year of the Chris- 
tian aera to which each of them corresponds. 

1. A.M., anno Mundi, " in the year of the 
■world." This lera, the date of the 
world's creation, according to the reck- 
oning of Constantinople, which was used 
in Russia till the beginning of the 19th 
century, and is still employed by the 

Greek Church, commences Sept. 1 B.C. 5508 

2. The year of the world as reck- 
oned at Antioch (and by the church of 
Alexandria since a.d. 285, when it dis- 
carded ten years from its previous reck- 
oning), commences Sept. 1 B.C. 5492 

8. The year of the world is com- 
monly assumed by chronologists to com- 
mence B.C. 4004 

4. The year of the world according 

to the Jews, commences B.C. 3761 

5. The Caliyuga, the last of the four yugas 
or great periods of time reckoned by the 
Hiudus. The first three are purely my- 
thological ; the last commences B.C. 3102 

6. The Olympiads commence July 1 B.C. 776 

7. A.tr.C. anno urlig conditw, " in the 
year from the foundation of the city," 
i. e. of Rome, which event is placed by 

Varro in the year B.C. 753 

By Cato the Elder in the year b.c 752 

8. The :era of Vicramadilya, in common 

use throughout Hindostan B c. 57 

S. The Spanish jera, that of the coniuest 
of Spain by Augustus. It was employed 
in the Peninsula, the south of France, 
and Africa, and was in use in some pro- 
vinces imtil the middle of the 15th cen- 
tury. It commences Jan. 1 B.C. 38 

10. The jEra of Martyrs, or of Diocletian. 
Much used by the early Chribtians, and 
still employed in the churches of the 

East, commences Aug. 29 AD. 284 

11. AJBl. anno HegircB. The Hegira, or flight 

of Mahommea to Medina : the sera used ~ 

hy all Mahommedans , commences July 16 a.d. 622 

12. A.D. anno Domini, " in the year of our 
Lord." The Christian aera is the date 
of the birth of Christ. 

17 



Aeeians. — ^A branch of the Arians, fol- 
lowers of Aerius, a presbyter and monk, 
native of Pontus. This sect arose 342, and 
spread rapidly through Cappadocia, Arme- 
nia, and Pontus. Aerius, disappointed at 
not obtaining the bishopric of Sebaste, in 
Armenia, mitiatained that there was no dif- 
ference between bishops and presbyters. He 
disapproved of prayers for the dead, stated 
fasts, the celebration of Easter, and attempt- 
ed to restore rehgion to its primitive simpU- 
city. Exposed to persecution, his followers 
assembled in woods and caves. The sect was 
stni in existence in the time of St. Augustine. 

Zeolites. — Livy states that a shower of 
stones fell about b.c. 654, on the AUbaa 
Mount, near Rome. Plutarch mentions 
one, recorded in the Parian Chronicle, that 
fell at .^gospotami, near the Hellespont, 
B.C. 467. In modern times a stone, weigh- 
ing 2 cwt., fell at Ensisheim, in Alsace, 
in 1492. A shower of stones fell near Be- 
nares, Dec. 19, 1798. A similar occurrence 
took place in Normandy, some of the stones 
weighing 16 or 17 lb., April 26, 1803 ; and 
near Bonn several fell July 19, 1816, one of 
them weighing nearly 100 lb. The list 
naight be extended almost indefinitely. 

^s raoEiUM. — ^A sum in which xmmar- 
ried men were mulcted at the census or 
review of the people of Rome. It appears 
to have been first imposed B.C. 403. 

JEtna (Sicily). — About sixty eruptions of 
this volcano, the largest in southern Europe, 
are on record. Of these, ten most disastrous 
in their results, occurred before the Christiau 
aera. JBschylus and Pindar allude to one that 
happened B.C. 425 . Another b . c . 396, arrested 
the progress of the Carthaginian army, in its 
march from Messina to Syracuse. The more 
celebrated eruptions of modern times hap- 
pened in 1537, in 1792 (this one lasted for 
more than a year) , in 1819, in 1832, and in 
1852. 

.Stoma (Greece). — "Renowned as are 
the names of their earliest heroes," says 
Heeren, ".Stolus, Peneus, Meleager, Dio- 
mede, the nation has no place in the lustory 
of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did 
they acqixire any celebrity until the Macedo- 
Roman period, when the various insignifi- 
cant tribes of which they were composed, 
gathered themselves together and chose one 
common leader, for the purpose of carry- 
ing on a war with the Achaeans." The 
.Sltolians are said to have sent 40 ships, 
under the command of Thoas, to the Trojan 
war ; but from this period until the formation 
of their league, they are seldom noticed. 

JEtolian League, though composed of 
tribes instead of cities, was an imitation of 
the Achaean league. Its origin is involved in 
obscurity. It is known to have existed iu 
the time of Alexander the Great, if not in 
that of his father Philip, The great council 
of the nation, called the Panaetolicon, met 
every autumn at Thermum, and there was 
another dehberative body called the Apo- 
cleti, which is supposed to have formed a 
kind of permanent committee. 

C 



AFF 



323. The jEtolian League joins tlie Grecian confede- 
racy against Macedon in the Lamian war. 
322. The Greeks defeated at Crannon Aug. 7, and 
the Grecian confederacy dissolved. Craterus 
and Antipater invade ^tolia, and after 
some success are compelled to -withdi-aw. 
321. The Acarnanians who had invaded ^tolia are 

• expelled. 
239. Demetrius ravages JEtolia. 
279. The jEtolian League joins the struggle against 
Brennus and his hordes, who are expelled 
from Greece. 
220. The Social war between the .^tolian and 

Achiean leagues commences. 
219. Philip supports the Achseans, and invades 

.^tolia. 
218. Philip sui-prises Thermum, sets fire to the sa- 
cred building aad the spoil he corjd not 
carry away. 
217. The treaty of Kaupactus terminates the Social 

war. 
211. Offensive and defensive alliance between 

Eome and the ^EtoUan League. 
205. Philip invades ^tolia, sacks Thermum a se- 
cond time, and the ^tolians, deserted by the 
Romans, make peace with him. 
200. The .(Etoliau League decLares war against 

Philip. 
197. The Romans and ^tolians defeat Philip at 

the battle of Cynocephale. 
196. General peace. 
192. The ^toliau League joins Antiochus in a war 

against Eome. 
191. The .lEtolians sue for peace and obtain a truce. 
189. The -JItoliaus make a humUiating peace with 

Rome. 
Apfghan Wae. — ^During tlie revolution 
in Affghanistan, England declared in favour 
of Shah Shooja, and on the refusal of Dost 
Mahommed Kiian to submit. Lord Auckland 
declared war, Oct. 1, 1838. The Anglo- 
Indian army quitted Shirkapore early in 
March, 1839, took possession of Kandahar, 
April 20, and Shah Shooja was crowned 
there May 8. Ghuznee was captured July 
23, and Cabul August 7. Part of the army 
remained to support Shah Shooja. Dost 
Mahommed Khan himself surrendered 
Nov. 4, 1840. A revolt agaiust the Enghsh 
broke out at Cabul Nov. 2, 1841, when Sir A. 
Burnes and several officers and soldiers were 
assassinated. Sir W. H . McNaghten was ruth- 
lessly murdered during a conference, by 
Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mahommed, on 
Christmas-day ia the same year. The re- 
mainder of the force stationed in this country, 
concluded a treaty with the Affghan chiefs for 
its immediate evacuation. The order for de- 
parture was given Jan. 5, 1843 ; but such was 
the treachery practised on the occasion, and 
the fury with which, in spite of promises of 
safe-conduct, they were assailed, that only 
three natives and one European, out of an 
army of 5,000 men and a large number of 
camp-followers, including women and chil- 
dren, reached JeUalabad. Lady Sale, and some 
English ladies who had surrendered to Akbar 
Khan, were afterwards restored. JeUalabad, 
besieged by Akbar Elan Jan. 18, 1842, was 
successfully defended by Greneral Sale. 
General Pollock came to his aid April 5 ; 
General Nott recovered Ghuznee Sept. 9 ; 
Cabul was partially destroyed Oct. 9; and 
having accomplished the objects in view, 
the British forces evacuated the country in 
October, 1842. 
18 



APR 

ArraHANiSTAN (Asia). — An extensive' 
kingdom, which, as part of the old Persiaa 
empire, passed under the yoke of Alexander 
the Great B.C. 330. Seleucus Nicator an- 
nexed it (B.C. 305) to his Syrian empire, 
with which it remained incorporated till it 
recovered its independence B.C. 255. It was 
conquered successively by the Scythians, 
Persians, and Saracens, falling to a Tartar 
dynasty in 997. Zenghas Khan and Tamer- 
lane subdued it ; Baboor, or Baber, the fifth 
in descent from the last-mentioned, esta- 
blished the great Mongol empire, of which, 
Delhi was the capital, 1525. After his death, 
portions of Affghanistan fell to Persia and 
Hindostan, whilst many AlFghan tribes re- 
mained independent. Nadir Shah once- 
more brought the whole country into sub- 
jection to Persia in 1737, and after his death 
in 1747, Alimed Shah united aU the Affghan 
tribes, and founded the present kingdom of 
Affghanistan. Various revolutions have since 
occurred, and an account of a coUisiou be- 
tween the British and Affghans, that arose 
out of a disputed succession, is given under 
Apfghas- Wae. 

Affinitt. — In the book of Leviticus, 
(chap, xviii.) certain regulations are laid 
down respecting unlawful marriages ; and 
most ancient nations legislated on this sub- 
ject. An act passed in 1534 (25 Hen. VIII. 
c. 22) decreed that none should marry 
within the Levitical degrees, and Archbishop 
Parker drew up a "Table of kiudred and 
affinity, wherein whosoever are related, are 
forbidden in Scripture and our laws to 
marry together." This he ordered to be 
printed and set up in the churches. The 
degrees of affinity or relationship by mar- 
riage within which persons are forbidden to 
marry, were iixed by the Constitutions 
and Canons Ecclesiastical, made in 1603, 
during the reign of James I. Marriages 
within the prohibited degrees could only be 
annulled by the Ecclesiastical Courts, and in 
case a decree did not issue during the life- 
time of the parents, the oiFspring was consi- 
dered legitunate ; but by the 5 & 6 Will. IV. 
c. 54, all such marriages celebrated after 
the passing of that act, m 1835, are declared 
to be absolutely null and void. 

Affiemation. — The solemn affirmation of 
Quakers in a court of justice was accepted 
instead of an oath in 1696 (7 & 8 WOl. ni. 
c. 34). This statute was extended in 1722 
by 8 Geo. I. c. 6, and m 1749 by 22 Geo. II. 
c. 46, s. 36; but a clause was inserted, prohi- 
biting Quakers from giving evidence in this 
manner in criminal cases. This exception 
was however removed in 1828 by 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 32. A similar privilege was granted to 
Separatists, and by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 
10, 1838), to any person who shall have been 
a Quaker or a Moravian. 

Africa. — The ancient Greeks applied the 
term Libya to the portion of this quarter of 
the globe' known to them, and the Eomana 
called their first colony in this continent, 
consisting of Carthage and the adjoining, 
district, Africa. The name of the Koman 



APR 

colony was afterwards used for the entii-e 
continent. (See Libta.) The Eomans ob- 
tained possession of Carthage B.C. 146. 
Other portions were speedily added, until 
the number of provinces reached five. The 
Africans revolted in 296, but they were sub- 
dued by Diocletian J they rebelled again in 
372, and Theodosius restored the fioman 
authority in the next year. Grenseric, king 
of the Vandals, landed in Africa in May, 429, 
and had overrun a considerable part by the 
year 439. Behsarius wrested Africa from 
the Vandals, in 534. It revolted again in 
535, and, after a series of struggles, was 
again reduced to subjection. The Saracens 
invaded it in 643, and by the year 709 had 
completed its conquest. The Arabs and the 
I^ormans are said to have visited the W. of 
Africa in early times, and the French claim 
for some Dieppe mariners in 1364 the pri- 
ority of discovery in this direction. It has, 
however, been proved that the French had 
no commercial relations with Africa before 
1664, and no commercial treaty with any 
African ruler previous to 1785. The Portu- 
guese in the 15th century were the first to 
obtain more definite information respecting 
the form and dimensions of Africa, They 
ascertained the correctness of the assertion 
of Herodotus, that it was, except at the 
Isthmus of Suez, surrounded by water. 
They were followed by the English, the 
French, the Dutch, and other nations. Dur- 
ing the earlier portion of the 15th cen- 
tury, several efforts were made to obtain 
further knowledge of this vast continent, 
but nothing important was accomplished 
imtil 1444, when a number of individuals at 
Lagos formed themselves into a company 
for the prosecution of African discovery and 
colonization. {See Abyssinia, .Ethiopia, 
Egypt, and various European settlements 
in Africa.) 



1330-4. A French ship driven by tempest amongst 
the Canary Islands. 

1344. The count of Clei-mont receives from Clement 
"VI., at Avignon, investiture of the crown 
of the Canary Islands. He does not, how- 
ever, take possession. 

1402. Bfithencourt's expedition to the Canary 



1405. 
1415. 



1419. 
1432. 



•1440. 
1441. 



1442. 
1443. 



1444. 
1445. 
1447. 
1448. 



B6theucourt quits the colony. 

King John of Portugal takes Ceuta, and be- 
stows it upon his son Prince Henry. 

The Portuguese navigators, Zarco and Tris- 
tam Vaz, double CapeBojador, and discover 
Porto Santo. 

Mad eira discovered by Zarco and Tristam Vaz. 

Giliauez doubles Cape Bojador, and explores 
the coast beyond. 

Gonijalvez reaches Cape Blanco. 

Martin V. grants to the Portuguese crown all 
lands that it shall discover from Cape Bo- 
jador to the Indies. 

Trade in gold dust commenced. 

Tristam doubles Cape Blanco. Ten slaves 
brought to Seville by Gon?alvez, were the 
first that appeared in Europe. 

Association for the prosecution of African 
discovery formed at Lagos. 

Senegal discovered by Dinis Fernandez, who 
safls as far as Cape Verde. 

LanQiixote explores the coast as far as the 
river Gambia. 

The Azores discovered. 

19 



AFE 



44d. Noli discovers the Cape Verde Islands. This 
discovery is said, according to different ac- 
counts, to have been made in 1450, 1460, 
and 14o2. 

450. About this time Arguim, the first Portuguese 
establishment ou the African coast, was 
founded. 

454. A trade in slaves carried on at Arguim. 

456. Ca da Mosto, a Genoese, lands on the Cape 
Verde islands and visits the river Gambia. 

462. Pedro de Cintra discovers Sierra Leone. 

469. Fernando Gomez obtains a monopoly of the 
gold trade to the coast of Guinea. 

471. The Gold Coast discovered by Santarem and 



481. 



El Mina fort erected by the Portuguese on the 

coast of Ashantee. 
Diego Cam discovers the river Congo. 
Covilham goes fi-om Fez to Ai-abia, and thence 

to India. 
Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of 

Good Hope, which he names Cape Stormy. 
Portuguese missionaries penetrate to Congo. 
Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape of Good 

Hope (Nov. 19), and explores the coast 

beyond it. He touches at Mozambique, &c. 
Vasco de Gama, with a fleet of twenty ships, 

sails for Quiloa, and compels its king to 

pay tribute to Portugal. 
ALmeda takes Quiloa and Mombasa. The 

king of Spain, in a letter dated Sept. 15, 

promises to send Ovando 100 negro slaves. 
The Portuguese explore Madagascar. 
The Spaniards Import negroes into Hispani- 

ola from Guinea. 
Some merchants of Bristol trade to the 

Canaries. 
An English ship sails to Guinea. 
Three English ships sent to Guinea. 
A Portuguese expedition reaches Zlmbao, 

and the gold-mines of Manica. 
English merchants settle in Morocco. 
Elizabeth grants a patent to a company. A 

ship and pinnace make the first voyage 

from London to Benin. 
An English expedition sent to the Gold Coast. 
The African Company formed in London. 

They send Thompson on an expedition to 

explore the Gambia. 
Thompson killed whilst ascending the river 

Gambia. 
His successor Jobson explores the Gambia as 

far as Teuda. 
The French settlement of St. Louis founded. 
The people of Mombasa expel the Europeans. 
El Mina wrested from the Portuguese by the 

Dutch, who had gradually stripped them 

of their- possessions in Africa. 
Jannequiu visits the French possessions in 

Africa. 
The Dutch establish their first colony at the 

Cape of Good Hope. 
Vermuyden ascends the Gambia in search of 

gold. 
Brue starts from Senegal on an expedition 

into the interior. 
Stibbs sent by the African Company to the 

Upper Gambia. 
Norris travels through Dahomey and reaches 

Abomey. 
An English settlement composed partly of 

negroes established in Sierra Leone. 
The African Association formed in London 

send Ledyard to Africa. 
Houghton fails in an attempt to reach Tim- 

buctoo. 
Watt and Winterbottom visit Foota Jallo. 
Mungo Park starts from the Gambia. He 

traces the Niger to SUla, explores the in- 
tervening countries, and returns in 1797. 
Barrow makes a tour through the districts at 

the Cape of Good Hope. 
Homemann sets out from Cairo on a tour, in 

which he perished. 
Trutter and Sommerville reach the Orange 

Eiver and penetrate to lattakoo. 
C 2 



AFE 



1805. Mungo Park sets out on his second expedi- 
tion, from which he never returned. 
1813. Campbell founds a Christian mission at Lat- 
takoo. 

1816. Tuckey explores the river Congo, and Peddle 

penetrates to Kakundy. 

1817. Campbell reaches the Panietta. James, 

Bowdich, and Hutchinson proceed on a 
mission to Coomassie, the capital of 
Ashautee. 

1819. Lyon and Kitchie reach Mourzouk. The lat- 

ter died Kov. 20, and Lyon penetrated to 
Fezzan. 

1820. Dupuis goes on a mission to Coomassie. 
1822. Clapperton, Denham, and Oudney cross the 

Great Desert and visit Bornou. Major 
Denham reaches Lake Tsad in 1824, and 
Clapperton and Oudney peneti-ate to Sac- 
katoo. The three travellers reach Tripoli 
in Jan. 1825. 

1825. Dec. 7. Clapperton quits Badagry on his 

second mission into central Africa. 

1826. Lainij sets out from Tripoli, crosses the desert, 

and reaches Timbuctoo Aug. 18. 

1827. CailliS travels from Kakundy to Timbuctoo, 

and, after crossing the desert, reached 

Tangier Aug. 18, 1828. 
1830. Richard and John Lander trace the Niger to 

its mouth. 
1832. An expedition, provided with two small 

steamers, leaves Liverpool with the view of 

ascending the Niger. 
1836. Alexander explores S. Africa. 
1845. Duncan reaches Adafoodia, in the interior of 

Africa. 
1S49. Livingston, Oswell, and Mun-ay set out 

from Kolobeng, travel through the desert 

of Kalahari, and trace the river Zouga to 

the Lake Ngami. 

1850. Eichai-dson, Barth, and Overweg start on 

their expedition, and Livingston goes on a 
second journey to Lake Ngami. 

1851. Livingston and Oswell proceed on another 

expedition and make further discoveries. 
1856. Livingston reaches London Dec. 10, after 

having traversed 11.000 miles in S. Africa ; 

he receives the gold medal of' the Eoyal 

Geographical Society Doc. 15. 
1858. An expedition to Africa, under the direction 

of Dr. Li-vingston, sails fi-om Liverpool 

March 10. 
Aeeicak AssociATioif. — Under the aus- 
pices of this society, formed in London June 
9, 1788, the travellers, — Ledyard sent out in 
1788, Houghton in 1791, Mungo Park in 1795 
and in 1805, Hornemann in 1798, and other 
enterprising men, made important additions 
te the geography of Africa. This association 
was incorporated with the Eoyal Geographi- 
cal Society July 23, 1831. 

AiFKiCAJT Chuech, was probably founded 
in the 2nd century, as Optatus was bishop 
of Carthage about the year 200, and a coun- 
cil of bishops was assembled by Agrippinus, 
bishop of Carthage, about 215. From the 
identity between the Eoman and African 
rites, it is supposed that the first bishops 
of Africa were ordained at Eome, and 
carried thence the Mturgy and ritual which 
were used in Africa. In the 3rd century it 
was rendered illustrious by TertuUian, Cy- 
prian, and Lactantius; in the 3rd and 4th 
centuries it resolutely maintained its inde- 
pendence of Eome. In the 5th century, 
this church suffered much from the Vandal 
invasion under Genseric. It was also se- 
verely tried by the Donatist, Arian, Mani- 
chaean, and Pelagian heresies, and no 
church famished so many martyrs to the 
20 



AGD 

cause of Christianity. The early African 
Church was overthrown by the Saracens, 
who, in the 8th century, made themselves 
masters of the whole of the north of Africa. 
In addition to the diocese of Africa, divided 
in the time of Constantine into six provin- 
ces, this quarter of the globe contained the 
patriarchate of Alexandria, or the diocese 
of Egypt. Various missions have been sent 
from England during the 18th and 19th cen- 
turies, for the purpose of disseminating 
Christianity in different parts of Africa. 

Afeican- CoMPAinr. — In 1585 a patent was 
granted by Elizabeth to private adventurers 
to trade to Barbary; in 1588 to others to 
trade to Guinea ; and in 1592 to the south of 
Sierra Leone. Companies were formed in 
the reigns of James I. and Charles, and the 
Eoyal African or Guinea Company of Mer- 
chants was incorporated by Charles II., 
Jan. 20, 1662. Under this cKarter, the com- 
pany received the exclusive right of trading 
from Salee to the Cape of Good Hope. They 
surrendered their charter, and by patent, 
the Eoyal African Company of England, with 
extensive privileges, was estabhshed Sept. 27, 
1672 ; but in 1698 an act was passed leav- 
ing the trade, comparatively speaking, free. 
Various methods were devised for support- 
ing the trade and remodelling the company, 
untU, by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 28 (May 7, 1821), 
the company was abolished, the Crown took 
possession of all forts and settlements in 
Africa, and the trade was thrown open. 

Afeicait Ixstitutiok", estabhshed in 
London in April, 1807, to collect accurate 
information respecting the African conti- 
nent, and introduce the arts of civihzation 
among its people. 

AGA.VX, or love feasts, were instituted in 
the time of the Apostles, and continued in 
use among the primitive Christians for three 
centuries; but towards the close of that 
period, the abuses committed in them were 
so notorious that they were solemnly con- 
demned, first by the council of Laodicea 
(366), and afterwards by the second council 
of Carthage (390). 

AGAP.EMONE. — This estabhshment, a re- 
treat for the followers of Brother Prince, 
was founded at Charlynch, near Bridgewater, 
in 1845. They are a branch of the Lampeters, 
and affect to beheve that the day of grace 
and prayer is past, and the time of judg- 
ment arrived. A meeting, called at Hano- 
ver Square, Sept. 26, 1856, for the promul- 
gation of their views, proved a failure. 
These sectaries are called Agapaemonians. 
A sect, with similar aims and views, called 
the " Family of Love," was founded by 
Henry Nicholas, a Westphahan, in 1540. 
He came to England, and towards the latter 
end of the reign of Edward VT. made several 
converts. Five of the sect stood at Paul's 
Cross, and renounced their errors June 12, 
1575. Queen Ehzabeth issued a severe pro- 
clamation against them Oct. 3, 1580. Fuller 
quaintly terms the sect the " the Family of 
Love, or Lust rather." 

Agda (France). — ^A council was held here 



AGE 

Sept. 11, 506, on the discipline of tlie Church. 
Torty-seven canons were drawn up at this 
council, which was convened by Alaric, king 
of the Goths. 

Age. — In the later periods of Greece and 
Eome, 25 was considered the full age for 
both sexes. In Eome, 43 was the legal age 
for consuls, and 30 for tribunes. Augustus 
fixed 30 instead of 35 for judges. That of 
puberty was 14 for males, and 12 for females. 
By the feudal law, the moment a youth was 
knighted, he was considered of age, and at 
16 this honour was frequently conferred. 
The kings of France were considered majors 
at 15. Henry III., the first minor after the 
Conquest, who obtained the English crown, 
was declared a major at 16, though he did 
not assimie his right until he was nearlj^ 20, 
in Feb. 1227. Edward III., the next minor 
who mounted the throne, took the goTem- 
ment in his own hands before he was 18; 
Eichard II. was considered a minor till he 
was 22 ; and Henry VI. tOl he was between 
23 and 24. Henry VIII, made a law for his 
own children, that if his son succeeded, he 
was to be eligible for sovereign authority at 
17, and if a daughter, at 15 ; but he after- 
wards fixed 18 as the age at which Edward 
VI. was to assume the government, and he 
was actually constituted eligible for sovereign 
authority at that age. By 18 & 19 Vict. 
c. 43 (Jidy 2, 1855), any male infant of 20, or 
any female of 17, may, with the sanction of 
the court of Chancery, make a valid and 
binding settlement of either his or her real 
or personal estate, in contemplation of mar- 
riage- A male at 12 may t^e the oath of 
allegiance, at 14 is at years of discretion, 
and subject to punishment by death. A 
female at 13 is considered to have arrived 
at years of maturity, may, with pemaission 
of her guardians, enter into a binding mar- 
riage, or consent or disagree to one previ- 
ously contracted. Formerly, a male of 14 
could make a will disposing of his personal 
estate, if his discretion were satisfactorily 
proved; but by 1 Vict. c. 26, s, 7 (July 3, 
1837), no will is vahd if made by a person 
under the age of 21. By 7 & 8 Will. III. 
c. 25, s. 8 (1696), a minor was disquali- 
fied to be elected to parliament. Before 
that act passed, several members were under 
age. Minors, however, sometimes sit " by 
connivance." Charles James Fox was elected 
for Midhurst soon after he had attained his 
19th year. 

Ageit (France), the ancient Agennum of 
the Nitiobriges, came into the possession of 
England with the rest of Guienne, in 1151, 
by the marriage of Henry II., then duke of 
Normandy, with Eleanor of Guienne, the 
divorced wife of Louis VII. of France. 
These possessions led to frequent wars be- 
tween France and England. Agen was cap- 
tured by the French in 1322, regained by 
the English in 1330 ; again lost, and restored 
to England by the treaty of Bretigny (May 8, 
1360) . In the next century it was finally incor- 
porated with France. 

Agenhine, or HoGENHiifE. — In Eng- 



AGN 

land, by a law of Edward the Confessor 
(1071), any one who partook of hospitahties 
in a house, and remained tUl the third 
night, was then reckoned \mder the juris- 
diction and protection of the host, in the 
same manner as if he had been regularly en- 
rolled as one of the family or domestics. 
Such a one, on the first night of his sojourn, 
could only be termed uncuth, that is, a 
stranger; on the second, gust, that is, a 
guest ; and on the third, agenhine or hogene- 
hyne, that is, a friend or domestic servant. 

Agincouet, or Aziitcoue (Battle). — At 
this village, in the Pas-de-Calais, France, 
10,000 Enghsh, under Henry V., defeated 
from 50,000 to 60,000 French, with great 
slaughter, on Friday, the 25th of October, 
being St. Crispin's day, 1415. , 

Agistment, a small tithe on cattle, or the " 
other produce of grazing lands, payable in 
England by the occupier to the vicar or 
rector. In Ireland, while the lands were 
chiefly in the hands of Eoman Catholics, the 
clergy thankfully received whatever they 
could get. It was, however, formally de- 
manded by the Protestant clergy in 1720, 
but was vehemently resisted by the land- 
lords. On the 18th of March, 1735, the 
Irish House of Commons resolved "that 
any lawyer assisting in a prosecution for 
tithes ot agistment should be considered as 
an enemy to his country." This tithe was 
abohshed in Ireland by the Act of Union. 

Agitatoes, or Adjtjtatoes, a term ap- 
plied in English history, to the two privates 
or inferior officers, elected by each troop 
or company of the army (1647). These, 
with a council of the principal officers, after 
the model of the House of Peers, formed 
what Hume terms " a terrible court." Thus, 
at the instigation of Cromwell, Skippon, 
Ireton, and Fleetwood, a military parlia- 
ment, in opposition to the parliament at 
Westminster, was called into existence. The 
agitators seized the person of the king 
(June 4), and after committing various ex- 
cesses, were suppressed. In later times, 
demagogues who have endeavoured to excite 
disaffection amongst the people, or to ob- 
tain changes in the laws by inflammatory 
appeals, have been styled agitators. 

Aglabites, an African dynasty, the suc- 
cessors of Ibrahim Ben Aglab, governor of 
Africa, B.C. 800. Zeyadatala was the last of 
this dynasty, the duration of which was 113 
years. 

Agnadel, or Agwadelio (Battle) , fought 
May 14, 1509, between the French, com- 
manded by Louis XII., and the Venetians. 
The latter were defeated with great loss. It 
is sometimes called the battle of Eivolta. 

Agnoites, or Agnoet^. — This name was 
apphed to two sects, viz. the followers of 
Theophronius of Cappadocia, about 370, 
and the followers of Themistius, a deacon 
of the church of Alexandria, in 535. They 
both held pecuhar notions respecting the 
prescience of the Almighty. 

Agnus Dei, wax medals, stamped with 
the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, intended 
21 



AGO 

to represent the Lamb of Grod, -w^ere, in tlie 
early church, distributed amongst candi- 
dates for baptism. The practice originated 
in the 7th or 8th century. The popes have, 
since the 14th century, been in the habit of 
consecrating similar medals, made some- 
times of the precious metals, for distribution 
the first Sunday after Easter. By 13 Eliz. 
c. 2, s. 7 (1571), any person bringing into 
the realm any token or thing called by the 
name of Agnus Dei, incurred the penalty of 
a praemunire. 

Agokistici, disciples of Donatus, bishop 
of Carthage, sent by him into different parts 
of Africa, to preach his peculiar doctrines at 
fairs, markets, and places of public resort 
(34i2). Hence they were called Circutores, 
CircumeeUiones or CirceUones, and Catro- 
pitae. They styled themselves agonistici 
(combatants) , under the pretence that they 
were combating and triumphing over the 
devil; and they -were called circumcelliones, 
or vagrants, from the cellcB, cottages of the 
peasants, -where, having no fixed residence, 
they sought a retreat. They committed 
various excesses, and vrere punished with 
great severity. 

Agea (Hindostan).— By an act of parlia- 
ment, passed Aug. 28, 1833 (3 & 4 WiLL. IV. 
c. 85, s. 38), it was directed that the Bengal 
presidency should be divided. The north- 
western country was to be erected into a 
fourth presidency, that of Agra; but the 
legislature afterwards ordered the measure 
to be suspended. 

Agra, the capital of the ISTorth-west pro- 
vinces of Bengal, was founded by Akbar in 
1566, and continued the seat of the Mogul 
emperors tiU 1647, when Delhi was made 
their capital. It was taken by Scindia in 
1784, and surrendered to Lord Lake Oct. 17, 
1803. Among the spoils on that occasion 
was a cannon, made to throw cast-iron balls 
of 1,500 lb. It was 14 feet 2 inches long, 
and weighed 96,000 lb. It is said to have 
been wantonly blown to pieces by some artil- 
lery officers in 1833. Nearly all the European 
buildings in Agra were destroyed during the 
nautiny of 1857 ; but their owners were pre- 
served in the large and strongly-defended 
fort. The native troops were disarmed on 
the 1st of June. The Europeans attacked 
the N'eemuch force and the Kotah contin- 
gent (July 5), but were compelled to retreat. 
Greathed gained a signal victory here (Oct. 
10, 1857) over the rebel forces. 

Ageaeian Law. — Niebuhr has shown that 
the a^arian laws of the Eomans were in no 
case mtended to interfere with or affect 
private property in land, but related exclu- 
sively to the pubHc domain. Portions of the 
territory of conquered states were divided, 
and these laws provided for their proper dis- 
tribution. The first proposal of an agrarian 
law in Rome was made by the consul Spu- 
rius Cassius B.C. 486. It failed; Cassius 
was condemned and executed on a false 
charge of treasonable designs, B.C. 485, and 
Livy observes that no measure of the kind 
was ever proposed up to his time (the reign 
22 



AGK 

of Augustus) without exciting the greatest 
commotion. An agrarian law, which served 
as a model for aU subsequent measures of 
the kind, was carried by the tribune C. Lici- 
nius Stolo, B.C. 367, and called the Licinian. 
law. It provided that no person should 
occupy more than 500 jugera of pubhc land, 
nor have more than 100 large and 500 small 
cattle grazing on the public pastures. Tibe- 
rius Gracchus attempted to amend this law 
(B.C. 133), but he was killed, and many strug- 
gles ensued on this subject. 

Ageicola's "Wall. — The remains of two 
Eoman walls exist in this country. One of 
these fortifications extended from the Sol- 
way Frith to the mouth of the TjTie, being the 
southern (see Hadeian's "Wall) ; the other 
from the Clyde to the Frith of Forth, being 
the northern fortification. The latter, called 
the "VVall of Agricola, of LoUius Urbicus, or 
of Antoninus, is an earthen intrenchment, 
familiarly known as Grime's or Graham's 
Dyke. Tacitus states that Agricola con- 
structed a chain of forts from the Clyde 
to the Forth a.d. 81, and Capitolinus asserts 
that Lolhus Urbicus, dm-ing the reign of 
Antoninus Pius, erected a rampart of turf 
A.D. 140. This is the fortification that is now 
Imown under the various names of the "Wall 
of Agricola, of Antoninus, or of LoUius 
Urbicus. 

Ageicxjltukal Societies. — The "Board 
of Agriculture" was estabhshed in 1793; 
received an annual grant from parUament, 
and was dissolved in 1816. The " Eoyal 
Agricultm-al Society of England" was es- 
tablished in 1838, and celebrated its first 
anniversary in May, 1839. It was incorpo- 
rated March 26, 1840. Its country meetmgs 
are held in the month of July. A " Society 
of Improvers in the Knowlege of Agriculture 
in Scotland " was instituted in 1723. This 
became extinct, and another was established 
in 1755. The present society arose in 1784, 
under the name of the " Highland and Agri- 
cultural Society of Scotland." " The Eoyal 
Agricultural Improvement Society of Ire- 
land " was established in 1841. The uni- 
versity of Oxford maintains a Sibthorpian 
professorship of rural economy. Professor- 
ships of agriculture and agricultural che- 
mistry are attached to the imiversity of 
Edinburgh, while the university of Aber- 
deen provides lectures on agriculture. 
There are above 600 agricultural societies in 
the United Kingdom. 

Ageicxtltuee in a rude form was known 
from the earhest period (Gen. iii. 17—19). 
Cain, B.C. 3979, is described as a tiller of the 
ground (Gen. iv. 2). The Egyptians excelled 
in agriculture. Abraham, when there was a 
famine in Canaan, repaired to their country 
in search of food (Gen. xii. 10) B.C. 1920 j 
and Jacob sent his ten sons to purchase com 
there (Gen. xlii. 1 — 4). An ancient Babylo- 
nian work, called "The Book on Nabathsean 
Agriculture," is still preserved. It is a cy- 
clopaedia of agriculture. Cecrops is said to 
have carried the knowledge of agriculture 
from Egypt to Greece, when he settled in 



AGR 

Attica, B.C. 1556. Pliny gives Bazyges credit 
for imparting a knowledge of tillage to the 
Greeks. Homer, who flourished about B.C. 
950, describes agriculture as an honourable 
pursmt with kings and princes ; and Hesiod, 
about B.C. 907, speaks in its praise. The 
Eomans esteemed it highly, and the Georgics 
(composed b.c. 30) of the poet Virgil contain 
the most elaborate and eloquent instruc- 
tions ever written on this subject. The 
Persians cultivated the art of agriculture, 
and Xenophon, who wi-ote a treatise on it, 
declares that Cyrus the Younger paid the 
most earnest attention to it. Gelon of 
Sicily (B.C. 479) sought to render it an hon- 
ourable occupation. Amid the various wars 
and struggles iu the earlier part of the 
Middle Ages, agriculture necessarily de- 
clined. It was revived by the Saracens, and 
has spread over Europe, untU at length 
.carried, by modem discoveries and the aid of 
■science, to its present advanced state. 

Ageigentum (Sicily) . — This powerful 
■Greek city was founded by a colony from 
Gela, B.C. 582. It appears to have fallen 
■tmder the yoke of the tyrant Phalaris about 
570 B.C. He was kiUed in an insurrection, 
.and Alcamenes succeeded B.C. 534. Theron 
rided from B.C. ^8 to B.C. 472. Aided by 
Gelon of Syracuse, he routed the Carthagi- 
nian invading army, B.C. 480, and subdued 
Himera. Soon after, a democratic form of 
government was adopted. It was again 
invaded by the Carthaginians B.C. 406, and 
they destroyed the town. Agrigentum 
scarcely recovered from this blow, and it 
was captured by the Eomans B.C. 263. Its 
modern name is" Girgenti. 

Ahmebabad (Hindostan), built in 1412 
by Ahmed Shah, was captured by the Mah- 
rattas early in the 18th century. The 
British stormed it in 1780, and it came into 
their possession by treaty Nov. 6, 1817. 

AHMEDNtrGGUR (Hindostan). — This forti- 
fied city, in the presidency of Bombay, was 
founded by Ahmed Nizam Shah in 1493, and 
became the capital of a kingdom of the same 
name. It was annexed to the Delhi em- 
pire in 1634 ; but the Mahrattas seized it in 
1707, and it remained in their possession 
untU 1797, when it was captured by Scindia. 
Wellington took it after a siege of four days, 
Aug. 12, 1803, and though temporarily re- 
stored to the Mahrattas, it was annexed to 
the British possessions in India, by treaty, 
June 13, 1817. The first Enghsh factory 
was estabhshed here in 1612. 

Ahwab (Persia). — A favoiirite place of 
resort with Artabanes IV., the last of the 
Parthian kings, whose empire was subverted 
by Artaxerxes, king of Persia, in 165 b . c . The 
EngHsh took possession of this town during 
the Persian war, April 1, 1857. 

AiBAR, or Aybab (Battle). — At this place, 
in Spain, the Moors in 883 defeated the Spa- 
niards, led by theic king Garcia, who fell in 
■ the encounter. 

Aids. — Under the feudal system, aids were 
claims of the lord on the vassal, originally 
..granted by way of benevolence, but after- 



AIX 

wards exacted as a matter of right. Our 
early monarchs used them as a means of 
extorting money from their subjects. So 
onerous did they become, that a clause in 
Magna Charta (1215) declared that no aid 
should be imposed without the consent of 
the great coTincil of the nation, except on 
three occasions : 1. The ransom of the king's 
person; 3. The making his eldest son a 
knight; and 3. The marriage of his eldest 
daughter. The clause was omitted in Henry 
III.'s charter (1224), but revived in that of 
Edward I. in 1397. This method of levying 
money was abolished by 13 Char. II. c. 34, 
in 1660. {See Benevolence, Revenue, &c.) 

AiGUES-MoETES (France). — Erom this 
place Louis IX. embarked, Aug. 35, 1248, on 
the 7th crusade, and again, July 4, 1270, 
on the 8th and last crusade. It is also cele- 
brated as the scene of the interview between 
Charles V. and Francis I. in 1538. The 
emperor, on concluding the truce of Nice, 
having set sail for Barcelona, was driven on 
the island of St. Margaret, on the coast of 
Provence. Francis invited him to a per- 
sonal interview, and Charles accepted the 
invitation. Francis without ceremony visit- 
ed the emperor in his galley, and the latter 
visited Francis at Aigues-Mortes. 

AiE. (See Atmospheee.) 

AiEE (France) was taken by the allies 
Nov. 9, 1710. Lord Hill captured the town 
and its magazines, after a severe combat, 
March 3, 1814. 

AiE-GUN. — ^The first account of an air-gun 
is foimd in David Rivault's "Elemens d'Ar- 
tiUerie." He was preceptor to Louis XIII. 
of France ; and he ascribes the invention to 
a certain Marin, a burgher of Lisieux, who 
presented one to Henry IV., towards the end 
of the 16th century. 

AiE-PTJMP. — Otto von Guericke, a Ger- 
man, made the first attempt at this inven- 
tion in 1654. It was greatly improved by 
Robert Boyle, a few years later ; and fur- 
ther improvements were effected by Robert 
Hook in 1658 or 1659. 

Aix (France), the seat of the first Roman 
colony in Gaul, said to have been founded 
by C. Sextius Calvinus B.C. 133, and called 
Aquae Sextise . Here Marius routed the Teu- 
tones and Cimbri, B.C. 103. It was destroyed 
by the Saracens in the 8th century, and re- 
built in 796. Charles V. ca,ptured it in 1535, 
and here he was crowned king of Aries. It 
is an archiepiseopal see, and councils were 
held here in 1113, 1374, 1409, 1416, 1585, and 
1613. Its university, suppressed at the Re- 
volution, was founded by Pope Alexander V. 
in 1409. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, or Aachen.— This an- 
cient Prussian city is said to have been 
founded by the Romans in 134. It was the 
birthplace, and favourite residence of Char- 
lemagne, who made it the capital of aU his 
dominions north of the Alps in 795. Here 
he died and was buried in 814. The city 
was ravaged, and Charlemagne's palace de- 
stroyed by the Danes in 882. Dm-ing the 
Middle Ages, it was made a free and impe- 



AIX 

rial city. Councils wei-e held here ia 799, 
803, 809, 813, 816, 817, 825, 831, 836, 842, 
860, 862, 992, and 1165. Aix-la-CliapeUe 
was taken by the French Dec. 8, 1792, re- 
taken by the Austrians March 8, 1793 ; but 
the French regained possession Sept. 22, 
1794.. By the treaty of LvmeTiUe (Feb. 9, 
1801) it was ceded to France, but it reTerted 
to Prussia in 1814. 

Aix-iiA-CHAPELiE (Con^-ess).— The king 
of Prussia, the emperor of Austria, and the 
emperor of Russia, assembled at Aix-la- 
ChapeUe on the 29th of September, 1818, 
and soon after a congress, attended by these 
sovereigns, their ministers, and the Enghsh 
plenipotentiaries, met. They addressed a 
note (Ifov. 4, 1818) to the French minister, 
the duke of Richelieu, statiag their determi- 
nation to put an end to the military occupa- 
tion of the French territory, and calling 
upon him to take part " in their present and 
fature dehberations." France accepted the 
offer, the duke of Richeheu repaired to Aii- 
la-Chapelle, a convention for the -withdrawal 
of the British troops from France was signed 
Oct. 9, and the congress separated itfov. 21, 
1818. 

Aix-la-Chapelle (Treaties). — The first. 
May 12 (O.S. 2), 1668, was the result of the 
triple league between England, Holland, 
and Sweden, for the purpose of putting a 
stop to the war between France and Spain. 
After some negotiations, the plenipotentiaries 
of England, Sweden, HoUand, France, and 
Spain, met at Aix-la-ChapeUe, the treaty 
being concluded and signed in a fortnight. 
France obtained all the places she had con- 
quered in Flanders, and restored Franche- 
Comte to Spain. Though permitted to retain 
some of his conquests, a check was given to 
the ambition of Louis XIV. — The second 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, confirming the 
treaties of Westphalia, 1648; Nimeguen, 
1678, 1679; Ryswick, 1697; Utrecht, 1713; 
Baden, 1714; Triple Alliance, 1717; Quad- 
ruple AUiance, 1718 and 1738, was concluded 
Oct. 18 (O.S. 7), 1748. The contractmg par- 
ties were Great Brita-in, France, HoUand, 
Hungary, Spain, and some ItaMan states. 
The basis of the pacification was a general 
restitution of conquests, prisoners being re- 
leased without ransom. England gave up all 
she had acquired in the East and West 
Indies. The Assiento contract, with the 
article of the annual ship, was confirmed 
to England for four years. 

AizNADiN, or Ajnadik (Battle). — The 
Saracens gained a great victory in this 
plain, in Palestine, over the imperial forces, 
in the reign of Herachus, July 13, 633. 
According to some authorities, the battle 
was fought July 30, 634. Gibbon, speaking 
of the imperial forces defeated on tms occa- 
sion, says they might be " indifferently styled 
either Syrians, or Greeks, or Romans : 
Syrians, from the place of their birth or 
warfare ; Greeks, from the rehgion and lan- 
guage of their sovereign ; and Momans, from 
the proud appellation which was still pro- 
faned by the successors of Constantiue." 



ALA 

Ajaccio (Corsica). — The chief town of the 
island, celebrated as the place where Napo- 
leon Bonaparte was born, Feb. 5, 1768. 

Akeemanit (Bessarabia) was taken by the 
Russians in 1770, restored in 1774; taken 
again in 1789, restored in 1792 ; and ceded 
to Russia by Turkey in 1812. A treaty was 
concluded here Sept. 4, 1826, between 
Russia and Turkey. The treaty of Bucharest * 
(May 28, 1812) was confirmed in all its parts. 
Turkey recognized the independence of Wal- 
lachia and Moldavia ; restored the privileges 
of the Servians ; agreed to pay the Russian 
claims for losses inflicted by the Barbary 
corsairs; and granted to Russia the free 
navigation of the Black Sea, and a passage 
through the Dardanelles. Russia, on her 
part, restored her conquests in Asia, and 
made a few trifling concessions. 

Akhalzikh (Armenia). — The Russians 
defeated the Turks near this place Aug. 24, 
1828, and took possession of the city and 
fortress Aug. 27. The Turks made an effort 
to regain possession in Feb. 1829, but were 
compelled to retire March 16, and Akhal- 
zikh was ceded to Russia by the treaty of 
Adrianople, Sept. 14, 1829. 

Aktab (E. Indies), a town and seaport of 
Arraean, ceded, with other places, to the 
British by the treaty of Tandaboo, Feb. 24, 
1826. 

Alabama (N. America). — This state ori- 
ginally formed part of Georgia. In 1798 the 
country, including the present states of Mis- 
sissippi and Alabama, was formed into a ter- 
ritory. Alabama was detached in 1817 from 
Mississippi, and admitted into the Union as 
a separate state March 3, 1819. 

Aland Isles (Gulf of Bothnia).— The 
group, consisting of 80 inhabited and 200 
uninhabited islands, formerly belonged to 
Sweden, but was seized by Russia, and 
ceded to her by Sweden in 1809. A naval 
engagement between the Swedes and Rus- 
sians, in which the latter were victorious, 
was fought here in 1714. A congress as- 
sembled here on Maj 23 (O.S. 12), 1718, but 
was abruptly temunated by the Russians 
Sept. 24, 1719. The Russian fortifications 
were captured and destroyed by a joint ex- 
pedition of English and French troops in the 
autumn of 1854. The victors took 2,235 pri- 
soners, 72 unmounted guns, 7 field-pieces, 
and 3 mortars. They afterwards abandoned 
the islands, which were re-occupied by the 
Russians. By a separate convention be- 
tween England, France, and Russia, annexed 
to the treaty of Paris (April 27, 1856), the 
emperor of Russia agreed " that the Aland 
Isles should not be fortified, and that no 
miUtary or naval estabhshment shall be 
maintained or created there." 

Alani, or Alans, one of the Tatar or 
nomadic races of Asia, which, at the time 
they first came in contact with the Romans, 
during Pompey's expedition to the Caucasus, 
B.C. 65, inhabited some portion of the moun- 
tainous regions to the north of the Euxine. 
Gibbon (chap, xxvi.) says, " a naked scimi- 
tar, fixed in the ground, was the only object 



ALA 

of their religious worship." Having been 
conquered by the Hims, the Alani joined 
them in their incursions into Europe. They 
invaded the Gothic kingdom of Hermanric 
in 375. Theodosius defeated them, as allies 
of the Goths, in the war in 379—382. They 
joined the Vandals in the invasion of Gaul 
m 406, and of Spaiu in 409 ; and in 428 they 
received Lusitania, Carthagena, and other 
parts of Spain, as their share of the con- 
quest. Many of them served under Gen- 
seric, in his African war of 429 ; whilst the 
Alani of the Caucasus followed Attila in his 
attack upon theEoman empire in 441. Their 
defection at the battle of Chalons, in 451, 
during Alarie's iuvasion of Gaul, led to 
their conquest by Torismond, king of the 
Visigoths, ia 452, after which they ceased to 
be an independent people. 

Alarcos (Battle). — Pought near Alarcos, 
in Spain, Wednesday, July 19, 1195, be- 
tween the Moors and the Spaniards, led by 
Alfonso IX. : the former were victorious, 
and the town itself and 20,000 prisoners fell 
into .their hands. 

AiiASCANi. — The followers of John Alasco, 
a Polish divine, uncle to the king of Poland. 
He quitted the Koman Catholic Church at 
the Reformation, and at the invitation of 
Cranmer came to England in 1551. He 
held peculiar opinions respecting the Eucha- 
rist, applying the words, " this is my body " 
to both the elements. He was a Mend of 
Erasmus and Melancthon, and, after officia- 
ting at the Dutch church in Austin Friars, 
quitted England during the reign of Mary, 
and finally retired to his ovm country, where 
he died in 1560, 

Alba Longa (Latium), or "White Long- 
town." — Of the history of this ancient 
city, about 15 miles S.E. of Eome, little is 
known previous to its conquest by the Eo- 
mans B.C. 665, According to the traditional 
account, it was founded by Ascanius, son of 
.^neas, B.C. 1152. It was called "Longa" 
from its situation upon a steep hiU, with 
a narrow summit ; and " Alba," in allusion 
to the milk-white sow which ^neas, in 
obedience to the oracle, followed on his 
landing in Italy. Alba was for some time 
the centre of the league, consisting of thirty 
Latin cities. It is difficult, however, to 
separate the authentic from the fabiilous 
in its history, of which the following is a 
summary. 



B.C. 

1143. 
1114. 
1043. 
1038. 
1002. 

97ti. 

916. 



Ascanius succeeded by Sylvius Posthumus. 

^neas Sylvius reigna. 

Latinus king. 

Alba succeeds. 

Capetus, or Atys, king, 

Capys king. 

Calpetus king. 

Tibeiinus king. 

Tiberiuus defeated near the river Albula, 
into which he precipitates himself and is 
drowned. From this circumstance tlie 
Albula was thenceforth caUed the Tiber. 
He is succeeded on the throne by Agrippa. 

Bomulus king. 

Aventinus king. 

Procas king. 

Numitor king. 



ALB 

794. Amulius usurps the throne of his brother 
Numitor, condemning hi3 niece Ilia to a 
life of celibacy. 

771. Ilia forced to violate her vow. 

770. Ilia becomes the mother of twins. She ij 
buried alive and her offspring cast adrift 
on the Tiber. Having floated to Mount 
Aventine, the children were rescued by 
Faustulus, a shepherd. His wife, Acca- 
Larentia, sumamed Lupa, suckled the 
children, named Eomulus and Remus. 

754, Romulus puts Amulius to death, and restores 
his grandfather Numitor to the throne. 

753. Romulus foi-ttSes Eome. 

671. Cliulius sends ambassadors to Eome to com- 
plain to Tullus Hostilius of a trespass by 
the Romans on the Alban territory. 

670. Invasion of the Eoman territory by the 
Albans. Combat between the three Ho- 
ratii and the three Curatii ; the latter are 
killed, and only one of the Horatii escapes. 
The Albans submit to Eome. 

664. The Albans endeavour to regain their inde- 

pendence, and incite the Veientes and the 
Fidseneans to make war against Eome. 

665. The Alban general Mettius is defeated. Alba 

Longa destroyed, and its Inhabitants are 
transferred to Rome, 

Albania (Asia). — This country, washed 
by the Caspian Sea, first became known to 
the ancient world through Pompey's expedi- 
tion into the Caucasus in pursuit of Mithri- 
dates, B.C. 65, One legend represented the 
inhabitants as the descendants of Jason and 
his companions in the Argonautic expedition. 
Its rulers did homage to Trajan when he in- 
vaded Albania a.d. 116; but Httle is kuovm 
concerning this country, which forms part of 
the modem Georgia. It was the seat of a 
bishopric in the early church. 

Albania (European Turkey) comprises 
part of the ancient Epirus, Illyria, andT Cha- 
onia. Its early history is obscure. The Al- 
banians, a sturdy and valiant race, termed by 
Gibbon " a vagrant tribe of shepherds and 
robbers," long maintained their independ- 
ence. Their country was invaded by Eo- 
bert Guiscard in 1081, and a portion of it 
conquered by Amurath I. in 1388. From 
these reverses the Albanians recovered, and, 
under their leader George Castriot, called 
by the Turks Scanderbeg, resisted the con- 
queror of Constantinople, Mahommed II. 
(1443). The Albanians overran the Morea 
in 1460, but were vanqmshed in 1478, The 
conquest was not, however, complete. Ano- 
ther struggle with Turkey commenced in 
1809, and was carried on with varied success 
untn 1822, when the Albanians were sub- 
dued. The insurrection of 1843, excited by 
the Tanzimat, or law of enlistment, was 
suppressed by Omer Pasha. 

Albans, St. (Hertfordshire), near the site 
of the ancient Verulam, is supposed, on good 
authority, to be the place which Caesar 
stormed b.c, 54. The Britons, under Boa- 
dicea, queen of the Iceni, took it a.d. 61, 
and slaughtered many of the inhabitants. 
It received its present name from Alban, 
the proto-martyr of Britain, who sufi'ered in 
304. The spot where the relics of the saint 
had been interred was said to have been mi- 
raculously discovered by King Offa, who 
founded the monastery, exempting it from 
the payment of Peter's pence, and from 



ALB 

■episcopal jurisdiction, in 795. The to"vm itself 
was built at tlie iustigation of Ulsig, the sixth 
abbot of St. Albans, iu 950. Adrian IV., a 
native of St. Albans, granted further privi- 
leges to the abbey in 1154. The abbot of St. 
Albans had a seat in parhament, and took 
precedence of all other abbots. Edward 11. 
visited the place, and iavestigated the rehcs 
of the saint, iu 1313. The barons assembled 
here, and demanded the banishment of the 
Despensers, in 1321. The abbey was granted 
in commendam to Cardinal Wolsey in 1521. 
The town was incorporated by Edward VI. 
in 1553 ; and it was disfranchised for bribery 
in 1852. 

Albaks, St. (Battles). — The first was 
fought Thursday, May 22, 1455, between 
the houses of York and Lancaster. It was 
the first victory in the wars of the Eoses. 
The duke of York gained the day, and the 
duke of Somerset, who led the Lancastri- 
ans, was slain. King Henry VI. was woimded 
by an arrow in this battle and taken prisoner. 
The second battle was fought between Bar- 
net and St. Albans, on Shrove-Tuesday, 
Eeb. 17, 1461. The Lancastrians were com- 
manded by Queen Margaret, who gained a 
complete victory over the Yorkists, led by 
the earl of "Warwick, and rescued Henry VI., 
who was a prisoner in their hands. 

Albatda (Spain), taken from its founders 
the Moors, and peopled with Christians, by 
James I., king of Ar agon, in 1258. 

Albi (France), the ancient Albiga, was 
ravaged by the Saracens in 730. The Albi- 
genses are said to have derived their name 
from this place, where large niunbers of 
them dwelt. They were condemned by the 
council of Tours, May 19, 1163. Albi was long 
governed by its own counts. It was a great 
stronghold of the Protestants during the 
wars of rehgion in France. Albi was the 
seat of a bishopric at an early period, and 
Louis XIV. erected it into a metropohtan 
see in 1676. Its cathedral, commenced in 
1282, was completed in 1512. A council was 
held here in 1255. 

Albigekses. — Of these early reformers, 
who opposed the Church of Eome, the Pauli- 
cians, -who sprang up in the 7th century, 
appear, as Faber states, to have been " the 
theological ancestors." The PauHcians, 
wearied by persecution, quitted Asia, and 
sought refuge in Europe, some of them set- 
tling in the south of France. In Italy they 
were called Paterini and Cathari, and in 
France Albigenses, from the town Alhi, where 
they dwelt in great numbers. The term was, 
however, applied to other sects. The first 
congregation of the Albigenses is said to 
have been discovered at Orleans in 1017; 
and they began to attract the notice of the 
dominant church before the end of the 
11th century. They were condenmed by a 
council in 1163. About the year 1200, the Al- 
bigenses, and other anti-Eoman sects, which 
were loosely included under the same deno- 
mination, had become so numerous that 
they were in possession of Toulouse and 
-eighteen other principal towns in Languedoc, 
26 



ALB 

Provence, and Dauphine, which then con- 
stituted an independent sovereignty under 
Eaymond VT. A crusade was proclaimed 
against bim and his subjects by Pope Inno- 
cent III. (1207 and 1208), and an army of 
five hundred thousand men was led against' 
them by Simon of Montfort, earl of Leices- 
ter, in 1209. A merciless war was waged 
for four years, until Pedro of Aragon, Eay- 
mond's kinsman and ally, was killed in battle, 
on the 12th of September, 1213, and the 
power of Montfort was supreme. He waa 
slain in an insurrection at Toulouse in 1218. 
The war was renewed, but with httle success, 
untn, in 1225, Louis VIII. took the cross 
and marched into Languedoc. He died in a 
few months, but the war was continued in 
the name of the young king, Louis IX. In 
April, 1229, Eaymond VIII. abdicated, and 
was brought to Paris and scourged by the 
priests in the church of Notre Dame. In the 
beginning of the crusade against the Albi- 
genses, the tribunal of the Inquisition was 
iirst opened, about the year 1210. The Albi- 
genses were condemned by several councils. 
Much controversy has been excited, even of 
late years, respecting the Albigenses, their 
history and doctrines. The subject has been 
fully discussed by Dr. GiRy, in his " Wal- 
densian Eesearches ;" and in the Eev. George 
S. Faber's " Inquiry into the History and 
Theology of the Ancient Vallenses and 
Albigenses." 

Albiola (Battles) . — In809Pepin advanced 
against the Venetians, and, after capturing 
several places, penetrated as far as Albiola 
with his fleet. The shallowness of the water 
rendered it impossible to reach the central 
island without throwing a bridge across the 
narrow channel between Albiola and Eialto. 
This was done ; but the rude structure broke 
down under the weight of the invaders, who 
were precipitated into the lagoon. The tide 
meanwhile had ebbed, and their vessels were 
stranded ; so that those Franks who escaped 
a watery grave fell a prey to the Venetians. 
This victory secured the deliverance of 
Venice. Near the same place the Huns 
were defeated in 906. The Venetians, imder 
the command of the chief magistrate, com- 
pletely destroyed their vessels, and but few 
of the enemy managed to escape. 

AxBio jr.— Aristotle (b.c. 384— b.c. 323) is 
the first who speaks of England by this 
name. He says (De Mundo, c. 3), "In the 
ocean beyond the PiUars of Herciiles are two 
large islands, called Britannic; namely, Albion 
and lerne." Albion is supposed to be de- 
rived from a Celtic word signifying white, 
in allusion to its chalky cliffs. {See Bei- 

TANNIA.) 

Albtteea (Battle).— Fought May 16, 1811. 
Marshal, afterwards Lord Beresford, having 
been compelled, by the approach of Soult 
with a large army, to raise the siege of 
Badajoz, resolved to make a stand at the 
vfilage of Albuera, between Badajoz and 
Seville. His army amounted to 30,000 in- 
fantry and 2,000 cavalry ; but of these, three- 
fourths were Spanish, Portuguese, and Ger- 



ALB 

man troops. They had thirty-eight guns. 
I Soult had under his command nearly 20,000 
i inJfantry and 4,000 cavalry, veteran troops, 
' supported by fifty pieces of artillery. The 
battle commenced early in the morning, and 
after a terrific contest, in which victory 
•wavered from one side to the other, the 
French were defeated. They lost 8,000, 
whilst the allied army had to deplore a 
loss of nearly 7,000 men. The brunt of the 
action was borne by the EngHsh, who had 
only 1,500 unwounded men left, " the rem- 
nant of 6,000 unconquerable British soldiers." 
Alfonso v., of Portugal, was defeated here 
'Feb. 24, 1479; upon which he made peace 
with Castile. 

Ai/BUPEEA (Battle). — Fought near the 
lake of this name, in Valencia, in Spain, 
January 4, 1812, between the French and 
Spaniards. The former were victorious, and 
Marshal Suchet was made duke of Albufera 
in honour of his triumph. 

Alcantaea (Spain), the Norba Csesarea 
of the Romans, celebrated for its magnificent 
bridge over the Tagus, built by Trajan, in 
104. It had six arches, one of which was 
destroyed by the Enghsh in 1809 ; and during 
the same year the structure was more seri- 
ously injured by the French general Victor, 
and was burnt in 1836. The earl of Galway 
captured this town after a short siege, April 
25 (O.S. 14), 1706. 

Alcantaea (Order). — One of the five 
military orders of Spain, founded in 1156, 
and confirmed by Pope Alexander III. in 
1177. It was subject to the order of Cala- 
trava until 1411. The grand mastership was 
annexed to the crown in 1495. The knights 
obtained permission to marry in 1540. 

Alcazae, or AiiCAZAEQUiVER (Battle). — 
Fought between the Moors and the Portu- 
guese, under Sebastian, Aug. 4, 1578. The 
latter were completely defeated, and their 
monarch was slain. 

Alchemy. — In a vain search for the phi- 
losopher's stone, possessing the property of 
transmuting the baser metals into gold, the 
ehxir of life, &c. , valuable facts were collected, 
by which the science of chemistry was greatly 
advanced. The origin of alchemy has formed 
the subject of much discussion. Gibbon, in 
•commenting upon the destruction, by Dio- 
cletian, in his conquest of Egypt, in 296, of 
all ancient books that treated upon the art 
of making gold and silver, remarks, " These 
ancient books, so Hberally ascribed to Py- 
thagoras, to Solomon, or to Hermes, were 
the pious frauds of more recent adepts. 
The Greeks were inattentive either to the 
use or to the abuse of chemistry. In that 
immense register, where PMny has deposited 
the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of 
mankind, there is not the least mention of 
the transmutation of metals ; and the perse- 
cution of Diocletian is the first authentic 
event in the history of alchemy. The con- 
quest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused that 
vain science over the globe. Congenial to 
the avarice of the human heart, it was studied 
in China, as in Europe, with equal eager- 



ALD 

ness and with equal success. The darkness 
of the Middle Ages insured a favourable re- 
ception to every tale of wonder, and the 
revival of learning gave new vigour to 
hope, and suggested more specious arts of 
deception." Alchemy passed from the 
Egyptians to the Arabians. Geber, who 
wrote a celebrated work on the subject in 
the 9th century, declares that he derived 
most of his knowledge on the transmutation 
of metals from the ancient sages. Sharpe 
(Hist, of Egypt, ii. 119) says : " The later 
Arabs called chemistry Alchemia, or the 
Egyptian art; and hence our words alchemy 
and chemistry." Alchemy became a favourite 
pursuit in many European countries during 
the Middle Ages ; and various enactments 
on the subject are found in our statute-book. 
Edward I. and Edward III. were behevers in 
alchemy, and a proclamation of the last- 
mentioned monarch was issued in 1329, for 
the apprehension of two famous men who 
knew how to make silver by the art of alche- 
my, and who " may be profitable to us and 
our kingdom." The craft of multiplication 
was declared felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, in 
1404, alchemists being at that period termed 
multiphers. Although Hem-y VI. pubhshed 
a patent permitting the search after the 
philsopher's stone, Henry IV.'s statute wag 
not repealed until 1689. Amongst the most 
celebrated alchemists of the Middle Ages, 
may be mentioned Albertus Magnus, born 
1193; Eoger Bacon, 1214; Amoldus de Villa 
Nova, bom about 1240 ; Eaymond Lully, 1235 ; 
the Isaacs of HoUand, in the 13th cen- 
tury; Paracelsus, 1493; and Van Hehnont, 
called the last of the alchemists, born in 
1577. Some expeiiments were made at 
Guildford in May, 1782, by one Dr. Price, 
who was afterwards proved to be an impos- 
tor. The elder Disraeli states that Sir 
Humphrey Davy assured him that " making 
gold might be no impossible thio^, though, 
pubhcly divulged, a very useless mscovery." 

AiiCOEAZA (Battle), fought in 1087, be- 
tween the Moors and the Christians during 
the siege of Huesca, in Spain. The struggle 
was long and desperate ; both armies en- 
camped on the field of battle, and the Moors 
vnthdrew during the night. Huesca capitu- 
lated soon after. 

AijDENHOVEif (Battles). — The French re- 
pubhcan army sustained two defeats near 
this town, in the Ifetherlands, Feb. 28 and 
March 1, 1793. 

Ai-DEEMAKr, in Saxon, ealdorman, a term 
apphed to a person appointed to exercise 
authority on account of his age and experi- 
ence. It was indeed a dignity of the highest 
rank, both hereditary and official, nearly 
synonymous with that of king. Camden 
says the word answered to the Latin sena- 
tor ; and Sharon Turner styles the alderman 
" the highest officer va. the kingdom." In the 
Laws of Ina (693) an alderman ranked with 
the vdse men of the witan. The title seems at 
different periods to have corresponded to 
those of earl, count, duke, nobleman, &c. 
Thus, ^Ifric, duke of Mercia, is styled in 
27 



ALD 

^thelred's laws (978—1016) ealdorman. The 
same thing occurs in the Saxon Chronicle. 
There was the alderman of all England, the 
king's alderman, and the aldermen of coun- 
ties, cities, boroughs, hospitals, &e. From 
the " Liber Albus " we learn that the three 
offices of mayor, alderman, and sheriff have 
existed in the city of London since 1066, and 
that aldermen were interred with baronial 
honours from 1350, although the custom 
afterwards ceased. Grafton says that al- 
dermen, as city officers, were first chosen in 
the city of London in the reignof Henry III., 
about the year 1241. The title of alderman 
of the hundred was introduced in the reign 
of Henry I. 

Aldeenet (English Channel) . — This 
island was united to the Enghsh dominions 
by the first I^Torman princes. On the Caskets, 
a dangerous reef near the island, William, 
duke of Normandy, only son of Henry I., 
was wrecked on his return from If ormandy, 
Nov. 25, 1120. About 140 young noblemen 
perished with him. Through the narrow 
channel separating the island from France, 
and called the Race of Aldemey, the re- 
mainder of the French fleet escaped after 
their defeat at La Hogue, by the Eughsh and 
Dutch, May 22, 1692. Here also the Victory, 
of 110 guns, commanded by Admiral Bal- 
chen, was wrecked, Oct. 5, 1744, when all 
on board perished. Extensive fortifications 
and a breakwater have been in course of 
erection at Aldemey since 1850. 

Aldeeshot (Camp). — Situated between 
Farnborough and Famham, in Hampshire, 
about 36 miles from London. In 1854, 
£100,000 was granted for the purpose of ob- 
taining land to form a permanent camp for 
the proper training of our troops. A por- 
tion of a large moor, named Aldershot, waa 
immediately purchased. The camp thus 
formed, seven square miles in extent, was 
divided into the north and south camps, the 
former capable of accommodating eight, and 
the latter twelve thousand men. Further 
purchases of land were made, and, in 1856, 
7,062 acres of land having been obtained, at a 
cost of £135,4i5, and 28,181 men stationed 
there, it was inaugurated by Queen Tic- 
toria, April 18, 1856. 

Al»i3je Peess was established at Venice 
in 1494, by Aldo Manuzio, or Aldus Manu- 
tius, according to the Latin. Aldo left 
Venice in 1506, but returned and reopened 
his press m. 1512, when he published highly- 
esteemed editions of the classics, &c. The 
printers of Lyons and Florence began to 
issue counterfeit Aldines about the year 
1502. 

AiB AND Beee were manufactured at a 
very early period. Herodotus states that 
the Egyptians prepared a beverage, which 
he terms wine, from fermentea barley; 
Pliny the Elder asserts that the Western na- 
tions made intoxicating drinks from steeped 
grain ; and Tacitus describes a fermented 
liquor extracted from grain, the common 
beverage of the ancient Germans. Mead, or 
metheglin, was in use amongst the early inha- 



ALE 

bitants of northern Europe; and amongst 
the pleasures which the Scandinavian heroes 
were promised after death, was that of drink- 
ing ale out of carved horns, in their Val- 
halla, or palace of the gods. Some prepara- 
tion of this kind was the favourite beverage 
of the Anglo-Saxons. Measures of Welsh 
ale are mentioned in the laws of King Ina. 
The price of ale was regulated by the early 
Norman princes, and the preamble of 51 
Hen. III. st. i., passed in 1267, which estab- 
lished a graduated scale for the price of ale, 
alludes to earlier ordinances on the same 
subject. By 23 Hen. VIII. c. 4, s. 5 (1532), 
brewers were allowed greater latitude with 
respect to the prices at which they sold their 
ale. From this period various laws on the 
subject are found in the statute-book. Hops 
were not used when ale or beer was first 
made, as they were not known in this 
country imtil the reign of Henry VII., 
and are first noticed in the statute-book 
in 1552. Ale was one of the first articles 
on which the excise duty was laid. By a 
parliamentary ordinance, dated May 16, 
1643, duties were levied on ale or beer, 
and by 12 Charles II. cc. 23 & 24 (1660), the 
excise was continued. These enactments 
were confirmed by several subsequent sta- 
tutes. The duties were repealed by 1 WOl. 
IV. c. 51 (July 16, 1830) from the 10th of 
October in that year. The ale-conner, or ale- 
founder, was an officer appointed in every 
court leet, to taste ale or beer, to see that 
it was wholesome, and that it was sold at the 
regulated price. The " Liber Albus" con- 
tains the oath taken by the city ale-conners 
in the time of Henry V. Sir Henry Elhs, in 
his edition of " Brand's Popular Antiqui- 
ties" (vol. i. p. 279), says, that the word ale 
means nothing more than a feast or merry- 
making. Hence the Bride-ale, Church-ale, 
Clerk-ale, Lamb-ale, Leet-ale, Midsummer- 
ale, Whitsun-ale, &c., feasts celebrated by 
our forefathers. 

AiE-HOUSE, or SHOP, is mentioned in the 
laws of King Ethelred. Malpractices arose, 
and the then existing regulations not being 
sufficient, 11 Hen. VII. c. 2, s. 5 (1495), an 
act against vagabonds and beggars, placed 
alehouses under the jurisdiction of justices 
of the peace. In consequence of abuses 
and disorders in " common alehouses and 
tippling-houses," a more stringent enact- 
ment was made in 1552, by 4 & 5 Edw. VI. 
c. 25, and this statute fiimished the basis of 
future legislation on the subject. Various 
changes in the hcensing laws ensued, and by 
1 WiU. IV. c. 64 (July 23, 1830) greater faci- 
hties were afforded for the sale of ale and 
beer. This act has been amended. The sale 
of ale and beer, &c., on the Lord's Day has 
frequently been a subject of legislation, and 
a very stringent law, 17 & 18 Vict. c. 86 
(Aug. 10, 1854), was repealed by 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 118 (Aug. 14, 1855), by which sta- 
tute it is now regulated. 

Alemanni, or ALiMEif, a mixed body of 
Suevi, who, in the reign of the emperor Ca- 
racaUa (211—217) hovered round the Eoman 



ALE 

provinces in j)ursuit of plunder. Their ter- 
ritories were invaded and they were defeated 
by the emperor in 214. They invaded Gaul 
and Italy, penetrating to Ravenna in 259 ; 
but withdrew at the approach of an army 
levied by the Roman senate. In various 
conflicts and invasions of Italy, they were 
defeated by AureUan, in 270 ; by JuUan in 
357 ; and by Jovinus in July, 368. They ob- 
tained settlements in the country on both 
sides of the Rhine, from its source to its 
junction with the Maine and the Moselle, and 
were checked in their pursuit of further con- 
quests, whilst their last king was slain at the 
battle on the plain of T«;)lbiac, near Cologne, 

tained by Clovis I. in 496. Here, as an in- 
ependent people, their history ends. 
Ai/EPPO (Syria). — This town, situated 
midway between Antioch and Hierapolis, 
occupies the site of the ancient Chaleb, or 
Haleb. It received the name of Beroea 
from Seleucus Nicator, about B.C. 299. Ju- 
Kan halted here March 5, 363, on his expe- 
dition against the Persians. It was taken by 
Chosroes I. in 540 ; by Chosroes II. in 611 ; 
and by the Saracens under Abu Obeidah in 
638, when it resumed its ancient name Cha- 
leb, or Haleb. Zimisces wrested it from the 
dynasty of Hamadan about 972. It was plun- 
dered by the Mongols in 1260; Timour 
sacked it Nov. 11, 1400, and on his return 
from Damascus early in 1401, delivered it to 
the flames. The town was restored, and the 
Mamelukes were defeated near it by Sehm I., 
Aug. 24, 1516, and has since that time, with 
the exception of a short interval in 18^, re- 
mained under the rule of the Turks. The 
Levant Company opened a house here to 
trade with Persia and India in 1581. It was 
nearly reduced to ruins by an earthquake, 
Aug. 13—16, 1822, when 9,000 inhabitants 
perished. It has suffered greatly at differ- 
ent times from plagues and earthquakes. 
The Christians were massacred here, and 
their churches and houses burnt, Oct. 16 and 
17, 1850 ; and further outrages of the same 
kind were repeated by the Druses in 1860. 

Alekia, or Alalia (Corsica). — The Pho- 
caeans of Ionia founded a colony in this 

§art of the island, B.C. 564. Having been 
efeated in a severe naval engagement with 
the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians, the 
colonists abandoned the island about b.c. 
536. It was captured by a Roman fleet 
during the first Punic war, B.C. 259. A Ro- 
man colony was planted in Aleria during the 
dictatorship of Sylla. Paschal I. sent mis- 
sionaries to the island, and established five 
bishoprics about 820. The see of Aleria was 
erected at the close of the 11th century by 
Urban II. 

Alessandria (Italy) , near the confluence 
of the Bormida and Tanaro, a fortress of 
enormous size, and one of the strongest in 
Europe, was biiilt in 1168, to guard the pas- 
sage of the rivers. The town is the capital 
of a province of the same name in the king- 
dom of Sardinia. It was at first- called 
Caesarea, and received the name of Alessan- 
dria from Pope Alexander III., who made 



ALE 

it an episcopal see, and imited it to that of 
Aqui in 1175. The sees were separated by 
Innocent III. in 1405. Alessandria wag 
taken and plundered by Dulre Sforza in 
1522; besieged ineffectually by the French 
imder the prince of Conti in 1657 ; and taken, 
after an obstinate resistance, by Prince 
Eugene in 1707. Bonaparte captured it in 
1796, and Suwarrow wrested it from the 
French July 21, 1799. By the armistice of 
Alessandria, concluded after the battle of 
Marengo, June 1800, this fortress was sur- 
rendered to Bonaparte, by whom its forti- 
fications were extended. By the treaty of 
Paris, May 30, 1814, it was restored to Sar- 
dinia. Alessandria was captured by the 
Austrians April 19, 1821. 

Aleutian Islands (N. Pacific), a nume- 
rous chain, extending from Kamtschatka to 
Cape Alaska, in North America. They were 
partially discovered by Behring in 1741 ; 
Captain Cook vfsited them in l778; and a 
survey was made by the Russians between 
the years 1781 and 1798. The Russian Ame- 
rican Company formed an establishment on 
the islands in 1785, which has continued 
since 1790 to receive aid and protection from 
their government. A volcanic island rose 
from the sea in the middle of the chain in 
1795, and in 1807 in was found to be enlarged 
to about 20 miles in circuit, and lava was 
then flowing down its ^ides. 

Alexandeb (Mra, of) . — Two epochs were 
named by the Greeks after Alexander the 
Great. The first dates from his death, Nov. 
12, B.C. 324, but does not appear to have 
been generally used ; the second commenced 
B.C. 311. The latter is better known as the 
sera of the Seleucidse, or of the Greeks. 

Alexander, St. (Order of). — Instituted 
in Russiaby Peter the Great, in 1722, and con- 
firmed by the empress Catherine April 8, 1725. 

Alexandria (Battles) . — The first, in 
which Bonaparte defeated the Arabs and 
captured the town, was fought July 3, 1798 ; 
the second and third, in which the English, 
vyith an inferior force, defeated the French, 
took place March 13 and 21, 1801. In the 
latter, the British general, Sir Ralph Aber- 
crombie, fell in the hour of victory. The 
French lost 3,000 and the EngUsh 1,400 men. 

Alexandria (Egypt) was founded by 
Alexander the Great, in the autumn of b.c. 
332, and became the residence of the Greek 
kings of Egypt. The Ptolemies made it one 
of the most magnificent cities of the ancient 
world, and under their rule it became the 
seat of civilization and learning. It was 
almost totally depopulated by a general 
massacre by Ptolemy Physcon, about b.c. 
141 ; suffered greatly during its occupation 
by Julius Caesar, after the defeat and death 
of Pompey, b.c. 48; and was, -with the re- 
mainder of Egypt, made a Roman province 
B.C. 30. Several thousand Jews were mas- 
sacred here in the year 67. The city having 
fallen into decay, was partially restored by 
Hadrian in 122. CaracaUa, on a visit to the 
city in 215, in revenge for some fooHsh sa- 
tires, ordered a general massacre of the 
29 



ALE 

inhabitants. Diocletian having cut oft' the 
aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the 
Nile to the city, captured it after a siege of 
eight months, in 297. A terrible earthquake 
occurred here July 21, 365, when 50,000 
persons are said to have perished. The 
Christians overthrew the temples of the 
pagan deities, and did much damage to 
the temple of Serapis in 389. Chosroes II. 
captured it in 616. Amrou, the general of 
Omar I., captured it after a siege of fourteen 
months' duration, Friday, Dec. 22, 640, or, 
according to other authorities, in Dec. 641. 
The victorious general described the city to 
his sovereign in these terms : " It is impos- 
sible for me to enumerate the variety of its 
riches and beauty ; and I shall content myself 
with observing that it contains four thousand 
palaces, four thousand baths, four hundred 
theatres or places of amusement, twelve 
thousand shops for the sale of vegetable 
food, and forty thousand tributary Jews." 
On this occasion its valuable and extensive 
library was destroyed, and Gibbon states 
that " six months were barely sufficient for 
the consumption of this precious fuel." The 
Greeks recovered it in 644, but Amrou re- 
gained possession the same year, and it 
remained under the sway of the Arabian ca- 
Uphs imtil the Fatimites seized Egypt (958 — 
972) and founded New Cairo, wmch accele- 
rated the decline of the ancient city. Chris- 
tianity was introduced into Alexandria in the 
1st century, and it was made a patriarchate, 
possessing at one time no less than nine 
dioceses. Seventeen councils were held here, 
between the years 231 and 633. From its 
rums a modern town has been constructed 
near the former site, and its importance 
has, in some measure, rerived, from its con- 
venient situation for conamunication, over- 
land, with the East Indies. The British 
took it Sept. 2, 1801, and again March 21, 
when they held it till Sept. 23, 1807. 

Alexandeia (U. States). — Lmmediately 
after the capture of Washington by the 
British forces, Alexandria capitulated, and 
was delivered to our troops Aug. 29, 1814. 

ALEXAifDEiAM" CoDEX, Or MS. — A copy 
of the Scriptures in Greek, written in capi- 
tal letters, without being divided into chap- 
ters, verses, or words, said to be the most 
ancient in existence, belonged, as early as 
1098, to the library of the patriarch of Alex- 
andria. It was sent as a present to Charles I. 
about the year 1628, by CyriUus Luearis, 
patriarch of Constantinople, who asserted 
that it was written " by the hand of Thecla, 
a_ noble Egyptian lady, about 1300 years pre- 
viously, a httle after the council of Nice" 
(325). The learned are much divided in 
opinion respecting its date. After remaining 
in the royal hbrary for many years, the MS, 
was removed, ^-ith the rest of the royal col- 
lection, to the British Museum, in 1753. It 
was pubhshed in 1717-20 and in 1816-28. 

AxEXANDEiAiir LiBEAEY.— There were two 
libraries in this city, the larger one in the 
Bruchium, and the smaller in the Serapeum. 
The former was destroyed during the occu- 



ALG 

pation of Alexandria by Juhus Caesar, B.C. 48, 
and was probably restored by Antony, and 
again destroyed byAurehanA.D.273. The lat- 
ter, founded by Ptolemy Soter, about B.C. 
284, was not, as some writers suppose, in- 
volved in the destruction of the temple of the 
Sarapeum, a.d. 389, when, by the edicts of 
Theodcsius, the pagan rites were abohshed 
and the pagan temples overthrown. This va- 
luable treasury was destroyed by command 
of Omar I., after the capture of the city, 
Dec. 22, 640. Though Gibbon throws doubt 
upon this statement, it is now estabhshed 
beyond dispute. 

Alexandeiam" School. — A writer in the' 
"Encyclopaedia Britannica" says, justly 
enough, " The term ' Alexandrian School ' is 
apphed in a loose sense to the whole body of 
eminent men who, in aU the departments of 
knowledge, conferred lustre on the capital 
of the Ptolemies ; but, as a characteristic 
designation, it is more strictly confined to 
that particular section of its philosophers 
known as the Neo-Platonists." The celebrity 
of Alexandria, as a seat of letters, commenced 
imder Ptolemy Soter, b.c. 312, and con- 
tinued, \mder his successors, till the com- 
mencement of the Christian sera ; but that 
celebrated philosophy, known under the 
name of Neo-Platonism, originated towards 
the end of the 2nd century of our sera, and 
flourished, with certain modifications, imtU 
the 5th century, when it rapidly declined. 

Alfoed (Battle). — The duke of Montrose 
gained a complete victory here over the 
Scottish Covenanters, July 2, 1645. 

Aleeed the Geeat was born at Wanna- 
ting, or Wanading, a royal residence in Berk- 
shire, probably in the month of January, 
849. He was the youngest son and last 
child of Ethelwulf and Osburgha, the daugh- 
ter of his cupbearer Oslac, married about 
830. Alfred visited Eome in 853, and again 
in 855. He married Elswitha in 868. She 
was descended from the royal family of 
Mercia. On the death of his brother Ethel- 
red, April 23, 871, Alfred became king of 
Wessex. In spite of his numerous battles with 
the Danes, he devoted much of his time to 
cultivating his mind, and laboured zealously 
to obtain proper means of ed.ucation for his 
Alfre - " - - 



red died Oct. 28, 901, and was 
buried at Winchester. His wife, Elswitha, 
survived him. They had several children, 
of whom some died young. Amongst those 
that surrived were Ethelfleda, his eldest 
daughter, " the lady of the Mercians," who 
married King Ethe'lred, and died July 12, 
919 ; Edward, afterwards Edward I., bom 
in 870, ascended the throne Oct. 28, 901, 
and died in 925 ; Ethelgina, abbess of 
Shaftesbury; EUnda, who married Count 
Baldwin of Flanders, and died in 929 ; and 
their youngest son, Ethelward, who was a 
zealous scholar, and died Oct. 16, 922. 

Algebea. — ^A Greek treatise by Diophan- 
tus of Alexandria, written soon after the 
commencement of the Christian sera, is the 
earliest work on Algebra, or, as Newton 
terms it, " Universal Arithmetic." This- 



ALG 

treatise dealt -with only one branch of the 
science, — indeterminate analysis. Europeans 
obtained their first kno\\ ledge of algebra 
from the Arabs, who probably derived their 
information from the Hindoos. The earhest 
Arabian writer on Algebra is Mohammed 
Ben Musa, who wrote at the command of 
the Caliph Al Mamun (813—833). A copy 
of this work in the original, transcribed in 
1342, may be seen in the Bodleian Hbrary at 
Oxford, and Dr. Eosen pubhshed it, with 
an English translation, in 1831. Leonard 
Eibonacci, a merchant of Pisa, who had 
travelled much in the East,' put forth a trea- 
tise on algebra in 1220, audit was re-written, 
with improvements, in 1228. Thus, two cen- 
turies before the invention of printing, this 
science was introduced into Italy. This 
treatise had been long forgotten, untU, 
about the middle of the 18th century, it was 
discovered in the Magliabecchian Hbrary at 
Florence. Luca Pacioh di Borgo, a Eran- 
ciscan, who taught mathematics in the uni- 
versity of Milan, published the first printed 
treatise on algebra at Venice, in 1494. Ano- 
ther edition appeared in 1523. Scipio Ferreo, 
of Bologna, discovered the solution of one 
case of equations in 1505 ; and K"icolas Tar- 
tagHa, of Brescia, that of two other forms 
in 1535. Jerome Cardan extended these dis- 
coveries, and published, in his " Ars Magna," 
in 1545, his rule for the solution of cubic 
equations, still known as " Cardan's rule." 

' His coadjutor, Ludovico Ferrari, discovered 
a general method of solving biquadratic 
equations. Michael Stifel, in his "Arith- 
metica Integra," pubhshed at Nuremberg 
in 15-44, is supposed to have first employed 

i the signs -t- and — , and numeral expo- 
nents of powers. Francis Viete, or as he is 

. generally called, Vieta, whose works were 
pubhshed after 1600, made such important 
improvements, that he altogether changed 

' the character of the science. He was the 

• first to apply algebra to geometry, and in 

! this was followed by Descartes and Newton. 
Albert Girard, a Dutchman, in his " Inven- 

i tion NouveUe en Algebre," pubhshed in 1629, 
" conceived," as HaUam remarks, " a better 
notion of negative roots than his predeces- 
sors." John Harriott, in his " Artis Analy- 
tiese Praxis," pubhshed in 1631, ten years 
after the death of the author, made, says 
HaUam, " the last great discovery in the 
pure science of algebra. He arrived at a 
complete theory of the genesis of equations, 
which Cardan and Vieta had but partially 
conceived." He is said to have been the 
first to use small letters instead of capitals ; 
to have employed vowels for unknown, and 
consonants for known quantities (according 
to present practice, knovra quantities are 
represented by a, b, c, &c., and unknown 
by X, y, z), and joined them to express 
their product. Descartes apphed algebra to 
curves, though he is suspected of having 
taken the theory from Harriott. 

Algeria (N. Africa) .—The French having, 
on account of annoyances to their trade, 
declared war against Algiers, dispatched 



alg 

a fleet from Toulon, which sailed May 25» 
1830, carrying above 30,000 troops, and on 
the morning of Jxme 14, a landing was com- 
menced in the neighbourhood of Algiers. A 
battle was fought on the 19th, in which the 
French, with diflBculty, defeated a large 
Algerine force. Skirmishes ensued on the 
24th and 25th ; the trenches before Algiers 
were commenced on the 29th, and fire opened 
July 4 with such effect, that on the same 
evening a treaty was concluded, by which 
Algiers, its forts and harbour, with some of 
the adjoining districts, were surrendered to 
the French, who have since established a 
colony, divided into three provinces, — ^Algiers, 
Oran, and Constantia. 

A.D. 

1830. Medeah conquered in Nov., and Oran occu- 
pied Dec. 10. 

1832. Bona occupied in May. 

1833. The Frencli declare tlieir intention of colo- 

nizing tlie country. Abd-el-Kader raises 
an insurrection against the French and is 
defeated at Tamojanat, Sept. 3, and at 
Ain-Beida, Oct. 10. Bugia taken Sept. 29. 
Treaty concluded between Gen. Desmichels 
and Abd-el-Kader, Sept. 26. 

1835. War breaks out again. The French take 

Harchgoun in Oct. ; Mascara and Tlemseu, 
Dec. 5, after some severe fighting. 

1836. The Algerines defeated at Taafna, April 25. 

Bugeaud defeats Abd-el-Kader, ia a great 
battle near Tlemsen, Jvdy 6. 

1837. Bugeaud concludes the treaty of Taafna with 

Abd-el-Kader, May 30. Achmet Bey de- 
feated and Constantina taken, Oct. 13. 

1838. Philippeville founded in October. 

1839. Abd-el-Kader defeats the French at Metidja, 

Dec, 14, and advances to the walls of 
the city of Algiers. 

1840. War resumed with Abd-el-Kader, who had 

been made sultan in 1837. 

1841. The French gain several actions. 

1843. Bugeaud organizes a plan of campaign by 
movable columns, radiating from Algiers,- 
Oran, and Constantina. The French sur- 
prise Abd-el-Kader's camp, and he manages 
to escape, but with difficulty. 

1845. Pelissier and St. Amaud destroy 700 Arabs, 
men, women, and children, who had taken 
refuge in the cave of Khartani, by lighting 
a fire at the entrance, June 12. 

1847. Bou-Maza surrenders at Orleansville, April 
13. Bugeaud's expedition to Great Ka- 
bylia in May. Abd-el-Kader surrenders at 
Nemours, Dec. 23. 

1849. The Saharians revolt. Zaatcha taken and 

destroyed in November. 

1850. Pelissier defeats the Saharians at Laghonat, 

which is destroyed, Dec. 2. 

1857. An insurrection suppressed by the French. 

1858. Pilnce Napoleon nadnister of Algeria. 

1861. Napoleon III. and the empress Eugenie visit 
the colony. 

Algesieas (Spain). — ^This stronghold, con- 
sidered by the Moors the key of Spain, was 
fovmded by Tarik, on the first invasion of 
the peninsxila, ia 713. Alfonso XI., of Cas- 
tile, wrested it from the Moors March 24, 
1344, after a siege of twenty months' dura- 
tion. He destroyed the town and fortifica- 
tions, which were rebuilt by Charles III. in 
1760. In the Bay of Algesiras, Sir James 
Saumarez attacked, July 7, 1801, the united 
French and Spanish fleets, under Admiral 
LiQois. The Enghsh lost the Sannibal, 74f, 
which had grormded. The enemy, who fought 
under the shelter of the Spanish batteries,. 
31 



ALG 

haTing suffered severely, retired from the 
action. Having been reinforced, they put 
to sea on the 9th of July, and were inune- 
diately chased by Sir James Saumarez, 
■whose squadron consisted of five ships of 
the line, one 32-gun frigate, a sloop, and a 
Portuguese frigate, while the enemy had 
nine Une-of-battle ships, three frigates, and 
a lugger. Only two of the Enghsh ships 
were engaged in this action, which took 
place on the 12th, when the St. Antoine 
was captured. The Don Carlos, a Spanish 
ship of 112 guns, having suffered from the 
broadsides ot the Superb, caught fire, and in 
this condition was attacked by mistake about 
midnight by another Spanish 112-gun ship, 
the Kermenegildo. They ran foul of each 
other, the Sermenegildo was soon in flames, 
and both ships blew up, with aU on board. 

Algiers (Africa) . — This country fell under 
the power of the Eomans b.c. 161, and 
remained in their possession tiU it was seized 
by the Vandals, in 439, from whom it was re- 
covered by Behsarius in 534. In 667 it was 
overrun and conquered by the Saracens; 
after which period it was divided into several 
minor kingdoms. About 935, Jussuf Zeri, 
an Arabian chief, founded the town of 
Algiers. Ferdinand of Spain, having driven 
the Moors from Europe, followed them into 
Africa, and in 1509 captured Algiers. The 
natives called to their assistance the cor- 
sair Aroudj Barbarossa, who erpeUed the 
Spaniards, and estabMshed himself in their 
stead, in 1516. The place then became the 
head-quarters of the Barbary pirates, their 
chief receiving, in 1520, the title of Dey. In 
1541, Charles V. made an unsuccessful at- 
tempt to destroy the power of the Algerine 
corsairs, who were the terror of the neigh- 
bouring states. They had 25,000 Christians 
in bondage in the year 1576. In 1655, Blake 
compelled the Dey to give up his slaves 
and to desist from piracy, and in 1665, 1670, 
and 1681, Louis XIV. exacted similar engage- 
ments. The town was bombarded and re- 
duced to submission by the English, under 
Lord Eimouth, Aug. 27, 1816. In 1830 
the Ereneh took the city and deposed the 
Dey. [See Algeria.) 

Alhama (Spain) . — This stronghold of the 
Moors, in Granada, was captured by the Spa- 
niards Feb. 28, 1482. The Moors besieged 
it March 5, retired March 29, and returned 
in April. It was, however, reheved by Fer- 
dinand May 14, in the same year. 

Alhambea (Spain). — The fortress and 
palace of the Moors, ia Granada, was 
commenced 1248, and completed about 
1313. It capitulated to the Spaniards 
Nov. 25, 1491, and Ferdinand and Isabella 
entered it in triimiph Jan. 2, 1492. The 
French occupied Granada from Jan. 1810 
to Sept. 1812, during which period the 
Alhambra sustained much injury. 

Ali, Sect of. {See Shiites.) 

Alieit Act. — A measure (33 Geo. III. 

c. 4) passed in 1793, on account of the great 

influx of foreigners caused by the French 

revolution, was distinguished by this name 

32 



ALI 

from the various statutes having reference 
to aliens. It contained several exceptional 
regulations on the subject, and was con- 
tinued for another year by 34 Geo. III. c. 82 
(July?, 1794). 

Alien Peioeies. — " The Priories abroad," 
says EUis (Introd. to Domesday Book, ii. 
330),. " for the better management of their 
estates and rents in England, established 
cells subordinate to their respective houses. 
These were called Alien Priories." Domes- 
day Book contains several entries of foreign 
monasteries holding possessions in England, 
both as tenants in eapite and sub-tenants. 
These lands were the gilFt of WiUiam I., or his 
principal followers. Their revenues were 
frequently seized during the wars between 
France and England. In the reign of Ed- 
ward III. there were 110 estabhshments of 
this kind in England, in addition to others in 
Ireland, Aquitaiae, and Normandy. A law 
was passed in the reign of Henry V. (1414) , by 
which all ahen priories, not conventual, were 
dissolved, and granted to the Crown. Though 
this law does not appear in the statute-book, 
it is found amongst the Patent EoUs. 

Aliens were formerly placed under dis- 
abUities, both by the common and statute 
law. Some authorities declare that aliens 
first became subject to such interference in 
the reign of Henry II., when the Flemings 
and Picards, brought into the kingdom 
during the wars of King Stephen, were ex- 
pelled. Others contend that it commenced 
at a much more ancient period, maintaining 
that it forms a branch of the feudal law. 
The 48th article of Magna Charta (1215) 
provides that merchants shall have safe and 
secure conduct to go out and to come into 
England, and to stay there, and to pass as 
weU by land as by water ; to buy and sell, by 
the ancient and allowed customs, without 
any evil toUs, except in time of war, or when 
they are of any nation at war with us. Alien 
merchants were first allowed to rent houses 
and to buy and sell their own commodities 
about the year 1284. Before that time they 
hired lodgings, and their landlords acted as 
brokers for the sale of their goods. In 1290 
the citizens of London petitioned Edward I. 
to expel foreign merchants ; but the king 
refused to comply ■with this request. Ed- 
ward III. granted many privileges to aUens ; 
Richard II. and his immediate successors 
dealt more severely ■with them. By 15 
Charles II. c. 15 (1663), aliens, occupying 
themselves in certain trades and manufac- 
tures specified in the act, were, on taking 
the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, 
admitted to aU the pri-rileges of native sub- 

■■ jects. By 6 Anne, c. 37 (1707), foreign sailors 
who had served two years on board an 
English merchant vessel or ship of war, 
were naturahzed. The laws affecting aUens 

j have of late years undergone considerable 
modification, by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66 (1814), and 

I by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 83 (1847) . An ahe a cannot 
sit in either house of Parhament, or be a 
member of the Privy Council, or even vote 

j at an election. 



ALI 

AtiWAi (Battle). — Fou^lit between the 
SiMis and the Anglo-Indian army, com' 
manded by Sir Harry Smith, Jan. 28, 1846. 
The former, posted at Ahwal, near Loodi- 
ana, under the command of Sirdar Eunjoor 
Singh, consisted of 19,000 men and 68 guns, 
and the latter of 12,000 men and 32 pieces of 
cannon. The Sikhs were driven across the 
Sutlej, leaving 52 guns in the hands of the 
victors. 

Aljubaeota (Battle) . — The Castilians were 
defeated with great slaughter at this place, 
in Estremadura, in Portugal, by the Portu- 
guese, Aug. 14, 1385. 

Alkmaab (Netherlands). — Notice occurs 
of this town as early as 924. It sustained a 
siege of eight weeks' duration, which was 
raised Oct. 7, 1573. A capitulation for the 
re-embarkation of the British expedition, 
sent to the Helder to act against the Dutch 
and French repubhcan forces, was con- 
cluded at this place Oct. 18, 1799. The 
last portion of the troops re-embarked 
Nov. 19. The town-hall was built in 1509. 

AxL Saints, or All-Hallow. — ^A festival 
celebrated on the 1st of November. A day 
for the general commemoration of all the 
martyrs not long after Whit - Sunday was 
set apart in the early church. Boniface IV. 
established a festival in the Latin church in 
611, and this was converted into the festival 
of All Saints by Gregory IV., in 830. It was 
introduced into England in 870. The super- 
fluous and superstitious ringing of bells at 
AllhaUow-tide was prohibited at the Kefor- 
mation. 

All Souls. — This festival, held on the 
2nd of November, in commemoration of all 
the faithful deceased, was generally cele- 
brated in the Western churches in 998. Pal- 
^ave states that this well-known festival 
tor the dead was not formally adopted until 
the 11th century, and that the earliest com- 
munity by which it was commemorated was 
the monastery of St. GaU, in 741. 

All Souls College (Oxford) was founded 
in 1437, by Henry Chicheley, archbishop of 
Canterbury, It was not completed until 
1444. 

" All the Taleis^ts," or the Fox and 
Grenville Coalition Ministry. — The refusal 
of Lord Hawkesbury to form an administra- 
tion, on the death of Mr. Pitt (Jan. 23, 
1806), induced George III. to send for Lord 
GrenviUe (Jan. 26), who, in conjunction with 
Mr. Fox, undertook the task. This ministry 
acceded to office Feb. 5, and received the 
nickname of " All the Talents," from the 
boast of its supporters that it combjned, as 
Mr. Canning said, " all the talents, all the 
abilities, and all the experience and wisdom 
of the country." It was thus constituted : — 

Treasury Lord Grenville. 

Lord ChanceJlor Lord Erskine. 

Pi-esident of the Council Earl Fitzwilliam. 
Privy Seal Viscount Sidmouth. 

Chan, of the Exchequer I ^"^'l ^- ^^^X' ''^'^f ^"^"^^ 
^ (. Marquis of Lansdowne. 

Home Secretary Earl Spencer. 

Foreign Secretary Mr. Fox. 

Ordnance Earl of Moira. 

33 



ALL 



Admii-alty Lord Howick. 

Secretary at "War Mr. Windham. 

Lord Chief Justice, with 1 T , t,,, r ■ 

a seat in the Cabinet ; ^"^'^ EUenborough 

On the death of Mr. Fox (Sept. 13, 1806), 
Lord Howick became Foreign Secretary, 
Sept. 24, and Mr. Thomas Grenville First 
Lord of the Admiralty, Sept. 27. Earl Fitz- 
wilUam retii-ed on account of ill-health, and 
Lord Sidmouth became President of the 
Council in his place, Oct. 8, and Lord Hol- 
land Privy Seal, Oct. 15, 1806. This mmistry 
was never very strong ; a dissolution towards 
the end of 1806 did not improve its position, 
and George III. availed himself of some dif- 
ference of opinion on the Koman Catholic 
question to make a change, March 25, 1807. 
{See POBTLAND Administeatiok".) 

Allahabad (Hindostan). — Sultan Mah- 
mood, of Ghuznee, invaded this province in 
1020 and 1023, but made no permanent set- 
tlement. The emperors of Delhi subdued it, 
but it became independent during the 15th 
century. After various changes, it fell under 
the power of the rulers of Oude, who seized 
it in 1758, and it was ceded by them to Shah 
Alum, the titular sovereign of Delhi, in 
1764. The capital of the province, also 
called Allahabad, seated at the junction of 
the rivers Ganges and Jumna, was founded 
by the emperor Acbar, in 1583. The Eng- 
lish captured it in Feb. 1765, and in 1772 the 
province of Allahabad reverted to the Oude 
sovereigns. Part of the province was ceded 
to the East-India Company in 1775. Allaha- 
bad, with some of the territory, was ceded 
on Nov. 14, 1801, and the remainder was 
secured by treaty Dec. 30, 1803. On the 6th 
of June, 1857, the mutiny, which commenced 
at Meerut Maj' 10, extended to Allahabad ; 
but the English retired into the fort, which 
they held securely. 

ALLEGiAifCE (Oath of). — Burn (Ecc. Law, 
iii. 22) says, this oath " is very ancient ; and 
by the common law, every freeman, at the 
age of twelve years was required, in the leet 
(if he were in any leet) , or in the tourn (if he 
were not in any leet), to take the oath of 
allegiance." As administered, according to 
Blackstone, for upwards of six hundred years, 
it contained a promise " to be true and faith- 
ful to the king and his heirs, and truth and 
faith to bear of life and limb and terrene 
honour, and not to know or hear of any ill 
or damage intended him, without defending 
him therefrom." After the Gunpowder plot, 
an act was passed (3 James I. c. 4, 1605), 
for the better discovering and repressing of 
popish recusants, which, in addition to other 
provisions, required from those that con- 
formed, an oath of allegiance renouncing the 
pope's authority in the most exphcit terms. 
Tms was repealed, and a new oath of allegi- 
ance framed at the Eevolution, by 1 WiU. & M. 
c. 8, 1689. A single oath by 21 & 22 Vict. e. 48 
(July 23, 1858) , was substituted for the former 
oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjura- 
tion. 

Allia (Battles).— Near the confluence of 
this small river with the Tiber, into which it 

D 



ALL 

falls, about eleven miles JT. of Eome, the 
Eomans were defeated, with great slaughter, 
by the Gauls, under Brennus, July 16, B.C. 
390. The barbarians captured the city, de- 
stroying large portions of the same. The 
disastrous day was ever afterwards marked 
by the Romans, in their calendar, as one of 
the most unfortunate in the whole year. 
The dictator Cincinnatus defeated the Prte- 
nestines and their alhes, on the banks of the 
AUia, B.C. 377. 

Alliaij'ces. — The most important aUianees 
between different states are given under 
their respective titles. {See Teeaties.) 

Allied Powees (Declaration of). — The 
emperors of Eussia and Austria, the king of 
Prussia, and several German sovereigns, met 
at Frankfort in Xov. 1813, where they drew up 
the celebrated " Declaration," issued Dec. I, 
in the same year. In this document the alhed 
sovereigns stated that they did not make 
war against Prance, but against the prepon- 
derance claimed by I^apoleon I. ; and assert- 
ed that they desired Prance to be " great, 
powerful, and happy, because the French 
power, in a state of greatness and strength, 
is one of the foundations of the social edSice 
of Europe." 

Allifje (Battle). — Fought B.C. 326, near 
the city of that name, during the second Sam- 
nite war. The Romans, commanded by Q. 
Pabius Maxim us, gained a complete victory. 
Alhf«, soon after recovered by the Samnites, 
was retaken B.C. 310 by the Eomans, who 
gained another victory under its walls, b.c. 
307. Sylvester I. is said to have erected it into 
a bishopric a.d. 314. This, however, is doubt- 
ful, but it is known to have been the seat of 
a bishopric in the 5th centiiry. 

Alltghue (Hindostan). — K"ear this for- 
tress in the district of Allyghur, Lake de- 
feated the Mahrattas and the French, under 
M. Perron, ^Aug. 29, 1803 ; and the fortress 
itself was stormed by Lake, Sept. 24, The 
native troops mutinied here. May 20, 1857. 
The Europeans effected their escape, and the 
place was retaken by Colonel Greathed, 
Oct. 5, 1857. 

Alma (Battle).— Fought between the aUied 
Enghsh and French, and the Eussian armies, 
Sept. 20, 1854. The allied army consisted of 
57,000 men, viz. 26,000 Enghsh, commanded by 
Lord Eaglan ; 24,000 French, commanded by 
the Marshal St. Amaud, and 7,000 Turks, with 
124 guns. Early on the morning of the 20th 
of Sept. the force came in sight of the Eus- 
sian army, amounting to between 60,000 and 
70,000 men, strongly posted on some heights 
beyond the river Alma. The position was 
deemed impregnable ; every precaution had 
been taken to obstruct the advance of an 
assailant. Li spite, however, of the formida- 
ble obstacles to be encountered, the Russians 
were driven from their intrenchments, after 
a fearful struggle of three hours' dvtration. 
The Enghsh lost 2,000, and the French 1,400 
men in killed and wounded, whilst at least 
6,000 of the Eussians must have fallen. 

Almadex (Spain). — This plaee, celebrated 
for its quicksilver mines, marks the site of 
34 



ALM 

the ancient Sisapore. The Iberians, and 
after them the Romans, worked these mines 
from which large quantities of quicksilver are 
still procured every year. The Puggers of 
Antwerp rented them in the 16th century. 
They were worked by the Spaniards from 
1645 to 1843, when the firm of Eothschild 
obtained the contract. 

ALirAifACK:. — Porphyry states that alma- 
nacks were known to the Egyptians before 
the Ai-abs; and Montfaucon has engraved 
an Egyptian calendar. They were con- 
structed by the Alexandrine Greeks about 
the time of Ptolemy, Instruments of wood 
or other material, inscribed with various 
symbolical figures and characters, to serve 
the pm-pose of an almanack, were used in 
early times by the northern nations, espe- 
cially the Danes, who introduced them into 
England. The Anglo-Saxons calculated by 
the increase of the moon, set down on 
square pieces of wood, about a foot long, 
and these they called Ahnonaught, or al- 
moon-heed. They were also designated 
clogs, baccuh-annales, primstocks, primsta- 
ries, primstaffs, runstocks, &c. The cele- 
brated astronomer Purbach, or Puerbach, 
pubhshed a series of almanacks between 1450 
and 1461, but the first printed was in 1457. 
Muller, or Regiomontanus, published the 
first that contained echpses, about 1475. 
The fii-st almanack printed in England, was 
by Wynkyn de Worde, in the reign of Henry 
YII. James I, granted the exclusive right 
of printing ahnanacks, by letters patent, to 
the two universities and tlie Stationers' 
Company. This was declared to be illegal, 
by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas, 
in 1775. Moore's almanack was first printed 
in 1698. The first almanack printed in Scot- 
land was in 1677. A duty was first levied 
on almanacks by 9 Anne, c. 23 (1710). It was 
abohshed by 3 & 4 WiU. IV, c. 57 CAug. 13, 
1834) . It produced £28,852 in 1827. 

ALiiAiTACK (2fautical), pubhshed by the 
Admiralty for the use of astronomers and 
sailors, was projected by Dr. Maskelyne, 
astronomer royal, and first appeared in 1767. 
It declined so much after his death, that, in 
1830, the Government consulted the Astro- 
nomical Society on the subject. The altera- 
tions proposed by them were adopted, and 
the first improved almanack appeared in 1834. 

Alhan'za (Battle). — Fought on Easter 
Monday, April 25 (O.S. 14), 1707, between 
an army of English, Portuguese, Dutch, and 
Spanish troops, amounting to 12,000 infan- 
try and 5,000 cavalry, commanded by the 
earl of Galway, and the French and Spani- 
ards, 25,000 strong, led by the duke of Ber- 
wick. The English, having been deserted by 
many of the foreign troops, were defeated, 
and it is somewhat remarkable, as Lord 
Stanhope remarks, that the Enghsh army 
was commanded by a French, and the French 
army by an English general. The duke of 
Berwick, who commanded the French, was 
the natural son of James II. 

Almaeez (Spain). — The principal out- 
works of Almarez were taken from the 



ALM 

Freneli by Gen. (afterwards Lord) Hill, May 
19, 1812. The celebrated bridge over the 
Tagus, at this place, was built by Charles V. 
in 1552. 

AiMAZAK (Treaty), between Castile and 
Aragon, was signed April 12, 1375. The 
principal condition was a contract of mar- 
riage between the Infanta Leonora of Ara- 
gon, and the Infant, John of Castile. 

Almeida (Portugal) . — This fortified town, 
about 16 miles from Ciudad Eodrigo, was 
•captured by the Spaniards, during their in- 
vasion of Portugal, after a long and bloody 
siege, Aug. 25, 1762. During the struggle 
in the Peninsula, it was surrendered to tlie 
EngHsh in Oct. 1808 ; taken from the Portu- 
.guese by the French, Aug. 27, 1810 ; and re- 
captured by Wellington, after a briUiant 
victory at Fuentes d'Onore, May 11, 1811. 

Almenaba (Battle).— Fought July 28 (O.S. 
17), 1710, when the English and Germans, 
tinder Gen. Stanhope and the archduke, 
afterwards the emperor Charles VI., com- 
pletely routed the Spanish army, commanded 
by Philip V. of Spain. 

Almeria (Spain). — This city, the capital of 
a province of the same name, was, says Pr escott 
(Ferdinand and Isabella, vol. i. pt. i. eh. 14), 
*' one ofthe most precious jewels in. the diadem 
of Granada. It had amassed great wealth by 
its extensive commerce vrith Syria, Egypt, 
and Africa; and its corsairs had for ages 
been the terror of the Catalan and Pisan 
marine." The Ahnoravides captured it in 
1091, but it was retaken by the Spaniards in 
1147. It was frequently assailed, and at length 
the Moors finally surrendered it, by treaty, 
to Ferdinand and Isabella, who made their 
entrance into the town Dec. 7, 1489. Alfonso 
"VII. of Castile removed the ancient bishopric 
of Abdera to this town in 1147. When the 
Moors seized Almeria, it was destroyed, but 
Ferdinand re-established the see in 1490. 

Almohades, or Aimohedes, termed by 
Gibbon " the fanatic princes of Morocco," 
•a Mohammedan djTiasty, that grew out of a 
reUgious sect formed by Mohammed Ben 
Abdallah, sumamed El Mehedi, the gmde, 
or teacher. He was the son of a lamp- 
lighter in a mosque, and having collected a 
number of followers, was foiled in an attempt 
to fovmd his dynasty in Morocco, in 1121. 
His death occurred in 1130, and his succes- 
sor, Abdelmumen, captured Morocco in 
1132, and established the dynasty of the 
Almohades, in Africa, in 1146. The next 
year he invaded Spain, won several battles, 
.and estabhshed the dynasty in that country 
and in Portugal. The Almohades ceased to 
rule in Spain and Portugal in 1257, and in 
Africa in 1269. 

Almonacid (Battle). — In a severe battle 
fought at this place in Spain, Aug. 21, 1809, 
between the French and the Spaniards, the 
latter were defeated. 

Almoneb. — ^An officer whose duty it was to 
distribute alms, was attached in former times 
to the households of sovereigns, princes, pre- 
lates, and men of high station. The great 
abbeys and monasteries had their almoners. 
35 



ALN 

The date when this office was first appointed 
has not been ascertained. Fosbroke (Antiq. 
ii. 588) says, " When our Anglo-Saxon kings 
dined, the poor sat in the streets, expecting 
the broken meat, &c., which was collected by 
the almoner." 

Almoneb (Hereditary Grand). — Ihis of- 
fice before the time of Eichard II., was vested 
in the Beauchamp family. The earl of Exeter 
claimed, and, in spite of other competitors, 
received it at the coronation of James I., in 
1603, in right of descent from Lord Latimer, 
on whom the lands of the Beauchamp family 
had devolved. 

Almoneb op En-giand (Lord High). — 
This ecclesiastical officer, generally a bishop, 
in olden times had the power of giving the 
first dish from the king's table, or, instead 
of it, alms, to any poor person he pleased. 
His duties, enumerated in an old juridical 
treatise of the time of Edward I., were to 
collect the fragments from the royal table 
for daily distribution to the poor, to visit the 
sick and poor persons in distress, to remind 
the king of the duty of almsgiving, and to see 
that the value of the cast-off robes should be 
given to increase the kind's charity. From 
the wardrobe accounts ot the 14th year of 
King John, it appears that alms were at that 
time distributed by the sovereign on Maun- 
dy-Thursday. Siace 1780 the office of Lord 
High Almoner has been held by the arch- 
bishops of York. 

Almoeah (India). — In the Ghoorka war, 
the enemy were defeated near this place, 
April 23, 1815, and the town itself was cap- 
tured by the British, April 25. 

AiMOBATiDES. — An Arab dynasty, founded 
ia the N.W. of Africa by Abdallah Ben Yas- 
sim, who died in 1058. His immediate suc- 
cessor, Abu Bekar Ben Omar, seized Fez, 
and founded the city of Morocco, in 1070. 
Yussef Ben Taxfin, the third of the dynasty, 
conquered a large portion of Spain. A long 
struggle followed between them and the Al- 
mohades, and the latter dynasty was over- 
thrown in Africa in 1146, and its power in 
Spain destroyed in 1147. 

AiiMS-HOUSES. — These useful institutions 
were not known in this country until the 
Keformation. Previous to that date the poor 
obtained relief at the monasteries, and the 
houses of the wealthy. 

Alnet, or Olnet (Battle). — During the 
struggle between Edmund Ironsides and Ca- 
nute, for the EngHsh crown, and after many 
sanguinary battles had been fought, the rival 
armies met in Gloucesterslure, near Deer- 
hurst, on the Severn, in 1016. There it was 
proposed, according to Henry of Hunting- 
don, to decide the matter by single combat. 
The proposal was accepted, and after the 
two kings had contended for some time, the 
advantagebeingwithEdmund, Canute offered 
to divide the kingdom. This offer was ac- 
cordingly accepted, and the kiss of peace 
was given. Wessex was allotted to Ed- 
mund, and Mercia to Canute. The former 
died, or, as some chroniclers say, was trea- 
sonably Mlled, a few days afterwards, and 
D 2 



ALN 

Canute obtained possession of the whole 
kingdom. William of Malmesbuiy states 
that the division was agreed to without a 
combat ; and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
does not mention the duel. 

ALifwiCK. — This castle, on the rirer Aln, 
in j^orthumberland, was besieged, in 1093, 
bj' Malcolm III., king of Scotland. The 
Scottish monarch and his eldest son were 
killed by the earl of Northumberland. Da- 
vid I. captured it in 1136. AYilham the Lion, 
with 80,000 men, laid siege to it in 1174, and 
was taken prisoner after sustaining a most 
disastrous defeat. It was burnt by King 
John in 1216. 

Ai/OGiAiis, or AxoGi. — A sect of heretics, 
who sprang up soon after the death of John the 
Evangehst, a.d. 100. They denied that Jesus 
Christ was the Logos, and rejected St. John's 
Gospel and the Apocalypse, as contrary to 
their views. Augustine opposed them, and 
they were condemned at the council of To- 
ledo, Dec. 9, 633. 

Alost (Belgium). — Besieged in 1128. It 
was taken by the Prench under Turenne in 
1667. The townhall was built in 1210. 

Alpaca. — The wool of this animal has 
long been in use among the Indians of the 
Andes ,• but it was not until 1829 that it be- 
came an article of commerce in this country. 
Alpacas have been introduced into Austra- 
lia, and the fii'st shearing of the flock took 
place in 1859. 

Alphabet. — The origin of alphabetical 
characters is a subject that has excited much 
controversy among the learned. For a long 
time it was beheved that hieroglyphical 
writing gave rise to the invention of alpha- 
betical writing, by contraction of the hiero- 
glyphic symbols into alphabetical letters. 
Hales (Chronology, i. 370) combats this 
theory, showing that the art of alphabetical 
writing preceded the estabUshment of hiero- 
glyphic. ' ' Some Jewish and Oriental tra- 
ditions," says this author, " ascribe the 
invention of WTiting to Seth, the son of 
Adam; others to Enoch, the seventh from 
Adam; whether well founded, or not, it 
proves the prevailing opinion, that letters 
were of antedduvian date." Western tradi- 
tion supports this view, and both Pliny and 
Cicero asserted that letters were always 
found amongst the Assyrians. From Egypt 
they were probably introduced into Canaan 
by Moses, and were carried by the Phoenici- 
ans into Greece. Herodotus states that they 
were brought into Greece by Cadmus. This 
took place b.c. 1493, according to Hales b.c. 
1494, and to Chnton B.C. 1313. The Greek 
alphabet consisted at first of only eleven, or 
at most sixteen letters ; but the number was 
eventually increased to twenty-two. Cicero 
and Quintilian assert that Simonides, who 
flourished about b.c. 540, added the two 
long vowels, /; and w, and the two double 
consonants ^ and \p ; while Aristotle and Pliny 
say that Epicharmus, who flourished about 
B.C. 450, added the two letters x and 6 to { 
the Greek alphabet. Sharon Turner is of | 



ALT 

opinion that the Anglo-Saxons were not un- 
acquainted with alphabetical characters 
when they came into England, though they 
laid aside their ancient letters, with the ex- 
ception of two, on their conversion to Chris- 
tianity. 

Alphonsijte, or Aleonsine, Tables. — 
These astronomical tables are said to have 
been constructed by certain Jews of Toledo, 
in 1252. Other authorities attribute them to 
the king's preceptors, under the direction of 
Alfonso X. (whence their name), king of 
Castile and Leon, surnamed the Wise. They 
were first printed at Venice in 1483. 

Alkesfobd (Battle) .—Fought between the 
parhamentary forces and the royaUsts, March 
29, 1644. The latter, though worsted, with- 
drew in good order to Eeading. 

Alsace (France), annexed to Gaul by 
Clovis, was included in Charlemagne's ern- 
pire. It remained connected with Germany 
till 1648, when, by the treaties of Muuster, 
Jan. 30, andof Westphaha, Oct. 24, aportion 
of the province was ceded to France. Louis 
XIV. seized Strasburg in 1681, and this city, 
with the remainder of the prorince, was* 
secured to France by the peace of liyswick, 
Oct. 30, 1697. 

Altaes. — The first altar mentioned in 
Scripture was erected by Noah after the 
flood (Gen. viii. 20), B.C. 2343, according to 
Cahnet; B.C. 3154, according to Hales; and 
B.C. 2481, according to Clinton. Abraham 
erected altars in dift'erent places (Gen. xii. 8, 
and xih. 18) ; and God conmianded Moses 
to raise them. The Jews also imitated 
the custom of pagan nations, who built 
high places, and images, and groves, on 
every high hdl, and under every green tree 
(1 Kings, xiv. 23). The Greeks andKomans 
also built altars on which they sacrificed to 
their heroes, and a similar custom prevailed 
amongst most ancient nations. The altars 
used in the early ages of Christia.nity were 
made of w ood and in the form f)f a table, 
and it was not until the 5th century that 
stone was employed. Eventually they as- 
sumed the form of a tomb, as of the Sepul- 
chre of the Martyrs, whence they derive 
their name. The proceedings of the council 
of Agda, in 506, contain the first public re- 
cord in connection with their consecration. 
The general belief in purgatory in the 9th 
century led to the erection of additional 
altars in churches. They had been intro- 
duced into England, but they were ordered to 
be removed and replaced by communion- 
tables at the Eeformation. Eidley, bishop 
of London, at a visitation, held in conse- 
quence of a letter in the king's name, setting 
forth that previous orders for the removal 
of stone altars had not been duly complied 
with, directed the clergy of his diocese to 
substitute wooden tables (1550) . The stone 
altars were again erected in the reign of 
Queen Mary, but were removed in that of 
Elizabeth. In the stone-altar case, decided 
in the Arches Court, Jan. 31, 1845, Sir H. 
Jenner Fust decreed, on appeal, reversing 
the decision of the Chancellor of Ely, that a 



ALT 

stone altar could not be legally erected iu 
any church belonging to the Establishment. 

Altenkiechex (Battle). — In a combat at 
this town, in Germany, Jxme 4, 1796, the 
French compelled the Austrians to retire, 
but in a battle fought Sept. 16, 1796, be- 
tween the French repubHcan army, under 
General Marceau, and the Austrians, led by 
the archduke Charles, the latter gained a 
complete "victory, and General Marceau was 
mortally wounded. 

ALTOjr (Battle). — Fought between the 
Danes and the Anglo-Saxons in 1001. The 
contest was severe, and many were slain 
on both sides, the Danes retaining posses- 
sion of the field of battle. The authorities 
do not agree respecting the place where this 
encoimter occurred. 

Altosta, or Alteka (Holstein), on the 
Elbe, was a mere -village untU. it came into 
the possession of the Danes in 1660, who 
erected the city in 1664. A treaty of peace 
between Holstein and Denmark was con- 
cluded here June 20, 1689. It was burnt by 
the Swedes Jan. 10, 1773, and occupied by 
the Austrians Feb. 1851. 

Alt-Eanstadt (Treaties). — Two treaties 
of peace were concluded here during the 
18th century, the first signed Oct. 5 (O.S. 
Sept. 24), 1706, and dictated by Charles XII. 
of Sweden to Augustus, elector of Saxony, 
who formally renounced the claim he had 

?)ut forth to Poland, acknowledging Stanis- 
aus Lescinsky as king. He also renounced 
the treaty with Russia, and agreed to find 
winter quarters in Saxony for the Swedish 
troops. Traitors and deserters were to be 
given up by secret articles. The second 
treaty, betw^een Louis XIV. and the emperor 
Charles VI., who had refused to join in the 
treaty of Utrecht in 1713, was signed March 17 
(O.S. 6), 1714. The latter was preliminary 
to the peace of Baden. 

Altjii.' — It is not known when the process 
of making alum was discovered. At an early 
period alum-works existed at Eoccha, the 
ancient Edessa, in Syria, whence the name 
Eock alum. Several had been established 
in the neighbourhood of Constantinople 
previous to its capture by the Turks in 
1453. The Genoese and other Itahans in- 
troduced the manufacture into Europe, and 
amongst the earUest Itahan works of the kind 
were those erected at Volterra in 1458. Alum 
was made at Hesse, in Germany, in 1554, in 
Bohemia in 1558, and at Glatz in 1563. It 
was introduced into England by Sir Thomas 
Chaloner,andworkswere built at Guisborough, 
in Yorkshire, according to some authorities, 
during the reign of Elizabeth, and, according 
to others, in that of James I., about 1608, 

ALXJii-BAGH, a domain containing a palace, 
a mosque, and a private temple, bounded 
by a garden, situated in a beautiful park, 
about four miles from Lucknow, was con- 
verted into a fortress by the rebels in 
1857. It was captured by the British, under 
Outram and Havelock, Sept. 23, 1857, and a 
smaU garrison placed in it, which was not 
reheved until November 14, in the same 



AMA 

year. Sir James Outram then held the place 
with 3,500 men until Lucknow was taken, 
March 21, 1858, having in the mean whUe 
repulsed an attack of 30,000 men on the 
12th of January, and one of 20,000 on the 
21st of February. 

Aluminium, one of the most abundant 
metals in nature, being the metallic basis of 
alumina, or pure clay, was first discovered 
in 1828, byWohler, who freed it from its 
combination with oxygen by electric means, 
and obtained it in 1846 by decomposing 
chloride of alumina by means of sodium. 

Amalekites. — This tribe of Edomite 
Arabs, descendants of Amalek, grandson 
of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 12), were the first to 
oppose the Israelites after the passage of 
the Eed Sea (Exod. x\-ii. 8—16), at the battle 
at Rephidim, B.C. 1491. Saul overcame 
them (1 Sam. xv. 8) B.C. 1093 ; David (1 
Sam. xxvii. 8, 9, and xxx.), b.c. 1055; and 
their descendants were exterminated by the 
Simeonites, about B.C. 725 (1 Chron. iv. 
42,43). 

Amalphi (Italy), a small republic in the 
Gulf of Salerno, that attained considerable 
eminence in the Middle Ages. Gibbon says, 
" Its industrious citizens, by the invention 
of the mariner's compass, have unveiled the 
face of the globe." One of its citizens is said 
to have invented the mariner's compass in 
1302. It flourished entirely by its com- 
merce, from about 750 to its conquest by 
Robert Guiscard, in 1077. It regained its 
independence in 1096, submitted to the king 
of Sicily in 1131, and was sacked by the 
Pisans in 1135. It was the seat of a 
bishop at an early period, and in 987, 
John XV. erected it into an archbishopi*ic. 

Amalphi (Pandects).— The story of the 
discovery at Amalphi, in 1137, of a unique 
copy of the Pandects of Justinian, which led 
to a revival of the study of jurisprudence in 
the West, though at one time generally be- 
lieved, is now rejected as fabulous. 

Amaleiciaits. — The followers of Amalri- 
cus, or Amaury, of Bene, the Paris dialecti- 
cian and theologian. He denounced several 
Roman Cathohc doctrines, and is said to 
have believed in a speedy reformation and 
purification of the Church by the sword. He 
has also been accused of Pantheism. Mil- 
man (Lat. Christ, vi. b. xiv. ch. 3) says, 
"AU kinds of incongruous charges were 
heaped upon the memorj' of Amaury de 
Bene : he was an Albigensian, beUeved in 
the Eternal Gospel." Whilst commenting 
upon the doctrines of Aristotle, he advanced 
his peculiar views. Innocent III. launched a 
buU of condemnation against his chief work 
" The Physion," in 1204. He retracted, and 
died soon after. His remains were disin- 
terred and burnt, and several of his followers 
were put to death by order of the council of 
Paris in October, 1210, David of Dinant Avas 
one of his followers, but the sect speedily 
disappeared. 

Amand, St. (Netherlands). — Taken_ by 
the prince of Nassau, June 27, 1709. Near 
this place the EngMsh first met the French 
37 



AMA 

repiiTilican troops, May 8, 1793. The duke 
of York commanded the English and their 
allies, who, after a hotly-contested battle, 
defeated the French. 

Amabanta (Order). — Instituted in Swe- 
den by Queen Christina, in 1645. This order 
of knighthood became extinct soon after her 
death. 

AMAzoif, Maeais-oit, or Oeelian-a (South 
America), the largest river in the world, was 
discovered in 1500 by Vincent Yanez Pinzon, 
but very little was known of it until the 
Spanish adventurer OreUana, having em- 
barked on the Eio ISTapo, one of its remote 
tributaries, was carried down the stream 
to its embouchure, reaching the sea m 
August, 1541. In consequence of his re- 
port that armed women had been seen on 
its banks, the river obtained its popular 
name of Amazon. The river was first accu- 
rately described in 1745 by M. de la Con- 
damine, who had embarked upon it in 1743, 
near Jaen, and followed its current to its 
mouth. 

Amazon, West-India mail steamer, de- 
stroyed by fire, in the Bay of Biscay, 
January 4, 1852. Out of 161 persons on 
board at the time, only 59 were saved. 

AMAZON'S. — A race of female warriors, of 
Scythian origin, dwelling on the banks of the 
Thermodon, in Cappadocia. They are men- 
tioned by Homer and Herodotus. In order 
to use their weapons with greater force and 
precision, their right breasts were burned off 
or destroyed at an early age. The Abb6 
Guy on wrote a shorthistoryof the Amazons, 
of which Dr. Johnson published a translation 
in the " Gentleman's Magazine " for 1741. 
These accounts have been rejected as fabu- 
lous, although repeated by many authors. 
Mill (Crusades, vol. i. ch. ix. p. 377), speak- 
ing of Conrad's army of crusaders in 1147, 
says,.. " A considerable troop of women rode 
among the Germans ; they were arrayed 
with the spear and shield ; but some love of 
usual delights had mingled itself with the 
desire of great exploits, for they were re- 
markable for the splendour of their dress, 
and the bold leader was called ' the golden- 
footed dame.' " Alvarez, who visited Abys- 
sinia in 1520, speaks of Amazons in that 
country. The figure of an Amazon is found 
on many ancient coins. The fact of the ex- 
istence of a regiment of Amazons in the pre- 
sent centuryis proved by Commander Forbes, 
who met with one at Dahomey during a visit in 
1840 and 1850. The author says : " It is rarely 
that Europeans are called upon to believe in 
the existence of Amazons — ^fighting women 
prepared to do battle on all around, th e terror 
of the neighbouring tribes, dressed in the 
attire of male soldiers, armed vrith muskets 
and swords. These sable ladies perform 
prodigies of valour, and not unfrequently, 
by a fortunate charge, save the honour of 
the male soldiers, by bearing down all before 
them, discovering themselves to the as- 
tonished and abashed prisoners to be women, 
exceeding their male coadjutors in cruelty 
and all the stronger passions." 



AMB 

Ambassadors, as representative agents or 
envoys, were employed in very ancient 
times. Moses sent messengers to the king^ 
of Edom to request a passage through his 
territories (I^umbers, xx. 14 — 21), B.C. 1452 ; 
and David made war upon the Ammonites 
because their king iU-used his messengers 
and treated them as spies (2 Sam. x.), B.C. 
1038. The custom of sending ambassadors 
prevailed amongst most ancient nations. 
Malmesbury in his Chronicle speaks of 
three ambassadors sent from England to 
Constantinople in 1056. Wicquefort (The 
Ambassador and his Functions, translated 
by Digby, 1716) declares, "There is not any 
kingdom or state that does not make use of 
them." In another place he says, "The 
Marshalless of Guebriant was the first lady, 
and the only one if I mistake not, that haa 
had this quality annexed to her own person, 
and she may perhaps be the last." By the 
law of England, ambassadors enjoy many 
privileges. They are free from arrest by 
7 Anne, c. 12 (April 21, 1708). This law 
was occasioned by the arrest of Andrew 
Artemonowitz Matueof, ambassador to Peter 
the Great, on the 21st of July, 1708. He was 
taken out of his coach in London for a debt 
of £50, at the suit of Thomas Morton, lace- 
man. Their goods are also free from dis- 
traint by the same statute. 

Ambek is found on the coasts of the 
Baltic Sea, and is also obtained by mining. 
This substance has been known from the 
earliest times (Ezekiel, i. 4 — 27, and riii. 2), 
and its electric property was first observed 
by Thales, born B.C. 64/3. It was used for 
ornament as weU as medicinal purposes 
before the Christian sera. Sophocles, who 
flourished about B.C. 480 ; Herodotus, born 
B.C. 484; Pliny, about a.k. 77, and other 
ancient writers, allude to it. That the an- 
cient Britons employed it for ornament is 
proved from the fact of its frequent occur- 
rence in barrows. It was also used as an 
amulet or charm against disease. In 1576 a 
mass weighing eleven pounds was found in 
Prussia. It occurs in Sicily and the Adriatic. 
Ambeeg- (Battle). — The French republi- 
can army was defeated near this town, in 
Germany, by the Austrians, August 24, 
1796. 

Amelee (Battle). — Gained here, in 716, 
by Charles Martel over the JTeustrians, who 
were returning to their own territories after 
having ravaged Austrasia. 

Ambleteuse (France). — A small seaport 
between Calais and Boulogne, at which 
Caesar embarked his cavalry for the invasion 
of England, B.C. 54; and James II. landed, 
Dec. 23, 1688, on deserting the EngUsh 
I throne. 

I Amboise (Edict). — A pacification between 
I the Eoman Catholics and the Protestants,, 
promulgated at Amboise, March 19, 1563 ; a 
j general amnesty was granted for the past 
I and free toleration of Protestant worship in 
j particular places in France. 
j Amboise (League). — Formed in 1560, by 
i the leaders of the Christaudins, as the French 



AMB 

Calrinists were then called, to OTerthrow the 
power of the Guises, and compel the French 
thig to grant them protection. 

Ambotna (Indian Archipelago), the chief 
of the Molucca Islands, was discovered in 
1511 by the Portuguese, who estabhshed a 
factory there in 1521, but did not obtain fuU 
possession untQ 15S0. The Dutch expelled 
the Portuguese in 1605 ; the Enghsh made 
an unsuccessful attempt to form a settlement 
upon the island in 1615, and subsequently 
estabhshed a factory there, the members of 
which were all treacherously murdered by 
the Dutch governor in Feb. 1623. The Dutch 
agreed to pay £270,000 compensation, part 
of which was to go to the heirs of the suf- 
ferers, by the treaty of peace of April 5, 
1651. Amboyna fell into the hands of the 
Enghsh Feb. 16, 1796; was restored to the 
Dutch in 1802; recaptured Feb. 17, 1810; 
and was given up again by the treaty of Paris, 
concluded May 30, 1814. 

Ambsosian Chant. — St. Ambrose, bishop 
of Milan (374r— 397), introduced the choral 
music of the Eastern into the Western 
Church, and it afterwards bore his name. 
It was superseded by th« Gregorian chant 
about the year 600. 

Ambeosian Libkaey. — This library was 
founded at Milan by Cardinal Borromeo in 
1602, and opened in 1609. It was named 
after St. Ambrose, the patron saint of that 
city. It contains 60,000 books. 

Ambeosiak EiTUAi. — The name given to 
the office used in the church of Milan. It 
receives its name from St. Ambrose, bishop 
of Milan (374 — 397), because it was either 
introduced into Milan, or at any rate altered 
by him. 

Ameecement, or Ameeciament. — The 
difference between amerciaments and fines is 
this ; fines are said to be punishments cer- 
tain, and grow expressly from some statute ; 
but amerciaments are such as are arbitrarily 
imposed. Magna Charta (c. 14) provides 
that a freeman is not to be amerced for a 
small fault, but proportionable to the offence, 
and that by his peers. The statute 9 Hen. 
III. c. 14 (1225), provides how men of all 
sorts shall be amerced, and by whom ; and 
by Statute of Westminster I. (3 Edw. I. 
c. 6), 1275, it was enacted that amercements 
should be reasonable; and the scale for 
various classes of the community was regu- 
lated by 25 Edw. I. c. 14, in 1297. 

Ameeica, or the ISTew World. — The exist- 
ence of this continent was known to the 
Scandinavians, or Northmen, in the 10th 
century. These enterprising voyagers dis- 
covered Iceland about the year 860, and 
Greenland about 982, forming settlements in 
these countries. One of the sailors, on a 
voyage from Iceland to Greenland, was 
driven by a storm on the coast of America 
in 986, and the account which he gave of his 
adventure induced Leif, son of Eric the Bed, 
to undertake a voyage of discovery in 1000. 
Having touched at places supposed to be the 
modem Nevrifoundland, Nova Scotia, and 
the neighbouring coast, the expedition came. 



AME 

in 1001, to a part of the country which re- 
ceived the name of Vinland, from its wild 
vines. It is supposed to have comprised 
Rhode Island, and parts of the coast be- 
tween Boston and New York ; and it became 
the seat of a settlement; for in 1121, Eric 
Upsi, an Icelander, the first bishop of Green- 
land, undertook a mission to the new colony 
of Vinland. The intercourse between the 
Northmen and America was carried on until 
the middle of the 14th century. It was, 
however, reserved for the enterprising navi- 
gators of the 15th century to give a know- 
ledge of the New World to the inhabitants 
of the Old, and to estabhsh that connection 
between these two distant portions of the 
globe, that has produced such wonderfiil 
results. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese 
navigator, supphed by Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella with thi-ee small ships, sailed from 
Palos, in Andalusia, on Friday, August 3, 
1492, and on Friday, the 12th of October, in 
the same year, he landed at San Salvador, 
one of the Bahama Islands. Columbus 
then sailed on to Cuba and Hispaniola, or 
Hayti, now St. Domingo, where he left 
a settlement ; but the Ainerican continent 
was not discovered until June 24, 1497, when 
John Gaboto, or Cabot (a Venetian settled 
in England, who, vrith his son Sebastian, 
sailed m ships furnished by Henry VII. and 
some Bristol merchants), landed in North 
■America, and explored a part of the coast. 
Columbus discovered Paria, on the con- 
tinent of South America, in 1498 ; and thus 
both divisions of the New World were 
known before the 16th century. The early 
navigators, imagining that these countries 
formed part of India, gave them the name 
of the West Indies. Amerigo Vespucci, a 
Florentine traveller, who sailed in several 
expeditions, is said to have inserted the words 
Tierra de Amerigo in a map pubhshed by him 
early in the 16th century. Though this account 
is denied, fromhim came thename of America, 
bywhichthatportionoftheglobeisnowknown. 
Further information respecting America is 
given under its various pohtical divisions. 
The following chronological table contains 
some of the chief points in the early history 
of its discovery and colonization. 



1492. Columbtis discovers San Salvador, Cuba, His- 

paniola, now called St. Domingo, and builds 
the fort La Navidad on Hispaniola. 

1493. Columbus discovers Dominica, Nov. 2. 

1494. The fort La Navidad, at Hispaniola, having 

been destroyed, Columbus founds the city 
of Isabella. He discovers Jamaica. 

1497. John Cabot discovers St. John's and the 

coast of North America, June 24. St. 
Domingo founded. 

1498. Columbus discovers Trinidad July 31, pro- 

ceeds to the river Orinoco, and enters 
the Gulf of Paria ; thus discovering the 
continent of S. America. Sebastian Cabot 
visits Newfoundland. 

1499. Ojeda lands at Surinam, sails to the Gulf of 

Paria, and then to Venezuela. 

1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, lands in Labrador. 

Pinzou discovers Brazil ; and three months 
later Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, 
lands there. Pinzon reaches the mouth 
of the river Amazon. 



AME 



A.D. 

1501. Bastidas explores the coast from Cape Vela to 

the Gulf of Darien. 

1502. Columbus explores the coast of Terra Fii-ma 

as far as the Isthmus of Darien. 

1508. Pinzon and Soils discover Yutachan, and 
Aubert, a Fi-enchman, the St. lawrence. 

1510. Ojeda builds St. Sebastian, the first settle- 
ment on the mainland at Daxien. 
1511 and 1512. Velasquez conquers Cuba. Vasco 
Nunez de Balboa obtains information 
respecting Peru. 

1512. Ponce de Leon discovers the coast of Florida 

on Easter day. 

1513. Vasco Nunez de Balboa crosses the Isthmus 

of Darien, where he established a small 
settlement, and discovers the S. Pacific 
Ocean in September. 
1515. Soils discovers the La Plata. 

1517. Cordova discovers Campeachy, and penetrates 

into Mexico. 

1518. Grijalva explores the shores of the Mexican 

Gulf, and gives his discoveries the name of 
New Spain. 

1519. Cortes sails from the Havana for the conquest 

of Mexico, Feb. 18. 

1520. Magellan passes through the straits that bear 

his name. 

1521. Cortes completes the conquest of Mexico by 

the captuie of its capital, Aug. 13. 
1524. A French expedition, under Verrazzano, sur- 
veys the coast of N. America. 

1526. PizaiTo discovei-s Quito. 

1527. Pizarro visits Tumbez in Pern, and sails 

along the coast to the port of Santa. 

1531, Jan. Pizarro saUs on his third and last expe- 
dition for the conquest of Peru. 

1.532. Pizarro attacks Peru. 

1533. Pizarro enters Cuzco, the capital of Peru. 

1534. Cartier circumnavigates Newfoundland, and 

enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1535. Cartier ascends the St. Lawrence to Hoche- 

laga, now Montreal. The city of Buenos 
Ayres founded by Mendoza. 

1536. Cortes discovers California. Mr. Hore 

attempts to found an Englibh settlement 
at Newfoundland. 

1539. TJUoa enters the Gulf of California. 

1540. Alarcon explores the Colorado river. 

1541. Orellaua sails down the Maranou, or Amazon, 

and reaches the sea in August. ChUi 
conquered. 

1.546: The Spanish conquest of Peru completed. 

1549. Martinez de Yrala ascends the Paraguay to 
the 17th deg. of S. latitude. 

1562. French settlement formed in Florida. 

1564. Carolina settled by the French, who are 
expelled by the Spaniards. 

1567. Hawkins sails to the Spanish main, and 
discovers the Falkland Isles. 

1573. Sir Francis Drake reaches Panama, and is the 
first Englishman who sees the Pacific Ocean. 

1575. Oxenham sails for S. America. 

1.576. Martin Frobisher goes on a voyage of discovery 
to the north-west. 

1577. Drake sails Dec. 13, and reaches La Plata 
April 14, 1578. He doubles Cape Horn, 
and sailing as far as Vancouver Island, dis- 
covers New Albion, and reaches England 
Sept. 26, 1580. 

1583. Sir Humphrey GUbert's expedition to New- 

foundland proves a failure. 

1584. Raleigh's expedition discovers Virginia. 
156.5. Davis sails to Greenland, and discovers the 

straits that bear his name. First English 
settlement in Virginia formed at Eoanoke. 

1586. The settlement at Koanoke is destroyed. 

1587. Cavendish sails to the N. Pacific. 
1604. French settlement of Acadia formed. 

1607. First permanent English settlement in 

America is made in Virginia and called 
James-town. Hudson's first voyage. 

1608. Quebec founded by the Frenrh. 

1610. A patent granted to Lord Bacon and others, 
for a plantation in Newfoundland. Hudson 
discovers the bay that be;vrs his name. 
40 



A.D. 

1614. 
1616. 



1621. 
1625. 



1671. 
1674. 
1680. 
1682. 



AME 



First Dutch settlement on the Hudson. 

The cultivation of tobacco commenced in 
Virginia. 

Plymouth, in New England, settled by the 
Puritans. First negroes imported to 
Virginia in a Dutch ship. 

Sir William Alexander obtains a charter for 
Nova Scotia. 

The French form a settlement at St. Chris- 
topher's. The English land upon that island 
in the same year; 

A Swedish settlement formed on the 
Delaware. 

An English settlement at Naumkeag, in 
Massachusetts Bay, formed. 

Lord Baltimore's settlement in Maryland. 

Fenwick establishes a colony on the Con- 
necticut, and the French found a settle- 
ment in Guiana. 

A settlement made by the English in Carolina. 
St. Jolm's (afterwards Prince Edwai-d's 
island) gianted to Doublet. 

An English settlement made in S. Carolina. 

Settlement formed at Kupert's river. 

Settlement foi-med at Moose river. 

Albany settlement formed. 

Penn founds the settlement which is named 
after him. 

Nelson and Severn settlements formed. 

The Scotch form a settlement at Darien, 
Nov. 2, and erect Fort Andrew. It was 
abandoned in 1699. A second and third 
expedition followed. 

The Scottish settlers suiTender to the 
Spaniards, March 30, and the enterprise 
is abandoned. 



America (Episcopal Church). — The first 
recorded baptism of a native American took 
place at Virginia, August 13, 1587. In the 
letters patent granted by James I. for the 
plantation of Virginia, April 10, 1606, the 
duty of a Christian nation to communicate 
through her colonies the knowledge of the 
truth which she possesses is duly recognized, 
Eobert Hunt, the first clergyman appointed 
to the colony of Virginia, sailed with the 
expedition, Dec. 19, 1606. The first mar- 
riage celebrated in the colony is said to have 
been solemnized by Kobert Hunt in 1608. 
Such was the humble origin of the Episcopal 
Church in America. During the Great Ke- 
belHon, the colonists of Virginia, in 1643, 
ordered that no clergyman should preach or 
teach, publicly or privately, except in con- 
formity to the Church of England. The 
Episcopalians suffered severely during the 
war of independence, but at its close, in 
1784, the clergy of Connecticut elected the 
Eev. Samuel Seabury bishop, and he was 
consecrated by the bishops of the Episcopal 
Church of Scotland, having met with a re- 
fusal at Lambeth. He was the first colo- 
nial bishop. An address was sent from the 
General Convention, held at Philadelphia, 
Oct. 5, 1785, to the English archbishops and 
bishops, begging them to confer the episco- 
pal character on such as should be recom- 
mended to them. A reply was returned 
Feb. 24, 1786, and three colonial bishops 
were consecrated at Lambeth, Feb. 4, 1787, 
under the authority of an act of parhament 
passed for that purpose. Dr. Madison was 
consecrated first bishop of Virginia in 1790, 
Since 1842 the American clergy have been 
allowed to officiate for a period not exceed- 



AME 

ing two Sundays in succession, in our Eng- 
lish churches. There are twenty-four bishops 
belonging to this branch of the Episcopal 
Church. 

AMEKiCAif CoNGEiiss.— Thedelegatesfrom 
twelve colonies, amounting to 55 in number, 
assembled at Philadelphia Sept. 5, 1774. 
They passed a declaration of rights and other 
measures, and separated Oct. 26. The second 
Congress met May 10, 1775, and issued the 
Declaration of Independence July 4>, 1776. 
The Congress removed to Baltimore toward 
the end of 1776. The first Congress of the 
United States met at New York in 1789. Its 
sittings were transferred to Philadelphia in 
1790, and were removed to Washington, where 
they have since been held, in 1800. 

Ameeican Stamp Act. — This measure 
(5 Geo. III. c. 12), imposing on the American 
colonists the same stamp duties as those 
paid in England, was introduced early in the 
session, and received the royal assent March 
22, 1765. The taxation thus levied was less 
than £100,000 per annum. The act came 
into operation Nov. 1 ; but meeting with 
resistance, was repealed by 6 Geo. III. c. 11, 
passed March 18, 1766. Its operations ceased 
from May 1 in that year, and a biU of in- 
demnity for those who had incurred penalties 
was passed June 6. The revolt of the colon- 
ists commenced in 1773. 

Amethyst. — This stone was the ninth in 
order on the breastplate of the Jewish high- 
priests, and was consequently known as early 
as B.C. 1491. 

Amid, or Amida (Asia). — This city was 
wrested from the Eomans by the Persians, 
under Sapor, after a memorable siege that 
lasted from July 27 to Oct. 7, 359 a.d. The 
Persians captured it again, after a long 
siege, A.D . 502 ; but the Eomans soon regained 



Amiens (Treaties) . — The first, sometimes 
called the Peace of Picquigny, between 
Louis XI. of Prance and Edward IV. of 
England, was concluded here, in four acts, 
August 29, 1475. King Edward agreed to 
retire with his a,rmj, on the payment, by the 
king of France, of 75,000 crowns. A truce 
of seven years was agreed to by the two 
kings. They were to assist each other in case 
of need. King Edward agreed to give his 
daughter EHzabeth in marriage to Prince 
Charles, son of Louis XI., who also engaged 
to pay 50,000 crowns annually during Ed- 
ward's lifetime. The kings met at the castle 
of Picquigny, about twelve miles from 
Amiens. Philip of Commines remarks: "And 
certainly, as I have said before, the EngHsh 
do not manage their treaties and capitula- 
tions with so much cunning and policy as 
the French do, let people say what they will, 
but proceed more ingenuously, and with 
greater straightforwardness in their aiFairs ; 
yet a man must be cautious, and have a 
care not to affront them, for it is dan- 
gerous meddling with them." The pre- 
liminaries of the more celebrated treaty 
of Amiens were signed in London, Oct. 1, 
1801 J the ratification was brought from 



AMO 

Paris to London in eleven days ; and the de- 
finitive treaty, containing twenty -two articles, 
was concluded at Amiens on the 25th of 
March, 1802, a supplementary article Ijeing 
added on the 27th. It was ratified in the 
following month, and peace was proclaimed 
in the cities of London and Westminster, on 
the 29th of April. The contracting parties 
were France, Holland, and Spain, on the 
one hand, and Great Britain on the other. 
England gave up to their former owners all 
the conquests made during the war, except 
Trinidad, wrested from Spain, and a por- 
tion of Ceylon, taken from the Dutch. It 
was stipulated that within three months after 
the exchange of the ratifications, the Enghsh 
troops should evacuate Malta, Gozo, and 
Comino, which were to be restored to the 
Knights of St. John ; and the independence 
of these islands was guaranteed by France, 
Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Russia, and 
Prussia. The French agreed to evacuate 
Naples, and all the ports and islands which 
they; occupied in the Mediterranean or the 
Adriatic. Egypt was restored to Turkey. 
This treaty terminated a war of ten years* 
duration ; but peace scarcely lasted thirteen 
months. Napoleon's interference in Hol- 
land, Italy, and Switzerland, and his extra- 
ordinary annexations, induced the Enghsh 
govermnent to maintain their garrison at 
Malta, and the war was renewed May 17, 
1803. 

Ammokites. — Descendants of Ammon, the 
son of Lot (Gen. xix. 38), about B.C. 1897. 
They occupied territory at one time in the 
possession of the Zamzummims, " a people 
great, and many, and tall as the Anakims." 
(Deut. ii, 19—21.) Although the Israehtes 
were commanded not to molest them, several 
wars ensued between the two nations, with 
varying success. They oppressed the Israel- 
ites B.C. 1206 (Hales, B.C. 1263 ; and Clinton, 
B.C. 1256) ; but were defeated by Jephthah 
with great slaughter (Judges, xi. 32, 33), b.c. 
1188 (Hales, 1245 ; andChnton, 1238), and by 
Saul (1 Sam. xi.), b.c. 1094 (Hales, B.C. 
1110). Davidsubduedthem B.C. 1038. Judas 
Maccabaeus fought many battles with them, 
and they leagued against Judsea B.C. 164. 
They gradually merged in the tribes of 
Arabia. 

Amnestt, or public act of pardon or 
obhvion for pohtical and other offences, was 
conmion amongst the Greeks and Romans. 
Amnesties were granted in England after 
the Great EebeUion and the Jacobite insur- 
rections : the latest act of parhament of the 
kind, passed in 1747, being 20 Geo. II. s. 52, 
entitled " An Act for the Icing's most gracious 
general and free pardon." In France fre- 
quent revolutions have rendered such acts of 
grace necessary during the present century. 
On the 3rd of May, 1856, the Queen granted 
a free pardon to several pohtical offenders 
who were concerned in the Chartist outbreaks 
and the insurrection in Ireland. 

Amoeites. — These descendants of Canaan 
(Gen. X. 16) became a powerful people, and 
I by this designation all the Canaanite tribes 
41 



AMO 

were at one time described. They took 
part in the struggle narrated in the fourteenth 
chapter of Genesis, about B.C. 1912. They 
were engaged in sereral contests with the 
Israehtes, who were instructed to utterly 
destroy their cities (Deut. xx. 16, 17) . 

AiroxJE, or Amtte. — This river of 
Chinese Tartary first became known to the 
Kussians in 1639. After a struggle of fifty 
years, with the view of annexing the territory 
through which it flows, they coacluded a 
treaty with the Chinese, in 1689, by virtue of 
which the Eussians remained wholly ex- 
cluded from the river. In 1847 its navigation 
was again opened to them by treaty ; and 
they have recently succeeded in their 
primary design of making the Amour a 
Eussian river. 

Amot (China). — ^Europeans were allowed 
to trade from 1675 to 1681. The fort of 
Amoy was destroyed by the British July 3, 
1S4DJ and the town itself was taken 
Aug. 26, 1841. It was one of the five 
Chinese ports opened to the British by the 
treaty of Aug. 26, 1842. This town was 
taken by the Chinese insurgents May 29, 
1853, and recaptured by the imperial forces 
ISox. 11, 1853. 

Amphicttoxic Cotjkcil was one of the 
earliest institutions in Greece. Grote says : 
•' The belief of ^schines (perhaps also 
the general belief in his time) was, that it 
commenced simultaneously Avith the first 
foundation of the Delphian temple, an event 
of which we have no historical knowledge." 
Twelve tribes sent sacred deputies, called 
Amphictyons, to this association, which held 
two meetings every year, one at the temple of 
Apollo, at Delphi, in the spring, and the 
other at the temple of Ceres, at Thermopylae, 
in the autumn. The interference of the 
Amphicytons led to the first sacred war, 
B.C. .595 — B.C. 586. At the instigation of 
Philip of Macedon, the Phocians were ex- 
pelled from the council B.C. 346 ; but they 
were re-admitted, for their valour in expeUing 
the Gauls under Brennus, B.C. 279. This 
council underwent various changes and vicis- 
situdes, although it survived tine independence 
of the country ; and so late as the battle of 
Actium, B.C. 31, it retained enough of its 
ancient dignity to induce Augustus to claim 
a place in it for his new city of Kicopohs. 
Pausanias states that it existed in the second 
century of our sera. 

Amphioit Peigate.— Destroyed at Ports- 
mouth by an accidental explosion, Sept. 22, 
1796. Captain Pellew, and fifteen others on 
shore at the time, were the only persons that 
escaped out of a crew of 220 men. 

Amphitheatee. — The Eomans delighted 
in exhibitions of the hunting of wQd animals, 
of combats between gladiators and wild 
beasts, and other cruel spectacles ; and these, 
which at first took place in the forum and 
the circus, were afterwards performed in 
buildings devoted to such displays, and called 
Amphitheatres. The first was constructed 
by C. Scribonius Curio, consul B.C. 76. The 
next, and probably the fii'st called an amphi- 



AN"A 

theatre, was constructed by Julius Caesar, 
B.C. 46. This was of wood; and a more 
durable one, in stone, was erected in the 
Campus Martins, by Statihus Taurus, during- 
the reign of Augustus. It was destroyed by 
fir e in the time of Ilfero . Several amphitheatres- 
were afterwards built. The most remarkable, . 
known as the Colosseum, of which the ruins 
exist, was commenced by Yespasian in the- 
year 70 a.b., and completed in the year 80 by 
Titus, who opened it with magnificent spec- 
tacles. The ruins of several buildings of the- 
kind are stiU found in Italy and Prance. 

{See COLOSSETTM.) 

Amphiteite. — ^This ship, having on board 
103 female convicts, 12 children, and a crew 
of 16 men, was wrecked off Boulogne, 
Aug. 81, 1833, when all perished excepting- 
three of the crew. 

Amsteedait, or AiisxELDAir (Holland) . — 
This great commercial emporium, on the 
river Amstel, founded in 1203, remained a 
small fishing-vfilage until the middle of the 
13th century, when it was made a tovm. 
William III., count of Holland, took it in 
1296 ; and WDliam IV. gave it municipal > 
institutions in 1340. It was waUed in 1482 ; ij 
joined the confederation of the Netherlands-- \ 
Feb. 8, 1578, and received additional privileges- ' 
from the prince of HoUand in 1581. Prom 
that time its prosperity increased rapidly, 
and it received an additional impulse from 
the closing of the Scheldt in 1648. It was 
captured by the Preuch, Jan. 20, 1795, and 
remained under their rule until 1813. Its 
townhall, erected on piles, commenced in 
1648, was completed in 1655 : it narrowly 
escaped destruction by fire in 1762 and 1806, 
and was made a royal palace in 1808. The 
celebrated Bank of Amsterdam was founded 
1609, and ceased in 1796, The Bank of the 
Netherlands, on the model of the Bank of 
England, was established here in 1841. 

Amsteedam Island (Indian Ocean). — 
Discovered by Yan Ylaming, a Dutchman, in 
1696. 

Aurtri-ET. — Amulets of various kinds were 
in use among the Jews (Gen. xxxv. 4, and 
Hosea, ii. 13). The Persians and the Egyp- 
tians used them; the Greeks and Eomans 
made them of gems of various kinds. Homer 
mentions them as charms. Pericles, who 
died B.C. 429, wore an amulet. The em- 
peror CaracaUa, about a.d. 216, prohibited 
the use of them. Amulets made of the 
wood of the Cross, or of riband with texts 
of scripture upon them, as preservatives 
against diseases and other calamities, were 
adopted by Christians in the 4th century. 
The coimcil of Laodicea, in 366, condemned 
the practice. Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis 
(367), Chrysostom (400), and St. BasU, 
patriarch of Constantinople (970), and 
many others, censured this superstition. 
The 'ancient Druids used them, and both 
necklaces and beads, intended as charms, 
are frequently found in their barrows. 

ANABAPTISTS.— The term was first apphed 
to the followers of Mirnzer and Storck, who 
began to preach in Saxony in 1521. Owing 



r 



ANA 



to their inflammatory harangues, a rebellion 
broke out in Suabia, Thurin^ia, Pranconia, 
Saxony, and other parts ot Germany, in 
1525. These sectaries were routed and their 
leaders put to death the same year. Their 
doctrines, howeyer, had not been extirpated, 
and another rising of the Anabaptists oc- 
curred in Westphalia in 1533. John Bock- 
hold, a tailor of Leyden, afterwards called 
John of Leyden, was made king. They 
captured Munster, which was to be their 
Nevr Jerusalem, in 1533, and the city was 
not retaken until June 24, 1536, when John 
of Leyden and many of his associates were 
put to death. About this time severe laws 
were enacted against the Anabaptists by 
different European governments. Their 
doctrines found supporters in England. 
Fourteen were burnt in London and in 
other towns. May 25, 1535, and four Dutch 
Anabaptists suffered the same punishment 
in 1538. Three were burnt at Southwark, 
April 29, 1540 ; and EHzabeth by proclama- 
tion ordered them to quit the kingdom 
within one-and-twenty days, in 1560. Some 
enthusiasts of this kind attempted to effect 
a rising in London, April 9, 1657, but were 
suppressed. Thomas Venner, an Anabaptist 
preacher, with about eighty of his followers, 
appeared in arms in London, Jan. 6, 1661. 
They fought desperately with the troops, 
but were at last overcome, and Venner and 
sixteen of his associates perished on the 
scaffold, Jan. 19 and 21. 

Anachoeets, or Akchoeets, arose in 
Egypt and Syi-ia in the 3rd century. Paul 
the Hermit, who retired into the deserts of 
Egypt to avoid the Decian persecution, a.d. 
250, and St. Antony, born 251, are consi- 
dered the first anchorets. Bingham (Antiq. 
b. vii. c. ii. s. 2) says, the first sort of monks 
"were commonly Icnown by the name of An- 
chorets, from their retiring from society, and 
living in private cells in the wilderness. Such 
were Paid and Antony, and Hilarion, the 
first founders of the monastic life in Egypt 
and Palestine ; from whom other monks took 
their model." Eosbroke points out the dis- 
tinction between anchorets and hermits, the 
former never qtdtting their cells, whilst the 
latter roamed at large. The Church assumed 
jurisdiction over these voluntary exiles from 
the world in the 7th century, and enacted 
rules and regulations for their direction. 
Towards the end of the 9th century the 
custom arose of erecting their cells at the 
porches of churches and even the gates of 
towns. The ceremony of consecration was 
performed by the bishop. St. Dunstan's 
cell at Glastonbury (950) was so small that 
he could neither stand erect in it nor stretch 
his hmbs to their full length. In 1325 an 
anchoress resided upon a piece of ground ia 
St. Peter's, ComhiU ; and in the "Privy Purse 
Expenses of Elizabeth of York," entries are 
made of gifts to an anchoress at Gloucester, 
'Not. 25, 1502, and to another near St. 
Alban's, March, 1503. 

AiN'AGKAM. — Camden says, "Good ana- 
grams yield a delightful comfort and plea- 



AIs^A 

sant motion in honest minds," and refers 
their origin to the time of Moses. They 
were classed by the Hebrews among the 
cabalistic sciences. The Greeks took the 
practice, and Lycophron, about B.C. 380, 
has left some on record. They were very 
common on the continent in the 16th and 
17th centuries ; and in the latter Louis XIII, 
appointed Thomas BUlen, royal anagramist, 
with a salary of 12,000 livres. Calvin, in his 
"Institutions," published at Strasburg in 
1539, styles himself Alcuinus, which, in addi- 
tion to being the name of an old writer, is 
the anagram of Calvinus. They prevailed in 
England at a somewhat later ]3eriod. 

Akam, or AifNAM (Asia). — This extensive 
tract of country, comprising Cochin-China, 
and Tonquin, Camboja, or Cambodia, and 
some small islands, is said to have been colo- 
nized by the Chinese b.c. 234. The inhabit- 
ants appear to have regained their independ- 
ence, though they continued nominally sub- 
ject to China, a.d. 263. In 1406, the Chinese 
once more captured the country, which they 
retained until 1428. (See CocHiir CniifA, 
TOJN^QTIIN-, &c.) 

Anapa (Circassia). — Founded by the 
Turks in 1784 and captitred by the Eussians 
in 1791. It was restored to Turkey, but 
again captured by Eussia in 1807 and 1809, 
and again restored in 1812. The Eussians 
finally took possession, June 23, 1828 ; but 
abandoned it to the French and English 
forces, June 5, 1855. It reverted to the Eus- 
sians on the conclusion of peace in 1856. 

Anastatic Pkintim-g. — This process for 
producing copies of manuscripts, or printed 
documents, or engravings, that can with 
difficulty be detected from the originals, was 
invented by M. Baldermus. The fact of the 
discovery was communicated to a select few 
in London in 1841. It was soon after made 
public, and Faraday explained the process at 
the Eoyal Institution, April 25, 1845. It 
has since transpired that a similar process 
had been employed in England some time 
before M. Baldermus's invention was made 
known. 

Anathema "is a word," says Bingham 
(Antiq. b. xvi. ch. ii. s. 16), "that occurs 
frequently in the ancient canons, and 
the condemnation of aU heretics." It is 
found in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, and in Gal. i. 8 ; 
and upon its use in the latter text the 
authorities of the early Church grounded 
their justification of its employment ia 
ecclesiastical censures. The council of 
Gangra, a.d. 365 or 375, closes every one of 
its canons thus, — "Let him be anathema, or 
accursed ! " In ecclesiastical language it is 
generally understood as the sentence of 
major excommunication from the Church, 
pronounced with execration and malediction 
by a pope, bishop, or council. During the 
disorders occasioned by the violence of ban- 
ditti in France in the 9th and 10th cen- 
turies, when the ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
was appealed to in aid of the civil, anathemas 
were decreed against robbers by councils, in 
presence of holy relies brought in for the 
43 



ANA 

occasion. One of these, issued in 988, affords 
a very curious specimen of style and diction. 
{See Excommunication-.) 

Anatoxia. — ^Tlie Lydians dispute vritli the 
Phrygians the honour of being the first 
settlers. It was the seat of empire of the 
wealthy Croesus, who was defeated and his 
capital taken by Cyrus, B.C. 548; and it re- 
mained under the Persian yoke until con- 
quered by Alexander the Great, B.C. 333. 
At his death it was divided into several small 
states. They gradually fell before the 
Eoman legions, and the whole country was 
reduced to the form of a Eoman province, 
B.C. 50. Christianity flourished, and several 
councils were held in diiFerent parts. Here 
were the seven churches of Asia, to which 
St. John wrote his Eevelation (ch. i. 4 and 
11), A.D. 96 or 97. The Persians under 
Chosroes II. overran the country in 616, and 
were defeated by HeracHus in 627. The 
Turks obtained possession 1074 — 1084. The 
Mongols committed great devastations 1242 
— 1272. In 1300 AnatoUa was divided 
amongst the Turkish emirs. Another Mon- 
gol invasion spread ruin and destruction in 
1402, but the Turks regained possession, and 
Anatoha has suice remained under theu' 
sway. The Byzantines apphed the term 
Anatolia to the country to the east of Con- 
stantinople, and it received the name of Asia 
Minor ia the 4th century. Anatoha or 
Anadol, in a more restricted sense, is 
now appHed to only a portion of Asia 
Minor. 

Anatojiy. — Some authorities pretend that 
this_ science was practised at a very early 
period, and that the Jews and other ancient 
nations from their sacrifices, and the Egyp- 
tians from their process of embahmng, 
obtaiaed a certain amount of knowledge on 
the subject. A writer in the Encyclopaedia 
Britannica remarks, — "Amidst the general 
obscurity in which the early history of 
anatomy is involved, only two leading facts 
may be admitted with certainty. The first 
is, that previous to the time of Aristotle 
there was no acciirate knowledge of anatomy ; 
and the second, that aU that was known was 
derived from the dissection of the lower 
animals only." Aristotle (b.c. 334 — 327) 
laid the basis of the science, but it was not 
tmtil the 3rd century that the human body 
was dissected at Alexandria by Erasistratus, 
who obtained the bodies of criminals. Pliny 
states that the study was encouraged by the 
Ptolemies. Celsus, at the commencement 
of the Christian aera, gave some account of 
the progress of anatomy ; and Galen in the 
2nd century collected all that was kno-\vn, 
and made great advances in the science. 
It flourished in Sicily in the 13th century, 
when Frederick II. enacted that no person 
who had not acquired a knowledge of ana- 
tomy should be allowed to practise surgery. 
Pope Boniface YIII. prohibited it in Bologna 
in 1297. Mundinus, between 1315-18, pub- 
licly dissected three human bodies at Bo- 
logna, and wrote a work on the subject that 
became a text-book in the Itahan universi- 



ANC 

ties. The greatest anatomist of the Middle 
Ages was Vesahus, who operated extensively 
on human subjects. He became professor 
at Pavia in 1540; and pubhshed his great 
work on anatomy, the first containing ana- 
tomical plates, at Basel, in 1543. Michael 
Angelo, Kaphael, and Lionardo da Vinci, 
had, previous to that time, been peiinitted 
by Juhus II. and Leo X. to study the 
muscles in the hmnan body for purposes of 
paiating and sculpture. Thomas Ticary, in 
1548, was the first Enghshman who ■wrote 
upon the subject : he has been followed by 
Harvey, the two Hunters, and a number of 
eminent men, who, both by their researches 
and their writings, have brought this science 
to a state of great perfection. 

Anatomy Laws. — By 32 Hen. VIII, 
c. 43, s. ii. (1540), the barbers and surgeons 
of London were authorized to take, yearly, 
the bodies of four malefactors, executed for 
felony, for purposes of dissection. Several 
enactinents have appeared in the statute- 
book since that time. Great difficulty having 
been experienced in obtaining subjects for 
dissection, and bad practices having arisen, 
the "Act for Regulating Schools of Ana- 
tomy" (2 & 3 WiU. n^.^c. 75) was passed 
Aug. 1, 1832. It authorized the granting of 
hcenses to practise anatomy, and gave 
facfiities for procuring the necessary sub- 
jects ; whilst the sixteenth section repealed 
9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 4 (June 27, 1828), by 
which the body of a person executed for 
murder was ordered to be dissected. 

Ancenis (Treaty). — Concluded between 
Louis XI. and the dukes of Britanny and 
Normandy. It was ratified by the king and 
the duke of Britanny Sept. iS, and by the 
duke of Normandy June 21, 1470. Philip of 
Commiues says (book ii. ch, 5), — "The 
dukes renounced all their aUiances, and par- 
ticularly his (duke of Burgundy) ; and that, 
in satisfaction of all his demands, the duke 
of Normandy was to receive a pension of 
60,000 hvres per annum, for which he was to 
rehnquish the interest which had been lately 
conferred upon him in Normandy." 

Ancients (Council of) . — The "Convention 
in 1795 divided the legislative power in 
France between two coimcils, that of the 
Ancients and that of the Five Hundred. To 
the former was intrusted the power of passing 
or rejecting the laws that originated in the 
latter branch of the legislatui-e. Their sit- 
tings were transferred to St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 
1799, and a new constitution soon after sup- 
pressed the council altogether. 

Ancona (Italy) . — The capital of a delega- 
tion of the same name, is said by Strabo to 
have been founded by a colony of Syra- 
cusans in the time of Dionysius, about B.C. 
380. Juvenal calls it a Doric colonj'. The 
Eomans occupied it b.c. 178, and eventually 
made it one of their chief naval stations on 
the Adriatic. Trajan improved the town 
and constructed the mole a.d. 107; and a 
triumphal arch in white marble was erected 
in honoirr of him A.n. 112. The Lombards 
occupied it in 592, and the Saracens took it in 



ANC 

839. The town adhered to the Greek 
emperors, and was besieged by Frederick I. 
in 1167; and again by the Germans and 
Venetians in 1174. Innocent III. expelled 
the Germans in 1198. Pius II. collected an 
army here for a crusade against the Turks in 
1464, but died before he could embark in the 
expedition. The March of Ancona remained 
for a long period under the protection of the 
popes, though at intervals the connection 
was severed, until the papal general Gonzaga 
seized it, and placed it under the absolute 
dominion of Clement VII. in 1532. Ancona 
was declared a free port in 1732. The French 
captured it Feb. 9, 1797; surrendered it 
'NoY. 13, 1799 ; regained it by the armistice of 
Treviso, Jan. 16, 1801; and restored it to 
the pope in 1802. A French expedition 
landed at Ancona and took possession of the 
citadel Feb. 23, 1832. They ^eld it until 
Dec. 4, 1838, when, upon the withdrawal of 
the Austrians from the papal dominions, they 
marched out. The Austrians captured it 
June 14, 1849; and the Sardinians in Sept, 
1860, when General Lamoriciere, who had 
re-organized the papal army, was made 
prisoner. An episcopal see was established 
at Ancona at an early period. 

Aif CTEA (Asia Minor) . — An important 
town in Galatia, on the route from Byzan- 
tium to Armenia and Syria. It originally 
belonged to Phrygia. According to Strabo, 
it became the chief town of the Tectosages, a 
Gallic tribe, about B.C. 277. It was taken 
by the Romans B.C. 189; was formally an- 
nexed to Eome B.C. 25 ; and soon after took 
the name of Sebaste, and was sometimes 
called MetroxDohs. A Christian church was 
established here in the time of the apostles ; 
and it was made an episcopal see. Councils 
were held at Ancyra a.d. 314, 358, and 375 ; 
Chosroes II. captured the city in 616 ; the 
Saracens took it in 1085 ; and it was carried 
by assault, by the Crusaders, in 1102. (See 
Angoea.) 

Andalucia (Spain), anciently Vaistda- 
LTJCIA, a large province, that at one time 
formed part of the Eoman colony of Baetica. 
The Vandals conquered it early in the 5th 
century, and on their passing over to Africa, 
A.D. 429, the Visigoths obtained possession. 
They were expelled, in 711, by the Moors, 
who, in spite of various reverses, did not 
finally relax their hold until 1492, when their 
last possessions in Andalucia reverted to the 
Spaniards. An independent race of cahphs 
governed Andalucia from -756 to 1036. An- 
aalucia was divided into two departments, 
containing eight provinces, by a royal decree, 
Il^ov. 30, 1833. 

Andaman- Islands (Bay of Bengal). — 
The English attempted to form a settlement 
on one of the four in 1791. It was removed 
to Port CornwaUis in 1793, and abandoned, 
on account of the bad cKmate, in 1796. The 
British expedition _ against the Burmese 
touched here in 182*4, and another visit was 
made in 1825, on both of which occasions 
the inhabitants evinced great hostility. 

Andebnach (Prussia) . — The ancient 



ANE 

Antunacum, near which Caesar constructed 
a bridge across the Rhine, B.C. 55, for the 
passage of his army into Germany. Charles 
the Bald was defeated here Oct. 8, 876, by 
his nephew, Louis II. of Saxony. It was 
made an imperial city during the Middle 
Ages, but was reduced to the rank of a 
municipal town by the elector of Cologne in 
1496. 

Andoeea. — This republic, in the Pyrenees, 
consists of neutral territory between France 
and Spain. It was formed by Charlemagne, 
during his wars against the Moors, and has 
preserved the same frontiers and mode of 

tovernment which it then received. By two 
iplomas, issued under the authority of 
Charlemagne, in 778 and 801, Andorra was 
constituted an independent state. The 
counts of Foisc were nominated protectors ; 
but a dispute having arisen in 860, on this 
point, a contest ensued, which lasted until 
1278, when a co-protectorate was vested in 
the bishops of Urgel and the counts of Foix. 
The rights of the latter merged in the house 
of Bourbon, and, in consequence, the 
joint protectorate is now exercised by the 
emperor of the French and the Spanish 
bishop of Urgel. Andorra is the oldest 
free republic in existence. 

Andeew, St. (Order of), generally called 
Knights of the Thistle, was instituted, ac- 
cormng to some authorities, in memory of a 
battle won by the Scotch over the Enghsh, 
by the aid of St. Andrew. Others ascribe it 
to Achaius, king of Scotland, a.d, 787 or 812 ; 
others to the sera of Charles VII. of France. 
It was, however, estabhshed by James V. in 
1540, revived by James II., of England, in 
1687, and restored by Queen Anne, Dec. 31, 
1703. The Russian order of St. Andrew was 
instituted by Peter the Great in 1698. 

Andrews, St. (Scotland). — This town 
was made a royal burgh by David I., in 
1140. Its university was founded in 1411, 
by Bishop Wardlaw, and confirmed by a 
papal bull in the following year. It con- 
sisted of three colleges, namely, those of 
St. Salvator, founded in 1458 ; St. Leonard, 
in 1512 ; and New, or St. Mary's College, in 
1552. The two former were united in 1747, 
and the buildings of St. Leonard pulled 
do-ivn. St. Mary's was remodelled in 1579. 
The cathedral of St. Andrews, founded in 
1159, and completed in 1318, was nearly 
destroyed by a mob, excited by the preaching 
of John Knox, in June, 1559. St. Andrews 
was made an episcopal see in the 9th century, 
and an archbishopric in 1474. It was sup- 
pressed in 1689. The name of the see of 
Fife was changed to that of St. Andrews, 
Sept. 5, 1844. 

Andeos (Archipelago) , one of the Cyclades, 
colonized by lonians. Xerxes compelled the 
Andrians to join his fleet in the invasion 
of Greece, B.C. 480. The island became 
subject to the Athenians, afterwards to the 
Macedonians, and was taken by the Romans 
B.C. 200. It was captured by the Venetians 
A.D. 1124. 
Anemometer. — The earUest instrument 
45 



Ajsa 

of this kind was discovered by Croune, ia j 
1667. It was improved by Wolfius, in the 
beginning of the 18th centmy. 

Angel. — This gold coin was introduced 
from France into England, by Edward IV., 
in 1465. Stow speaks of angelets at 6s. 8d. ; 
half-angels at 5s., and at 3s. 4d. On the 6th 
of September, 1526, the value of the angel 
was raised, by proclamation, to 7s. M. ; on 
the oth of November, ia the same year, to 
7s. 6^. ; and in 1544 it was raised to 8s. 
Mary iiied it at 10s. Charles I. was the 
last king in whose reign angels were coined. 

Angees (France), the ancient Julio- 
magus, afterwards called Andegavia. — This 
town has been frequently assailed. Odoacer 
wrested it from the Eomans a.d. 464 ; Charles 
Martel captured it in 724 ; and the Danes, 
after having pillaged it several times, fortified 
it in 860. It was formerly the capital of 
Anjou. King John burnt it ia Sept. 1206 ; 
and the Vendeans were driven from it in 
1793. In 1585, Huguenots seized the cele- 
brated castle biult by St. Louis. It was 
made the seat of a bishopric iu the 4th 
century, and a university was founded here 
in 1246. Councils were held at Angers in 
433, 529, 1055 or 1062, 1157, 1161, 1269, 1279, 
1365, 1448, and 15S3. 

ANGEBSxEiif G-ALLEEY. — This Collection, 
which formed the commencement of the 
National Gallery, consisted of thirty-eight 
pictures. It was purchased by the English 
government for £57,000, March 26, 1824. 

Akgleset, or Anglesea, anciently Mo- 
NA. — This island was in early times the chief 
seat of the Druids in Wales. Suetonius 
Paulinus captm-ed the island, after a despe- 
rate resistance, a.d. 61. He cut down the 
sacred groves, and butchered the priests and 
their people, though its subjugation was not 
completed until the year 78. Anglesey was 
•captured by the Normans in 1090. The in- 
haBitants haviug regained possession 1094, 
were again conquered in 1096. Magnus III., 
king of Norway, assailed it, committing great 
ravages, in 1098. After several contests, it 
was subjugated, with the rest of Wales, by 
Edward I., and it was annexed to England 
by 12 Edw. I., March 19, 1284. The Mona 
and Farys mines were discovered in 1768 ; 
the Menai Suspension Bridge, connecting the 
island with the mainland, was constructed 
between 1818 and 1825, and the Britannia 
Tubular EaUway Bridge was opened Mar. 6, 
1850. 

Angling. — This art is of very ancient 
origin, and is even said to have been in- 
vented by Seth, about B.C. 3800. It is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Old Testament, 
and allusions to it occur in Job, one of the 
most ancient books of the Bible. The 
Greeks and Eomans practised it. Izaak 
Walton's delightftd work, entitled "The 
Compleat Angler, or the Contemplative 
Man's Eecreation ; being a Discourse of 
Fish and Fishing, not unworthy the perusal 
of most Anglers," appeared in 1653. There 
is a text of Scripture on the title-page (John, 
xxi. 3). It was not, however, the tirst Eng- 
4£ 



ANH i 

lishbook on the subject. This honour be- i 
longs to " The Treatyse of Fysshinge with 
an Angle," by Dame Juhana Barnes, Bernes, 
or Berners, pubhshed by Wynkyn de Wordo 
in 1496. 

Anglo-Saxons. — ^A name given to several 
tribes, most of which were of Scandinavian 
origin. The Northmen having settled in 
Germany, from time to time invaded and 
possessed themselves of portions of ancient 
Britain. The date of their first invasion is 
uncertain, some authorities placing it a.d. 368, 
and others a.d. 449. They established them- 
selves in the southern part of the island, and 
gradually extended their settlements in other 
directions. 

Angola (Africa). — This territory, on the 
west coast of Africa, called Dongo by the 
natives, was discovered by Diego Cam, a 
Portuguese, in 1484. Settlements were soon 
formed, though it was not imtil 1578 that 
Loando, its capital, was commenced. The 
Dutch captured Loando in 1640, but the 
Portuguese regained possession in 1648. 

Angoea, anciently Ancyea (Asia 
Minor). — In a battle fought here, July 
28, 1402, Timour, or Tamerlane, utterly 
routed the Turks, and took Sultan Bajazet 
prisoner. The story of Bajazet's confine- 
ment in an iron cage is denoimced by 
many writers as a fable. Gibbon, who 
weighed the evidence of the story carefully, 
beheves it to be too well attested to be 
without foundation. His conclusion is, that 
Timour intended to lead " his royal captive 
in triumph to Samarcand. An attempt to 
facilitate his escape, by digging a mine 
under the tent, provoked the Mogul em- 
peror to impose a harsher restraint; and in his 
perpetual marches an iron cage on a waggon 
might be invented, not as a wanton insult, 
but as a rigorous precaution." The Turks 
recovered Angora in 1415, and it has since 
remained in their possession. 

Angouleme (France), the ancient Icu- 
LiSMA, was the chief town of Angoiunois. It 
was made the seat of a bishopric a.d. 260, 
conquered by the Visigoths in 451; regained 
by Clovis in 507 ; taken by the Saracens in 
731, and plundered by the Danes in 856. 
Afterwards it remained indej)endent under a 
succession of counts \mtil annexed to France 
in 1303. It was made a duchy in 1515 and 
reunited to France in 1710. Its cathedral, 
bunt in 1120, was destroyed by the Hugue- 
nots, and rebuilt in 1628. 

Anguilla, or Snake Island (West In- 
dies), came into the possession of the Eng- 
lish about 1632, and was colonized by them 
in 1666. The French having ravaged the 
island in 1796, re-embarked on the approach 
of a British frigate. 

Anhalt. — The house of Anhalt is one of 
the most ancient in Germany. It ranks 
amongst its members a long succession of 
princes and dukes, one of the former, Bern- 
hard, having rejected the imperial sceptre 
offered to him in 1198. The family enjoyed 
the greatest prosperity in the Middle Ages, 
when they ruled over a large portion of 



ANH 

Northern Germany. In 1252, Anhalt was 
divided into three parts ; again reunited in 
1570, and once more divided amongst the 
four sons of Ernest Joachim I., in 1586, — 
Dessau, Bernburg, Coethen, and Zerbst. 
The latter branch died out in 1793, and their 
possessions were divided amongst the other 
three. The Coethen hue became extinct in 
1847, and that duchy, according to the family 
•compact of June 22, 1665, is now rxiled by 
the duke of Anhalt-Dessau. The pi'inces of 
Anhalt took the title of dukes in the Con- 
federation of the Ehine, in 1809. Many of 
them greatly distinguished themselves by 
their defence of the Protestant cause. 

Anholt (Baltic Sea). — This small Danish 
island, in the Cattegat, was taken by the 
British, May 18, 1809. The Danes were 
defeated in an attempt to recapture it, 
March 27, 1811. 

Anjae (Hindostan). — This fortified town, 
not far from Cutch, was captured by the 
Eughsh in 1815. The town and district, 
ceded to England in 1816, were restored to 
the native government in 1822. It suffered 
from an earthquake in 1819. 

Anjou.— Charles the Bald, about the year 
870, is said to have bestowed this part of 
France upon one of his followers, from whom 
the first line of the counts of Anjou was 
descended. In 1127, Geoffrey, afterwards 
Geoffrey V., son of Fulke, count of Anjou, 
married Maud or Matilda, widow of the 
emperor Henry V., and daughter as well 
as heiress of Henry I., of England. Their 
son, Henry II., the first of the Plantagenets, 
succeeded to the Enghsh throne in 1154, and 
in 1156 he deprived Ms brother, Geoffrey VI. 
of Anjou. It was soon after annexed to 
England, and the first hue of its counts 
ceased. Phihp Augustus obtained possession 
of Anjou in 1204, and his successor, Louis 
VIII., bestowed it upon his fourth son, 
Charles, who founded the second Hne. By 
his marriage with the daughter of Berenger, 
the last count of Provence, that important 
fief was annexed to Anjou. Charles moimted 
the throne of Sicily in 1266, and his pos- 
terity ceased to be connected vrith Anjou. 
The possession of Anjou became a frequent 
cause of strife between France and England ; 
and Edward III., who had conquered it, 
by the 9th article of the treaty of Bretigny 
(May 8, 1360), relinquished his claim. In 
that year, the French king, John, raised it 
into a duchy, and bestowed it upon his son 
Loms, who became the foimder of the third 
hue, and the first duke. This prince and his 
successors made several unsuccessful efforts 
to obtain the crown of Naples. His grand- 
son Eegnier, called the "good king Kene," 
gave his daughter Matilda in marriage to 
Henry VI. of England, April 22, 1445 ; and 
in 1448 he received Anjou, which had been 
seized by the Enghsh. Ken^ was dispossessed 
by Louis XI. in 1474, and Anjou was united 
to France. The title has been revived since 
that time, and the duchy, for a short interval, 
passed under the sway of its own dukes. 
Francis, duke of Alen9on, afterwards duke 



ANN 

of Anjou, entered into a convention with the 
people of the Netherlands, Aug. 20, 1578, 
by which he was to aid them against the 
Spaniards, the States conferring upon him 
the title of "Defender of the Liberty of 
the Netherlands against the Spaniards and 
their adherents." He ^asited England in 
1581, and made proposals to Queen EHzabeth. 
His suit, in spite of an exchange of rings 
between the lovers, was rejected. He re* 
turned to the Netherlands early in 1582, and 
was formally installed sovereign of the States, 
Feb. 17 in the same year. He was expelled 
in 1583, and died in 1584, being the last dulie 
of Anjou that played a prominent part in 
history. 

Anjoxj (Battle), fought at Bauge, near 
Anjou, between the French and the Enghsh, 
on Easter eve, Saturday, March 22, 1421. 
The former were Aictorious, and the duke of 
Clarence was slain. It is sometimes called 
the battle of Baiige. 

AiTN'AN (Scotland). — Edward BaHol was 
surprised at night, when encamped at this 
place, by the earl of Moray, Dec. 25, 1332. 
The attack was so sudden, that httle re- 
sistance was made , and his brother Henry 
and others having been slain, Baliol fled, 
and escaped Avith difiiculty to England. 
Annan was created a royal burgh in 1538. 

Annates, or Fiest-fkuits, were the first 
year's whole profits, first of a bishopric and 
afterwards of any benefice, claimed by the 
pope. The tax was introduced in the see of 
Norwich by Pandulph, the pope's legate, in 
the reigns of king John and Hen. III. 
Clement V. and John XXII. endeavoured to 
make these payments universal in their ap- 
phcation, at the commencement of the 14th 
century. The claims met with much re- 
sistance ; and in 1404 an act (6 Hen. IV. 
c. 1) was passed for their regulation. The 
council of Basel condemned them, June 9, 
1435. By 26 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1534), annates 
were granted to the king. This was repealed 
by2&3Phil. & Mary, c.4 (1555), but revived 
by 1 Ehz. c. 4 (1559). By letters patent 
Nov. 3,1703, Queen Anne restored first-fruits 
and tenths to the Church. {See Queen" 
Anne's Bounty.) 

Anne, Queen of England, the second 
daughter of James II. by his first wife, 
Anne Hyde, daughter of Lord Clarendon, 
was born at Twickenham, Feb. 6, 1665, She 
was married to Prince George of Denmark 
July 28, 1683, and ascended the Enghsh 
throne March 8, 1702. Her husband, Prince 
George, died Oct. 28, 1708, and Anne herself, 
Aug. 1, 1714. They had four daughters 
and one son, who died in infancy, and 
another son, Wfiham, born July 24, 1689, 
and created duke of Gloucester by WHham 
III. He died July 30, 1700; and on his 
death a new settlement of the crown was 
made. 

Anneau (Battle),— Henry of Navarre's 
German aUies were defeated here by the 
duke of Guise, Nov. 24, 1587. 

Anno Domini, or the year of our Lord, 
commenced January 1, in the middle of the 
47 



ANN 

fourtli year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd 
from the building of Eome, and in the 
4ri4th of the Julian period. Dionysius, 
sumamed " Exiguus," also known as " De- 
nys le Petit," a monk of Scythia and a 
Eoman abbot, iirst used it, about 527. It 
■was introduced into Italy in the 6th cen- 
tury ; into France in the 7th, though it was 
not generally estabhshed there until the 8th 
century ; into Spain in the 11th, and it was 
uniformly used there in the 14th ; into Portu- 
gal in 1415, and into the Eastern empire and 
Greece in the 15th century. The first recorded 
instance of its employment in England is in 
the year 680, and it was generally adopted 
in the 8th century. The council of Chelsea, 
July 27, 816, decreed that aU bishops shovdd 
date their acts from the year of the incarna- 
tion of the Saviour. The actual date of the 
birth of Christ is Eriday, April 5, B.C. 4, or 
the fourth year of the 193rd Olympiad, the 
4709th of the Julian period, or the 749th 
from the building of Eome. 

Annobost, or AifNABOirA (Gulf of Guinea), 
an island discovered by the Portuguese in 
1471, ceded to Spain by a treaty concluded 
March 24, 1778. 

AifNUAL Eegister. — The first volimie of 
this work appeared in June, 1759. It was 
projected by Eobert Dodslev and Edmund 
Burke, and the latter was for many years 
editor and principal contributor. 

ANifUWCiAiiA (Order of), known ori- 

glnally as the " Order of the Necklace or 
ollar," was instituted in 1355, by Amadeus 
VI., duke of Savoy. It was intended to 
commemorate the exploits of his valiant 
predecessor, Amadeus V., who had dis- 
tinguished himself by his victory over the ■ 
Turks at the siege of Ehodes, in 1310. Vic- ! 
tor Amadeus, in 1720, raised it to the first ; 
order of the kingdom of Sardinia, the long j 
being grand master. 

Annunciation. — This festival, in com- j 
memoration of the tidings brought by the ' 
Angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary (Luke, i. ! 
26 — 37), is of very ancient date. Proclus, 
patriarch of Constantinople, who died a.d. 
447, and Basil of Seleueia, who died in 445, 
left discourses on the festival. It is cele- 
brated March 25th, which day, before the 
alteration of the calendar in 1752, was the 
commencement of the Legal year. 

Anointing-. — This ceremony, employed 
at the coronation of kings and the institu- 
tion of bishops and other dignitaries, is of very 
ancient date. Moses anointed Aaron and 
his sons (Lev. viii.), B.C. 1496 ; Samuel 
anointed Saul (1 Sam. x. 1), B.C. 1095, and 
David (1 Sam. ivi.l— 13),b.c. 1063. Anoint- 
ing was also practised amongst our early 
kings. Leo IV. anointed Alfred in 871; 
and this, Eapin says, was probably the first 
time the ceremony of crowning and anoint- 
ing was used by an Enghsh king. The cus- 
tom was kept up, and Eichard III. and his 
queen Anne were anointed at their corona- 
tion, July 6, 1483. Taylor (Glory of Eegahty, 
p. 347) states that one of the principal 
changes which our ceremonial has under- 
48 



ANT 

gone is the omission of the practice of 
anointing with chrism, after the imction of 
the consecrated oil. TiE the time of EUza- 
beth, or perhaps of James I., it was usual 
for the king to be anointed on the palms j 
of his hands, on his breast, between his I 
shoulders, on his elbows, and on his head, ! 
vrith the holy oil, in forma crueis, and after- I 
wards with the chrism, in the same form, j 
upon his forehead. Anointing, in early 
theological vnitings, has reference to bap- 
tism and confirmation. It was practised in 
exorcism and baptism by the Gnostics in the 
2nd and 3rd centuries, in the Alexandrian 
church. The Marcosians, a branch of the 
Gnostics and the Ophites, anointed their 
dead. The anointing in Extreme Unction, 
practised by the Church of Eome, is a late 
invention. 

Anonymous Letteks. — By 9 Geo. I. c. 22 
(1722), called the Black Act, the sending 
a letter without a name, or with a fictitious 
name, demanding " money, venison, or other 
valuable thing," was made felony, the de- 
linquent to suffer death without benefit of 
clergy. Later enactments refer to threaten- 
ing letters -without being anonymous. 

Antalcidas (Peace of) was forced upon 
the states of Greece by Artaxerxes, king of 
Persia, b.c. 387. The terms were, that the 
Greek cities in Asia, and the islands of Cla- 
zomense and Cyprus, shotdd be subject to 
Artaxerxes, and that aU the other Greek 
cities should be left independent, except 
Lemnos, Imbros, and Seyros, which were 
to remain subject to Athens. 

Antaectic Eegions.— The adventurous 
Captain Cook, iu 1773, endeavoured to com- 
plete the circle round the South Pole, in ahigh 
latitude ; but his progi-ess was arrested by 
the ice. He was the pioneer of modern dis- 
covery in these regions. On the evening of 
Dec. 6, Captain Cook and his comrades cal- 
culated that they were at the antipodes of 
London, being the first Europeans who had 
gone so far. On the 30th of Januaiy, 1774, 
they reached the highest southern latitude 
that had then been attained by any dis- 
coverer. It was not until Eeb. 20, 1822, 
that Captain Weddel penetrated further. 
Captain Biscoe discovered land in this 
direction, Feb. 27, 1831 ; and went on 
shore on Graham's Land, Eeb. 21, 1832. 
Messrs. BaUeny and Ereeman discovered 
the Balleny Isles, Eeb. 9, 1839; D'UrviUe, 
Adelie Land, in 1840 ; and Sir James Eoss, 
in 1841, discovered a continent which he 
named Victoria Land. 

Anti-Cokn-Law League was formed at 
Manchester, at a public dinner, Sept. 18, 
1838. Deputies assembled in London, Feb. 
8, 1842, and from that time its operations 
were carried on with activity until Sir 
Eobert Peel passed a biH for repeal of the 
Corn Laws (June 26, 1846). The League 
was dissolved July 2, 1846. 

Antigua (West Indies), the largest of 
the Leeward Islands, was discovered by 
Columbus in 1493. It was, with other 
islands, granted to James, earl of Carlisle, 



f 



ANT 



July 2, 1627, to be colonized under the name 
of Carlisle Province. The first settlement 
appears to have been made in 1632. The 
French invaded the island in 1666, and com- 
mitted much havoc. An earthquake destroyed 
a large number of the churches, sugar -mills, 
and principal buildings on the island, Feb. 8, 
1843 ; and great^ destruction of property was 
caused by hurricanes Aug. 12 and 13, 1835, and 
in 1848. It vi'as made the seat of a colonial 
bishopric in 1842; and a cathedral was 
erected at its chief town, St. John's, in 
1847. 

Antilles, or Caribbee Islands. — The 
term Antilles is erroneously apphed to all 
the West-India islands, which some au- 
thorities divide into the Greater and Lesser 
Antilles. The French gave the name to the 
Caribbee or Windward Islands. {See Ca- 
EiBBEE Islands.) 

Antimony. — This term was formerly 
apphed to an ore in which antimony was 
combined vpith sulphur. Tersulphuret of 
antimony is found in great quantities at 
Sarawak, in Borneo. This preparation was 
used by the Jewish women for dyeing the 
eyelashes black. Jezebel used it (2 Kings 
ix. 30), about b.c. 884. The Greek and the 
Turkish ladies employ it in this manner. 
Preparations of antimony were only intro- 
duced into medical practice in the 15th 
century. Its virtues in this respect were first 
discovered by Basil Valentine, a Benedictine 
monk of Erfurt, born in 1394. 

Antinomians. — This is not the designation 
of a separate sect, but ofmembers of various 
sects who hold that Christians are free from 
the restr.aints both of the ceremonial and the 
moral law of Moses. They often, however, 
dhfered greatly in their views on this ques- 
tion. The theory existed in the time of St. 
Paul, for he alludes to it in Eomans, iii. 28 ; 
but the name was first apphed to the fol- 
lowers of John Agricola, of Eisleben, who 
had a controversy with Luther between the 
years 1538 and 1540. These modern Anti- 
nomians held, moreover, that the law should 
be whoUy excluded from the Church. The 
Antinomians became a strong pohtical party 
in England, equally troublesome to Charles 
I., the parliament, and Cromwell. In 1643 
the Assembly of Divines condemned several 
writings which appeared to them Antino- 
mian ; and in 1648 the parliament enacted that 
any one convicted of maintaining that doc- 
trine should be imprisoned until he found 
sureties that he would not offend again. 
Hallam (Hist, of Lit. vol. i. pt. 1, ch. 4) says 
that Antinomianism prevails in the early 
writings of Luther. 

Antioch (Syria), now Antakieh, was 
founded by Seleucus Nicator b.c. 300, who 
named it after his father ; and it remained 
the capital of the dynasty till Syria was con- 
quered by Pompey, and was made a Eoman 
province b.c. 64. Christianity was planted 
in Antioch by Paul and Barnabas, and here 
the disciples were first called Christians, a.d. 
42 (Acts, li. 26). This city, long known as 
•' the Queen of the East," was captured by the 
49 



ANT 

Persian kingNushirvan, or Chosroes, a.d. 540 ; 
and Chosroes II. wrested it from the em- 
pire in 611. Heraclius expelled the Persians, 
but it fell into the power of the Saracens in 
638 (according to Clinton, Tuesday, Jiily 21) ; 
and they degraded it to the rank of a pro- 
vincial tovni. Nicephorus Phocas recovered 
it in 966, but it was betrayed to the Turks in 
1084. The crusaders laid siege to it in 1097, 
and captured it Thursday, June 3, 1098,* The 
citadel held out, but the Saracens, who mado 
an effort to regain the prize, were defeated 
in a great battle under the walls of Antioch, 
Monday, June 28th, 1098 ; and Antioch be- 
came the capital of a Christian priiicipahty. 
Bibars, sultan of Egypt, captured it, de- 
stroyed its churches, and completely ruined it, 
June 12th, 1268. It was annexed to the Otto- 
man empire in 1516. Ibrahim Pasha seized 
it Aug. 1, 1832, but it was afterwards restored 
to the Porte. Antioch has frequently suf- 
fered from earthquakes ; the most disastrous 
occurred a.d. 115, 340, 394, 396, 458, 526, and 
588. St. Jerome says that St. Peter was its 
first bishop, and that he was translated thence 
to Eome. Antioch was a patriarchate, and 
according to the council of Nice, the third 
after Rome and Alexandria. The council of 
Constantinople, A.D. 382, gives Constantinople 
the next place after Eome, and makes Antioch 
the fourth. This was confirmed by the 
council of Chalcedon in 451. Thirty-one 
councils were held at Antioch, the first in 
252, and the last in 1141. 

Antioch (^ras of). — The Csesarean era 
of Antioch was instituted at that city in 
consequence of Caesar's victory at Pharsaha, 
Aug. 9, B.C. 48. The Syrians computed it 
from Oct. 1, B.C. 43 ; and the Greeks from 
Sept. B.C. 49. By the mundane sera of 
Antioch, the creation of the world was 
assigned to B.C. 5492, or ten years later than 
by the mundane sera of Alexandria. Ten 
years were, however, subtracted from the 
latter a.d. 285, and from that time the two 
seras coincided. 

Anti-popes, or rival popes, were, at 
different periods in the history of the Church 
of Eome, elected by contending parties. 
Even before Eome claimed supremacy over 
other churches, Novatian appeared, as a 
rival bishop of Eome, to Cornehus, in 251. 
The principal anti-popes are as follows : — 



Felix II. in 35.^. 

Ursinus in 367. 

Eulalius in 418. 

Laurentitis, or St. Law- 
rence, in 498. 

Dioscorus in 530. 

Peter and Theodorus in 
68G. 

Theodorus and Paschal 
in 687. 

Theophilactus in 757. 

Constautine in 767. 



Philip in 768. 
Zizimiis in 824. 
Anastasius in 855. 
Sergius in 891. 
Boniface in 896. 
Leo VIII. in 955 & 963 
Boniface VII. in 974. 
John XVI. in 997. 
Gregoiy in 1012. 
Sylve»tei- III. in 1044. 
Benedict IX. 
Sylvester III. in 1046. 



* Odericns Vitalis mentions Wednesday, and the 
editor of Bohn's edition (iii. 125) coiTects what he 
calls a mistake, by inserting Tuesday. There is , how- 
ever, some error ; for the 3rd of June, 1098, feU upon a 
Thursday. 



AUT 



Benedict X., afterwards I Anacletiis II. in 1130. 

>'icolas II. , in 1058. Victor III. in 1133. 

Honorius II. in 1061. Victor IV. in 1159. 

Clement II. in 1080. | Paschal HI. m 1164. 

Gregory VIII. in 1118. I Calixtus III. in 1108. 
Caelestine II. in 1124. | Innocent III. in 1178. 

The great schism of the West, when rival 
popes struggled to att.-iin the supremacy, 
eommenced in 1378, and lasted thirty-eight 
years. A demand was made for the election 
of a Eoman pontiff, and, although the French 
interest was in the ascendant in the conclave. 
Urban YI., an Itahan, was elected, April 9, 
1378. On the 9th of August the cardinals at 
Anagni declared the election void ; and 
element VII., who soon after repaired to 
Avignon, was elected in his place, Sept. 20. 
Then commenced the schism, and the follow- 
ing were the anti-popes : — 

Oement VII. elected in I Gregory XII. in 1405. 

1378 Uement VIII. in 1424. 

Benedict Xin. in 1394. | Felix V. in 1439. 

The last-mentioned abdicated in April, 1449, 
and thus terminated the great schism of the 
West. He was the last of what are termed 
the Anti-popes. 

Antiquaeies.— A Society of Antiquaries 
was formed in London in 1572, under the 
auspices of Archbishop Parker and Sir 
Robert Cotton, and was dissolved by James 
I. about 1604. It was revived in 1707, was 
reconstituted in 1717, and its minutes date 
from January 1st, 1718. It was incorporated 
by royal charter, ]S"ov. 2, 1751, and received 
the name of " Society of Antiquaries of 
London;" and in 1780 George III. granted 
to the members the use of apartments in 
Somerset House, where it continues to hold 
its meetings. The Society of Anti- 
quaries of Scotland was instituted at Edin- 
bui'gh in 1780. 

Asti-Sabbatakiah" Coi^^teoveest arose 
in the 16th century. Dr. Boimd, a Puritan, 
put forth the peculiar views of his party, in 
a publication entitled, " Treatise of the 
Sabbath," in 1595. This gave rise to the 
controversy, which was carried on with 
considerable animosity between the High 
Churclrmen and the Puritans. 

Anti-Saceedotalists. — A sect which ori- 
ginated in Flanders about 1115, according to 
. Mosheitn, and in 1122 according to Mibnan. 
Tanchelin, or Tanquelin, a layman of Ant- 
werp, was their founder. MUman says 
(Lat. Chris, iv, book ix. ch. 8), "He 
rejected pope, archbishops, bishops, the 
whole priesthood. His sect was the one 
true Church. The Sacraments (he denied 
transubstantiation) depended for their va- 
Edity on the hohness of him that admiuis- 
tered them. He declared war against tithes 
and the possessions of the Church. He was 
encircled by a body-guard of three thousand 
armed men, he was worshipped by the peo- 
ple as an angel, or something higher : they 
drank the water in which he had bathed. 
He is accused of the grossest hcense." He 
went from Utrecht to Rome, Bruges, and 
50 



AN'T 

Antwerp, where he ruled with " the power 
and state of a Mng." He was killed by a 
priest in 1124 or 1125 ; but his followers 
adhered to his opinions till the schism was 
extinguished by St. K'orbert, founder of the 
Praemonstratentians. Other Sacerdotalists 
appeared in France at a later date. 

Anti-Teibonians. — The name given to 
the opponents of the celebrated Tribonian, 
the minister of Justinian, and the chief 
compiler of the Justinian Code, the Pan- 
dects, andlnstitutes. HeflourishedfromA.D. 
527 to 546. Gibbon says, " His genius, like 
that of Bacon, embraced, as his own, all the 
business and knowledge of the age." He 
was regarded as an opponent of Chris- 
tianity, and to this must his unpopularity be 
attributed. 

ANTi-TEiifiTAEiAifs. — Opposition to the 
doctrines of the Trinity conunenced in the 
ApostoHc period, with the rise of the Juda- 
izing Christians (Gal. i.). The Ebionites 
A.D. 66, the IS'azarenes about the same time, 
Ceruithus and his followers a.d. 96, held pe- 
culiar notions respecting the nature of Christ. 
Sect after sect foUovred in quick succession, 
until Arianism arose a.d. 318. The doctrines 
of Arius spread over Europe and parts of 
Africa, creating a great war of opinions, 
which began to decline in the 7th century. By 
an ordinance passed May 2, 1648, denial of 
the Trinity was made felony in England. 
Erasmus was accused of Arianism in 1536. 
Many of the German neologists of the pre- 
sent day are anti-Trinitarians. 

Antium (Italy). — This ancient Latian city 
was rendered subject to Rome by the treaty 
with Carthage, B.C. 509. The Yolscians 
afterwards obtained possession, but were 
expelled, B.C. 468, by the Romans, who 
planted a colony. It revolted B.C. 4-59, and 
remained independent for more than a cen- 
tury. The people of Antium were at war 
witn Rome B.C. 406; and another contest 
followed, that lasted from B.C. 336 to B.C. 
374, when peace was concluded. It joined 
in the Latin war, which commenced b.c- 
340, and was compelled to admit a Roman 
colony, B.C. 338. Coriolanus retired to 
AntitunB.c. 488. Its site is now occupied 
by Porto d'Anzo. 

A>"toik-e, St. (Battle). — This struggle, in 
which Conde, dui-ing the war of the Fronde, 
defeated Turenne, July 2, 1652, took place 
in the faubourg of St. Antoine, at Paris. 
ANTOifiNus, Wall of. (See Ageicoi-a.) 
Aktont, St. (Order of). — Albert, duke 
of Bavaria, instituted this military order in 
1332. 

AifTEi5i (Battle). — A victory was gained at 
this place by the royal forces over the United 
Irishmen, June 7, 1798. 

Antweep (Belgium) . — The capital of apro- 
vince of the same name ; in the 11th century 
a small repubUc, became in the 16th the rich- 
est commercial city in Eiu-ope. The citadel 
was commenced by the duke of Alva in 1567, 
completed in 1568, and extended in 1701, 
Antwerp has been frequently besieged. It 
was pillaged and burnt by the Spaniards 



ANT 

S'ov. 4, 1576. This massacre, one of the 
most monstrous ever known, was called the 
Spanish Fury. The duke of Anjou attempted 
to cairy the city by a surpi-ise, Jan. 17 
(O.S. 7), 1583. The whole of his force was 
either lolled or taken captive in less than an 
hour. This affair was called the French Fury. 
The duke of Parma besieged it in 1584, and 
it capitulated after a siege of fourteen months, 
Aug. 17, 1585. Its commerce suffered greatly 
from the closing of the Scheldt by the treaty 
of Westphaha in 1648. Marlborough ob- 
tained possession of Antwerp June 6, 1706 ; 
and Marshal Saxe May 9, 1746. The French 
repubHcans captured it Nov. 29, 1792. They 
retired in 1793, but regained possession July 
23, 1794. It was relinquished by the French 
iu 1814, and formed part of the kingdom of 
the Netherlands imtil 1830. The king of 
Holland having refused to give up the cita- 
del, the French began to bombard it on the 
4th of December, 1832 ; and it surrendered 
Dec. 23. Antwerp was made the seat of a 
bishopric in 1559. The town-hall was rebuilt 
in 1581 ; and the exchange, founded in 1531, 
was destroyed by fire Aug. 2, 1858. 

Antwerp (Truce of), for twelve years, 
concluded between Spain and the United 
Provinces, March 29, 1609. 

AosTA (Piedmont). — Augustus, after the 
•subjugation of the Salassi, its ancient inhabi- 
tants, by Varro, B.C. 25, established a Eoman 
colony at this place, then called Augusta 
Praetoria. Aosta is now the chief town of 
the province of the same name. The gospel 
is said to have been preached at Aosta by 
the disciples of St. Barnabas, and its bishop- 
ric was established at an early period. 

Apocalypse, or The Eevelation op St. 
.John the Divine, was w ritten in the island 
of Patmos A.D. 96 or 97. The Alogi in the 
2nd century rejected it, attributing the 
authorship to Cerinthus. Dionysius, bishop of 
Alexandria (a.d. 248 — 265), states that it was 
rejected by many persons of good character. 
Jerome, writing early in the 4th century, 
says that the Oriental church did not admit 
it into the canon, and it is not included in 
the list of books declared canonical by the 
council of Laodicea, a.d. 366. The council of 
Toledo, Dec. 9, 633, exconmiunicated those 
■who refused to acknowledge its inspiration. 
Justin Martyr (130 — 160) and Iren sens, about 
200, give important evidence in its favour. 
Erasmus and Luther doubted its authen- 
^ticity. It is included in the canon, and 
accepted as the work of St. John. Several 
counterfeit books of the kind appeared in 
the early ages of the Church, as the Apoca- 
lypse of St. Peter, mentioned by Eusebius, 
.and the Apocalypse of St. Paul, said to have 
been found in a stone chest at Tarsus. 

Apollinabi AN Games, in h onour of Apollo, 
■were instituted by the Eomans after their de- 
feat at Cannae, B.C. 212, to propitiate the god 
.andsecure his assistance against the Garthagi- 
■.nians. The period of celebration was at first 
movable, but it was afterwards fixed for the 
'6th of July. 

Apollinaeians, or Apollinabists.— The 
51 



APO 

followers of ApoUinarius, bishop of Laodicea, 
A.D. 366, who denied the perfect humanity of 
Christ. They held other peculiar doctrines, 
which were condemned by the council of 
Constantinople, being the second general 
council, in 381, and by that of Eome in 374. 

Apollo Belvedeke.— This statue of 
Apollo was so called from the Belvedere of 
the Vatican, at Eome, on which it was placed 
by Pope Julius II. (1503-13) . It was found in 
the ruins of the ancient Antium in 1503. The 
French carried it off in 1797, but it was 
restored to the Vatican at the peace of 1815. 

Apostates. — Many of the African bishops 
refused to administer the communion to 
apostates in the beginning of the 3rd cen- 
tury. The Novatians about the same time 
advocated the most rigorous treatment to- 
wards them, and questioned the right of the 
Church to grant them reconcOiation. They 
were denied the privilege of Eoman subjects 
by the Theodosian code (381). The council 
of Aries, in 452, established penance for 
them. The Nestorians in the 11th century 
passed canons declaring that the guilt of 
apostates could only be washed out by their 
blood. 

Apostles' Creed.— Bingham (Antiq. b. x. 
ch. 3, s. 5) says, " Some have thought that the 
twelve apostles, in a fuU meeting, composed 
the Creed in the veiy same form of words as 
now it is used in the Church; and others 
have gone so far as to pretend to tell what 
a,rticle was composed by every particular 
apostle." This view the learned author shows 
to be erroneous. Euffinus first mentioned it 
A.D. 390, when it was known as the Eoman 
Creed. It may be considered as an exposi- 
tion of the apostoHcal faith; and different 
parts were probably comjiosed at different 
times. Irenaeus, a.d. 177, made use of a form 
in some respects similar. 

Apostolians, Apostolici, or Apotactici. 
— They arose in the 3rd century, and called 
themselves Apostolici, says Bingham, "from 
a vain pretence of being the only men who 
lead their lives according to the example of 
the Apostles; and Apotactici, from a show of 
renoimcing the ivorld more than other men." 
Another sect arose in the 12th century, and 
a third was founded by Gerhard SagareUi, 
who was burnt ahve at Parma in 1300. It 
was continued by Dulcinus, who suffered iu 
1307. Their followers in France and Ger- 
many were not finally extirpated until the 
time of Boniface IX. (1389—1404). They 
wandered about in white garments, re- 
nounced all kinds of property, and denounced 
the corruptions of Eome. 

Apothecaet. — The keeper of any ware- 
house or magazine was formerly termed an 
apothecary; and during the 13th and 14th 
centuries a person who, at courts, or in the 
houses of the nobfiity, preijared preserves 
and confectionery, was also kno'svn by this 
name. Apothecaries, as preparers of medi- 
cines, were first legally established in Italy, 
by the well-known medical edict issued for 
the kingdom of Naples by Frederick II. in 
the 13th century. Edward III., in 1345, 
E 2 



APP 

conferred a pension of sixpence a day upon 
Coursus de Gangeland, an apothecary of 
London, in recognition of his care in attend- 
ing upon him during his iUness in Scotland ; 
and this is the first notice of an apothecary 
with which we meet in our annals. A patent 
was granted for the estabhshment of an 
apothecary's shop in Stuttgard in 1457. 
Apothecaries are first mentioned in France 
as receiving their statutes from Charles YIII. 
in August, 1484. It was not until 1511 
(3 Hen. A'lII. c. 2) that any attempt was 
made in this country to distinguish between 
the different branches of the profession of 
physic, and to define their position by law. 
By 32 Hen. Till. c. 40 (1540), four physi- 
cians were ordered to be chosen yearly to 
search and examine ah "wares, drugs, and 
stuffs" sold by the apothecaries, and to 
destroy auy they found corrupted or de- 
fectire. The apothecaries of London were 
incorporated by James I., i\pril 9, 1606, being 
united with the grocers, from whom they 
were separated by a new charter from James 
I., Dec. 6, 1617. The character of the society 
has been considerably changed by many 
subsequent statutes. Their authority was 
confined to London and its immediate neigh- 
bourhood until 1815, when, by the tmrd 
section of 55 Geo. III. c. 194, it was extended 
to England and Wales. 

Appeals. — During the occupation of Great 
Britain by the Eomans, the final appeal was 
made to the emperor. In Anglo-Saxon 
times, the county court, and, lastly, the 
witenagemot, or the king in council, were 
courts of appeal. After the Norman con- 
quest in 1066, there were two supreme 
courts, — the Exchequer court, a Norman 
institution, and the supreme court of justice 
for greater causes. The court of Exchequer 
was first constituted a court of appeal by 
31 Ec\,w. III. c. 12, in 1357. A second court 
of Exchequer, in which appeals from the 
King's Bench were tried, was instituted by 
27 EHz. c. 8 (1585). These are superseded 
by 1 Will. IV. c. 70 (July 23, 1830). 
Criminal appeals are ruled by 11 & 12 Yict. 
c. 78 (Aug. 31, 1848). Appeals from the 
colonial courts are regulated by the judicial 
committee of the privy councU, constituted 
by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 41 (Aug. 14, 1833) ; 
and reorganized by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83 
(Aug. 7, 1S51). 

Appeals to Bome. — Ecclesiastical matters 
were at first regulated by the bishop, in his 
court, from which an appeal was made to the 
metropolitan, who might refer to the pro- 
Tincial synod. The appeal was then carried 
to the patriarch, and thence to a general 
council. There were no appeals to Borne 
during the first three centuries. The African 
church resisted this pretension, and the 
council of Milevis, in Mauritania (416), 
decreed that if any presumed to "appeal 
beyond seas (meaning Bome), he should be 
excluded from aU conununion in the African 
chiu'ches." The earliest case of such an ap- 
peal on record is that of Apiarius, a rebel- 
Uou9 priest of Sicca, whom Pope Zozimus 
52 



APP 

restored to communion after he had been 
deposed by an African council. The French 
synods did not allow any appeals from their 
decrees to Bome for 800 years. In England 
the first attempt to introduce the system 
was made by Wilfrid, about 694 ; but the 
claim was zealously resisted. The practice 
was, however, introduced into this country, 
together with the civil and canon law, by the 
papal legate, Henry of Blois, bishop of 
Winchester, in 1151. The inconvenience of 
the practice soon became apparent, and the 
eighth article of the Constitutions of Claren- 
don, passed during the reign of Henry II., 
Jan. 25, 1164, declared that aU appeals in 
ecclesiastical causes shoiild be from the arch- 
deacon to the diocesan ; from the diocesan 
to the archbishop, and from the archbishop 
to the king ; and that they were to go no 
further without the king's consent. Appeals 
to Bome were, however, made, and were 
finally abohshed bv 24 Hen. Till. c. 12 
(1533), and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534). The 
penalty incurred for infraction of the law 
was a prDemunire. These acts, repealed by 
1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 8 (1554), were revived 
by lEhz. c. 1 (1559). 

Appella>'ts. (See AccEPTA^'TS.) 

Appenzel became a Swiss canton in 1513, 
and was the last of the original confederation 
consisting of thirteen. The abbey of St. 
Gall acquired jurisdiction over the adjoining 
districts in the 8th century, and this was 
confirmed by the emperor Adolphus of 
iSTassau in 1292. The people rebehed against 
their spiritual rulers in 1411, and after a long 
struggle achieved their independence. It 
separated into two di^-isions, the one occu- 
pied by Protestants and the other by Eoman 
Catholics, in 1597. 

Appeaisees. — By the Statute of Mer- 
chants, or of Acton Burnel (11 Edw. I. s. 13), 
Sept. 30, 1283, appraisers valuing goods at 
too high a rate were compelled to take them at 
their o-mi valuation. The cost of the annual 
license for appraisers fixed by 55 Geo. III. 
c. 184 (July 11, 1815), at ten shilhugs, was 
by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 76, s. 1 (Aug. 4, 1845), 
raised to £2. 

Appeentices (Tumults of). — Stow re- 
marks, " The apprentices of London are so 
considerable a body, that they have some- 
times made themselves formidable by insur- 
rections and mutinies in the city, getting^ 
some thousands of them together, and 
pulling down houses, breaking open the 
gates of Newgate and other prisons, and 
setting the prisoners free." Their resent- 
ment was generally directed against foreign 
merchants and artisans for supposed inter- 
ference with their trade. A general insur- 
rection occurred on the 1st of May, 1517, 
and the day received the name of " Evil 
May-da3\" Much damage was done, and 
many hves lost, when Henry VIII. sent some 
troops, who quelled the riot and took 300 
prisoners. Several were executedon gibbets 
set up in different parts of the city. A simi- 
lar outbreak against the French and Dutch, 
in September, 1586, was crushed by the 



APP 

vigilance of the authorities. Another oc- 
curred June 29, 1595; for participation in 
which, five apprentices were executed as 
traitors on Tower Hill, July 24. The appren- 
tices also took part in the disputes between 
King Charles I. and the Long Parliament. One 
of the last tumultuous assemblages occurred 
April 4, 1668, when they puUed down several 
disorderly houses. Four of the ringleaders 
■were afterwards executed. 

Appkenticeship. — Adam Smith says that 
" apprenticeships were altogether unknown 
to the ancients. The reciprocal duties of 
master and apprentice make a considerable 
article in every modern code." The sj^stem 
originated with the guilds and companies of 
tradesmen formed in the 12th century. In 
an account given in the "Liber Albus," of 
the ancient usages, proclaimed throughout 
London every year, in the reign of Edward 
I., the following article occurs; "That no 
apprentices shall be received for a less term 
than seven years, according to the ancient 
and estabhshed usage." Apprenticeship is 
first incidentally noticed in our statute book 
in 12 Eich. II. c. 5 (1388). It was enacted 
by 7 Hen. IV. c. 17 (1406), that no person 
should bind his son or daughter apprentice, 
unless he had either in land or rent twenty 
shillings per annimi. This was repealed by 
8 Hen. VI, c. 11 (1426), in which act the 
custom of putting and taking apprentices is 
said to have existed in London "time out of 
mind." By 5 Ehz. c. 4, s. 27 (1563), the 
parent of an apprentice was required to 
possess a forty-shilling freehold. Our sta- 
tute book contains many laws upon the 
subject. Apprentices wore blue cloaks in 
the summer, and blue gowns in the winter, 
in the time of Mary and Ehzabeth; but 
during the latter reign they indulged in 
such extravagance of dress that a proclama- 
tion was issued, May 21, 1582, laying down 
stringent regulations with respect to their 
apparel, and prohibiting the use of jewellery 
and weapons. The term of apprenticeship 
required by 5 Ehz. c. 4, s. 26 (1563), was 
seven years at the least, and this clause was 
repealed by 54 Geo. III. c. 96 (July 18, 
1814). For apprentices in the hemp and 
flax manufactures in Ireland the term re- 
quired was five years by 8 Anne, c. 12 (1709). 
It was reduced to four by 10 Geo. I. c. 2, 
ss. 7 & 8 (1723); and for Scotland the ordi- 
nary term is three years. A duty was first 
laid upon the indentures of apprentices by 
8 Anne, c. 9 (1709), and it was made per- 
petual by 9 Anne, c. 21, s. 7 (1710). An act 
(14 Vict. e. 11) was passed May 20, 1851, for 
the better protection of apprentices, &c. 

AppEOPEiATioiir Clause. — This clause in 
the Irish Tithe BiU occasioned several re- 
markable political contests. The House of 
Commons ha\-ing, April 3, 1835, resolved 
itself into a committee on the church estab- 
lishment of Ireland, Lord John EusseU pro- 
posed that any surplus revenue, not required 
for the spiritual care of its members, should 
be apphed to the education of aU classes of 
the people. The resolution was carried 



AQU 

April 6. On the bringing up of the report, 
April 7, Lord John KusseU moved another 
resolution affirming the principle. This was 
also carried, and the Peel and WeUingtou 
cabinet resigned office on the 8th. Here- 
upon Lord John Kussell and his party ac- 
ceded to power, and having failed in their 
efforts to iaduce parhament to sanction the 
principle for which they contended, aban- 
doned it altogether, in their measure for the 
settlement of the question, in 1838. 

Appeopeiatioks. — The exact period of 
the introduction of this system into the 
Church cannot be fixed with precision, 
though it was doubtless about the time of 
the Norman conquest. The early Horman 
kings, for the purpose of enriching the mon- 
asteries, conferred upon them not only ma- 
nors, but advowsons, glebes, and titles of 
parishes ; so that in the space of 300 years 
above a third of the benefices in England 
were appropriated. At the dissolution of 
the ahen priories in 1414, and of the monas- 
teries and rehgious houses in 1536 and 1539, 
appropriations and revenues were vested in 
the crown. Many of the former passed by 
degrees to subjects, who thus became ap- 
propriators, or, as they were more fre- 
quently termed, lay-appropriators. Previous 
to the reign of Henry VIII. no right or 
precedent existed for a layman to be an 
mipropriator. 

Apeicot.— A Persian or Armenian fruit, 
introduced into Italy by the Komans. Au- 
thorities differ respecting the date of its 
introduction into England, some attributing 
it to the time of the Eoman occupation, 
others to the year 1524; others to 1562; 
and others to 1578. 

AQUAEiAifS, or EnrcEATiTES, Christians in 
the early Church, who used water instead of 
wine in the Eucharist. They appeared in 
various places, and under different designa- 
tions, Bingham speaks of some Aquarians 
who would not take wine in their morning 
assemblies, lest the smeU should discover 
them to the heathen. They are first men- 
tioned in the 2nd century. 

Aquavivaeium, or Aqtiaeixjm. — 
The invention of the aquavivarium for 
collections of plants and animals in water 
is of recent date. In June, 1849, Mr. 
Ward stated at the meeting of the British 
Association at Oxford, that he had suc- 
ceeded in growing sea-weeds in sea-water 
both natural and artificially made. Mr. E, 
Warington read a paper before the Chemical 
Society, in March, 1850, giving an account of 
the manner in which he had grown plants 
and kept living animals in jars. Several 
persons pursued experiments of the kind 
about the same period. A small collection of 
zoophytes and annelides, brought to London 
in the autumn of 1852 by Mr. Gosse, was 
soon afterwards transferred to one of the 
tanks in the fish-house at the Zoological 
Gardens, Efegent's Park, It was opened m. 
the spring of 1853, and was the first public 
aquavivarium in London. It is also called 
aquarium. Water-aviary, and water-show, 



AQU 

have been suggested as names more adapted 
to the analogy of our language. 

Aquatiitta Engeaving was invented by 
a Gei-man artist, named Le Prince, bom at 
Metz, in 1723. 

Aqtjedtjcts. — These structures for the 
purpose of conveying water to large cities, 
were erected at a very early date. Pocock 
mentions an aqueduct from the pools of 
Bethlehem to Jerusalem, built by King 
Solomon, about B.C. 1000 ; and Herodotus 
speaks of another erected at Samos. The 
Eomans constructed them on an extended 
scale. The first at Eome is said to have been 
erected by Appius Claudius, b.c. 312. Others 
were biult by Dentatus, B.C. 273 ; by Agrip- 
pa, B.C. 31! ; by Cahgua, and completed by 
Claudius, a.d. 51 ; besides several of less note, 
and many in the provinces. Sixtus Y. im- 
mortalized his name by the colossal aque- 
ducts which he caused to be erected. 
Prescott and Humboldt notice the Peru- 
vian aqueducts. The popes erected aque- 
ducts in the Sliddle Ages. The Maintenon 
aqueduct, near Versailles, constructed by 
Louis XIV. in 1684, is one of the most 
magnificent in Em-ope. The aqueducts 
erected in India by the British; the Cro- 
ton aqueduct at New York, completed in 
18^ ; and the works at Edinburgh, are 
the most remarkable constructed of late 
years. 

Aqcileia (Italy) . — This town was founded 
by the Eomans B.C. ISl. At a very early 
period it was made a bishopric. It became a 
metropohtan see in the 4th century, and a 
patriarchate in the 6th. Maxunin besieged 
Aqruleia a.d. 238, during his contest with the 
senate, and xinder its walls he was, mth his 
son, assassinated by his own soldiers. In 
452 it was stormed and destroyed by the 
Huns under Attila. Its ruins could scarcely 
be discovered, yet it remained the residence 
of a bishop until the invasion of the Lom- 
bards under ALboin (568 — 570), when the 
patriarch removed to Grado, denominated 
from this circumstance ISTew Aqiuleia. Eich- 
ard I. was shipwrecked near AquHeia, in 1192. 
The authority of the patriarchs lasted until 
1758, M-hen the patriarchate was aboHshed 
by the pope, and the diocese divided into 
two sees, — those of Udiue and Gorizia. Seve- 
ral councils were held here. 

Aquitaine (France), the ancient Aqui- 
tania, one of the four provinces into which 
Augustus divided Gavd, B.C. 27. It was not 
completely subjected to the Eomans until 
B.C. 28. The Alsigoths, under WaUia, con- 
quered it in the year 419. It submitted to 
Clovis and was united to his kingdom in 508. 



(537. Aquitaine made an hereditary duchy. 

718. Invaded by the Sai-acens. 

725. They subdue a large portion. 

732. Charles Martel repels the Saracens. 

735. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, dies, and is suc- 
ceeded by Hunald. 

743. Hunald abdicates in favour of his son 
Waifar. 

768. Waifar defeated and slain by Pepin, who re- 
unites Aiuitaine to France. 
54 



AEA 



76i). Eunald, who endeavoured to regain the 

duchy on the death of his son Waifar, is 

defeated, and made prisoner, by Chaxle- 

mague. 
781. Louis, son of Charlemagne, crowned king of 

Aquitaine, by Pope Adrian I. 
817. Louis I. bestows Aquitaine upon his son. 

Pepin. 
838. Pepin dies, and the empress Judith claims 

Aquitaine for her son Charles. 
&13. Treaty of Verdun, by which the rights of 

Pepin's sons are sacrificed. 
846—849. Danish invasions. 
867. Aquitaine reunited to France by Louis the 

Stammerer. 
880. Kainulfe II. attempts to re-erect Aquitaine 

into akingdom.but is prevented by Eude;, 

king of France. 
955. Given by Lothaire to Hueh, count of Paris. 
1137. Death of 'William X., duke of Aquitaine, 

when his duchy passes to his daughter 

Eleanor, afterwards queen of Louis VII. 

of France. 
1151. Henry of Anjou, afterwards Henry II. of 

England, obtains Aquitaine by his man-iage 

with Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis 

VII. 
1169. Aquitaine devolves upon Eiehard, eldest son 

of Henry II. of England. 
1204. Philip Augustus reunites Aquitaine to France, 

which caxises a long war with England. 
1259. Aquitaine restored to the English under 

Henry III. , since which pgriod it has been 

called "Guienne." {See GvmsjUK.) 

Ababia (Asia). — The south-western penin- 
sula of Asia, has, both in ancient and 
modem tunes, been known under this de- 
signation, though the term is sometimes 
apphed to aU the countries frequented by 
the tribes of wandering Arabs. The name 
Arabia does not, however, appear to have 
been used by the Hebrews until after the 
time of Solomon. Ptolemy is said to have 
been the first to institute the three divisions 
of Arabia Petraea, Fehx, and Deserta, i. e., 
the Eocky, the Happy or Fruitful, and the 
Desert or Sandy. The Arabs believed them- 
selves to be descended from Joktan, the son 
of Eber (Gen. x. 26—30), and from Ishmael, 
the son of Abraham by his bondwoman 
Hagar, born B.C. 1910 (Gen. xvi. 15, 16); 
the posterity of the former, by way of dis- 
tinction, caUing themselves pure Arabs. The 
direct, as well as the indirect, testimony of 
Scripture proves the Arabs to be descended 
from Ishmael. In the time of Moses, about 
B.C. 1530, the Arabians had grown up into 
"twelve princes according to their nations," 
and "they dwelt from Ifavilah imto Shur, 
that is before Egypt, as tliou goest toward 
Assyria" (Gen. xxv. 16, 18, &c.). Though 
assailed by the Egyptians, the Assyrians, 
the Medes and Persians, and other ancient 
nations, the Arabians were never subdued. 
Herodotus, the first, after the inspired 
writers, who notices Arabia, states (iii. 88) 
that it was never subjected to the Persian 
empire. Little is known of the general 
history of Arabia previous to the time of 
Mohammed, the accounts given by the 
Arabian writers being altogether unworthy 
of credit. 



24. Augustus sends an expedition into Arabia 
Felix. It is unsuccessful. 



AKA 



105. A portion <rf Arabia formed into a Eoman 
province. 

195. Septimius Severus obtains additional terri- 
tory in Arabia. 

570. Mobammed bom at Mecca. 

622. Tbie Hegii-a. 

632. Abu Beker succeeds Mohammed, taking the 
title of " Caliph." 

636. Battle of Yermouk, by which the Saracens 
totally destroy the Roman power in 
Syria. 

G9o. Abdalmelik commences the Arabian coinage. 

7f>i. Al Mansur introduces learning into Arabia. 

786. Haroun al Kashid's caliphate commences. 
1-504. The king of Portugal assumes the title, but 
does not gain the power, of " Lord of the 
Navigation, Conquest, and Commerce of 
Arabia. " 
1518. Conquered by the Ottoman, Selim I. 
1538. Soliman II. completes the conquest. 



Ahabians, or Arabici. — This sect arose 
in Arabia a.d. 207. They held that the soul 
dies with the body, with which it will rise 
again at the resurrection. Eusebius states 
that at a council, called the "council of 
Arabia," held in 24.7 or 248, to discuss the 
question, Origen argued so eloquently that 
he induced these heretics to renounce their 
errors. 

Aeabic WrirEEALS. — According to some 
authorities, Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylves- 
ter II., learned the decimal system of notation 
from the Moors in Spain, and introduced it 
iutoFrance about the end of the 10th century. 
Another account is, that Leonard Fibonnacci 
of Pisa introduced it in 1220, in a work en- 
titled " Liber Abb aci," &c. ; and some have 
supposed that the Alfonsine Tables, con- 
structed chiefly by Moors at the court of 
Alfonso, must have been the first docu- 
ment in which the system appeared. It is 
certain that before the 12th century, and 
most probably as early as the 9th, tins sys- 
tem had been in the hands of the Persians 
and Arabs, who ascribe it to the Hindoos, 
and call it by a name which signifies ' Hindoo 
science.' The Hindoos themselves have long 
used it, and it is easy to trace the manner in 
which our numerical symbols have been de- 
1 ived from those of the Sanscrit. The steps 
by which the new notation made its way 
through Europe cannot be very clearly 
defined. Montfaucon found it in an Italian 
manuscript which was finished in 1317 ; and 
it has been traced in many manuscripts of 
the works of authors a century older; it 
was, however, usual to substitute the new 
figures for the old in recopying. In the 
library of Corpus Christi College, Cam- 
bridge, is a catalogue of ecHpses from 1300 
to 1348, to which Arabic numerals are sub- 
joined. Inscriptions with graven dates in 
these numerals have been given by WaUis 
and others as old as 1330 ; but, upon examin- 
ation, reason has been found to suspect 
that 5 has been mistaken for 3. There 
does not seem to be evidence of any general 
use of the Arabic numerals before the inven- 
tion of printing; and even the works of 
Caxton do not contain them, except in a 
woodcut. Merchants continued down to 



AEA 

the 16th century to keep their accounts in 
Koman figures. 

AEAGOif (Spain) passed in the 16th cen- 
tury before Christ, under the rule of the 
Carthaginians, who rebuilt Gades, now Cadiz, 
about B.C. 350. The Eomans expelled the 

Carthaginians between the years e.g. 210 

200, and in the redistribution of the penin- 
sula into three provinces, made by Augustus, 
B.C. 27, Aragon formed part of Tarraconen- 
sis. It was overrun by the Visigoths at the 
commencement of the 5th century. They 
estabUshed their power, and were in turn 
overwhelmed by the Saracens, who landed 
in the peninsida a.d. 711, and had subdued 
the greater portion by 713. Fierce struggles 
followed between the infidel invaders and 
the Christian inhabitants. The latter suc- 
ceeded in maintaining small but independent 
states, and at the death of Sancho III., the 
sovereign of Christian Spain, in 1035, his 
dominions were divided amongst his four 
sons, and Aragon was formed into a king- 
dom, Eamiro I., Sancho's youngest son, 
being its fii-st king. 

A.D. 

1096. Battle of Alcoraz, which destroys the Moham- 
medan power between the Ebro, the Cinca, 
and the Pyrenees. 

1134. Alfonso I. seeks to reduce the Moorish town 
of Fi-aga, but is defeated, and, according to 
many authorities, slain. 

1137. Hamiro II. abdicates the throne in favour 
of his daughter Petronilla, and retires to a 
monastery. 

1203. Pedro II. engages that Ai-agon shall for ever 
remain a fief of the Holy See. 

1213. Accession of James I. 

1246. The Fucros, or old laws of Aragon, are digested 
into a code by Vital, bishop of Huesca, aud 
confirmed by James I. 

1283. Pope Martin IV. excommunicates the Arago- 
nese, and endeavours to transfer the king- 
dom from Pedro III. to Charles of Valois. 

1291. Withdrawal of the pa];al ban, and renuncia- 
tion by Charles of Valois of aU claim te 
Aragon. 

1347. Confederation against Pedro IV. to insm-e 
the adoption of the Salic law and confir- 
mation of privileges. 

1359. Pope Innocent VI. seeks to restore peace 
between Castile and Ai-agon. 

1412. Ferdinand I. is elected king of Aragon. 

1458. Death of Alfonso V. , sumamed the Wise. 

1463. The Aragonese nobles invite Pedro, infante 
of Portugal, to take the throne from 
John II. 

1479. United to CastUe under Ferdinand and 
Isabella. 

SOTEEEIGNS OP AEAGOIT. 



A.D. 

1035. Bamiro I. 
1067. Sanoho I. 
1094. Pedro I. (Peter). 
1104. Alfonso I. 
1134. Ramiro II. 
1137. Petronilla and 

Raymond. 
1162. Alfonso II. 
1196. Pedi-o II. (Peter). 
1213. Jayme I. (James). 
1276. Pedro III. (Peter). 
1285. Alfonso III. 



A.D. 

12;)1. Jayme II, (James), 
1327. Alfonso IV. 
1336. Pedro IV. (Peter). 
1387. Juan I. (John). 
1395. Martin I. 

..iiteiTegnum, 1 year. 
1412. Fernando I. (Fer- 
dinand). 
1416. Alfonso V. 
1458. Juan II. (John). 
1479. Fernando II. 
United to Castile. 



Aeagtta (Battle). — During the revolu- 
tionary war in South America, a sanguinary 
battle Avas fought in the valley of Aragua, 



AEA 

June IS, 1814, when tlie royalists obtained a 
complete victory, and entered the city of 
Caracas, on the 7th of July. This is erro- 
neously styled the Battle of Arazua. 

AEAsaE, or Aknee (Battle), between 
the French and Indians, and the Enghsh led 
by Chre, was fought Dec. 3, 1751. The 
latter were victorious. 

A'eanjuez (Spain), — the ancient Ara 
Jovis, is celebrated for its palace com- 
menced by Philip II. A treaty of alliance 
was concluded at Aranjuez, May 1, 1745, 
between Genoa, France, Spain, and K'aples, 
for the prosecution of the war against Sar- 
dinia and the Germans. Another treaty be- 
tween Maria Theresa and the kings of Spain 
and Sardinia, for the maintenance of the 
peace of Italy, was concluded at Aranjuez 
June 14, 1752, the preliminaries having been 
signed at Madrid on the 14th of April. By 
a treaty signed here April 12, 1772, France 
and Spain agreed to unite in opposing the 
English in America. A convention between 
Great Britain and Spain was signed at Aran- 
juez May 25, 1793, by which the former 
agreed not to make peace with France tiU 
the Spaniards had obtained fuU restitution 
for aU places and territories captured by the 
French from the conunencement of the 
revolutionary war. An insurrection oc- 
curred here" March IS, 1808, which led to 
the abdication of Charles lY. in favour of 
his son Ferdinand, on the 19th. 

Aeealist, or Ceoss-bow, said by some 
writers to be of Sicilian, and by others of 
Cretan invention. The Crusaders are sup- 
posed to have introduced the cross-bow into 
France, where it was used in the commence- 
ment of the reign of Louis YI. (1108—1142) . 
Some historians aUege that the arbalist was 
used in "^'iHiam the Conqueror's army at 
the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066. Gib- 
bon speaks of it as employed at the battle 
of ..Dorylgeum, Jxxly 4, 1097. The French 
had arbalists at Cressy, Aug. 25, 1346. 
Their use was prohibited by the second 
council of Lateran, or the tenth General 
Council, in 1139. Richard I. introduced 
them into the English army, and he was 
slain by an arrow from a weapon of this 
kind, March 26, 1199. Cross-bows mounted 
on wheels, and called spin-gardas, which shot 
not only darts or quarrels, but also stones 
and lighted combustibles, were used at the 
battle of Mons-en-PueUa in 1304 ; and simi- 
lar engines formed part of the armory of 
Dover Castle in 1344. The use of the cross- 
bow in the Enghsh army ceased in 1515, but 
it continued to be employed as a weapon of 
the chase for many years. 

Aebela (Battle). — Near this town, now 
called Arbn, Alexander the Great gained a 
decisive victorv over Darius, October 1, B.C. 
331. The latter was slain and the Persian 
empire subverted. The actual contest oc- 
curred near the vUlage of Gaugamela, about 
30 miles from Arbela, where the pursuit 
terminated. 

Akbitratiox. — Courts of arbitration or 
conciliation, estabhshed in Denmark in 1795, 
56 



AEC 

rapidly increased in numbers, and were soon 
after introduced into Iforway. Xapoleon I. 
in 1806, issued a decree, by which numerous 
Conseils de Prud'hommes were estabhshed 
in the various departments of France, 
though they were not adopted in Paris until 
1844. Arbitration was recognized by the 
law oi England, by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 15 
(169S), which introduced some important 
regulations on this subject, making corrupt 
awards nuU and void. The power of arbi- 
trators was greatly extended by 3 & 4 WiU. 
lY. c. 42, ss. 39, 40, 41 (Aug. 14, 1833), the 
award being made a rixle of court. By the 
Common Law Procedure Act, 17 & 18 Yiet. 
i c. 125, s. 3 (Aug. 12, 1854), the judges of the 
I superior courts have power, iu certain cases, 
j to order compulsory arbitration. The House 
j of Commons appointed a select committee 
j (Feb. 19, 1856) to inquu-e into the expe- 
diency of estabhshing Arbitration Courts 
I on a more extended basis, and a report in 
favour of the principle was issued. 

Aecadia (Peloponnesus), designated from 
; its mountainous character, "the Switzerland 
; of Greece." The Arcadians claimed to be 
I the earhest inhabitants of Greece, calhng 
i themselves Proseleni, i.e. "before the 
moon." Pan was their tutelary deity, and 
they delighted in music. "They were 
scarcely," says a writer in the " Encyclopsedia 
Metropohtana," "an Hellenic race; hence, 
we are not surprised that they retained their 
pastoral habits and rugged manners." He- 
rodotus (viii. 73) admits that they were in- 
digenous, and Pausanias gives a long hst of 
their early kings, descendants of Areas, from 
whom, accor£ng to some accounts, the 
country received its name. Homer mentions 
Agapenor, who repaired to the siege of Troy 
with his Arcadians. They are said to have 
sent colonies to Italy "before that time. 
Clinton says the Arcadians were an abori- 
ginal tribe of the Pelasgic race. The first 
well-estabhshed fact with respect to the 
Arcadians, is that they maintained their 
independence when the Dorians invaded the 
Peloponnesus, B.C. 1104. The following is 
a summary of the events, legendary and 
authentic, given by historians : — 



1710. A colony of Arcadians led into Italy by 

CEnotrus. 
1.521. Pelasgus king of Arcadia. 
1514. Areas king, from whom the country takes its 

name. 
1193. Agapenor leads the Arcadians to the Trojan 

war. 
1174. Ephitus king. 
1102. The Arcadian women defeat the Lacediemo- 

nians who had iuvMed their coimtry. 
848. War between Sparta and Arcadia. 
71-5. Aristocrates I., of Arcadia, is put to death for 
ha^-ing offered violence to the priestess of 
Diana. 
681. Aristocrates II. stoned to death for treason, 

and Arcadia becomes a republic. 
370. AgesUaus invades Ai-c.-ulia. 
367. The Arcadians and their allies defeated by 

Sparta. 
365. War between Arcadia and Elis. 
364. Arcadia invaded by Archidamus. The Arca- 
dians seize the Olympian treasirry. 



AEC 

After the death of Alexander the Great, 
several of the Arcadian cities join the 
Achaean League, and the country ultimately 
falls under the Eoman yoke. 

Aech. — Layard discovered at Nimroud a 
vaulted chamber, a proof that the ancient 
Assyrians were acquainted with the prin- 
ciple of the arch. Many authorities have 
asserted, with great confidence, that neither 
the ancient Assyrians nor the ancient Egyp- 
tians employed the arch. WUkinson shows 
that the arch in brick and stone was known 
to the ancient Egyptians, remains of the 
former, bearing date b.c. 1540, and of the 
latter b.c. 600, having been discovered at 
Memphis and Thebes. The Chinese are said 
to have constructed arches on a very exten- 
sive scale, at an early period. They were 
employed by the Assyrians, but the Greeks 
did not use them. The Cloaca Maxima, the 
most ancient Eoman arch, was built in the 
reign of Tarquinius Priscus, about B.C. 600. 
The semicircular arch was one of the cha- 
racteristics of the architecture of the early 
Britons. The pointed arch formed part of 
a mosque at Jerusalem, rebmlt a.d. 780 ; of 
the kilometer at Cairo, erected in 848 ; and 
existed in other Saracenic buildings of the 
10th century. In Christian edifices it ap- 
pears in the 12th century. 

Aechangel (Eussia). — Founded in 1584, 
and named after the convent of St. Michael 
the Archangel. The passage by sea was 
discovered by Eichard Chancellor, in 1553. 
Archangel was for many years the only port 
in Eussia. An extensive fire occurred here 
on Oct. 17, 1762, and another June 26, 1793, 
which destroyed the cathedral and about three 
thousand buildings. Archangel was blockaded 
by the Enghsh fleet in 1854. 

Aechbishop. — Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, 
vol. i. 194) says, "The title of archbishop 
was one of honour, but brought with it no 
authority, and was at first very rarely be- 
stowed, and only on the most distinguished 
bishops. The name is not to be met vrith 
during the first three centuries. It occurs 
for the first time in the 4th century, and 
St. Athanasius appears to have been among 
the earliest who were distinguished by this 
title (326—373) . In the 5th century it was 
conferred on the bishops of Eome, An- 
tioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Jerusa- 
lem, Ephesus, and Thessalonica." It gradu- 
ally grew more common, and was bestowed 
upon all metropohtans. The ancient Britons 
had at least one archiepiscopal see, that of 
Caerleon, before Augustine arrived. He 
was made archbishop of Canterbury by 
Ethelbert in 598, and he fixed his seat 
there in 602. Paulinus, appointed by Gre- 
gory about 622, was the first archbishop of 
York. The archbishop of Canterbury was 
primate of Ireland, as well as of England, 
until 1152, and York had metropolitan juris- 
diction over all bishops of Scotland until 
1466. 

Abchdeacoit. — Towards the end of the 
3rd century, one of the deacons, whose duty 
it was to attend on the bishop in church 



AEC 

affairs, was selected from the rest and made 
an archdeacon. Frankish dioceses are said 
to have been divided into archdeaconries in 
the 8th century. Wilfred is the lirs^ Eng- 
lish archdeacon whose name is found m any 
document, and he became archbishop of 
Canterbury in 806. In the early times arch- 
deacons had no jurisdiction in this country. 
It was not until after the Norman conquest 
that the Enghsh dioceses were divided into 
archdeaconries. From the "Valor Eccle- 
siasticus" of Henry VIII. it appears the 
number of Enghsh archdeacons amounted 
to fifty-four, but by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, 
passed Aug. 13, 1836, and subsequent acts, 
the number has been increased. 

Archeet. — Bows and arrows were used 
by the Israelites (Gen. xxi. 20, 1 Sam. xxxi. 
3, and 2 Sam. i. 18), and from the represen- 
tations of battles on the walls of Medinet- 
Abon, at Thebes, it is evident that tne 
ancient Egyptians employed these weapons. 
Procopius states that they were in high 
repute amongst the ancient Persians; and 
Homer not only speaks of skUful archers, 
but describes the attempts made by the 
suitors of Penelope to bend the bow of the 
absent Ulysses. Archers composed a por- 
tion of the hght-armed troops amongst the 
Greeks and Eomans. Pyrrhus employed 
2,000 archers at the battle of Pandosia, near 
Heracleia, B.C. 280. The Eomans frequently 
retained the Cretan bowmen as mercenaries. 
Bows and arrows were used by the early in- 
habitants of Britain, and Asser relates that 
Alfred was preparing such instruments when 
he offended the cowherd's wife, by allowing 
her cakes to burn, A. D. 878. The cross-bow is 
said to have been used by the Kormans at 
the battle of Hastings, was common in the 
armies of Henry III., and the long-bow was 
in general use in England in the time of 
Edward II. The skill of the Enghsh archers 
is a favourite theme with the old chroniclers, 
and Enghsh bows and arrows were in great 
request. In 1363, Edward III. enjoined the 
practice of archery on Sundays and festivals, 
and the same was done by Eichard II. In 
1405, a statute was passed against persons 
using bad materials in the manufacture of 
bows and arrows. At Cressy (1346) the 
Enghsh archers proved more expert than 
the Genoese crossbow-men. Poitiers (1356) 
and Agincourt (1415) were won by this 
weapon. Edward IV., by statutes passed 
in 1478 and 1483, encouraged archery in 
Ireland. The archers of the king's guard, 
raised by Edward III. in 1356, consisted of 
120 men selected from the mounted corps of 
archers. Hemy VII., in 1485, instituted the 
yeomen of the guard, who were then all 
archers. James I., in 1610, appointed a 
commission to stop the inclosure of the 
ground used for archery practice. Charles II. 
reviewed the Finsbury archers in 1682 ; and 
so late as 1753, targets for archery practice 
were set up in Finsbury Fields. 

Aeches (Court of).— The court of appeal 
for aU. the inferior ecclesiastical courts with- 
in the province of Canterbury. It received 



AEC 

this name from having been held formerly 
in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta 
Maria de Arcubus) . It was removed thence 
(1567)to the Common Hall of Doctors' Com- 
mons, where it is stUl held. The appeal from 
this court to the Court of Delegates, or the 
king in Chancery, as constituted by 25 
Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1534), was transferred 
by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 9 (1832), to the long in 
cormcn. 

Akchitectttee. — This science, as dis- 
tinguished from the art of building to satisfy 
man's personal wants, was known to the 
Egyptians and to the Jews at a very early 
age". Sesostris, about B.C. 1489, caused 
temples to be erected : some of the stones 
employed were of immense size. The pyra^- 
mids were built B.C. 1500. Solomon's tem- 
ple was commenced B.C. 1014. The science, 
which was cultivated by the Assyrians, Phoe- 
nicians, and Persians, is supposed to have 
passed from the Egyptians to the Greeks, 
amongst whom it liourished B.C. 552 — 442, 
and fr&m them to modern nations. 

AECHOifS.— On the abohtion of kingly 
government in Athens, at the death of 
Codrus, B.C. 1069 or B. c.1045, the chief au- 
thority was vested ia officers styled archons, 
appointed for hfe. Twelve, called the Me- 
dontidse, of the family of Codrus, succeeded, 
when (B.C. 752) the tenure of office was 
limited to ten years. Seven archons were 
appointed for this term, and (b.c. 684) the 
office was made elective and to be held for 
one year only. 

AECis-srE-AuBE (Battle) .— Eought March 
21, 1S14, between the alhes and the Erench 
army commanded by IS'apoleon I. The 
latter, after a severe struggle, retreated to 
Titry. 

Aecot,a (Battle).— At this village, fifteen 
miles from Verona, on the Alpone, an 
affluent of the Adige, Bonaparte, in his 
fourth Italian campaign, defeated the Aus- 
trians under Alvinzi in a battle extending 
ever three days, the 15th, 16th, and 17th of 
November, 1796. 

Aecot (Hindostan), the capital of the 
northern district of Arcot, in the presidency 
of Madras, was founded in 1716. Chve cap- 
tured it Aug. 31, 1751. He was assailed by 
a strong native and Erench force Sept. 23, 
1751 ; from which day tiU the 14th of No- 
vember, when the final assault was de- 
hvered and repulsed, he defended the place 
with extraordinary heroism. Having fallen 
into the hands of the French, Oct. 4, 1758, it 
was retaken by Coote, Eeb. 10, 1760. Hyder 
Ali stormed it Oct. 31, 1780, but did not 
hold it long. Arcot came into the possession 
of the East-India Company in 1801. 

Aectic CiECiE.— Numerous attempts, 
with widely dilferent objects, have been 
made by the mariners of various countries 
to penetrate the regions of frost and snow 
around the North Pole. The Scandinavians 
in the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries, and the 
Venetian, Spanish, and Portuguese naviga- 
tors at a later period, prosecuted their 
researches in this direction. 
68 



AEC 



860. Iceland discovered by the Scandinavians. 
874. The Scandinavians colonize Iceland. 
982. Eric the Eed discoTers Greenland. 
986. Eric forms a settlement at Greenland, and: 
Bjarni is cast away on the American coast. 

1001. The Scandiuavians extend their discoveries 
in Amei-ica, where they afterwards form 
settlements. 

1498. Sebastian Cabot reaches the Arctic regions. 

1517. His second voyage in the same dii-ection. 

1527. Robert Thome, a merchant of Bristol, writes 
to Heniy VIII. to induce him to sanction 
a polar exijedition ; and two ships, the 
Sampson and the Mart/ of Guildford, are 
sent out. 

1553. Sii- HughWilloughby discovers NovaZembla. 
He retni-ns, and sails to Lapland, where he- 
and his crew perished from hunger, in 
January, 1534. 

1576. Frobisher starts on his first voyage, June 7th. 

1580. Pet and Jackman sail in search of a north- 
eastern passage, but are compelled by the 
ice to return. 

1585. John Davis leaves Dartmouth on his first 
voyage, Jiuie 7th, and after making several 
discoveries on the north-eastern coast of 
America, retiu-ns to England Sept. 30, 
1586. 

1585. Davis's second voyage. 

1587. Davis's third voyage. 

1594. The Dutch send an expedition to seek a 

northern passage, under William. Barentsz. 

1595. Barentsz's second voyage. 
1595. Barentsz's third voyage. 

1602. George Waymouth sails in a fruitless search 
of the north-west passage. 

1607. Hudson starts on his first voyage. May 1st. 

1608. Hudson's second voyage. 

1609. Hudson's third voyage. 

1610. Hudson starts on his fourth voyage, which 

ends in the mutiny of his crew, who leave 
him to perish of cold and hunger. 

1615. Bylot's voyage, in which Bafiin acted as- 

mate. 

1616. Bylot and Baffin discover Baffin's Bay. 
1681. James's disastrous voyage. 

1676. Captain Wood sails in search of a north-east 
passage. 

1728. Beliring leaves Kamtschatka on his first 

voyage, dui-ing which he explores BL-lu-ing's 
Straits. 

1729. Behring's second voyage. 

1741. Behring's third voyage, and death. 

1743. The English government offer a reward of 
£20,000 to any person discovering a north- 
west passage by Hudson's Strait. 

1773. Phipps and Lutwidge sail. Young Horatio 
Nelson accompanies the expedition. 

1776. Cook and Gierke's voyage. 

The following list of the Arctic expeditions 
sent out during the present century is ex- 
tracted from Simmonds's " Arctic Eegions : " 

A.D. 

1818. John Ross, Isabella and Alexander. 

1818. Buchan and Fi-ankUn, Dorothea and Trent. 

1819-21. Franklin, first land expeditio;:. 

1819-20. Pariy, Becla and GHper. 

1821-23. Pany, Fury and Hecla. 

1824. Lyon, Griper. 

1824-25. Parry, Hecla and Fury. 

1825-27. Franklin, second land expedition. 

1826-28. Buchan, Blossom. 

1829-33. John Ross, Victory. 

1833-35. Back, land expedition. 

1836-37. Back, Terror. 

1836-39. Dean and Simpson, boat expedition. 

1846-47. Rae, boat expedition. 

1845-46. Franklin, Erebus and Terror. 

1848-49. James Ross, Enterprise p.nd Investigator. 

1848-49. Richardson, boat expedition. 

1848-52. iloore. Plover. 

1849-51. Pullen, boat expedition. 

1S49-50, Hooper, boat expedition. 



AED 



1849-50. Saunders, Kortli Star. 

1850. ¥ovsyt)i. Prince Albert. 

1850-55. Collinson, Enterprise. 

1850-54. M'Olure, Investigator. 

1830-51. Austin, Resolute, Assistance, Intrepid, 

and Pioneer. 
1850-51. Jolin Eoss, Felix. 
1850-51. Penny, Lady Franl-lin and Sophia. 
1850-51. De Haven and Kane, Advance and 

licscue. 
1851-52. Kennedy (Bellot), Prince Albert. 
1851-54. Eae, land expedition. 
1852-54. Maguire, Plover. 
1852-54. Belcher, Assistance and Pioneer. 
1852-54. Kellett, Resolute and Intrepid. 
1852-54. Pullen, North Star. 
1853-55. Kane, A dvance. 
1857-59. M'Clintock, Fox, 

Akdagh. — This see, one of the earliest 
established in Ireland, is said to have been 
founded by St. Patrick, who appointed his 
nephew, St. Mell or Mael, first bishop in 
454. St. Men is described as abbot and 
bishop. He died in 488. Ardagh was united 
to Kilmore Feb. 24, 1660, but was separated 
from it for a short time Sept. 8, 1692. In 
1742 it was severed from Kilmore and united 
to Tuam. Bv the Church Temporalities 
Act, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), 
other arrangements were made by which the 
bishopric of Ardagh was, in 1839, separated 
from Tuam and joined to Kilmore. In 1841 
Kilmore, Elphin, and Ardagh formed one 
bishopric. 

Ardee (Ireland). — This town was sacked 
by Edward Bruce in 1315. It surrendered 
to the rebels during the insurrection of 
October, 1641, when it was dehvered up to 
pillage. 

Aedfeet. — This Irish bishopric, called in 
ancient records the bishopric of Kerry, was 
founded in the 5th century. Edward Synge, 
bishop of Limerick in 1660, held the sees of 
Ardfert and Aghadoe in commendam ; and 
they were both united to Limerick in 1663. 

Aeboch (Battle).— Fought between the 
Eomans, led by Agricola, and the Caledo- 
nians under Galgacus, on a moor, at the foot 
of the Grampians, a.d. 84 or 85. The latter 
were routed with great slaughter. 

Aedees (France). — The interview between 
Henry VIII., of England, and Francis I., of 
France, in the "Field of the Cloth of Gold," 
took place near this town, June 7, 1520. The 
treaty for the meeting had been concluded 
Oct. 14, 1518. Ardres was captured by the 
Spaniards in 1596. 

Aeeopagus (Court of).— This institution 
is attributed to Cecrops, the founder of 
Athens, B.C. 1556. It is known to have 
existed before the time of Solon, b.c. 594. 
He extended its jurisdiction. The guardian- 
ship of the laws and the power of enforcing 
them was intrusted by Solon to this court. 
Kehgion and the education of youth were 
placed imder its control. Its constitution 
was preserved inviolate until Pericles, B.C. 
461, caused himself to be elected without 
having previously received the appointment 
of archon. St. Paul was brought before this 
court A.D. 51 (Acts, xvii. 19, &c.). 



AEG 

Aegaum (Battle). — Wellington defeated 
the Mahratta chiefs at this village, in Hyder- 
abad, Nov. 29, 1803. 

Aeoehttaeia (Battle). — Argentaria, now 
Colmar, in Alsace, was the scene of Gratian's 
signal victory over the Alemanni, in May, 
A.D. 378. Gibbon says, " It secured the peace 
of Gaul and asserted the honour of the 
Eoman arms." 

Aegenteus Codex, or Silvee Book. — 
This ancient illuminated copy of the gospels, 
written on vellum, and called Argenteus- 
from its silver letters, is supposed to be a 
fragment of the Moeso-Gothic translation of 
the Bible, made about a.d. 360, by Ulphilas, 
whom Gibbon terms the bishop and apostle 
of the Goths. Afraid of exciting the fierce 
and warlike passions of his people, he sup- 
pressed the four books of Kings. The first 
fragment was discovered in 1587, in the 
library of the Benedictine abbey of Werden, 
in Westphalia, whence it was removed to 
Prague ; and on the capture of that city in 
1648, was sent as a present to Queen Chris- 
tina, of Sweden. Other portions of tha 
Moeso-Gothic Bible were found in the library 
at WoLfenbiittel, in that of Mai, at Eome,, 
and in other places ; and a complete edition- 
was pubhshed at Leipsic in 1836-47. The 
manuscript was idtimately presented to the 
imiversity of Upsal. 

Aegei^tine Coneedeeatiok or Eepublic 
(S. America). — These provinces threw ofi" 
the yoke of Spain in 1810, remaining in a 
very unsettled state until 1816, when a 
repubhc was first estabhshed. The basis of 
the Argentine Confederation was, however, 
laid in 1834, Buenos Ayres and three other 
states forming a confederacy, which was 
afterwards joined by other states to the 
number of thirteen : — 



Buenos Ayres. 


Salta. 


Catamarca. 


San Juan. 


Cordova. 


San Luis. 




Santa Fe. 


Entre Rios. 


Santiago. 


La Eioja. 


Tucunian 


Meudoza. 





Buenos Ayres separated from the confe- 
deracy in 1853, and other secessions have 
since occurred. {See La Plata.) 

AEGiNtrsiE (Sea Fight).— The Athenian 
fleet defeated the Spartan armament under 
Callicratidas, among the islands of Arginusss, 
near Lesbos, B.C. 406. 

Aegonatttic Expedition. — This voyage, 
the fii'st naval expedition on record, was, 
according to the traditional account, con- 
ducted by Jason, son of ^son, king of 
Thessaly, "to bring back the golden fleece 
of the ram, which had carried away Phryxus 
and HeUa." The celebrated Argo was built, 
which after various adventures reached Ma,, 
the capital of Colchis, B.C. 1263, or according 
to Newton, B.C. 937. .^etes, king of Colchis, 
promised Jason the fleece on certain condi- 
tions difficiilt of aecomphshment. These, by 
the magical aid of Medea, were performed, 
and the enterprise ultimately achieved. 



AEG 

Grote (vol. i. 333) remarks on this fable : — 
"ISot only are we unable to assign the date, 
or identify the crew, or decipher the log- 
book of the Argo, but vre have no means of 
setthng even the preliminary question, 
whether the voyage be matter of fact badly 
reported, or legend from the beginning." 

ARGONAUTS OF St. Nicholas, a military 
order of knights established by Charles III. 
of ISTaples, in 1382. From their collar of 
shells, inclosed in a silver crescent, with the 
motto " Xon credo tempori," they were 
called knights of the shell. 

Aegos (Pelopomiesus). — The origin of 
this, the earhest Grecian state, is involved in 
obscurity. Various vaiters represent it as 
having been founded by Inachus, by his son 
Phoroneus, and by his grandson Argus. The 
AchEeans, having expelled the original inha- 
bitants, gave place in turn to the Dorians. 
It was a powerfvd state, and became the 
head of a league of Doric cities, until Sparta 
obtained the ascendancy, B.C. 495. The fol- 
lo\ving are the cliief points, legendary and 
authentic, in its history : — 



1856. Founded by Inachus. 

1753. Phoroneus founds it, according to other 

authorities. 
1711. Calied Argos, after a king of that name, the 
fourth of the InachidK. 
Danaus, an Egyptian, enters Argos. 
Danaus deposes and succeeds Gelanor, king of 

Argos. 
Perseus of Argos founds Mycene. 
Agamemnon king of Argos during the Trojan 

■war. 
The Heraclidse overrun. Argos. 
Pheidon of Argos endeavours to take Corinth. 
Pheidon establishes the supremacy of Argos, 

and celebrates the 8th Olympic games. 
Conflict -with Sparta. 

The Argives defeat the Spartans near Hysise. 
The Argives endeavour to regain Thyi-ea from 
the Spartans, but are defeated. 
514 Argos fines Sicyon and jEgina 500 talents 
each for having furnished Sparta with sliips 
to operate against her territory. 
496. War with Spai-ta. 
495. Spartans %'ictorious. 
471. Themistocles, banished from Athens, retires 

to Argos. 
468. The Argives destroy Mycense. 
421. Argos forms a league against Sparta. 
420. Makes a treaty with Athens. 
418. Defeat of the confederates at Mantineia. 
417. Argos concludes peace with Sparta. 
395. Argos joins Athens, Corinth, and Thebes 

against Sparta. 
229. Argos joins the Achaean League. 

Aegtle (Scotland). — This bishopric was 
founded by Innocent III., who separated it 
from the see of Dunkeld about the year 
1200, when Evaldus became first bishop. Lis- 
more was made the residence of the bishops ; 
hence they were sometimes called bishops of 
Lismore. Alexander II. made several grants 
to the new see, the last of them bearing date 
July 8, 1249. It was suppressed in 1688, 
but in 1847 it was restored under the title of 
Argyle and the Isles. 

Aeiaijism:. — The denial of the divinity of 

Christ, the distinctive feature of Arianism, 

first appeared in the heresies of the Ebion- 

ites, of Artemon, and of Theodotus. Eobert- 

60 



1500. 
1475. 

1417. 
1192. 

1104. 

783. 
748. 

747. 
669. 
547. 



AEK 

son considers that although Alexandria was 
the birthplace of Arianism, its origin may be 
traced to the other great churches of the 
East. Arius, a pres yter of Alexandria, 
from whom the heresj^ "is named, appears to 
have first boldly maintained the opinion 
about 319. His views were condemned by 
Alexander, and he was, with his followers, 
excommunicated in 321. Constantine took 
up the matter, and smnmoned a general 
council at Mcaea, to settle the controversy. 
The emperor presided, and the council sat 
from June 19 to August 25, 325, when Ariug 
was excommunicated and banished into II- 
lyria, and his heresy was condemned. Arius, 
however, managed to obtain the favour of 
Constantine, who gave him a rescript com- 
manding his readmission into the Church. 
On the eve of the day on which it was to take 
place, Arius, who was parading the streets 
with his adherents, was compelled to with- 
draw for a few moments, and he was after- 
wards found dead (336) . Arianism did not 
long remain a single sect. There were the 
Anomseans or pure Arians, the Semi-Arians, 
and the Acaeians, during the bfetime of 
Constantine ; and these soon separated into 
other parties. Theodosius issued edicts 
against the Arians (381 — 395). When extir- 
pated at Constantinople and the civilized 
portions of the empire, the heresy spread 
amongst the Goths and other barbarian 
nations. 

Aeikeea, or Abkaet (Battle).— Lord 
Cornwallis completely routed Tippoo's army 
at this place, about nine nules from 
Seringapatam, May 14, 1791. 

Aeiiii:n-ium ( Italy) .— Conquered by the 
Eomans, and made" a Eoman colony, B.C. 
268. It became important as a military 
post. The Via Flaminia, from this city to 
Eome, was opened b.c. 221 ; and the Tia 
Emilia, to Placenta, B.C. 187. Caesar took 
A rimininm B.C. 48. (See Eimini.) 

AEiTHiiETic. — Computation by means of 
counters, the earhest form of this science, 
was practised by the Egyptians. The Chinese 
made use of the schwan-pau, or abacus, at a 
very early period. Certain letters of the 
alphabet, divided and arranged according to 
a particular method, preceded the use of 
nmnerals. (See Akabic JfuJiEEALS.) Deci- 
mal notation arose from the facility of 
counting on the fingers, and was introduced 
into Europe in the 13th century. Pococke's 
treatise on arithmetic in the ' ' Encyclopaedia 
Metropolitana " affords the fullest informa- 
tion on the subject. 

Aekaksas (U. States), was colonized by 
the French in 1685. It was ceded to Spain by 
France by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763, 
and restored to France by Spain in 1800. 
The United States government purchased it 
from France in 1803. It was erected into a 
separate territory in 1819, having previously 
formed part of Louisiana, and was admitted 
into the Union in 1836. 

Aeklow (Battle).— a small body of the 
royal troops defeated the Irish rebels, 27,000 
in number, led by a priest named Michael 



ARL 

Murphy, near Arldow Bridge, on the 10th of 
June, 1798. 

Akles (France), Arelate, or Aeelas, 
fell under the Roman yoke B.C. 123, and 
became a Roman colony in the time of 
Augustus. It M-as pillaged a.d. 270, and re- 
stored and enlarged by Constantine ; hence 
it was sometimes called Constantia. His 
son, after-^vards Constantine II., was born 
here. Constantine presided at the celebrated 
council held at Aries against the Donatists 
in 314. Three English bishops took part in 
the proceedings ; which fact proTCS the im- 
portant position occupied by the Enghsh 
church in the beginning of the 4th century. 
In 418, Aries was appointed as the place for the 
annual meeting of tlie assembly of the seven 
provinces of G-aul. It was besieged by the 
Yisigoths in 425, 429, 452, and 457 ; and cap- 
tured by Euric in 466. The Saracens de- 
feated Eudes, duke of Aqiiitaiae, near Aries, 
in 731 ; but he joined his forces with those of 
Charles Martel and expelled the Saracens in 
732. Aries was plundered by the Saracens 
in 850, and was frequently invaded. The 
repubhcan form of government was adopted 
in Aries in 1240. After various changes, it 
was annexed to France in 1486. Aries was 
an archiepiscopal see. It was suppressed by 
the concordat of ISOl; re-established and 
united to Aix in 1817. In addition to the 
celebrated council in 314, others occurred in 
353, 442, 452, 455, 463, 475, 524, 554, 813, 
1059, 1205, 1211, 1234, 1260 or 1261, and 1275. 

Aeles (Kingdom of). — Count Boso, ex- 
pelled from Lombardy, was elected king of 
Provence, by the synod of MantaiUe, in Oct. 
879A.D. He died about 887; and his son Louis 
was acknowledged king by the council of 
Valence in 890. Loviis, who claimed the croAvn 
of Italy, was blinded, and died about 928. In 
888 Roclolph or Raoul, the Guelph, erected the 
kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy, consist- 
ing of territory that nearly corresponds to 
Switzerland, with some neighbouring dis- 
tricts. Rodolph I. died in 911, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Rodolph II. ; who, on the 
death of Loxiis, in 928, united Provence to 
Transjurane Burgundy, making Aries his 
capital ; and, by a treaty with Hugh, king of 
Italy, he was, in 933, confirmed in the pos- 
session. This constituted what is known in 
history as the kingdom of Aries. Rodolph III., 
who died in 1032, bequeathed it to the em- 
peror Conrad II. ; and subsequent attempts 
made to revive the kingdom of Aries did not 
prove successful. Raymond, count of Bar- 
celona, seized Provence in 1146, and Alfonso 
II., of Aragon, in 1167. Aries became a 
repubhc in 1240; afterwards fell imder the 
rule of the Angevin family; and was perma- 
nently annexed to France by letters patent 
of Charles Till, in 1486. 

KIITGS OI? ARLES. 
A.D. 

933. Rodolph II., of Ti-ansjurane Burgundy. 
937. Conrad the Pacific. 
993. Rodolph III. 
1032. Conrad II., the emreroi', receives it on the 
death of Rodolph 111. 



ARM 

Aemada. — This formidable naval expedi- 
tion, collected from aU parts of Europe by 
Philip II., for the purpose of invading Eng- 
land, and called the Invincible Armada, 
sailed from the Tagus May 28, 29, and 30, 
1588, ]Sr.S. It consisted of 130 ships of war, 
rangingfrom 300 to 1,200 tons each, and alarge 
fleet of transports, carrying aboiit 11,000 
sailors, including galley slaves ; 20,000 sol- 
diers, besidesTolunteers and priests ; and3,165 
pieces of cannon. The armada having been 
damaged in a storm off" Cape Finisterre, 
took refuge in various ports, and assembled 
again at the Groyne (Corunna), whence they 
sailed July 22 (O.S. 12) ; sighted the English 
coast Friday, July 29 (O.S. 19) ; and en- 

faged for the first time -with the Enghsh 
eet, July 31 (0.8. 21), when the latter were 
victorious. Several of the Spanish ships were 
taken, and others destroyed. Another con- 
test, ^\"ith a smilar result, occurred Tuesday, 
Aug. 2 (O.S. July 23). The armada an- 
chored in Calais roads on Saturday after- 
noon, Aug. 6 (O.S. July 27). Fire-ships 
were launched amongst them during the 
next (Sunday) night, at which the Spaniards 
were so much alarmed that they cut their 
cables and -put to sea again, losing several 
ships. Those that escaped were closely 
followed by the Enghsh squadrons, and a 
general engagement ensued off' G-ravelines, 
on Monday (Aug. 8), when Drake and his 
colleagues, without the loss of a single vessel, 
and not a hundred men, dispersed the mighty 
armament. Sixteen Spanish ships were de- 
stroyed, about 5,000 of their men Idlled, and 
most of the vessels that escaped destruction 
were riddled with shot. Their commanders, 
bent upon returning to Spain, felt so much 
dread of their antagonists, that they resolved 
upon saihng through the North Sea, and 
round Scotland, sooner than risk another 
encounter. Drake, Frobisher, Howard, and. 
the gallant seamen of that age, pressed boldly 
in pursuit. "There was never anything," 
wrote Drake to AValsingham, Aug. 10, "that 
pleased me better than seeing the enemy 
flying with a southerly vrind to the north- 
ward." The armada suffered from a suc- 
cession of storms ; and in one that occirrred 
Sept. 2, forty ships were driven on the 
Irish coast, and nearly every soul on 
board these vessels perished. Of this ex- 
pedition, fifty -three vessels, in a shattered and 
worthless condition, and little more than a 
third of the army sent for the conquest of 
England, returned to Spain. Ehzabeth raised 
three armies to repel the invaders, but the 
skill and heroism of her sailors, aided by th© 
fury of the elements, rendered even an at- 
tempt at landing impossible. 

Aemagh (Ireland), formerly the metro- 
pohs, enjoyed considerable reputation as a. 
seat of learning from the 5th to the 9th cen- 
turies. The bishopric is said to have been 
founded by St. Patrick a.d. 445. Gelasius, 
bishop in 1136, became its first archbishop, 
and took the title of "primate of all Ire- 
land" in 1152. Armagh was frequently 
ravaged by the Danes, who were ultimately 
61 



AEM 

expelled in 1004. Its cathedral, founded by 
St. Patrick in 450, was destroj^ed in 1564, 
rebuilt in 1616, again destroyed in 1642, and 
rebuilt in 1675. The town itself was burnt by 
Shane O'Neal in 1564. 

Aemagsacs. — Soon after the murder of 
the duke of Orleans, in 1407, France became 
a prey to two rival factions, the Burgundians 
and the Armagnacs. The latter received 
this name from then- leader, Bernard, count 
of Armagnac, father-in-law to the duke of 
Orleans. The Armagnacs, in May, 1412, 
entered into negotiations with Henry IV. of 
England. Their leader was massacred by the 
Burgundians and the citizens of Paris, with 
four thousand of his adherents, June 12th, 
1418. Louis XI., before he came to the 
French throne, put himself at the head of a 
body of ruffians, called Armagnacs, the dis- 
banded mercenaries of the Enghsh Avar, and 
invaded Switzerland, where he was defeated 
in 1444. The Armagnacs were abnost exter- 
minated by Louis XL, in 1473. 

Akmed ITeuteaI/ITT. — Eussia, Sweden, 
and Denmark, instigated by France, and 
beheving England to be hard pressed by the 
fleets of France and Spain, at the close of the 
American war, leagued together to establish 
a, new code of maritime laws. This con- 
federacy, known as the Armed I^eutrahty, 
was formed in 1780, and on the 26th of 
February in that year, Catherine II. put 
forth a declaration, announcing that free 
ships make free goods, that the flag covers 
the merchandise, and that a port is under- 
stood to be blockaded only when such a 
force is stationed at its entrance as to render 
it dangerous to approach. These principles 
she professed her intention of maintaining 
by force of arms. Denmark signed the con- 
vention, July 30th ; Sweden, Aug. 1, in the 
same year ; and Holland, Jan. 16, 1781. 
Prussia followed, May 8, and the emperor 
of Grermany, Oct. 9, 1781. England de- 
clared war against the Dutch ; but the ces- 
sation of hostilities soon after, caused the 
dissolution of the confederacy. It was, 
however, revived in 1800, and on the 16th 
of December, Russia, Denmark, and Swe- 
den signed another treaty, to which Prussia, 
on the 19th, acceded. England, after remon- 
strating, replied by a proclamation laying an 
embargo on all Russian, Swedish, and Daiaish 
vessels (Jan. 14, 1801). IS'elson was speedily 
sent to Copenhagen, which he captured to- 
gether with the Danish fleet, April 2, 1801. 
He then set sail for Cronstadt. Peace was 
concluded with Russia, June 17, 1801. Swe- 
den and Denmark abandoned their preten- 
sions, Prussia followed their example, and 
the Armed Neutrality was dissolved. 

Armenia (Asia), according to Armenian 
tradition, was settled by Haik, son of Togar- 
mah, and grandson of Japhet (Gen. x. 3) ; 
and it is noticed in Scripture under the 
names Togarmah and Ararat. The country, 
afterwards divided into Lesser and G-reater 
Armenia, was frequently invaded by the 
Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes and 
Persians, and for" many years remained 



ARM 

in subjection to one or other of these 
empires. The accounts given by the Greek 
and Roman writers are in many points at 
variance with those of the Armenian his- 
torians. M. St. Martin has investigated 
the subject with great dUigence, and upon 
his valuable work the following chronolo- 
gical table is based : — 



B.C. 

2107. Haik, fleeing from the tyranny of Belus, 
king of Assyria, settles in Armenia, and 
becomes its first ruler. 

1827. Accession of Aram to the chief power. He 

carries his arms into Asia Minor, and founds 

Mazaca, afterwards known as Csesareia of 

Cappadocia. 
1725. Armenia becomes subject to Assyria. 
743. Baroir renders Armenia independent of 

Assyi-ia. 
565. Accession of Tigranes, who restores Armeniiv 

to its ancient po.sition. 
323. On the death of Alexander, Armenia falls 

under the sway of Greek governors. 
317. The Armenians, under Ardoates, throw off 

the Grecian yoke. 
149. Valarsaces, or Wagharshag L, founds the 

djmasty of the Arsacid.-e. 
34. Antony leads the Armenian sovereign captive 

to Alexandria. 
30. On the death of Antony, Artaxes expels the 

Komans, and is crowned king. 

A.D. 

16. Vonones, king of the Parthians, seeks shelter 

with the Ai-menians, and is made king. 
18. Germanicus makes Zeno king of Armenia, 

under the name of Artaxias. 
62. Tiridates king, by order of Nero. 
115. Invaded and conquered by the emperor 

Trajan. 
232. Armenia is subjected by Ai-dashir, king of 

Persia. 
276. Tiridates is converted to Cairistianity by 

St. Gregory. 
387. The kingdom of Armenia is divided between 

the Romans and the Persians. 
428. End of the kingdom of the Arsacidoe, 
442. Armenia invaded by the Persians, who seek 
to abolish Christianity, and substitute the 
rites of Zoroaster. 
515. Pourzan rules Armenia, which is ravaged by 

the Huns during his administration. 
637. Invaded by the Arab Abd-err.ahim, who seeks 

to establish Jlohammedaiiism. 
830. Invaded by TheophUus, emperor of the 

East. 
856. Sempad the Confessor, king of Armenia, 
sutlers martyrdom at Bagdad for his ad- 
herence to Chiistianity. 
859. Aschod I., son of Sempad, receives the title 

of Prince of Princes from the Caliph. 
914. Death of Sempad I., after which Armenia is 

ravaged by the Arabs. 
1045. Constantine XII., emperor of the East, g.^ins 

important possessions in Armeni.a. 
1079. Extinction of the dynasty of the Pagratldes, 
and entire submission of Armenia to the 
Seljukian sidtans. 
1124. David II. recovei-s great part of Armenia 

from the Turks. 
1234. The Mongols encamp on the confines of 
Armenia, which they overrun for several 
years. 
1375. Leon VI., king of Armenia, is made prisoner 

by the infidels, and carried to Egypt. 
1393. Leon VI. dies at Paris, and with him the 

kingdom of Armenia becomes extinct. 
1583. Armenia is overrun by the Turks. 
1604. The Persians, under Shah Abbas, invade 
Armenia, and reduce it to complete sub- 
jection. 

1828. The Russians, in their operations against 

Turkey, overrun Armenia. 

1829. Ei-zeroum surrendered to the Russians. 



AKM 

SOVEBEIGNS OF AeMEITIA, 
According to St. Martin, 

Elder Branch of the Arsacidae in Greater 
Armenia. 

B.C. 

149. Valarsaces, or Wagharshag I., 'brother of 

Mithridates I., king of Pai-thia. 
127. Arsaces, or Arshag I. 
114 Artaxes, or Ardashes I. 
89. Tigranes, or Dikran 1. 

35. His son, Artavasdes, reigns with him. 

36. Artavasdes, or Artawatz I. 

34. Antony seizes the king, and canies him off 

prisoner to Alexandria, and the Bomans 
hold the country. 

50. Artaxes II. 
20. Tigranes II. 

— Tigi-anes III. dethroned by the Romans. 
6. Artavasdes II. 

5. Tigranes III. re-established. 
2. Queen Erato, widow of Tigranes III. She is 
forced to abdicate. 

-A.D. 

2. Ariobarzanes, a Parthian, placed on the throne 
by the Romans. 

4. Artavasdes lU. 

5. Queen Erato re-established.— Interregnum. 

16. Vonones. 

17. Interregnum. 

18. Zeno of Pontus, called Artaxias. 

— Tigranes IV. 

35. Arsaces II. 

— Mithridates of Iberia. 

51. Rhadamistus. 

52. Tuidates I. 
60. Tigranes V. 

62. Tiridates I. re-established on the tlirone. 

Younger Branch of the Arsacidse rules 
at first at Edessa. 

;B.C. 

38. Arsham, or Ardsham. 
10. Manu. 

5. Abgarus, said to have written a letter to our 
Saviour. 

A.D. 

32. Anane, or Ananus. 

36. Sanadrug, or Sanatmces. 

58. Erowant, an Arsacid by the female line, usurps 
the throne, and conquers the whole o 
Armenia. 

78. Ardashes, or Artaxes III. reigns over the 
whole of Armenia. 

120. Artawatz, or Artavasdes IV. 

121. Diran, or Ttranus I. 
142. Dikrau, or Tigi-anes VI. 
178. Wagharsh, or Vologeses. 

198. Chosroes, or Khosrew I., surnamed Medz, or 

the Great. 
^32. Ardashir, or Artaxerxes, the first Sassanid of 

Persia. 
259. Dertad, or Tuidates II., established by the 

Bomans. 
314. Interregnum. Sanadrugtakes northem,and 

Pagur southern, Armeuia. 
316. Chosroes, or Khosrew II. 
•325. Diran, or Tiranus II. 
341. Arsaces, or Arshag III. 
.370. Bab, or Para. 
377. Waraztad. 

.382. Arsaces IV. and Valarsaces, or "Wagharshag II. 
383. Arsaces IV. alone. 
387. Ai-menia divided between the Romans and 

Persians. 
389. Arsaces IV. dies. Cazavon rules, followed by 

Chosroes, or Khosrew III. 
392. Bahram Shapur (Sapor). 

414. Chosroes III. re-established. 

415. Shapur, or Sapor. 
419. Interregnum. 

422. Ardashes, or Artaxes IV. 

428. End of the kingdom of the Arsacides 



AEM 

Aksiekiam" JEvla. commenced Tuesday, 
July 9, 552, vrhen the council of Tiben, or of 
the Armenians, confirmed the condemnation 
passed on the council of Chalcedon in 536. 
The Armenians were reconciled to the Latin 
church about 1330, and they then adopted 
the form of the Juhan year. 

AEiTEifiAir Church is said to have been 
founded by Bartholomew or Thaddeus, one 
of the seyenty. The Gospel does not, how- 
ever, appear to have flourished, and it was 
not until the beginning of the 4th century 
that it was embraced by king, nobles, and 
people. Armenia thus became the first 
country in which Christianity was adopted 
as the national religion. The Persians, who 
had subdued Armenia by 369, having failed 
in their endeavours to force the Magian reh- 
gion upon the people, permitted them to 
follow the faith of their fathers. They 
adopted the Monophysite doctrine in the 
6th century. At a council held at Tiben, in 
Armenia, in 552, the Armenian bishops con- 
denmed the general council of Chalcedon 
(451) which had proscribed the Eutychian 
heresy, and they separated from the Ortho- 
dox church. 

Akmeu^ian Veesion-. — This translation of 
the Scriptures, of which the Old Testament 
is based upon the Septuagint, was com- 
menced, A.D. 410, by Miesrob, who invented 
for the purpose the Armenian alphabet, con- 
sisting of thirty-six letters. TMs alphabet, 
with two additional letters, is the one stiU in 
use. Some authorities are of opinion that 
this version, completed about 431, was inter- 
polated in the 6th century from the Syriae 
Peschito, and in the 13th from the Vulgate. 
It was first printed at Amsterdam, in 1666. 

Aeshkians, the followers of James Armi- 
nius, or Harmensen, a Dutch divine, born at 
Oudewater, in 1560. He was made pastor at 
Amsterdam in 1588, and soon after opposed 
what is termed the Supralapsarian doctrine 
of Calvin. In 1604 he obtained the divinity 
chair at Leyden, and died Oct. 19, 1609. 
His followers were also called Eemonstrants, 
from the petition or remonstrance, contain- 
ing their doctrines, set forth in five articles 
presented to the States of Holland, ia 1610. 
Their opposition to the Calvinists, or Goma- 
rists, as they were then called, referred xDrin- 
cipally to their views respecting original sin, 
free wiU, and predestination. The synod of 
Dort, assembled Nov. 13, 1618, and. closed 
May 9, 1619, condemned the " five articles," 
and 200 of the Armenian preachers were 
afterwards deprived. Many pastors and 
their followers went into exile, until the 
proclamation of religious liberty in Holland, 
in 1625. HaUam (Lit. Hist. vol. ii. pt. 3, 
ch. ii.) remarks, " The Arminian doc- 
trine spread, as is well known, in despite of 
obloquy and persecution, over much of the 
Protestant region of Europe." The Armi- 
nians still exist in Holland, and their tenets 
in a modified form are held by several 
Christian sects. 

Aemosiai Beaeings. — "There is no 
doubt that emblems somewhat similar have," 
63 



AEM 



AEN 

ArjIS. — The club, the sling, bow and 
arrows, were the most ancient weapons. 
Esau, at the command of Isaac, took his 
quiver and bow, and went to procure veni- 
son, about B.C. 1760 (Gen. xxvii. 3). Spears 
of various kinds, javehns, swords, daggers, 
the battle-axe and mace, followed. The 
cross-bow and the long-bow were the chief 
oiFensive weapons previous to the invention 
of gunpowder in the 13th century. 

Aemt. — The numerical force of armies 
in ancient times, as may be seen from 
Josh. xi. 4, B.C. IMo; 1 Sam. xiii. 5, about 
B.C. 1093; and 2 Sam. xxiv. 9, B.C. 1017, was 
very great. Diodorus Siculus describes the 
armv of iN'inus as amounting to 1,700,000 
foot" and 200,000 horse. Xerxes, B.C. 480, 
assembled 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse 
for the invasion of Greece. Gibbon cal- 
culates that the peace establishment of 
Hadrian and his successors amounted to 
375,000 men, and this number was doi\bled 
under the successors of Constantiue. With 
reference to more modern times, Hallam 
(Middle Ages, i. ch. ii. pt. 2) says, " In 
public national history, I am aware of no 
instance of what may be called a regular 
army more ancient than the body-guards, 
or huscai'les, of Canute the Great. These 
select troops amounted to 6,000 men, on 
whom he probably reUed to ensure the 
subjection of England." Charles VII. of 
Erance, advised by the estates at Orleans in 
1439, established the first standing army in 
Europe, levying a poU-tax, in 1441, to defray 
the expenditure. During the Great Eebel- 
lion, large armies were raised ; and an army 
was mamtained whUst the Commonwealth 
lasted. In 1662, a force of 5,000 men excited 
alarm ; and the levy by Charles II., in 1678, 
of 25,000 or 30,000 troops, created dissatis- 
faction. By the fourth clause of the De- 
claration of Eights (1689), James II. was 
accused of having raised and maintained a 
standing army in time of peace without the 
consent of parhament. William III. showed 
great reluctance in obeying the orders of 
parhament with reference to disbanding the 
troops, and from his reign a standing army 
has been regularly maintained in this country. 
According to the budget of 1859-60, the 
English army consisted of 229,557 men. 

Men and 
officers. 

Cavalry in Europe 12,071 

Infantry „ 160,584 

Cavalry in India 9,046 

Infantry „ 82,851 

Depats of Indian regiments stationed in ") i ^ An- 
Great Britain / ^^'^O-* 

Total 229,557 



Aenheiit (Holland), the capital of 
Guelderland, is noticed in a charter of Otho, 
in 996. The counts and dukes of Guelder- 
land resided here. The Spaniards took it in 
1585 ; the French in 1672. It was fortified 
in 1702, and having again fallen into the 
power of the Erench, was retaken in 1S13. 



says Hallam (Middle Ages, vol. i. ch. ii. pt. 2), 
" been immemoriaUy used both in war and 
peace. The shields of ancient warriors, and 
devices upon coins or seals, bear no distant 
resemblance to modern blazonry. But the 
general introduction of such bearings, as 
hereditary distinctions, has been sometimes 
attributed to tournaments, wherein the 
champions were distinguished by fanciful 
devices; sometimes to the Crusades, where 
a multitude of all nations and languages 
stood in need of some visible token to de- 
note the banners of theu- respective chiefs. 
In fact, the pecuhar symbols of heraldry 
point to both these sources, and have been 
borrowed in part from each. Hereditary 
arms were perhaps scarcely used by private 
families before the beginning of the 13th 
century. From that time, however, they 
became very general, and have contributed 
to elucidate that branch of history which 
regards the descent of illustrious families." 
At the end of the 12th century, warriors 
bore escutcheons, suspended from the belt, 
decorated with their arms. William I. 
introduced into England the arms of For- 
mandy, having two lions on his shield, to 
which another lion was added, as is generally 
supposed, for Aquitaine, by Henry II. The 
earhest display of ai-ms on a seal is of the 
date 1187. 

Aemokica (Gaul). — This seat of the 
Yeneti, a Celtic tribe, was conquered by 
Cffisar B.C. 56. It threw off the Eoman yoke 
A.D. 409, and its independence was recog- 
nized by Honorius. Clovis annexed it to his 
empire A.D. 497. Many of the early Britons, 
assailed on every side, took refuge in the 
western part of Armorica, called after them 
Cornwall and the Lesser Britain. The first 
immigration is believed to have occurred in 
the 4th century. The term Armorica was at 
one tune applied to nearly all the maritime 
districts between the Seine and the Loire, 
occupied by Celtic tribes. It was afterwards 
limited to Britanny, which designation, even 
in its restricted apphcation, had quite s-aper- 
seded that of Armorica by the time of 
Charlemagne. [See Bkitastnt.) 

AEMorH. — The use of helmets, shields, 
breastplates, and greaves for the legs, is 
mentioned in the wars recorded in the 
Bible. The giant Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 
5 and 6), about B.C. 1063, was armed at all 
points. Armour was used by most ancient 
nations. The helmet was not common 
amongst the Teutonic tribes, though it was 
occasionally worn by the Franks in the 7th, 
and had become general amongst them in 
the 8th century. Shields were borne by the 
Northmen about this time. Those used by 
the Anglo-Saxons were made of leather with 
iron rims. Breastplates were much worn 
in the 12th century. In the 13th century 
armour of chain mail was worn by knights. 
Metal greaves appeared at the end of the 
same century. Chain mail was replaced 
by armour of plate early in the 15th cen- 
tury, and black armour was often used for 
mourning. 
64 



ARP 

Aepad Dtkastt was founded in Hungary 
AD. 899, by Arpad the Magyar. He died in 
907, and the line ended with Andrew III. ia 
1301. 

Arquebus, or Haequebuss. — The hand- 
gun, with the addition of a trigger, received 
this appellation. The invention is assigned 
to about the year 1470, a corps of har- 
quebusiers having existed as early as 1476. 
Philip of Commines speaks of it as a weapon 
used at the battle of Morat, in 1476 ; and 
half of the English yeomen of the guard 
were armed with it in 1485. Mounted har- 
quebusiers are mentioned in 1495. The 
arquebus, considerably improved in con- 
struction, became the ordinary weapon in 
the 16th century. In 1580, John the Almain 
recommended to the favourable notice of 
Walsiagham one of his countrymen, who 
had invented " anharquebuse, that shaU con- 
tain ten balls or peUetes of lead, aU the which 
shall goe off one after another, haveing once 
given fire, so that with one harquebuse one 
may Trill ten theeves, or other enemies, with- 
out recharging." Thus was the modern 
revolver anticipated. 

AsQUES (Battle). — Henry IV. of France 
defeated the army of the League, under the 
duke of Mayenne, at this place, near Dieppe, 
Sept. 21, 1589. 

Aeeacan (India). — According to native 
traditions, this country was ruled by inde- 

Eendent princes from about a.d. 700. It was 
•equently overrun by the inhabitants of 
neighbouring states. The Portuguese formed 
an establislunent ia Arracan in the 17th 
century. The province was conquered in 1783 
by the Burmese, who ceded it to the Enghsh 
by the third article of the treaty of Yandaboo, 
Feb. 24, 1826. 

Aeeaignment. — ^This is the form of cri- 
minal law of calling a prisoner to the bar of 
the court, to plead to an indictment. By 
ancient law and usage he was entitled to 
appear without irons or other bonds. For- 
merly, if the prisoner remained mute, 
instead of pleading, in cases of treason, 
his silence was held equivalent to conviction. 
In other cases of felony he was subjected to 
the barbajrous punishment of peine forte 
et dure. By 12 Geo. III. c. 20 (1772), 
standing mute in cases of felony was held 
equivalent to conviction; but the third 
section of 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, passed 
June 21, 1827, allowed the court, if it 
thought fit, to order the proper officer to 
enter a plea of " not guilty" on behalf of 
the accused. 

Aeeas (France). — Supposed to be the 
ancient Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, where 
Cassar wintered, B.C. 60. It afterwards 
took the name of Atrebates, from the peo- 
ple of the province of which it was the chief 
town. The Vandals captured it a.d. 407, and 
the Northmen ia 880. Louis XI. took Arras 
May 4, 1477. It came iato the possession of 
Ma x imilian in 1493. Louis XIII. captured 
it in 1640. Arras was finally secured to 
France by the treaty of the Pyrenees, 
Kov. 7, 1659. Lebon committed great atro- 
65 



AES 

cities here in 1794. Arras was made abishopric 
about 500. 

Arras (Treaties). — A congress was opened 
at this town, Aug. 20, 1435, at which envoys 
from England, Prance, and Burgundy at- 
tended. A treaty was concluded between 
the two latter powers, Sept. 21, 1435 ; the 
English commissioners, disgusted with the 
terms proposed, having retired, Sept. 6. 
This treaty was, with others, confirmed at 
Crotoy, Oct. 3, 1472. Another treaty be- 
tween Maximilian, then duke of Austria, 
and Louis XI., was concluded at Arras 
Dec. 23, 1482. Magaret, infant daughter of 
Maximilian, was affianced to the dauphin, 
and was to receive as her dowry, Burgundy, 
Artois, and other territories, whilst Louis 
XI. engaged to restore some places he had 
captured in Luxemburg, &c. 

Aerat (Commissions of). — Hallam (Eng, 
ii. ch. ix.) says, "In seasons of pubUc danger, 
threatening invasion from the side of Scot- 
land or France, it became customary to 
issue commissions of array, empowering 
those to whom they were addressed to 
muster and traia aU men capable of bearing 
arms in the counties to which their commis- 
sion extended, and hold them in readiness 
to defend the kingdom. The earliest of 
these commissions that I find in Rymer is of 
1324, and the latest of 1557." Charles I. 
attempted to revive this practice in 1642 ; 
but the exercise of this ancient prerogative, 
from long disuse, was received as an innova- 
tion. A very early precedent is that of the 
16th Edward II. (1323), in which year a 
commission issued out of the exchequer to 
Geoffrey de St. Quyntyn and John de Has- 
thorp, to the effect that they were to raise, 
ia the Wapentake of Dykryng, all the 
defensible men between the ages of sixteen 
and sixty, and to lead them properly armed 
to the king at York, to act against the 
Scots. 

Aeeetittm (Italy), also called Aretinits. 
— This very ancient city is said, vrith four 
other Etruscan cities, to have joined the 
Latins and Sabines against Rome, B.C. 616. 
It concluded a peace of thirty years with 
Rome, B.C. 308. Arretium ultimately be- 
came subject to Rome, and a Roman army 
under MeteUus, that advanced to defend it 
against the Senones, was defeated here B.C. 
285. Julius Caesar occupied the city B.C. 49. 
It has been stated that the modem Arezzo 
occupies the site of the ancient city: this, 
however, is a mistake, as Arretium was 
about three nailes to the S.E. It was one of 
the earhest Italian cities to receive the 
Christian faith, and for many years its 
bishops were feudal counts. In the 11th 
century Arezzo became a repubhc. It was 
taken in 1384 by De Coney, who sold it to 
Florence. Having revolted, it was retaken 
in 1502, and made part of Tuscany in 1531. 
The French took it Oct. 19, 1800. 

Aesewiak Schism. — Arsenius was 
made patriarch of Constantinople by Theo- 
dore Lascaris II. in 1255. The emperor 
Lascaris died in 1259, having first committed 



AES 

his son to tlie care of tlie patriarch. His 
successor, Michael Palseologus, deposed Ar- 
senius, but recalled him iii 1260, and was 
himself crowned joint emperor with the 
young John Lascaris. Michael put out the 
young prince's eyes in 1261 ; whereupon 
Arsenius excommunicated the emperor, and 
resolutely refused to grant him penance or 
absolution. A synod was summoned at 
Constantinople in May, 1264, and Arsenius, 
having been thrice cited and refusing to 
appear, was deposed. A powerful party 
supported the cause of Arsenius; they re- 
ceived the name of Arsenites, and G-ibbon 
declares that they persevered above 48 years 
in what was termed the Arsenian Schism. 

Aesok. — The punishment of death was 
awarded for this offence by the ancient 
Saxon laws, and the same penalty was 
attached to it in the reign of Edward I. 
By 8 Hen. VI. c. 6 (1430), the burning of 
houses under particular circumstances was 
made high treason. The perpetrators of 
the crime were denied benefit of clergy 
by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 1 (1532), which was 
repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1547). The 
crime was made felony by the general acts 
of Edward VI. and Mary. The punish- 
ment, after having undergone various mo- 
difications, is penal servitude for not more 
than seven years ; or, in some cases, 
imprisonment not exceeding two years in 
duration. The principal acts bearing on 
the subject are 7 & 8 G-eo. IV. c. 28, passed 
June 21, 1827 ; 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, passed 
Aug. 20, 1853 ; and 20 & 21 Vict. c. 3, passed 
June 26, 1857. 

Abtemisixtm: (Sea Fight). — Eought be- 
tween the Persians and the Greeks off this 
promontory of Euboea, B.C. 480, without any 
decisive result. It was renewed two days 
later, on which occasion the Greeks suffered 
so much, that they were compelled to retreat. 

Abtesiais- Wells. — The Chinese are said 
to have been acquainted with the principle 
on which they are made, years ago. They 
have long existed in parts of Africa and 
Asia, in Italy, Germany, and France. The 
monastery of St. Andr^, near Aire, pos- 
sessed one in 1749. Another, in the ancient 
convent of Chartreux, at Lillier, is said to be 
700 years old. The name is derived from 
Artois, in France, the ancient Artesium. An 
artesian weU was sunk at Sheerness in 1781 ; 
another in London in 1794, two at Portsmouth 
in 1828 and 1829. In 1852 an artesian well was 
opened at Kissengen, in Bavaria, the borings 
of which are 2,000 feet below the surface. 
A bUl for establishing a company to supply 
London with water by means of artesian 
wells was rejected by the House of Commons, 
June 2, 1835. 

Abtichoke. — This vegetable was brought 
from the Levant into Italy, in the 15th cen- 
tury. It was brought from Naples to 
Florence in 1466, and was first seen at | 
Venice in 1473. Artichokes were introduced 
into France in the 16th century, and into 
England from Holland in 1602. 

Aeticlbs of Peeth. — Adopted by the 



AET 

General Assembly of Scotland held at Perth, 
Aug. 25, 1618. They were five in number. 
Firstly, it was ordered that the Lord's supper 
should be received kneeling; secondly, the 
communion of the sick was allowed ; thirdly, 
private baptism in cases of apparent neces- 
sity; fourthly, confirmation; and fifthly, the 
observance of Christmas and other holy 
seasons. They were ratified by the Parha- 
ment in Edinburgh, July 25, 1621. 

Aeticles op Eeli&ioit. {See Thiktt- 
NiNE Aeticles.) 

Aetieicees. — Any artificer taking more 
than the usual rate of wage was subject to 
imprisonment by the Statute of Labourers, 
23 Edw. III. c. 5 (1349), and the wages of 
several sorts of artificers were fixed by 
another statute of labourers, 25 Edw. III. 
St. 1, c. 3 (1351). By 13 Eich. II. st. 1, c. 8 
(1389), the rates were to be assessed and 
proclaimed by the justices of peace. By 
34 Edw. III. c. 10 (1360), artificers were 
hable to punishment for departing into other 
lands. Conspiring to raise wages was, by 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15 (1549), punished by a 
fine of £10, or twenty days' imprisonment 
for the first offence. The above acts were 
repealed by 5 Eliz. c. 4 (1562), when the 
assessment of their wages was placed under 
the direction of justices of the peace, sheriffs, 
mayors, &c. By one clause of this statute 
they were compelled, on pain of imprison- 
ment in case of refusal, to assist in agricul- 
tural operations during haytime and harvest. 
Several changes in the law ensued. Persona 
convicted of enticing artificers in certain 
hranches of industry to go abroad, were, by 
5 Geo. I. c. 27 (1718), subject to a fine of 
£100 and imprisonment for three months, 
with additional penalties for a second offence ; 
and artificers thus offending were treated 
as aliens, and forfeited all property if they 
did not return within six months. The fine 
was increased to £500, and the imprison- 
ment to twelve months, both being doubled 
for a second offence, by 23 Geo. II. c. 13 
(1750). So much of EHzabeth's act as 
related to the fixing of wages by justices of 
the peace was repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 40 
(April 15, 1813), and portions of the latter 
were repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 97 (June 21, 
1824). 

Aetilleey. — The earliest military engines 
were, in all probabihty, those for casting 
large stones, which are mentioned in 2 
Chron. xxvi. 15, as in use about B.C. 810. 
Similar engines, and others for throwing 
darts and arrows, both called by Greek 
names, were much used in Eoman times and 
subsequently, but do not seem to have been 
introduced into England until the Norman 
invasion. Edward I. employed engines at 
the siege of Stirling Castle, in 1304, which 
threw stones of 300 lb. weight. Gunpowder 
was in use among the Hindoos and the 
Chinese in periods of remote but unknown 
antiquity. Colonel Chesney is of opinion 
that cannon-balls were propelled, by means 
of gunpowder, in India, as early as a.d. 1200, 
though the use of artillery is not mentioned 



AET 

by any European writer before the 14th 
century. A writer in the new edition of 
the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," deriving 
his information from Colonel Chesney, 
says : •' The Moors, according to Conde, 
used artillery [in the modern sense of the 
word] against Saragossa in 1118 ; and in 
1132 aculverin of four-pound calibre, named 
Salamonica, was made. In 1157, when the 
Spaniards took Mebla, the Moors defended 
themselves by machines which threw darts 
and stones by means of fire ; and in 1156 
Abd'almumen, the Moorish king, captured 
Mohadia, a fortified city near Bona, from 
the Sieillians by the same means. In 1280 
artillery was used against Cordova ; and in 
1306 or 1308 Ferdinand IV. took Gibraltar 
from the Moora by means of artillery. Ibn 
K"ason ben Bia, of Granada, mentions that 
guns were adopted from the Moors, and 
used in Spain in the 12th century, and that 
balls of iron were thrown by means of fire in 
1331. These, and other examples, render it 
almost certain that the use of gunpowder 
first became known in Europe through the 
Moorish conquests and warfare in Spain, 
although the true components of gunpowder 
were known to Friar Bacon, and were made 
pubhc by Schwartz in 1320. Edward III. 
of England used 'crakeys of war' during 
his campaign against the Scots, in 1327. In 
1339, ten pieces of cannon were prepared for 
the siege of Cambray, by the Chevaher 
Cardaillac. Quesnoy was defended success- 
fully in 1340 by cannon which flung large 
iron bolts. In 1343, the Moorish garrison of 
Algesiras, besieged by Alphonsus XI. of 
Castile, used long mortars, or troughs of 
iron, which threw among their enemies 
thunderbolts. In 1346, an iron gun, with a 
square bore capable of projecting a cubical 
iron, shot of 11 lb. weight, was constructed 
at Bruges. In 1346, Edward III. is said 
to have used artillery at the battle of 
Cressy; but this is very doubtful, as the 
appHcation of guns to field operations ap- 
pears to be of later date, and no notice of 
them at the subsequent battle of Poitiers 
can be traced. In 1347 Edward did, how- | 
ever, us§ artillery in the siege of Calais ; as | 
did the prince of Wales in 1356 in reducing j 
the castle of Romozantin. In 1378, Richard [ 
II. employed 400 cannon, which fired day 
and night, in his unsuccessfvd attack on i 
St. Malo. . . . Though portable guns had j 
been occasionally made, from the earher | 
half of the 14th century, and had been i 
abundantly applied in the wars of the 15th, 
they do not appear to have been reduced to 
a perfect system of field artillery until the 
reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., and 
in 1500 the latter monarch was able to move 
his artillery from Pisa to Rome, a distance 
of about 240 miles, in five days, and possessed 
light pieces which were suflaciently manage- 
able to be taken rapidly from one ,point to 
another duriug a battle. When he recovered 
Genoa, in 1507, he had sixty guns of large 
calibre for an army of about 20,000 men, 
and overcame the Venetians on the Adda 



ARIT 

in 1509, by means of his artilleij. Francis I. 
adopted a fighter construction for field-guns, 
and had them drawn by the best description 
of horses." At the battle of Marignan, in 1515, 
according to the same author, "the French 
artillery played a new and distinguished 
part, not only by protecting the centre of 
the army from the charges of the Swiss 
phalanxes, and causing them excessive loss, 
but also by rapidly taking such positions 
from time to time during the battle as en- 
abled the guns to play upon the flanks of 
the attacking columns." 

AKTiiitEKT CoMPAinr OP LoiTDON' is said 
to have sprung from a voluntary association 
formed for the encouragement of archery, 
during the reign of Henry VIII., who 
granted a charter to the fraternity of artil- 
lery in great and small ordnance in 1537. 
The Artillery company was established in 
1535, during the dread of an invasion by the 
Spaniards, by citizens who voluntarily exer- 
cised themselves and trained up others to the 
use of war. They assembled every Thursday. 
The exercises were discontinued after the 
excitement respecting the Spanish Armada 
had subsided. A new company was, how- 
ever, formed in 1610. In 1636 Charles II., 
then prince of Wales, and his brother the 
duke of York, belonged to the company. 
The exercising-ground was removed from 
Bishopsgate to the ArtiUery-ground, Fins- 
bury, in 1622. 

Aets (Degrees in). — The term master is 
beheved to be the oldest amongst those of 
graduation. Eugenius II., by the 34th 
canon of a council held at Rome Nov. 15, 
826, speaks of the appointment of masters 
and doctors. This was confirmed by a 
decree of Leo IV. in another council at 
Rome, Dec. 8, 853. Gregory IX. (1227— 
1241) is said to have instituted the inferior 
rank of bachelors. The degrees both of 
bachelor and master of arts were conferred 
at Oxford in the time of Henry III. (1216— 
1272) . The degrees for laws are said to have 
come into the university in 1149. The 
number of arts ia the course, during the 
middle ages, was seven ; of which three — 
grammar, logic, rhetoric — constituted the 
Trivium; and the remaining four — arith- 
metic, astronomy, geometry, and music — 
the Quadrivium. 

Aet-Union's. — Associations for the exten- 
sion of the fine arts originated in France 
early in this century, and were then intro- 
duced into Germany. The first society of 
the kind known in England was the London 
Art-Union, estabhshed in 1837, and incor- 
porated by royal charter, Dec. 1, 1846. 
Doubts having been expressed respecting 
the legahty of art-unions, temporary acts 
were passed ia 1844 and 1845 to relieve then- 
promoters from the penalties to which they 
were supposed to be liable, and they were 
legalized under certain conditions by 9 & 10 
Vict. c. 48, passed in 1846. The Art-Union 
of Ireland was estabhshed in 1858. 

Aeundel (Sussex). — Camden says he has 
not met with the name before the time of 
V 2 



AEU 

Alfred, and adds, " All its renown is deriTed 
from the castle, whicli flourished in the Saxon 
times, and was rebuilt immediately after the 
arrival of the Normans, by Eoger de Mont- 
gomeiy, thence called earl of Arundel." In 
his introduction to " Domesday Book," 
Ellis speaks of it as existing in the days of 
Edward the Confessor. In 1433, it was 
decided that the tenure of Arundel Castle, 
without any creation, patent, or investiture, 
constituted its possessor earl of Arundel. 
It was garrisoned by the parhament during 
the civil war ; was captured by Lord Hopton 
in 1643, and retaken in 1644. 

Aeundel Constittjtiok. — Archbishop 
Arundel, at his visitation in London, in 
1397, revived an old constitution, originated 
by Simon Niger, bishop of London (1229 — 
1241), by which the inhabitants of the re- 
spective parishes were compelled to pay their 
rector one halfpenny in the pound out of 
the rent of their houses. Hence its name. 

Aetjitdelian', or Oxfoed Maebles. — A 
collection of relics of antiquity found in the 
island of Paros, early in the 17th century, 
purchased by Thomas, earl of Arundel, in 
1624, and brought to England in 1627. It 
consisted, when entire, of 37 statues, 128 
busts, and 250 inscriptions, besides sarco- 
phagi, altars and fragments, and gems ; and 
having been dispersed, the remains were 
presented to the university of Oxford, in 
1667, by Henry Howard, afterwards duke of 
Norfolk. Another portion, now called the 
Pomfret Marbles, was transferred to Oxford, 
1755. Amongst the remains presented by 
Henry Howard, is the Parian chronicle, 
which contains a chronological compendium 
of the history of Greece from B.C. 1582 to 
B.C. 355, the ninety years to B.C. 264 having 
been lost. The accuracy of these tables has 
been questioned, and even their authenticity 
denied. Clarendon (ch. i. 119) says of the 
earl "of Arundel, their collector, "He was 
willing to be thought a scholar, and to 
understand the most mysterious parts of 
antiquity, because he made a wonderful and 
costly purchase of excellent statues, whilst 
he was in Italy and in Kome (some whereof 
he could never obtain permission to remove 
from Rome, though he had paid for them), 
and had a rare collection of the most curious 
medals ; whereas in truth he was only able 
to buy them, and never to imderstand 
them." 

AezilIiA (Africa), taken from the Moors 
by Alfonso V., king of Portugal, in 1471. 
The king of Fez wrested it from the Chris- 
tians in 1506. 

AscALON (Syria) is mentioned as a city of 
the Phihstines, Josh. xiii. 3, and 1 Sam. vi. 
17. The tribe of Judah captured it B.C. 
1425 (Judges, i. 18), but it was retaken by 
the Philistines, and is frequently denounced 
by the prophets. It fell successively into 
the hands of the Egyptians, the Greeks, and 
the Romans. It became a iDishop's see in 
the 4th century. Omng to the attacks and 
occupation, in the 7th century, of the Sara- 
cens, who held it for many years, the suc- 
68 



ASH 

cession of its bishops was interrupted. It 
was besieged by the Crusaders in HOC, and 
again in 1148, without success. Baldwin III. 
captured it in 1157. Saladin re-took it in 
1187, and burnt it in 1191. Richard I. of 
England obtained possession the same year, 
and restored the fortifications in 1192. Sultan 
Bibars destroyed its fortifications and filled 
up its harbour in 1270. 

AscAioN (Battle). — ^Fought during the 
second crusade, between the Fatimite army 
led by the caliph of Egypt, and the Cru- 
saders under the command of Godfrey of 
Bouillon, Friday, August 12, 1099. The 
former were defeated, leaving 30,000 killed 
upon the field of battle, with immense booty. 

AscEirsioif ^EA, supposed, says Nicolas, 
to have been used only by the author of the 
" Chronicle of Alexandria," who dates the 
year of the martyrdom of St. Menas of 
Cotys. It corresponds with the 12th of 
November, 295. 

AscEKSiOK Day, formerly called Holy 
Thursday, a movable feast, to commemo- 
rate the Ascension of our Saviour, appointed, 
according to some authorities, in the apo- 
stohcal times. It was not, however, gene- 
rally celebrated until the 4th century. King 
John dated a charter on the Monday next 
before the Ascension, May 20, 1191. 

AscENSioK Island (Atlantic), discovered 
by the Portuguese mariner Galego, on 
Ascension-day, Thursday, May 20, 1501. It 
remained uninhabited till the Enghsh took 
possession of it Oct. 15, 1815, and formed a 
military station. 

AscoLi (Battle). — Fought at this place, 
the ancient Asciilum Picenum, during the 
struggle for the crown of Sicily, between the 
emperor Henry YI. and Tancred, in 1190. 
The emperor's army was defeated. Ascoli 
was annexed to the papal states in 1426. It 
was made a bishopric in the 4th century. 

AscTJLTJM (Battle). — Fought between Pyr- 
rhus and the Romans, B.C. 278. It was hotly 
contested, and terminated in favour of Pyr- 
rhus. Asculum, in Apuha, is often mistaken 
for a place of the same name in Picenum, 
The modem name of both places is Ascoh. 

AscTTLUM Picenum (Italy) . — Captured by 
Sempronius Sophus, B.C. 268, when the whole 
nation of the Piceni submitted to Rome. 
The conspiracy and revolt of its inhabitants, 
and the massacre of the Romans dwelling in 
the city, B.C. 91, led to the Marsianwar, and 
the siege and capture of Asculum by the 
Romans, B.C. 90. 

AsHANTEE (Africa), or Asiente. — In- 
formation of this country was first obtained 
at the commencement of the 18th century. 
It is inhabited by a warlike people, who, by 
making continual aggressions on their neigh- 
bours, have largely increased their territory. 
The Ashantees gained a victory over the 
English in 1807, the latter having assisted 
the'Fantees ; and in another struggle, in 1816, 
the Ashantees had the advantage. War was 
renewed in 1823, and on the 21st of Januarv, 
1824, Sir C. M'Carthv, governor of Cape 
Coast, was killed, and his army defeated by 



ASH 

the Aahantees. The English drove them 
from Cape-Coast Castle, July 22 in the same 
year. On the 7th of August, 1826, the 
Ashantees suffered a terrible defeat, when 
their king was glad to purchase peace, and 
sent his son as a hostage to Cape-Coast 
Castle. 

AsHBTTBTOir (Treaty). — Concluded at 
Washington, Aug. 9, 1842, between England 
and the United States ; Lord Ashburton and 
Mr. Webster being the respective plenipo- 
tentiaries. It settled the boundary -hne 
between the British possessions in North 
America and the United States. 

AsHDOD (Palestine), now Esd^d, a city 
assigned to Judah in the division of the 
Promised Land (Joshua, xv. 46, 47), about 
B.C. 1444. It was the chief seat of the wor- 
ship of the idol Dagon, which fell on its face 
before the ark of the Lord, captured by the 
Philistines about B.C. 1116 (1 Sam. v.). Uz- 
ziah took Ashdod, B.C. 810 (2 Chron. xxvi. 6) ; 
and the Assyrians, B.C. 713 (Isaiah, xx. 1). 
Herodotus (ii. 157) speaks of it as having 
been captured by the Egyptians, after sus- 
taining a siege of twenty-nine years, the 
longest on record (b.c. 630). Nehemiah, 
about B.C. 428, denoxmced the marriages 
contracted by the Jews v?ith the women of 
Ashdod (Neh. xui. 23). It was called by 
the Greeks and the Eomans Azotus, and 
under that name was knovra during the 



AsHDUNE (Battle), was fought a.d, 871, 
between the Danes and the English. The 
latter, commanded by Ethelred and his 
brother Alfred, were victorious. In the 
ancient chronicles the place is called ^sces- 
dune, or Eschendun. Some vrriters believe 
Aston, in Berkshire, and others Ashendon, 
in Bucks, to have been the scene of this 
victory. 

AsHMOLEAN- MtTSBtTM (Oxford), — This 
repository of manuscripts, books, coins, 
various curiosities, and antiquities, was 
founded by EMas Ashmole, March 20, 1682. 
This eminent antiquary died May 18, 1692. 
The Ashmolean Society was established at 
Oxford in 1828. 

Ash Wednesday. — Among the early 
Christians, Lent commenced on the Sunday 
now called the first in Lent. Ash Wednesday 
and the three following days, making the 
fast to continue forty days, were afterwards 
added. " Some say it was the work," Bing- 
ham (Antiq. b. xxi. ch. i. s. 5) remarks, "of 
Gregory the Great (590 — 604) ; but others 
ascribe it to Gregory II., who lived above an 
hundred years after, in the beginning of the 
8th century." Other authorities attribute 
it to Felix III. in 487. It received its name 
from the Eoman Cathohc practice of sprin- 
kling ashes on the heads of penitents, in 
remembrance of Gen. iii. 19. 

Asia, the cradle of the human race, and 
the earhest seat of empire, civilization, and 
commerce, is said by some Greek writers to 
have been named from the nymph Asia, 
one of the Oceanides. The term was, how- 
ever, appHed by the Greeks to a portion only 



AST 

of this extensive continent. The overthrow 
of the Lydian empire by Cyrus, B.C. 546, 
first brought it under their notice ; and the 
victories of Alexander, B.C. 334^B.c. 323, led 
to a further acquaintance. Ptolemy, a.d. 160, 
asserts that not more than one-fourth part 
of Asia was known to the ancients. The 
progress of discovery in this quarter of the 
globe was accelerated by the invasion of 
Europe by the Saracens, and the crusades. 
Marco Polo, the account of whose travels 
was circulated in 1298, is the pioneer of 
modern discovery in this direction. He ob- 
tained information respecting China, Japan, 
and parts of India. Little was, however, 
effected until the invention of the mariner's 
compass, and the discovery of the passage 
round the Cape of Good Hope, enabled the 
navigators of Europe in the 15th and 16th 
centuries to prosecute their researches by 
sea: — 

A.D. 

1497. Vasco de Oama doubles the Cape of Good 

Hope, and arrives at Calicut in the summer 
of the following year. 

1498. The Portuguese explore Malabar. 

1503. The Portuguese obtain a footing in Cochin. 

1506. Almeida discovers Ceylon, and Soarez the 

Maldives. 

1507. Martin Baumgarten travels in Palestine. 
1509. Several Portuguese settlements planted in 

Asia. 
1511. The Portuguese establish themselves at 
Malacca, and reach the Spice Islands, 

1516. Duarte Coelho visits Siam. 

1517. The Portuguese reach China, and are permitted 

to form a settlement in the island of 
Macao. They erect the fortress of Colombo 
in Ceylon. 

1518. The Portuguese enter the Bay of Bengal, and 

visit Chittagong. 
1523. Borneo visited, 
1542. De Mota, a Portuguese navigator, cast, by a 

tempest, on one of the islands of Japan. 
1558. Jenkinson explores the Caspian, and reaches 

Bokhara. 
1568. Acbar invites the Portuguese to send mis- 
sionaries to Delhi. 
1579. Siberia entered, and seized by the Russians. 
1607. The Jesuit, Father Goez, tiavels from India 

to the Great WaU of China. 
1639. The river Amour discovered by the Bussians. 
1656. Grueber starts on his travels, in which he 

traverses China. 
1696. Peter the Great takes possession of Kamt- 

schatka. 
1714. Desideri crosses the Himalaya motmtains, 

and visits Cashmere and Thibet. 
1728. Behring discovers the straits known by his 

1760. The Jesuits' map of China published at Pekin, 
under the authority of the Chinese em- 
peror. 

1762. Niebuhr explores Arabia. 

1790. The north-eastern coasts of Siberia examined 
by the Russians. 

1796. Thibet explored by Captain Hardwicke. 

1804. Krusenstem explores the Gulf of Tartary, 
the Kurile Archipelago, and the coasts of 
Japan and Yesso. 

1808. The Himalaya ascended by Lieutenant Webb, 
in order to determine the soturce of the 



Asia Minoe.— This name was first appUed 
in the 4th century to the north-western 
peninsula of the Asiatic continent. It is 
also called Anatolia, although the latter 
term is more correctly used for a particular 
portion. A writer in the " Encyclopasdia 



ASI 

Britannica" (iii. 758) remarks : — "AsiaMinor 
was the theatre of the earliest remarkable 
events recorded in profane history ; as the 
Argonautic expedition, the Trojan war, in 
which the gods are said to have descended 
from Olympus and joined battle with mor- 
tals ; the conquests of the Persians, the 
overthrow of their empire by Alexander, 
and the settlement in this part of Asia of 
his successors. It subsequently fell under 
the Koman sway, and suffered severely in 
after-ages in the wars of the Saracens, Turks, 
Tartars, &c. It is also intimately connected 
with the early history of Christianity, and 
the first Christian churches were planted 
here." Its chief political divisions in ancient 
times were Bithynia, Cappadocia, Caria, 
Cilicia, Galatia, Lydia, Lycaonia and Isauria, 
Ljeia, Mysia, Pamphylia, Paphlagonia, Phry- 
gia, Pisidia, and Pontus. 

Asiatic Societies. — The first society of 
the kind was established by the Dutch at 
Batavia, in 1780; the next was the Eoyal 
Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded at Cal- 
cutta by Sir W. Jones, in 1784 ; and this was 
followed by the Societe Asiatique at Paris 
in 1822. The Eoyal Asiatic Society of Great 
Britain and Ireland was founded in London 
in March, 1823, and received its charter in 
1824, for the investigation and encouragement 
of arts, sciences, and literature in relation 
to Asia. The Oriental Translation Com- 
mittee, estabhshed in 1828, is in (^nuection 
with this society. The Literary Society of 
Bombay, founded in 1804, joined it as a 
branch in 1829. The Literary Society of 
Madras, the Asiatic Society of Ceylon, insti- 
tuted in 1845; that of China, founded at 
Hong Kong in 1847 ; and that of Shanghai, 
established in 1858 — are also branches. 

AspEEK and Essling (Battle). — Ifapoleon 
I., after a series of encounters, extending 
over two days, May 21 and 22, 1809, was 
compelled to take refuge in the island of 
Lobau, on the Danube. He lost 30,000 men 
in these actions. The Austrians, who were 
commanded by the Archduke Charles, were 
greatly inferior in point of numbers to the 
French. Marshal Lannes fell in this battle. 

Assam (Asia) . — The early history of this 
country is involved in obscurity. Its inha- 
bitants waged many contests with the 
Mohammedan conquerors of India, and 
long maintaiaed their independence. In 
1638 they invaded Bengal, but were repulsed 
with great slaughter. The country fell 
nnder the sway of the Burmese, who were 
expelled by the Enghsh in 1825, and by the 
second article of the treaty of Tandaboo, 
concluded Feb. 24, 1826, renounced aU 
claim to Assam and its dependencies. A 
part of the country remained independent 
uutil 1838, when the whole was annexed to 
British India. Mr. Bruce discovered the 
tea -plant in Assam in 1823. Further 
researches were made, cultivation was en- 
couraged, and the first twelve chests of tea 
reached England in 1838. In the following 
year an association was formed for the culti- 
vation of the tea-plant. 
70 



ASS 

AsSASSiiTATiOK Plot. — Several persons 
leagued together for the purpose of assas- 
sinating William in., Feb. 15 (N.S. 25), 1696, 
between Brentford and Tumham Green, 
through which places he passed on Saturdays 
to hunt ia Kichmond Park. The plot was 
revealed by one of the conspirators, and 
William III. remained at home. The execu- 
tion of the plan was consequently deferred 
till the following Saturday, Feb. 22 (N.S. 
March 3) , and was again frustrated. Some of 
the conspirators were captured and executed. 
Their chief object was to restore James II. 
to the throne. 

Assassins, or Ismaeliaws, a military and 
religious order sprung from the Carmatians, 
a Mohammedan sect that settled in Persia 
ia the 11th century. Hassan-ben-Sahib, 
having obtained possession of the hill-fort of 
Alamoot, or "Vulture's Nest," in Casvin, 
Persia, estabhshed the order there, about 
1090. The leader, called Sheikh-el-Jebelz, 
was known in Europe as the Old Man of 
the Mountain. The Assassins gained other 
strongholds and spread into Syria. Hassan 
died in 1124. The Persian branch of the 
Assassins was exterminated by Holagou 
Khan in 1258 ; and the Syrian by the Mame- 
luke sultans of Egypt in 1270, or, according 
to Gibbon, 1280. Gibbon says of them: — 
"With the fanaticism of the Koran the 
IsmaeUans had blended the Indian transmi- 
gration and the visions of their own pro- 
phets ; and it was their first duty to devote 
their souls and bodies in blind obedience to 
the vicar of God. The daggers of his mis- 
sionaries were felt both in the East and 
West : the Christians and the Moslems 
enumerate, and perhaps multiply, the illus- 
trious victims that were sacrificed to the 
zeal, avarice, or resentment of the Old Man 
(as he was corruptly styled) of the Mountain. 
But these daggers, his only arms, were 
broken by the sword of Holagou, and not a 
vestige is left of the enemies of mankind, 
except the word assassin, which, ia the most 
odious sense, has been adopted in the lan- 
guages of Europe." 

AssATE (India). — This battle was fought 
Sept. 23, 1803, when Wellington with 4,500 
troops, of whom only 2.000 were British, 
defeated the combined forces of the Mahratta 
ehief, Scindiah, and the rajah of Berar, 
amounting to 50,000 men. 

Assembly op Divines. — ^This body, con- 
sisting of 130 divines, with 30 lay assessors, 
was constituted by an ordinance dated June 
12, 1643, and appointed to meet, July 1, 
1643, in Henry the Seventh's Chapel at 
Westminster, for the purpose of consulting 
and advising both houses of parUament 
relative to the liturgy, discipline, and govern- 
ment of the Church of England. They were 
divided into three parties, the Independents, 
the Erastians, and the Presbyterians, the 
latter being in a majority. Charles I. issued 
a proclamation, June 22, declaring the 
assembly illegal, and prohibiting the meeting. 
In spite of this they assembled on the 
appoiuted day. They presented a petition to 



ASS 



ASS 



both houses of parliament for a fast, sent | hibited judicial combat in 1259. St. Louis 



letters to the Protestant commimities on 
the continent, drew up a confession of faith, 
and a larger and shorter catechism. This 
assembly sat at intervals tmtil Feb. 22, 1649; 
and, somewhat modified in character, it held 
meetings every Thursday until the dissolution 
of the Long Parliament in 1653. It was also 
called the Westminster Assembly. 

AssENS (Battle). — Christian III., king of j 1817, 
Denmark and Norway, defeated the rebel- 
lious Danes at this place in 1535. This vic- 
tory, Yidth other naval successes, restored 
the island to its allegiance. 

AssiENTO. — Charles V. entered into a con- 
tract with the Flemings, who agreed to 
supply a certain number of negroes yearly 
to the Spanish colonies in South America. 
In 1532 the Spaniards withdrew the contract, 
and, in 1580, Philip II. granted it to the 
Genoese. PhUip V. on his accession trans- 
ferred it to France; and by a treaty con- 
cluded between France and Spain, at Madrid, 
Aug. 27, 1701, the former agreed to furnish 
annually for ten years 4,800 negroes, or 



of France abolished it throughout the royal 
domains. A trial by combat was appointed 
in England under the sanction of the judges 
of the court of Common Pleas, in 1571, when 
Elizabeth interfered to prevent it. A re- 
markable case led to its abolition in this 
country. Abraham Thornton having been 
acquitted at the Warwick assizes, Aug. 8, 
1817, I f the murder of Mary Ashford, her 
brotheij William, deeming the verdict xmsa- 
tisfactory, appealed against it. On being 
placed at the bar of the court of King's 
Bench, Nov. 17, 1817, the accused threw 
down his glove and challenged the accuser 
to mortal combat. The court eventually 
decided, April 16, 1818, in favour of the 
legality of this privilege, however obsolete. 
The appellant declined the combat on ac- 
count of his extreme youth, and the prisoner 
was discharged. The law was repealed by 
59 Geo. III. c. 46, June 22, 1819. 

Assize op Beead. — Littleton designates 
the word assize nomen cequivocum, on ac- 
count of its application, especially in Eng- 



3,000 ill time of war. By a treaty between j lish law, to a great variety of subjects. 

England and Spain, signed at Madrid March | some cases, as in the present, it is equivalent 



26, 1713, England agreed to take it for thirty 
years, from May 1, 1713, on the same terms 
as France had done ; and this agreement was 
confirmed by the 12th article of the treaty 
of Utrecht, July 13, 1713. The war of 1740 
caused its suspension; but, by the 16th 
article of the treaty of Alx-la-ChapeUe, 
Oct. 7, 1748, England was to resume it for 
four years. A treaty was, however, signed 
at Madrid, between England and Spain, 
Oct. 5, 1750, by which Great Britain gave up 
the Assiento contract and the annual vessel 
during the remainder of four years, Spain 
agreemg to pay £100,000 in liquidation of 
all claims. 

AssiGNATS. — State notes or paper money 
issued on the security of the church lands, 
seized during the French revolution. The 
first issue, made in 1790, was to the amount 
of 400,000,000 of francs, bearing interest, 
and in September 800,000,000 in addition 
were issued, but without the liability to pay 
interest. Further sums were raised in this 
manner on the lands of the emigrants and 
other confiscated property. To these assig- 
nats a forced currency was given ; but they 
soon became almost valueless. Various ex- 
periments to prop up this paper currency 
were tried without success, and the system 
was virtually abandoned iu 1796. 

AssiNGDOK (Battle), or Assastduh-. — A 
desperate conflict between Canute and 
Edmund Ironside took place here in 1016. 
Edmvmd lost several of his most valiant 
leaders, and withdrew during the night. 

Assize op Battel, or Teial bt Combat. 
— This mode of appeal, so prevalent in 

Europe under the feudal system, was of \ was repeated in the charter of Henry III. 
gradual growth, and extended ultimately to I (9 Hen. III. c. 12, 1225). It was not xmtil 
persons of every class and to nearly all cases, | the year 1285 that these courts were pre- 
but more especially to those of murder and j sided over by judges of the superior courts, 
treason. It was introduced into England \ By 13 Edw. I. st. 1, c. 30, they were appointed 
from Normandy. Michael Palseologus pro- ! to go into every shire at the most three 



to an assessment. The first notice of an 
assize of bread is to be found in a proclama- 
tion made in 1203, during the reign of King 
John, enforcing the legal assize. By 51 Hen, 

III. St. 1 (1266;, called the "Assisa et Panis 
et Cervisiae," or the assize of bread and ale, 
the prices of these articles were regulated 
by those of corn, and by 51 Hen. III. st. 6 
(1266), a baker was fined for transgressing 
the law, and in case of a grievous offence 
was to suffer punishment of body in the 
pillory, or some other correction. The 
latter statute was repealed by 9 Anne, c. 18 
(1710), which fixed a new assize. Other 
alterations were made in the law, and the 
statute Assisa, &c. was repealed by 5 Geo. 

IV. c. 74, s. 23 (June 17, 1824). Bread has 
siace been sold by weight in the metropolis, 
and the system was extended to the country 
by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 37 (1836), which came 
into operation Oct. 1, 1836. The law .re- 
quires bakers, when delivering bread, to be 
provided vnth weights and scales. By 
1 Vict. c. 38 (July 4, 1838), aU former acts 
relating to the sale of bread in Ireland are 
repealed, and a new assize established for 
that country. 

Assize Courts. — Itinerant justices were 
appointed for every part of the kingdom, by 
the parliament held at Northampton in 1176. 
The judges were invested with a delegated 
authority from the aula regia, or the king's 
court, and they made their circuit rovmd the 
kingdom for trying causes once in seven 
years. The twelfth article of Magna Charta 
(1215) provided that they should be sent 
into each county once a year, and this 



ASS 



times a year. Assizes were first allowed to 
be held during Advent and Lent, by the 
consent of the bishops, at the king's special 
request, as set forth in the statute of West- 
minster 1 (3 Edw. I. c. 51), in 1275. 

AssizB OF Jeeusaiem. — This code was 
compiled in 1100, imder the auspices of 
Grodfrey of Bouillon, the first sovereign of 
the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, founded 
July 23, 1099. Godfrey sought the advice 
of the Latin pilgrims best skilled in the 
statutes and customs of Europe. With 
their aid the code, which Gribbon terms " a 
precious monument of feudal jurisprudence, 
was drawn up. The new code, attested by 
the seals of the king, the patriarch, and the 
viscount of Jerusalem, was deposited in the 
holy sepulchre, enriched with the improve- 
ments of succeeding times, and respectfully 
consulted as often as any doubtful question 
arose in the tribunals of Palestine." It was 
restored for the use of the Latin kingdom of 
Cyprus in 1369. An Itahan version appeared 
in 1535, at Venice, and one in French at 
Paris, in 1690. 

Assize of Wood aitd Coal. — On ac- 
count of the frauds practised, a law was 
passed in 1543 (34 & 35 Hen. YIII. c. 3), 
regulating the measure for coal and wood, 
la consequence of the scarcity of wood and 
the impossibility of enforcing the regula- 
tions of this statute, it was amended by 
7 Edw. VI. c. 7 (1553). The latter act was 
altered by 43 Eliz. c. 14 (1601). The law 
was enforced by 9 Anne, c. 15 (1710), and 
an exemption granted in favour of billets 
made of beech wood only, by 10 Anne, c. 6 
(1711). These acts were repealed by 5 Geo. 
IV. c. 74, s. 23 (June 17, 1824). The sale of 
coal in the metropolis is regulated by 1 & 2 
Will. IV. c. 76, passed Oct. 5, 1831. 

AssTTMTTiON. — This Eomau Catholic festi- 
val, celebrated on the 15th of August, in 
honour of the alleged assumption of the 
Virgin Mary into neaven, was instituted, 
according to some authorities, in the 4th, 
and according to others in the 7th century. 
The early Church commemorated her death, 
but the assumption is a Eomish innovation. 
The feast was originally observed on the 
18th of January, which was afterwards 
changed to the 15th of August. The Greek 
and Russian churches on the latter day 
observe the festival of "the Day of Rest of 
the Most Holy Mother of God," but do not 
hold the doctrine of the Assumption. 

AiSSTEiA (Asia) . — The narrow tract of 
country inclosed between Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia, Armenia, Susiana, and Media, 
called by the ancients Assyria, or Asturia, 
was the original seat of that extended do- 
minion known as the Assyrian empire. From 
the 10th chapter of Genesis we learn that 
Nimrod, leaving Babylon, which he had 
founded, went forth into Assyria, where he 
built Nineveh, Rhehoboth, Calah, andResen, 
about B.C. 2218. Such is the interpretation 
given in the margin of the Bible, though 
some authors prefer the reading, that Assur 
went forth and buUt these cities. The next 
72 



notice of this empire that occurs in the Old 
Testament, is the invasion of Palestine in the 
reign of Uzziah, by Phul (2 Kings, xv. 19) , king 
of Assyria, B.C. 769. The sacred historian 
relates that Menahem, king of Israel, in- 
duced him to retire by a bribe of 1,000 talents. 
Tiglath PHeser, the successor of Phiil, at the 
solicitation of Ahaz, king of Judah, invaded 
Syria, and took many of its people away 
captive (2 Kings, xvi. 5 — 9), B.C. 738. Sal- 
manassar, having besieged Samaria three 
years, captured it, and put an end to the 
kingdom of Israel B.C. 722 (2 Kings, xvii. 
5, 6), and carried away its people into cap- 
tivity. Another king, Sennacherib, came 
up against all the fenced cities of Judah, and 
took them (2 Kings, xviii. 13, and 2 Chron. 
xxxii.), B.C. 714, but failed in an attack upon 
Jerusalem, the angel of the Lord having 
slain 185,000 men in one night, B.C. 712 
(2 Kings, xviii. 13, xix. 35, 36, and 2 Chron. 
xxxii. 21). On his return to Nineveh, Sen- 
nacherib was slain by two of his own 
sons, and another king, named Esarhaddon, 
assumed the Assyrian sceptre, B.C. 711 
(2 Kings, xix. 37) . The last king of Assyria 
mentioned in Scripture is Nebuchadnezzar, 
who is supposed to have ascended the throne 
B.C. 650. From these notices and the scanty 
details given by some ancient writers, at- 
tempts have been made to construct a history 
of this powerful empire, and to ascertain the 
various dynasties of its kings. Though 
much has been accomplished, particularly 
by the investigations and labours of Botta, 
Layard, Fergusson, Rawlinson, and others, 
to whose works the student and inquirer are 
referred for additional information, nothing 
approaching to a connected history of As- 
syria has been obtained. The discoveries of 
these enterprising men confirm, in a most re- 
markable manner, the Scripture accounts. 
It is evident that the Assyrian empire 
existed at a very early ;period in the history 
of the world ; that its rulers obtained 
extensive dominion; and that, after a 
partial dismemberment, it continued to 
exist for many years. The theory of an 
Assyrian empire that terminated at the 
revolt of the Medes, about B.C. 711, fol- 
lowed by an Assyrian monarchy that con- 
tinued till the destruction of Nineveh, 
B.C. 606, though supported by high authori- 
ties, is now generally rejected. Chnton 
(Fasti Helleniei, i. 268) remarks, with refer- 
ence to the duration of the Assyrian monar- 
chy : " The period dehvered by Ctesias seems 
to have been 1306 years. He placed its 
commencement 1000 years before the Trojan 
war, and its termination at B.C. 876. But in 
assigning the termination of the Assyrian 
monarchy, Ctesias, and those that followed 
him, confounded two events, — the revolt of 
the Medes and the destruction of Nineveh ; 
which they made to happen together. These 
two events, however, were divided by a con- 
siderable interval of time, and the conclu- 
sion of the term of 1306 years assigned to 
that monarchy did not occur at the Median 
revolt, but at the final capture of Nineveh. 



AST 

Tlie date of this event we are enabled to fix 

with precision, on the concurrent authority 

of Scripture and Herodotus." (B.r. 606.) 

Chnton gives the following summary : — 

Yrs. B.C. 
Mnut, B.C. 2182. 

Assyrian monarchy, 1306 years) o^k -la-in 

before the empire .. ..j 

During the empire, 24 Itings . . 526 1237 
Sardanapalus, B.C. 876. 

Alter the empii-e, 6 kings . . 105 711 

Capture of Nineveh 

Vaux (Nineveh and Persepolis, p. 508) 
gives, on the authority of Colonel Eawhnson, 
the following list of Assyrian monarchs : — 

FIEST ASSXEIAIT EMPIEE. 



1306 



Belukh 1273 

PudU 1255 

Phulukh 1 1240 

SUima-Rish L . . . . 1220 
Sanda-pal-imat .. 1200 
Aashur-napal-il .. 1185 
Mntaggil-Nebo .. 1165 
Aflshur-Eish-ipan 1140 
Tiglath-Pileser I. 1120 
Asshur-bani-pal I. 1100 
Asfihur-adan-akhi 950 



B.C. 

Asshur-danin-il 925 

Phulukh II 900 

Tigulti-Sanda 880 

Sardanapalus 850 

SiUmaEishll 815 

(Asshur-danin-pal). 

Shamasphul 780 

Phulukh III. (Pul) ) 

and > 760 

Semiramis ; 



SECOND ASSTEIAN BMPIEE. 



B.C. 
Tiglath-PUeser IL 747 

Shalmaneser 730 

Sargon 721 

Sennacherib 702 

Esarhaddon 680 



Asshur-bani-pal IL . . ( 

Asshur-FiTui t-Ilut . . . . ( 

Final overthrow of 

Nineveh ( 



AsTA, now AsTi, in Piedmont, was cap- 
tured by the Gauls about B.C. 400. Alaric 
besieged it a.d . 403. It was taken and retaken 
several times during the struggles with the 
barbarians. The emperor Frederick I. 
captured it a.d. 1154. The French obtained 
possession in 1387, and after holding it nearly 
a centiiry and a half, relinquished it to the 
emperor Charles V., by the treaty of Cam- 
bray, 1529. Charles bestowed it upon Beatrice 
of Portugal, and by her marriage with 
Charles III. of Savoy, it passed into the 
possession of that house. It was made a 
bishop's see at an early period. Evasius, 
supposed to be the first bishop, suffered 
martyrdom Dec. 1, 265. 

AsTLEx's Amphitheatee, a temporary 
building in 1774, was, in 1780, converted 
into a roofed amphitheatre. It was destroyed 
bv fire Aug. 17, 1794; Sept. 2, 1803; and 
June 8, 1841. 

AsTOEGA (Spain), "the city of priests," 
buUt on the site of the Asturiea Augusta of 
the Eomans, was taken by Almansor in 990, 
and recovered in 1010. The king of Navarre 
took it in 1033; and the French, after a 
desperate encounter, obtained possession 
April 12, 1810, when they dismantled the 
fortifications and committed great havoc. It 
was made the seat of a bishopric in the 3rd 
century. A council on discipline was held 
here Sept. 1, 946. 

AsTEACAN (Russia), formerly the capital 



AST 

of a Tartar state, was taken by Ivan in 1554. 
The Turks besieged it in 1569 ; and a rebel- 
hon broke out here in 1670. It is the seat of 
an archbishopric. 

AsTEOiOGY. — The Chaldaeans, the Egypt- 
ians, the Hindoos, and the Persians cultivated 
this "illusory science ;" and with the former 
it is supposed to have originated. By an 
edict issued at Rome, B.C. 139, the Chal- 
dseans, or mathematicians, as the astrologers 
were then called, were banished from the 
city. The senate, in the reign of Augustus, 
expelled them from Italy in the year 16. 
Sharpe (Hist, of Egypt, ii. 179), writing on 
the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 — 161), when 
Egypt was a Roman province, remarks : — 
"The poor Jews took to it as a trade. In 
Alexandria, the Jewess, half beggar half 
fortune-teller, would stop people in the 
streets and interpret dreams by the help of 
the Bible, or sit under a sacred tree like a 
sibyl, and promise wealth to those who con- 
sulted her, duly proportioned to the size of 
the coin by which she was paid." Constan- 
tius (July 13, 358) made a law declaring 
astrologers to be the enemies of mankind. 
The Arabians were great astrologers. Pres- 
cott says, with reference to the Aztecs, " In 
no country, not even in ancient Egypt, were 
the dreams of the astrologer more implicitly 
deferred to. On the birth of a child he was 
instantly summoned. The time of the event 
was accurately ascertained ; and the family 
hung in trembling suspense, as the minister 
of heaven cast the horoscope of the infant, 
and unrolled the dark volume of destiny," 
During the Middle Ages the practice became 
general. In the 13th and 14th centuries, 
astrology was taught in the Italian universi- 
ties, whilst at Padua and Bologna professore 
of astrology were appointed. Many of our 
own early philosophers and men of science 
were captivated by this study. 

ASTEONOMICAL SOCIETY OP LONDOIT, WaS 

founded in 1820, and its charter was granted 
March 7, 1831, since which time it has taken 
the title of the Royal Astronomical Society 
of London. 

AsTEOiroMT. — ^This science was cultivated, 
before the Christian aera, by the Chaldaeans, 
the Egyptians, the Hindoos, the Chinese, 
the Phoenicians, and the Greeks ; and to each 
of the four first-mentioned has its invention 
been attributed, whilst Josephus claims it 
for the Jews. There can be no doubt that 
it was practised amongst the Chaldseans and 
the Egyptians; and the great antiquity of 
the Hindoo observations is acknowledged by 
all astronomers. The claims of the Chinese 
on this point are not supported by satisfac- 
tory evidence. In Greece, Thales, born B.C. 
640, who predicted an echpse, was the earUest 
astronomer. He was followed by Anaxi- 
mander, bom B.C. 610; Anaximenes, born 
B.C. 530; and Anaxagoras, born B.C. 500. 
Pythagoras, bom B.C. 580, greatly advanced 
the science. Meton and Euctemon intro- 
duced the Metonic cycle, B.C. 433. Aris- 
totle, born B.C. 384, wrote a treatise on the 
subject ; and Autolycus two books, the most 



AST 

ancient astronomical works tliat have come 
down to us. Hipparchus, born B.C. 135, 
reduced it to a systematic form, and is the 
father of true astronomy. Ptolemy, called 
the "prince of astronomers," born ia the 
year 130, was the last astronomer of the 
Greek school. The science was revived by 
the Arabians, "who," says Hallam (Lit. 
Hist. vol. i. pt. i. eh. 2), " understood 
astronomy well, and their science was 
transfused more or less into Europe." 
The caliph Al Mansur is said to have en- 
couraged the study of this science ; and 
Albategnius is the most celebrated of the 
Arabian astronomers. Alfonso X., of Cas- 
tile, produced the AJfonsiae tables in 1252. 
Little was accomplished until the appearance 
of Copernicus, who is justly termed the 
founder of modem astronomy. He was born 
at Thorn, in 1473, and published his cele- 
brated treatise on the Eevolutions of the 
Heavenly Bodies, just before his death, in 
1543. It was issued at Nuremberg, and the 
treatise, consisting of six books, is said to 
have been completed by the astronomer 
about 1530. Tycho Brahe (1546^1601), 
Hallam admits, " did far more in this essen- 
tial department of the astronomer than any 
of his predecessors." He was the first to 
make a catalogue of the stars, and his new 
mundane system paved the way for the 
important discoveries of the 17th century. 
In 1582 Gregory XIII., by the aid of Lilius 
and Clavius, reformed the calendar. It is 
impossible in a small compass to explain 
even the chief results of the wonderful pro- 
gress made in astronomical science since the 
commencement of the 17th century; but 
some of the more important are given in the 
following summary : — 



1. Galileo remarks the isochronism of the pen- 



1611. 
1616. 



1618. 
1631. 



1654. 
1665. 



1671. 
1675. 



1687. 
1705. 



Bayer's maps, in which the stars are distin- 
guished by letters. 

Galileo makes his telescope. Kepler pub- 
lishes his work on Mars, containing what 
are called his Firgt and Second Laws. 

Galileo announces discoveries of Jupiter's 
satellites ; of spots on the moon ; of ne- 
bulae ; ofnew phenomena in Saturn, which 
prove to proceed from the ring ; and phases 
of Venus. 

Galileo observes spots on the sun. 

The Copernican theory prohibited by the 
court of Rome. 

Kepler's Third Law. 

Gassendi observes the transit and measures 
the diameter of Mercury. 

Transit of Venus first observed by Horrox 
and Crabtree, and her diameter measured. 

Discovery of Sattirn's ring by Huyghens. 

Casstni determines the time of rotation of 
Jupiter. 

Newton fii-st turned his attention to gravi- 
tation. 

Eicher observes the shortening of the seconds' 
pendtilum in nearing the equator. 

Boemer announces his discovery of the 
velocity of light by means of Jupiter's 
satellites. 

Newton publishes the " Principia." 

Halley first predicted the return of a comet ; 
viz., that of 1758. 

Bradley discovers aberration. Death of 
Newton. 

74 



ASY 



1731. Hadley's quadrant invented. 

1732. Maupertuis introduces the Newtonian theory 

into France. 
1765. Harrison gains the parliamentary reward for 

his chronometer. 
1767. First nautical almanack published. 
1781. Herschel discovers Uranus. 
1784. Laplace's researches on the stability of the 

Solar System, &c. 
1795. Separation of the Milky "Way into stars by 



1814 
1820. 



Herschel suspects the motion of the whole 
Solar System towards the constellation 
Hercules. 

Piazzi's catalogue of 7,646 stars. 

Astronomical Society of London founded. 
•32. Sir J. Herschel's investigations of double 
stars. 

Lord Rosse completes his telescope. 

The planet Neptune discovered by Adams and 
Le Verrier, who conducted their researches 
quite independently of each other. 

Herschel publishes the " Results of Astrono- 
mical Observations made at the Cape of 
Good Hope." 

Nebulae observed by Lord Rosse. 

Airy makes investigations resjjecting ancient 
eclipses. 

Photography successfully applied to astrono- 
mical purposes. 

Annular eclipse of the sun visible in England. 
Donati's comet appears with great splen- 
dor for several weeks. 



AsTTJHiAS (Spain). — An ancient province, 
to which, in 1833, the name of Oviedo, its 
chief town, was given. In its mountains the 
Gothic fugitives sought refuge on the inva- 
sion of Spain by the Saracens in the 8th 
century. The independence of the country 
was maintained by a race of native rulers, 
commencing with Pel^o, a.d. 716. Henry, 
eldest son of John L, assumed the title 
of Prince of Asturias in 1388 ; and from 
that period the heir apparent to the Spanish 
throne has been thus styled. The insurrec- 
tion against the French (1808) commenced 
in the fastnesses of the Asturian mountains, 
which became the scene of many severe 
struggles. Its junta was the first organized 
in Spain, and thus, as AUson remarks, its 
inhabitants had " a second time the honour 
of having taken the lead in the dehverance of 
the peninsula." 

AsTLUM. — The earliest notice of a 
place of refuge for criminals is found in the 
command to Moses for the Jews to build six 
cities of refuge, for the manslayer, B.C. 1451 
(ISTxmibers, xxxv. 6). A similar order was 
given to Joshua, b.c, 1444 (ch. xx.), on the 
entrance of the Jews into Canaan. Cadmus 
is said to have erected one at Thebes, 
B.C. 1493, and Eome on its foundation was a 
general place of refuge. Some place of 
sanctuary existed amongst all ancient na- 
tions of which we have any record. On the 
introduction of Christianity, the custom was 
retained. Miknan (Latin Christianity, vol. i, 
b. iii. ch. 5.) states: — "The privilege of 
asylxim within the Church is recognized in 
most of the barbaric codes. It is asserted 
in the strongest terms, and in terms impreg- 
nated with true Christian humanity, that 
there is no crime which may not be par- 
doned from the fear of God and reverence 
for the saints." It became a privilege of 



ATE 

churches from the time of Constantine. The 
altar was at first the sanctuary, until the 
privilege was extended to the other parts of 
the church. Theodosius regulated asylum by 
law, A.D. 392. When Alaric captured Eome, 
A.D. 410, he ordered that all who took refuge 
in the churches should be spared. During 
the Middle Ages even convents, the dwellings 
of the bishops, the precincts of these places, 
the graves of the dead, hospitals, &c., were 
privSeged in this respect. The canon law of 
Gratian and the Pope's Decretals granted 
protection to all except night and Mghway 
robbers, and offenders against the Church. 
The practice gave rise to various abuses, 
and many attempts were made to find a 
remedy. At the Eeformation the system, as 
far as criminals were concerned, was abo- 
lished though it continued to exist in a 
modified form for the benefit of debtors, 
until abolished by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27, in 
1697. 

Ateliebs Natiowattx, or Fatioitai, 
Workshops, were established at Paris by 
decrees of the 27th and 28th of February, 
1848, for the purpose of providing occupa- 
tion for the numerous unemployed workmen 
in that capital. About 5,000 were at first 
admitted, but their numbers soon increased 
to above 100,000. They rose against the 
goverimient on the 22nd of June, were over- 
come after a painful struggle by General 
Cavaignac, and the national workshops were 
dissolved on the 4th of July, having been in 
existence about four months. 

Atella (Italy). — ^The French army under 
Montpensier, capitulated to the Spaniards 
and Italians at this town, July 21, 1496. 
Philip of Commines denounces this sur- 
render as ignominious, and compares it to 
the capitulation of the Komans at the Cau- 
dine Forks. Atella was the seat of a 
bishopric, which was transferred to Aversa 
about 1050. 

Athabtasias" Creed. — A confession of 
faith, so called because it was supposed to 
have been composed by Athanasius, bishop 
of Alexandria, a.d. 326. The latest critics 
have, however, shovni that it was not the 
work of Athanasius. By some it is ascribed 
to Vigihus Tapsensis, "an African bishop, 
who lived in the latter part of the 5th cen- 
tury, in the time of the Vandalic Arian 
persecution;" and by Dr. Waterland it is 
attributed to Hilary, bishop of Aries, in the 
5th century. It was written chiefly against 
the Arians ; and to the fact that Athanasius 
was their vigorous opponent, may its pecu- 
liar designation be attributed. 

Athen^um Clttb was founded in 1823. 
The club-house was built in 1829 and opened 
in November, 1830. 

Athens, the capital of Attica and the 
most celebrated city of ancient Greece, is 
said to have been first called Cecropia, from 
Cecrops, an Egyptian who built the original 
city on the Acropohs, according to Hales, 
B.C. 1558; Usher, B.C. 1556; and Chnton, 
B.C. 1433. It received the name of Athens 
i'rom the worship of Athenae or Minerva, 



ATH 

said to have been established by Ereehtheus, 
B.C. 1383. The legendary accounts give a 
succession of kings from Cecrops to Theseus, 
and with the latter the history of Athens as 
a state is declared by some writers to com- 
mence. Theseus ascended the throne, accord- 
ing to Hales, B.C. 1236; Usher, b.c. 1235; 
and Clinton, B.c. 1234. He united into one 
political body the twelve states into which 
Cecrops had divided Attica, and made 
Athens the capital. Codrus, the last king 
of the dynasty, sacrificed himself for the 
safety of Athens, B.C. 1070 according to 
Hales, or b.c 1044 according to CHnton. 
Seventeen kings reigned during the monar- 
chical period, and they were followed first 
by perpetual, then by decennial, and finally 
by annual archons. Homer speaks of 
Athens as a place of importance during 
the Trojan war (b.c 1183). 



B.C.. 

1069. 
754 
752. 



Medon made perpetual archon. 

Alcmseou last of the perpetual archons. 

Charops first decennial archon. 

Erixias, the seventh and last of the decennial 

archons, dies. 
Nine annual archons appointed, the title of 

archon being given only to the first. Creon 

first annual archon. 
Legislation of Draco, whose laws, on account 

of their severity, were said to have been 

written in blood. 
Cylon attempts to make himself master of 

Athens. 
Solon remodels the constitution, and gives a 

new code to Athens. 
Pisistratus usurps the government. Death of 

Solon. 
Pisistratus expelled. 

Thespis first exhibits tragedy at Athens. 
Death of Pisistratus. 
Assassination of Hipparchus by HarmodiuB 

and Aristogiton. 
Ostracism established. 
War between Athens and Sparta. 
Battle of Marathon. War between Athens 

and ^gina. 
Banishment of Aristides. 
Fleet of 200 ships built at Athens. Ascendancy 

of Themistocles, 
Athens taken by Xerxes. 
Mardonius burns Athens. 
Themistocles rebuilds the city. 
Commencement of the Athenian supremacy. 
Banishment of Themistocles. 
Ostracism of Cymon. 
Athens asserts her supremacy over the other 

states of Greece. 
The ' Long walls' of Athens commenced. 
The Athenians defeat the Thebans at .^no- 

phyta. 
Truce between the Athenians and Peloponne- 

sians for five years. 
The Athenians defeat the Persians 
The Athenians assist the Phocians in the 

Sacred War. 
The Boeotians defeat the Athenians at Chse- 

ronea. 
Thirty years' truce between Sparta and 

Athens. , 

Pericles at the head of afiiairs. 
Comedies prohibited at Athens. Samos sub- 
dued by Pericles. 
Athens at the height of its glory. 
The law against comedies repealed. 
Alliance between the Athenians and the 

Coreyrseans. 
Peloponnesian war begins, aod Attica is in- 

Plague at Athens. Second invasion of 
Attica. 

75 



ATH 



429. Pericles dies of the plagne. 
428. Third invasion of Attica. 
415. First Athenian campaign in Sicily. 
414. The Athenians defeated in the second cam- 
paign in Sicily. 
413. The Athenian fleet and army destroyed. 
411. Government of the " Four Hundred." 
407. Second and last banishment of Alcibiades. 

Lysander defeats the Athenians. 
406. The Athenians defeat the Spartans in a sea- 
fight. 
405. Battle of ^Egospotamos, in which Lysander 

again defeats the Athenians. 
404 Athens taken by Lysander. End of the 

Peloponnesian war. The rule of the Thirty 

Tyrants, who are replaced by " the Ten." 
403. Thrasybulus overthrows the government of 

" the Ten." 
399. Death of Socrates. 
394. Xenophon banished from Athens. 
393. Conon rebuilds the walls of Athens. 
388. Plato founds the Academy. 
378. The Thebans and Athenians allied against 

Sparta. 
376. Athenian victory off Naxos. 
374. Peace between Athens and Sparta. 
371. Greneral peace. 
360. War between the Athenians and Olynthians 

respecting Amphipolia. 
359. Philip of Macedon makes peace with Athens. 
357. Commencement of the Social War. 
355. The Social War terminates. 
352. Philip takes Methon6, and enters Thessaly. 

He is stopped at Ihermopylce by the 
.,. Athenians. 

"346. Peace between Athens and Macedon. 
339. War breaks out between Philip and the 

Athenians. 
338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans at 

Chseronea. 
323. Samian war commences. 
322. End of Samian war. Submission of Athens 

to Macedon. Death of Demosthenes. 
317. Cassander conquers Athena. 
307. Demetrius restores the ancient constitution of 

Athens. 
297. Demetrius fails in an attack on Athens. 
296. Demetrius besieges Athens. 
295 Demetrius takes Athens. 
287. Athens revolts from Demetrius. 
277. Athens, Sparta, and Egypt allied. 
268. After a series of sieges, Athens surrenders to 

Antigonus Gonatus, king of Sparta. 
229. Athens joins the Achaean league. 
215. The Athenians and JBtolians unite against 

Macedon. 
211. A Roman fleet arrives at Athens. 
200. Athens and other Greek states join Kome 

against Philip. 
196. The Romans proclaim Athens free from the 

Macedonian power. 
146. The Romans subdue Greece. 
S56. Athens stormed by Sylla. 

Athens (Modern).— This city sank into 
comparative insignificance early in the Chris- 
tian sera. St. Paul visited it (Acts, xvii. 
15 — 34) in the year 51. At first a bishop's 
see, it became an archbishopric, and ulti- 
mately received the metropolitan dignity. 



267. Besi^ed by the Goths. 
395. Taken by Alaric. 
532. The walls restored by Justinian. 
1146. Plundered by Roger, king of Sicily. 
1205. Taken by Otho de la Roche, whom the mar- 
quis of Montferrat makes lord of Athens 
and Thebes, by the title of Grand Sire. 
1311. Conquered by the Catalans. 
1394. Bequeathed by JSeilo Acciaiuoli to the church 

of St Mary. 
1456. Taken by Mohammed II., who thus puts an 
end to the domination of the Latins. 
76 



ATM 



1466. Taken by the Venetians. 

1479. Restored to the Turks. 

1687. Retaken by the Venetians. 

1827. Insurrection of Greeks ; siege and capture by 

the Turks, May 17. 
1834. Declared the capital of the modem kingdom 

of Greece. 
1850. Blockaded by a British fleet. 
1854. Occupied by French and English forces. They 

retire in 1856. 

DTJKES OP ATHENS. 
HOUSE OF DB Li EOCHS. 

A.D. A.D. 

Otho 1205 I WUliam 1275 

GuyL 1225 Gay II 1290 

John 1264 | 

HorsB OF BEnawK. 
Walter de Brienne 1308 

CATALAN GBAKD COMPANT. 

RogerDeslau 1311 

HOUSE OF ARAGOir. 

(Dukes of Athens and Neopatras.) 

Manfred 1326 I Frederick 1348 

William 1330 Frederick 1355 

John 1338|Maria 1377 

HOUSE OF ACCIAIUOIX 

Nerio 1 1386 Infant son of Nerio IL 

Antonio 1394 with his mother as 

Nerio n 1435 regent 1453 

R-anco 1455 

Atheeton Moob (Battle). — The parlia- 
mentary army, led by the earl of Essex, was 
completely defeated here, June 30, 1643, by 
the royahst forces under the marquis of 
Newcastle. 

Athlone (Ireland), called "the key of 
Connaught," a place of considerable strength, 
situated partly in Westmeath and partly in 
Eoscommon, was besieged by WiUiam the 
Third's army in 1690. The siege was raised on 
the 25th of Jtily. The attempt was renewed by 
General GinkeU, afterwards earl of Athlone, 
and the town was taken July 1, 1691. 

Atlantic Telegeaph. {See Submaeinb 
Telegeaph.) 

Atmospheee. — Atmospheric air was sup- 
posed by the ancients to be a simple ele- 
mentary body, and the experiments of their 
philosophers did not lead to the discovery of 
its real properties. The investigations of 
Anaxamines (b.c. 548), of Aristotle (b.c. 
384 — 323) , and of others, produced no great 
results. The weight of air and its pressure 
on aU bodies were first perceived by Galileo 
in 1564. Descartes probably went further in 
the same direction, but it was not demon- 
strated until TorriceUi's successful experi- 
ment by the agency of quicksilver in 1643. 
Pascal fully confirmed the theory of atmo- 
spheric pressure in 1648. In spite, however, 
of these and other important discoveries, 
the ancient doctrine, that air was one of the 
four elements, continued prevalent tiU Dr. 
Priestley, in 1774, discovered osygen gas, 
showing it to be a constituent of air. Azotic 
gas, the other constituent, was discovered 
soon after. Scheele and Lavoisier endea- 
voured to determine the volumes of each 
contained in the atmosphere, and Mr. Caven- 



ATM 

dish published in the " Philosophical Trans- 
actions" for 1783, the results of experi- 
ments made the year before, by which the 
matter was settled with greater precision. 

Atmospheeic Eailway. — The appUcation 
of atmospheric presstire as a motive power 
on railways was first suggested about 1812. 
A line was constructed to test the principle, 
between Kingston and Dalkey, near Dublin, 
and opened in 1843 ; and another, between 
Croyd!on and London, was opened in 1845. 

Atomic Theoey in chemistry, sometimes 
called the doctrine of definite proportions, 
was first explained by Dr. Dalton, in 1803, 
in his " Manchester Memoirs." In 1808 he 
pnbhshed his "New System of Chemical 
Philosophy," on the same subject. The 
basis of the theory is found in a work " On 
the Affinities of Bodies," published by Wen- 
zel, a German chemist, in 1777. 

Attaindee. — The Norman laws provided 
that by attainder of treason or felony a 
person not only forfeited his land, but that 
his blood became attainted; by which his 
descendants, as well as himself, were for 
ever (i. e. unless the attainder had been 
reversed) disqualified from inheriting pro- 
perty. The theory of constructive treason 
proved a source of great injustice in the 
days of arbitrary ride. Its severity was 
mitigated by 7 Will. III. c. 3 (1695), an act 
which modified 25 Edw. III. stat. 5, c. 2 
(1350) ; and 54 Geo. III. c. 145, passed 
July 27, 1814, restricted disinheritance, ex- 
cept in cases of high-treason, to the actual 
culprit. By 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 106 (Aug. 
29, 1833), it was enacted that after the death 
of a person attainted, those tracing descent 
through him may inherit, unless the land 
should have escheated before Jan. 1, 1834. 

Attica (Greece). — The early history of 
this political division of ancient Greece is 
involved in obscurity. Its capital, Athens, 
was, according to the traditional accovmt, 
founded by Cecrops, a native of Lais, in 
Egypt, about b.c. 1558. (See Athens.) 

Atioenet, one who is appointed to act in 
place, or in tti/rn of, another in the conduct 
of a suit. In early times, every suitor was 
obhged to appear in person, in obedience to 
the king's writ. After appearance, the 
courts of record had the power of allowing 
them to appear by attorney. Suitors could 
also have attorneys appointed by letters 
patent, under the great seal; but if these 
could not be obtained, the suitors were 
obliged to appear each day in court in their 
•roper person. The Statute of Westminster 
I. c. 10 (13 Edw. I, 1285), gives to all per- 
sons the power of appointing an attorney 
vrithout letters patent. In the poU-tax of 
2 Eich. II. (1379), the legal profession were 
divided into four classes ; from which it ap- 
pears that the attorneys had by this time be- 
come a separate body. Attorneys are also 
mentioned as a distinct body of men in 4 Hen. 
IV. c. 18 (1402) ; whereby it is ordained that all 
attorneys should be examined by the justices, 
and by their discretions should be put in 
the roU. They were to be good, virtuous, and 



ATT 

of good fame. Their disciphne, mode of 
admission, and qualifications, have been 
regulated by a long series of statutes, down 
to the 6 & 7 Vict. c. 73 (Aug. 22, 1843), by 
which previous enactments were repealed, and 
the present regulations estabhshed. Act- 
ing without proper qualification is punished 
as a misdemeanor, 

Attoeney-Geneeal. — ^The records of the 
year 1278 furnish two instances of the ap- 
pearance of an officer designated "attomatus 
regis." Another mode of describing this 
official adopted at the time was, " qui sequi- 
tur pro rege." It is, therefore, certain that 
such an officer, appointed, probably, at first 
for special occasions only, was created some 
time before 1278. Eoss (Judges of England, 
iii. 45) says, — "In most years two were 
regularly employed, who may be supposed 
to answer to our modern officers — the at- 
torney and solicitor general. The latter 
title, however, had certainly not been then 
adopted ; and, as far as I can find, was not 
used tin the reign of Edward IV." The 
queen also had an attorney to attend to her 
separate interests. Holinshed mentions one 
killed in a fray in Fleet Street, April 13, 1458. 
Eoss states that Lord Bacon was the first 
attorney-general elected a member of the 
House of Commons. This was in 1614. 

ATTOENEYS-GElirEEAL OP ENGLAND. 

Edward L 
A.D. 
1277-8. WilUani Bonneville. 
1278-9. William de Giselham. 
1279-80. Gilbert de Thornton. 
1280-1. Alan de Walkingliani. 
1281-2. John le Fawconer. 
1284-5. William de Seleby. 
1286-7. William Inge. 
1289-90. John de Bosco. 

Nicholas de Warwick. 
John de HaydeU. 
1291-2. Eichard de Breteville. 

Hugh de Louther. 
1292-3. Koger de Hegham. 
1293-4. John de Mntford. 
1300-1. John de Chester. 
1304-5. John de Drokenesford. 
Edward II. 

1307-8. John de Chester again. 
1309-10. Mathew de Scaccario. 
1312-3. John de Norton. 
1315-6. William de Langley. 
Gilbert de Toutheby. 
William de Herle. 
Geolfrey le Scrope. 
1318-9. Adam de Eyncham. 
1320-1. Geoflrey le Scrope again, 
1322-3. Geoffrey le Fyngale. 
Edward III. 

1327. Adam de Eyncham again. 
Alexander de Hadenham. 
William de Mershton. 
1329. WilUam de Aldeburgh. 
1334. Simon de Trewythosa. 

William de Hepton, or Hopton. 
1338. John de Lincoln. 

John de Clone, or Clove. 
William de Merington. 
1342. WQliam de Thorpe. 
1349. Simon de Kegworth. 
1353. Henry de Greystoke. 
1356. John Gaunt. 
1360. Richard de Friseby. 

1362. WiUiam de Pleste. 

1363. William de Nessefield. 
1366. Thomas de Shardelowe. 

77 



ATT 



ATT 



A.D. 

1367. John de Ashwell. 
Michael Skylling. 
Kichard II. 

1378. Thomas de Shardelowe again. 
1381. William Ellis. 
Laurence Dnu 
1384. William de Homeby. 
1386. Edmund BrudneU. 

1398. Thomas CoTeley. 
Henry IV. 

1399. Sept. 30. WUliam de Lodlngton. 
1401. Thomas Cowley, or Coveley. 
1407. July 13. Thomas Dereham. 

Aug. 17. Koger Hunt. 

1410. Thomas TickhiU. 
Henry V. 

1414. Jan. 16. William Babington. 

1420. WilUam Babthorp. 
Henry "VX 

1422. Nov. 11. William Babthorp. 

1429. Oct. 28. John Vampage. 

1452. June 30. William Nottingham. 
Edwai-d IV. 

1461. Aug. 12. John Herbert. 
Henry Sotill. 

1471. June 16. WiUiamHusee. 

1481. May 7. WUUam Huddersfield. 
Edward V. 

1483. William Huddersfield. 

May 28. Morgan Kydwelly. 
Kichard III. 

1483. Morgan Kydwelly. 
Henry VII. 

1485. Sept. 20. WiUiam Hody. 

1486. Nov. 3. James Hubbard, or Hobart 
Henry VHI. 

1509. April. John Ernie. 

1519. Jan. 26. John Fitz-James. 

1522. Feb. John Roper. 

1524. April 1. Ralph SwiUtngton. 

1525. Aug. Richard Lyster. 
1529. June 3. Christopher Hales. 
1535. July 10. John Baker. 

1540. Nov. 8. William Whorwood. 

WilUam Staundford. 
1545. June 18. Henry Bradshaw. 
Edward VI. 

1547. Jan. Henry Bradshaw. 

1552. May 21. Edward Griflla. 
Mary. 

1553. July. Edward Griffin. 
Elizabeth. 

1558. Nov. 17. Edward Griffin. 
•' 1559. Jan. 22. Gilbert Gerard. 
1581. June 1. John Popham. 
1592. June 2. Sir Thomas Egerton. 
1594. April 10. Edward Coke. 
James I. 

1603. March. Edward Coke. 

1606. July 4. Sir Heniy Hobaxt. 

1613. Oct. 27. Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards 

Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Albany. 
1617. March 12. Sir Henry Yelverton. 
1621. Jan. 11. Sir Thomas Coventry. 
Charles I. 

1625. March. Sir Thomas Coventry. 

Oct. 31 Sir Robert Heath. 
1631. Oct. 27. William Noy. 
1634. Sept. 27. Sir John Banks. 
1641. Jan. 29. Sir Edward Herbert. 
1345. Nov. 3. Sir Thomas Gardner. 
Ti-ial of king. 

1649. Jan. 10. William Steele. 
Interregnum. 

Feb. William Steele. 
April 9. Edmond Prideaux. 

1659. Robert Reynolds. 
Charles II. 

1660. May 31. Sii- Geoftey Palmer. 

1670. May 10. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards 

earl of Nottingham. 
1673. Nov. 12. Sir Francis North, afterwards 

Lord Guildford. 
1675. Sir William Jones. 

1679. Oct. 27. Sir Creswell Levinz, or Levinge. 
1681. Feb. 24. Sir Robert Sawyer. 
78 



James IL 

1687. Dec. 13. Sir Thomas Powis. 
William HI. 

A.D. 

1689. Mar. 9. Sir Henry Pollexfen. 
May 7. Sir George Ti-eby. 

1692. May 2. Sir John Somera, after-wards Lord 

Somers. 

1693. April 4. Sir Edward Ward. 

1695. June 10. Sir- Thomas Trevor, afterwards 

Lord Trevor. 
1701. July 5. Sir Edward Northey. 
Anne. 

1707. April 25. Sir Simon Harcourt, afterwards 

Lord Harcourt. 

1708. Oct. 21. Sir James Montague. 
1710. Sept. 18. Sir Simon Harcourt again. 

Oct. 19. Sir Edward Northey again. 
George I. 

1718. March 14. Sir Nicholas Lechmere, after- 
wards Lord Lechmere. 
1720. May 9. Sir Robert Raymond, afterwards 

Lord Raymond. 
1724. Jan. 31. Sir Philip Torke, afterwards 
Lord Hardwicke. 
George II. 

1733. Nov. 30. Sir John Willes. 
1737. Jan. 26. Sir Dudley Ryder. 
1754. AprU 20. Hon. William Murray.afterwards 
Lord Mansfield. 

1756. Nov. 6. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards 

Viscount Henley and Earl of North- 
ington. 

1757. July 1. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwards Lord 

Camden. 
George III. 

1762. Jan. 25. Hon. Charles Yorke. 

1763. Dec. 16. Sir Fletcher Norton, afterwards 

Lord Gi-antley. 

1765. Aug. 25. Hon. Charles Yorke a^iain. 

1766. Aug. 6. WnUamde Grey, afterwa.ds Lord 

Walsingham. 

1771. Jan. 23. Edward Thiarlow, afterwards Lord 
Thuxlow. 

1778. Jtine 16. Alexander Wedderbume, after- 
wards Lord Loughborough. 

1780. July 11. James Wallace. 

1782. April 20. lioyd Kenyon. 

1783. April. James Wallace again. 
Nov. 18. John Lee. 

Dec. 26. Lloyd Kenyon again. 

1784. March 30. Richard Pepper Ai-den, after- 

wards Lord Alvanley. 
1788. June 28. Sir Archibald Macdonald 
1793. Feb. 13. Sir John Scott, atterwards Lord 

Eldon. 

1800. June 4. Sir John Milford, afterwards 

Baron Redesdale. 

1801. Feb. 2. Sir Edward Law, afterwards Lord 

Ellenborough. 

1802. April 15. Hon. Spencer PercivaL 
1806. Feb. 14. Sir Arthur Pigott. 
1507. April 7. Sir Vicary Gibbs. 

1812. June 26. Sir Thomas Plumer. 

1813. May 4. Sir WUliam Garrow. 
1817. May 7. Sir Samuel Shepherd. 

1819. July 24. Sir Robei-t Giflford, afterwards 
Lord Gifford. 
George IV. 

1824. Jan. 31. Sir John Singleton Copley, after- 
wards Lord Lyndhurst. 

1826. Sept. 20. Sir Charles WethereU. 

1827. AprU 27. Sir James Scarlett, afterwards 

Lord Abinger. 

1828. Feb. 19. Sir Charles WethereU again. 

1829. June 10. Sir James Scarlett again. 
WUUam IV. 

1830. Nov. 26. Sir Thomas Denman, afterwards 

Lord Denman. 
1832. Nov. 26. Sir WilUam Home. 

1834. Feb. 19. Sir John CampbeU, afterwards 

Lord CampbeU. 
Dec. 17. Sir Fi-ederick PoUock. 

1835. April 30. Sir John CampbeU again. 
Victoria. 

1841. July 3. Sir Thomas Wilde, afterwards Lord 
Truro. 



1846. 

1850. 
1851. 



1858. 
1859. 



AUB 



Sept. 6. Sir Frederick Pollock again. 
April 17. Sir William Webb FoUett. 
July 4. Sir Frederick Thesiger, afterwards 

Lord Chelmsford. 
July 6. Sir Thomas Wilde again. 
July 13. Sir John Jervis. 
July 19. Sir John Komilly. 
March 28. Sir Alexander Jam.e3 Edmund 

Cockbum. 
March a. Sir F. Thesiger again. 
Dec. 28. Sir A. J. E. Cockbum again. 
Nov. Sir Richard BethelL 
Feb. Sir Fitzroy Kelly. 
June. Sir K. Bethell again. 

Atteaine. — This right, by which the sove- 
reigns of France claimed the property of a 
stranger who had died in their dominions 
without having been natnrahzed, was abol- 
ished by laws dated Aug. 6, 1790, and April 
13, 1791 ; confirmed by a constitutional act, 
Sept. 3, ] 791 . It was re-estabhshed in 1804 j 
and finally abolished July 14, 1819. 

Attbeeoche (France). — A battle was 
fought between the EngHsh and French be- 
fore this place Aug. 19, 1344, in which the 
former, although greatly inferior in point of 
numbers, were victorious; the loss of the 
French amounting to 7,000 slain and 1,200 
prisoners. 

AvBiN -DV CoEMiEB, St. (Battle). — 
Fought at this place, between the Bretons 
and the French, July 28, 1488. The former 
gained the victory, and St. Aubin fell into 
their hands. 

Auckland (Australasia), the capital of 
Kew Zealand, was founded Sept. 19, 1840, 
Captain Hobson, the first governor of the 
colony, arrived in January, 1841. 

AtrcTioiT. — This mode of sale was common 
amongst the Eomans. Petronius gbres the 
following caricature of the handbOl of a 
Eoman auction : — " Julius Proculus wiU 
make an auction of his superfluous goods to 
pay his debts." In the 13th century the 
crier, called cursor, stood under a spear, as 
amongst the Eomans. By 19 Geo. III. 
c. 56, s. 3 (1779), an auction is defined, — " a 
sale of any estate, goods, or effects, what- 
soever, by outcry, knocking down of hammer, 
by candle, by lot, by parcel, or by any other 
mode of sale at auction, or whereby the 
highest bidder is deemed to be the pur- 
chaser." Duties were fiLrst levied on auc- 
tions by 17 Geo. III. c. 50 (1777). The 
auction duty was increased and extended to 
Ireland in 1797 ; and was again increased by 
45 Geo. Ill, c. 30 (April 5, 1805). 

AuDiANs, or AuD^ANS, a Christian sect, 
so called from Audaeus or Audius, a native 
of Mesopotamia, who was persecuted by the 
Syrian clergy because he censured their 
irregular lives. In revenge, he was ejected 
from the Syrian church, and banished to 
Scythia, where he died a .d . 370. His followers 
celebrated Easter on the same day as the 
Jewish passover, contrary to the decree of 
the council of Nice, in 325 ; and they main- 
tained that God had a hmnan form, and that 
man was created after his image. From 
the former doctrine they have been called 
Quartodecimarians ; and from the latter. 



AUG 

Anthro]^omorpUie8. Theodoaius, in 385, de- 
creed aeath against those who dared to 
perpetrate the atrocious crime of celebrating 
Easter on an improper day. Only a small 
number of Audeeans remained after the year 
377, and they dwelt in cabins and monasteries 
near Antioch. By the 5th century they had 
become extinct. 
Atjeestadt (Battle). (5'ee Jena.) 
Au&HBiM, or Agheim (Battle). — Fought 
near this place, in Ireland, on Sunday, July 
12, 1691. The troops of William III., com- 
manded by General GinkeU, gained a com- 
plete victory over the army of James II. 
The chief result was the submission of Ire- 
land to WiQiam III. 

Augmentations (the Court of), called 
"The Court of the Augmentations of the 
King's Eevenues," was established by 27 
Henry VIII. c. 27 (1535), to take cognizance 
of suits and controversies arising out of the 
suppression of monasteries. It consisted of 
a chancellor, treasurer, attorney, sohcitor, 
ten auditors, seventeen receivers, a clerk^ 
an usher, and a messenger. It was sup- 
pressed by letters patent, re-estabhshed, and 
was annexed to the court of Exchequer by 
1 Mary, sess. 2, c. 10 (1553), and revived 
by 1 Ehz. c. 4 (1558). 

Augsbue& (Bavaria) . — Founded by Augus- 
tus about B.C. 12, and called Augusta VindeH- 
corum. It was pillaged by the Huns about 
the middle of the 5th century ; and Charle- 
magne destroyed it a.d. 788. It was restored, 
and enjoyed the rights of a free and imperial 
city from 1276 — 1806. Marshal ViEars cap- 
tured it Sept. 18, 1703 ; the elector of Bavaria 
in December of the same year ; and Marl- 
borough retook it in 1704. It was taken by the 
French Oct. 10, 1805, and delivered by them 
to the Bavarian authorities in March, 1806. 
The bishopric is very ancient. Councils were 
held at Augsburg 7th Aug. 952, and Feb. 
1051. A treaty called the Peace of Eehgion 
was signed at Augsburg Sept. 25, 1555, for 
the purpose of confirming the free exercise 
of the Protestant religion and the treaty of 
Passau. 

AuGSBUEG CoNEESSiON. — This celebrated 
confession of faith, compiled by Martin 
Luther, Melancthon, and other reformers, 
was read before the diet of Augsburg, June 
25, 1530. It consisted of twenty-eight arti- 
cles, seven of which contained refutations of 
Eoman Cathohc errors, and the remaining 
twenty-one set forth the leading tenets of the 
Lutheran creed. Soon after its promulgation, 
the last hope of induciag the pontiff" to 
reform the Eoman Cathohc church was 
abandoned, and the complete severance of 
the connection followed. It was answered 
by the Eoman Catholics in August, 1530; 
and the Augsburg diet declared that it had 
been refuted. Melancthon drew up another 
confession somewhat different. The first is 
called the unaltered, and the second the 
altered confession. 

AuQ-SEUBG- Intesim. — The Confessiou 
having been condemned by the Diet, the 
emperor Charles V. advised, and Joachim, 
79 



AUG 

the elector of Brandenburg, directed, that an 
interim should be prepared. It was the 
joint production of John Agricola, Julius 
Phlug, and Michael Heldingus, commonly 
called Sidonius, from his bishopric. The 
document, neither Eoman Cathohc nor Pro- 
testant, was presented as an ultimatum to 
the Protestants, in 1548, and having failed to 
produce the desired effect, waa at length 
vrithdrawn. 

AtTGSBTJEQ- League. — Concluded at Augs- 
burg Jvdy 9, 1686. It was negotiated by 
the prince of Orange, June 21, 1686, for the 
purpose of resisting the encroachments of 
France. The German princes at first joined it, 
and Spain and England acceded to it in 1689. 

AtTGUET, supposed to be of Asiatic ori- 
gin, was transferred to Etruria, and thence 
to Eome. The story of the rival pretensions 
of Romulus and Eemus to be decided by 
the flight of birds, B.C. 753, is well known. 
Eomulus instituted four augurs, and Numa 
Pompilius established them as an order, 
B.C. 716. The Romans never embarked in 
any important enterprise without consulting 
the augurs, and one of them always attended 
upon the consul when commanding an army. 
In B.C. 307 the number of augurs was in- 
creased to nine, five plebeians being asso- 
ciated with four patricians. SyUa increased 
the number to fifteen, B.C. 81. Augustus, 
B.C. 29, obtained the right of electing augurs at 
his pleasure. Theodosius the Great abohshed 
the office of augur in 390. Gibbon (iii. eh. 28) , 
referring to the final destruction of paganism, 
remarks : — " Fifteen grave and learned 
augurs observed the face of the heavens, and 
prescribed the actions of heroes according to 
the flight of birds." 

August. — By a decree of the senate in 
B.C. 30, the name of this month was changed 
from SextiHs to August, in honour of the 
emperor Augustus, who extended the num- 
ber of its days from thirty to thirty-one. 

Augustine Feiaes, ato called Austins, 
or Eeemites. — Their origin is uncertain. 
Pope Alexander IV. is said to have collected 
several bodies of hermits and placed them 
under the conmion rule of St. Augustine in 
1256. Lanfranc of MUan was their general. 
Much controversy has been excited respect- 
ing the date of their introduction into Eng- 
land. A small body is said to have settled 
at Woodhouse, in Wales, in 1252. Humphrey 
Bohun, afterwards earl of Hereford^ and 
Essex, gave them a house and a church in 
London in 1254. They had about thirty -two 
houses in England and Wales at the suppres- 
sion of monasteries. 

Augustuses, or the Canons of the order 
of St. Augustiiie, sometimes called Austin 
Canons, because they pretended to foUow 
the rule of St. Augustine, or Austin, bishop of 
Hippo, in Africa, a.d. 395. They were Httle 
known until the 11th century, and did not 
assume the name until a later period. It is 
generally beheved that they came into Eng- 
land in the reign of Henry I. about 1105. 
Stevens states that they did not take any 
vows imtil the 12th century, and that they 



AUR 

assumed the name of Regular Canons of 
St. Augustine, when Innocent II., at the 
tenth general coimcil, that of Lateran, in 
1139, placed all regular canons under hia 
rule. There were canon esses of this order, 
which had about 175 houses in England and 
Wales at the time of the suppression of the 
monasteries. 

AuLDEAEN ( Battle ) . — The Covenanters 
were defeated at Auldearn, or Alderne, near 
Inverness, by the earl of Montrose, May 9, 
1645. 

AuLic CouNcrL. — Soon after the establish- 
ment of the Imperial Chamber by the diet of 
Worms, Maximihan I. instituted an Auhe 
Council at Vienna. The judges were appointed 
by the emperor. "The AiSic Council," says 
HaUam, " had, in all cases, a concurrent 
jurisdiction with the Imperial Chamber; an 
exclusive one in feudal and some other 
causes. But it was equally confined to cases 
of appeal ; and these, by multiphed privileges 
de non appellando, granted to the electoral 
and superior princely houses, were gradually 
reduced into moderate cumpass." This 
court underwent various modifications. An 
edict for its regulation was issued by Ferdi- 
nand III. in 1654. During the wars between 
Austria and Napoleon, the Auhc Council 
directed the military affairs of the empire. 
Its interference with the plans of the generals 
frequently proved disastrous. The Aulic 
Council was abohshed on the formation of 
the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, but 
was revived on the renewal of the struggle 
against Napoleon. 

AuEAT (Battle) . — ^Was fought at this town, 
in France, Sept. 29, 1364, between Bertranddu 
Guesclin and some English and Breton forces 
led by John Chandos. Bertrand was defeated 
and taken prisoner, and the results of the 
victory were the capture of Auray, Yannes, 
and other tovras, and the conclusion of a 
peace at Guerande, April 12, 1365. 

AuEicuLAE Confession. — The practice of 
private confession of sins to the priest arose 
at an early period of Christianity, and was 
frequently condemned by the primitive 
church. It was estabhshed in the Roman 
Cathohc church by the decision of the twelfth 
general council (fourth Lateran), in 1215, 
and confirmed by that of Trent, 1545 — 1563. 
The former decreed it to be heresy for any 
one to assert that it was sufficient to confess 
sins to God, without making confession to a 
priest. The penitent in Anglo-Saxon times 
was required to say to the priest (Thorpe, 
Ancient Laws and Institutes of England, 
p. 404), "I confess to thee all the sins of 
my body, of skin, of flesh, and of bones, and 
of sinews, and of veins, and of gristies, and 
of tongue, and of Mps, and of gums, and of 
teeth, and of hair, and of marrow, and of 
everything, soft or hard, wet or dry." It was 
abohshed in England at the Reformation. 
Attempts have been made by members of 
the Tractarian party to revive the practice 
in the Anghcan church; and in 1858 a clergy- 
man was suspended from his office on tins 
account. 



AUR 

At'Eiflamma. {See Oriflamme.) 

Aurora Bokealis. — Pliny declares this 
phenomenon of nature was greatly dreaded. 
He speaks of one appearance as exhibiting 
daylight in the night. Extraordinary dis- 
plays were ^een in Spain, Portugal, Holland, 
France, and Great Britain, Aug. 31, 1769, 
and Feb. iJ9, 1780. The aurora borealis seen 
Oct. 24, 184(7, one of the most brilliant ever 
witnessed in this country, was preceded by 
great magnetic disturbance. 

AusTERLiTz (Battle). — Fought near a 
small town of this name, in Moravia, Dec. 2, 
1805. It has been called " the battle of the 
three emperors," because the French were 
commanded by Napoleon I., and the 
Austrians and Eussians by the emperors 
Francis II. and Alexander I. The French 
army numbered 90,000, and that of their 
opponents 80,000 men. The former proved 
victorious, and the result was the breaking 
up of the third coalition, and the conclusion 
ot the treaty of Presburg. 

Australasia, the fifth great division of the 
world, comprises several the islands lying 
in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The most 
important are Australia, or New Hqlland; 
Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania; Papua, 
or New Guinea ; New Zealand, New Britain, 
New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and Solo- 
mon's Archipelago. The first discovery made 
by Europeans in this quarter of the globe was 
that of Papua, now called New Guinea. 
Menezes, a Portuguese navigator, landed 
here in 1526. 



1528. Saavedra, a Spaniard, lands in Papua. 

1529. Saavedra visits Papua a second time. 

1537. An expedition sent by the viceroy of Peru, 
lands in Papua. 

1.542. Gaetano discovers one of the Sandwich Isles. 

1567. Mendana, a Spaniard, discovers New Georgia, 
or Solomon's Islands. 

1543. Kuy Lopez de Villabos changes the name of 
Papua to New Guinea. 

1606. The New Hebrides discovered by the Span- 
iards. 

1606. March. The Dutch sight Australia. 

1606. Torres, a Spaniard, passes through the strait 
named after him in 1762, separating 
Australia from New Guinea. He also dis- 
covers islands iu the Louisade Archipelago. 

1616. Hartog makes discoveries in West Australia. 

1618. Zeachen makes discoveries in North Au- 

stralia. 

1619. Von Edels makes discoveries in West Au- 

stralia. 

1627. Nuyt's Land, in South Australia, discovered 

by the Dxitch. 

1628. De Witt and Cai'penter discover portions 

of Northern Australia, which were named 

after them. 
1642. Tasman discovei-s Van Diemen's Land to be 

an island. It was named Tasmania after 

him. He also discovers New Zealand. 
1644. Tasman's second voyage to A\istralia. 
1686. Dampier lands on the north-west coast of 

Australia. 
1696. Amsterdam. Island discovered. 

1699. Dampier's second visit to the north-west of 

Australia. 

1700. Dampier discover the island of New Britain. 
1705. The Dutch explore Noi-them Australia. 
1767. Cai-teret discovers New Ii-eland. 

1770. New Guinea explored. 

1770. Cook explores the east coast of Australia, 
and lands in Botany Bay. 
81 



AUS 



1772. Kerguelen, or Desolation Island, discovered. 

1773. Furueaux discovers Adventure Bay. 

1774. Cook visits the New Hebrides, and discover- 

New Caledonia. 
1777. Cook visits Adventirre Bay. 
1789. Banks's Island, to the north of the New 

Hebrides, discovered by Bligh. 
1792. D'Entrecasteaux explores South Australia. 

1798. Bass, in the Norfolk, explores the strait bear- 

ing his name. 

1799. Flinders circumnavigates Van Diemeu'a 

Land. 

1800. Grant explores part of South Australia. 
1805. Hinders surveys Nuyt's Land. 

1813. The Blue Mountains iu Australia crossed. 
1818. Oxley completes the discovery of the Blue 

Mountain chain. 
1824 Several rivers discovered by Howell and 
Hume. 

1829. Stui-t's first exploring expedition. 

1830. Sturt's second exploring expedition. 

1831. Mitchell explores South Australia and Eastern 

Australia. 

1835. Mitchell makes further explorations. 

1836. Mitchell's third exploring expedition. 

1841. Further discoveries by Earle, Ross, and 
Strelecki. 

1843. Landor and Lefray explore Western Au- 
stralia. 

1844 Leichardt leaves Sydney on an exploring 
expedition. 

1851. Hargreaves discovers gold la the Bathurst 
Mountains. 



Australia, or New Hollattd. — The dis- 
covery of this, the largest island in the world, 
has been claimed by the French for Captain 
Paulovier de Gonneville, iu 1504. Recent 
researches have proved that it was the coast 
of Madagascar, and not that of Australia, 
upon which this French navigator was driven. 
There is, however, httle doubt that Australia 
was discovered previous to the year 1542, 
and the Portuguese are supposed to be en- 
titled to the honour of this discovery, of 
which no record remains. The Dutch, in 
November, 1605, despatched the yacht Duyf- 
Tien, from Bantam, to explore the islands 
of New Guinea, and during the voyage, 
about March, 1606, they sighted the coast 
of Australia. In June of the same year, it 
was seen by Torres, a Spanish navigator, 
when passing through the straits that bear 
his name ; yet neither of these enterprising 
men was aware of the importance of the 
discovery. Between the years 1616 and 1705 
several expeditions were sent by the Dutch 
in this direction, and various portions of the 
Austrahan coast were explored. William 
Dampier, the first Englishman who visited 
Austraha, landed in January, 1686. In 
1770, Captain Cook explored the eastern 
coast of Austraha, and was the first to give 
the world valuable information respecting 
Australia and the islands iu its vicinity. On 
the termination of the American war, the 
Enghsh government determined upon esta- 
bhshing a depot for convicts in tins island, 
and the settlement of New South Wales was 
formed. A fleet of eleven ships, carrying 
558 male and 218 female convicts, and about 
200 soldiers, with their wives and children, 
sailed from Plymouth May 13, 1787. The 
coast of Austraha was sighted on the 3rd of 
January, 1788, and aU the convicts were 



AUS 

landed at Port Jackson, near Botany Bay, 
before the end of tliat month. 

A.D. 

1788. Jan. 26. Captain A. Phillip, the first governor, 
founds Sydney. 

1790. The colonists in danger of perishing from 
starvation, caused by the loss of the store- 
ship Giuirdian. 

1793. First church erected. 

1795. First printing-press established. 

1798. Bass and Flinders discover Bass's Strait. 

1802. Flinders explores the south coast of Au- 

stralia. 

1803. Sydney Gazette published by authority. 

1804. The Irish rebellion suppressed. 

1808. Governor Bligh deposed by the colonists for 

his tyranny, and sent home. 
1813. The colonists penetrate beyond the Blue 

Mountains. 
1821. Departure of Governor Macquaire, under 

•whose rule the convicts were well treated, 

and assisted to retrieve their character and 

obtain a position. 
1829. Legislative Council first appointed. 

In 1829, Western Australia, or Swan Eiver, 
was founded. Other provinces were erected 
into separate colonies, and the subsequent 
history of the island is given under t"he fol- 
lowing divisions: — 1. New South Wales; 
2. Western Austr aha, or Swan Eiver; 3. South 
AustraHa ; 4. Victoria, or Port Phillip ; 
5. Queen's Land, or Moreton Bay. 

AusTEASiA, or East Feance, was allotted 
to Thierry on the death of his father Clovis, 
A.D. 511. It was imited to Neustria by 
Clotaire II. in 613, and separated from it by 
Dagobert I. in 622. Charles Martel annexed 
it to his dominions in 737. Carloman re- 
ceived Austrasia on the death of Charles 
Martel in 741, and Charlemagne annexed it 
to his empii-e in 772. Sigebert transferred 
the capital from Eheims to Metz in 561. 
Many of the sovereigns of Austrasia were 
mere puppets in the hands of the mayors of 
the palace. 

KINGS OF AUSTEASIA. 
A.D. 

511. Thiei-ry. 

534. Theodebert I. 

548. Theodebald. , 

555. Clotaire I., king of the Franks, seizes 

Austrasia. 
561. Sigebert I. 
575. Childebert n. 
596. Theodebert II. 

613. Clotaii-e II. annexes it to Neiistria. 
622. Dagobert I., sole king of the Franks 628. 
638. Sigebert II. receives Austrasia. 
660. Childeric II. 
670. Thien-y III. 
674. Dagobert II. 

After the death of Dagobert II., in 680, 
Pepin of Heristal seized the reins of go- 
vernment, and was acknowledged duke. 



DUKES OP AUSTEASIA. 

Pepin of Heristal. 

Charles Martel, who becomes sole ruler of 
France in 737. 

Carloman receives Austrasia. 

Pepin the Short takes Austrasia, and Carlo- 
man retires to the monasteiy on Monte 
Cassino. 

Pepin, king of France. 

Chai-lemagne, who in 772 annexes Austrasia 
to his empu-e. 

82 



A.D. 

h80. 

714. 



AUS 

AusTEiA. — Noric^ml, bordering on Pan- 
nonia, made a Eoman province B.C. 15, was 
the original seat of the Austrian empire. 
The two provinces of Noricimi and Pannonia 
consisted of the extensive territories between 
the Inn, the Save, and the Danube. During 
the decline of the Eoman empire, Noricum 
was overrun by various barbarian tribes, 
and one of these, the Avari, having pene- 
trated into Bavaria, was defeated and 
driven across the Eaab by Charlemagne, in 
791 and 796. A colony was placed in the 
territory from which they had been driven, 
and it was called the Eastern Mark, or Ost- 
reich, whence its present name. On the 
division of the empire, it was annexed to 
Bavaria. The Hungarians took it in 900, 
but it was wrested from them by Otho I. in 
955. Leopold I., grandson of Adalbert of 
Babenberg, was made margrave of Austria 
in 984 ; and one of his successors, Leo- 
pold III., obtaining Bavaria in 1139, the 
two provinces were again imited. Prederick I. 
(Barbarossa) adding to it the province west 
of the Ens, erected it into a separate duchy 
in 1156, and bestowed it upon Henry IX. of 
Bavaria, which he resigned. 



A.D. 

1246. Extinction of the male branch of the 
ducal line, and commencement of an inttr- 
reguum. 

1262. Ottocar II., king of Bohemia, elected in 1260, 

obtains the government of Aiistria and 
Styi-ia. 

1263. Ottocar obtains Carinthia by succession. 

1276. Ottocar resigns the dukedom to Rodolph of 

Habsburg. 

1277. Ottocar rebels. 

1278. Aug. 26. Battle of Marchfield, which secures 

Austria to Bodolph. 

1308. The Swiss revolt from Albert I. 

1331. Carinthia is annexed to Austria. 

1333. Acquisition of the Tyrol. 

1364. Treaty of Union between Austria and Bo- 
hemia concluded. 

1438. Albert v., duke of Austria, king of Hungary 
and Bohemia, is made emperor of Germany 
under the title of Albert IL 

1446. Inva<led by the Hungariaus. 

1452. Created an archduchy by the emperor 
Frederick HI. 

1477. Acquisition of the Netherlands, by the mar- 
riage of Maximilian to Mary, heiress of 
Burgundy. 

1496. Marriage of Philip of Austria to Joanna of 
Castile, which begins the connection with 
Spain. 

1522. Charles V. cedes Austria to his brother Fer- 
dinand. 

1526. Hungary and Bohemia united to Austria. 

1529. Invaded by Solima.n the Magnificent. 

1556. Ab-lication of Charles V. Ferdinand, king of 
Hungary and Bohemia, made emperor of 
Germany. 

1618. Thirty Yeai-s war begins. 

1628. Ferdinand II. abolishes Protestant worship, 
and imposes most severe restrictions on all 
Lutherans. 

1648. Thirty Years war ends. Alsace ceded to 
France. 

1687. Hungary reduced to subjection. 

1701. War of the Spanish Succession begins. 

1703. Mantua is added to the Axistrian dominions. 

1713. AprU 11. Peace of Utrecht, by which Austria 
obtains part of Milan. 

1715. Nov. 15. Barrier Treaty, which confirms Au- 
stria in possession of MUan, the l^ether- 
lands, Naples, and Sardinia. 



I 



AUS 



AUT 



1748. 
1703. 
1773. 

1797. 



1801. 
1306. 



1835. 
1838. 



1850. 
18.53. 



ISo.l. 
1857. 



July 21. Peace of Passarowitz, and cession to 
Austria of the Baiiat of Tenieswar, Bel- 
grade, part of Servia, Eosma, and Wal- 
lachia. 

Charles VI. secures the succession for his 
daughter Maria Theresa. 

Naples and Sicily relinquished. 

Oct. 20. Death of Charles VI., with whom the 
male branch of the Habsburg dynasty 
becomes extinct. Maria Theresa succeeds. 

Silesia ceded to Prussia. 

Sept. 13. Fiancis, grand-duke of Tuscany and 
husband of Maria Theresa, is elected em- 
peror of Germany. 

Parma, Milan, and other Italian possessions, 
are lost. 

Feb. 5. Treaty of Hubertsburg, by which 
Austria cedes Silesia and Glatz to Prussia. 

Apr. 19. On the dismemberment of Poland, 
Austria acquires Galioia and other parts of 
Poland. 

Oct. 17. Treaty of Campo Formio. Austria 
resigns Lombardy and the Netherlands, and 
obtains Venice. 

Venice ceded to Pi-ance. 

Aug. 6. Francis H. of Germany abolishes the 
title of emperor of Gei>many, and takes that 
of Fi-aucis I., emperor of Austria. 

Joins England and Russia in order to oppose 
France. Nov. 14. Napoleon enters Vienna. 
Dec. 2. Battle of Austerlitz. Dec. 2(3. Treaty 
of Presburg, and cession of Venice and the 
Tyrol to France. 

May 13. Vienna again taken by the French. 
Oct. 14. Vienna restored to the emperor. 

Mar. 11. Marriage by proxy of Napoleon and 
Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor. 

Oct. 2. Congress at Vienna. 

Mar. 25. Treaty of Vienna. Austria regains 
her Italian possessions. 

Mar. 2. Death of Francis I., and accession of 
Ferdinand. 

July 3. Treaty of commerce between Austria 
and Great Britain. 

Mar. 13. Insurrection at Vienna, and flight of 

. MetteiTudch. May 17. Flight of the em- 
peror. July 22. A constituent assembly 
meets at Vienna. Dec. 2. Abdication of 
the emperor, in favour of his nephew, 
Francis Joseph. 

Nov. 29. Convention of Olmutr. 

Feb. 18. Ldbeuy attempts to assassinate the 
emperor. 

April 24. Marriage of the emperor with the 
princess Elizabeth of Bavaria. Aug. 23. 
the Austrians enter the Danubian i^rin- 
cipaUties. Dec. 2. Alliance with Great 
Britain and France. 

Aug. 18. Signing of a concordat with Rome, 
whereby the Pope receives almost absolute 
power in Austria. 

March. The Austrians commence the evacua- 
tion of the Danubian principalities. Dip- 
lomatic relations between Austria and 
Sardinia broken off. 

Jan. 1. Napoleon in. throws Europe into 
excitement by a few words addressed to 
the Austrian ambassador. Feb. 13. Lord 
Cowley receives instructions to proceed to 
Vienna on a " mission of peace." April 25. 
The Austrians cross the Ticino. May 3. 
The French emperor declares war against 
Austria. Battles of Montebello (May 20), 
Palestro {May 30, 31), Magenta (June 4), 
and Malegnano (June 7), in which the 
Austrians are defeated. June 11. Death of 
Prince Mettemich. June 24. Battle of 
Solfevino lost by the Austrians. July 11. 
Treaty of Villafranca provisionally signed, 
by which the emperors of France and 
Austria agree to favour an Italian con- 
federation. Austria relinquishes Lom- 
bardy to Sardinia. Nov. 10. Treaty of 
Zurich, which confirms all the articles of 
that of Villafranca. 

Gre.-it reforms in the system of government. 



DTIKES OF AUSTEIA. 
A.D. 

1282. Albert L 
1308. Frederick I. 
1330. Albert IL 
1358. Rodolph IIL 
1365. Albert III. 
1395. Albert IV. 
14u4. Albert V., king of Hungary an"! Bohemia in 

1437, and emperor of Germany, by the 

title of Albert II., in 14:38. 
1439. Ladislaus. 
1458. Frederick III,, emperor of Germany. 

AECHDTJKES OP ATJSTKIA. 

1493. Maximilian I., emperor of Gennany. From 
this period the imperial dignity remained 
hereditary in the house of Austria {see 
Emperoes of Germahy) until 1806. 

EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 

1806. Francis II., of Gennany, resigned the title of 
emperor of Gennany, and a-sumed that of 
Francis I., emperor of Austria. 

18.'35. Ferdinand II. 

1848. Francis Joseph L 



Austria (Scre-w Steam-sliip) , was built on 
tlie Clyde in 1857, a,nd destroyed by fire on the 
13th of September, 1858. She left Hamburg 
on the 4th of the month, -with 425 passengers 
and a crew of 103, including officers and men. 
They were principally Germans ; and of the 
528 persons, only 67 were saved. Some of 
these were picked up by the Maurice, a 
French barque, and the remainder by a 
Norwegian barque. 

Auto-da-Pe, or " Act of Faith," a term 
applied by the Spanish and Portuguese to 
the ceremony with which the punishment of 
death was inflicted upon heretics, under the 
terrible Inquisition. " The last scene in this 
dismal tragedy," says Prescott, "was the 
act of faith (auto-da-fe) , the most imposing 
spectacle, probably, which has been witnessed 
since the ancient Eomau triumph, and 
which, as intimated by a Spanish writer, 
was intended, somewhat profanely, to repre- 
sent the terrors of the Day of Judgment. 
The proudest grandees of the land, on this 
occasion, putting on the sable livery of 
familiars of the Holy Office, and bearing 
aloft its banners, condescended to act as the 
escort of its ministers ; while the ceremony 
was not unfrequently countenanced by the 
royal presence. . . . The effect was further 
heightened by the concourse of ecclesiastics 
in their sacerdotal robes, and the pompous 
ceremonial which the Church of Eome knows 
so well how to display on fitting occasions, 
and which was intended to consecrate, as it 
were, this bloody sacrifice by the authority 
of a religion which has expressly declared 
that it desires mercy and not sacrifice." 
Thousands of victims perished in this manner 
in Spain, Portugal, and their colonies. It 
was instituted in Spain in 1556, and cele- 
brated annually after 1559. An auto-da-fe 
was held at Lisbon so late as Sept. 20, 1761 , 
at which Gabriel Malagrida, an old man of 
seventy, was burnt for having indulged cer- 
tain heretical notions. Fifty -four persona 
a2 



AUT 

suffered at the same time. An auto-da-f^ is 
said to have taken place at Mexico during the 
present century. 

AUTOMATOK ElGUEES, Or AUTOMATA. 

The Chinese long since contrived to give 
motion to puppets by means of quicksilver; 
and several specimens of automata con- 
structed by the Greeks are mentioned by 
different authors. The wooden pigeon made 
by Archytas of Tarentum, about B.C. 400, 
though it coxild fly, was not able to resume 
its flight when it "had once settled. In the 
13th century, Albertus Magnus is said, after 
thirty years' labour, to have constructed a 
speaking head, which so frightened Thomas 
Aquinas that he shattered it to pieces ; and 
Koger Bacon produced a similar invention. 
These accounts, however, like that of John 
Miiller's, orMolitor's (Eegiomontanus) , arti- 
ficial eagle, which flew to meet the emperor 
Maximilian on his arrival at Nuremberg, 
June 7, 1740, are not supported by satis- 
factoiy evidence. Beekmann has no doubt 
that in the 14th and following centuries 
several automata were made. The emperor 
Charles V. during his cloister hfe amused 
himself with contrivances of this kind. 
Yaucanson exhibited at Paris, in 1738, a 
flute-player sitting, who performed twelve 
tunes ; another that played upon a shepherd' s 
pipe and a driun at the same time ; and a 
duck that imitated aU the motions of the 
living animal. Du Mouhn, in 1752, produced 
similar automata. Baron de Kempelen's 
automaton chess-player, exhibited in London 
in 1816, is beheved to have been a decep- 
tion. Faber's euphonia was exhibited at 
the Egyptian Hall in 1846. 

AuTUN (Council). — At this council sen- 
tence of excommunication was pronounced 
against Philip I., of Prance, Oct. 16, 1094. 
In the previous year he had put away his 
wife Bertha, mother of Louis VI., and 
married Bfertrade, wife of the count of 
Anjou, and for this he was first privately 
admonished by the Eoman Cathohc authori- 
ties, and then excommunicated. Autun is 
said to be the most ancient church ia 
Prance after Lyons and Vienne. 

AxrxiMim (Italy), now Osimo, first men- 
tioned B.C. 174, when the order for erecting 
walls around it was given by the Eoman 
censors. It was made a Eoman colony 
B.C. 157 ; and having been taken by the 
Goths, was wrested from them by Belisarius 
A.D. 538. 

AvA (Asia), for some time subject to 
Pegu, became an independent state in the 
17th century. Its chief city, Ava, was taken 
by the Peguans iu 1752, and rescued from 
their hands in 1753. It was made the capital 
of Burmah in 1364, in 1761, and for the 
third time in 1822. It suffered severely 
from an earthquake ia March, 1839. {See 
Bttbmah.) 

Ataine, or AvBiB" (Battle). — The mar- 
shals ChatiUon and Breze, commanding the 
French and Dutch troops, defeated the 
Sjpanish forces, under the command of Prince 
Thomas of Savoy, in this plain, neax Luxem- 
84. 



AVI 

burg, May 20, 1635. The Spaniards lost 
4,000 men and fifty standards. 

Avars, sometimes called the Huns of 
Pannoma, a barbarian tribe fiist mentioned 
in history towards the close of the 5th 
centui-y. Eetiring before the Turks, they 
reached the shores of the Euxine, and sent an 
embassy to Constantinople, a.d. 558. In their 
audience with Justinian, at that time de- 
chning in years, the chief ambassador 
addressed him thus : — "You see before you, 
O mighty prince, the representatives of the 
strongest and most populous of nations, the 
invincible, the irresistible Avars. We are 
wUling to devote ourselves to your service ; 
we are able to vanquish and destroy all the 
enemies who now disturb your repose. But 
we expect, as the price of our alliance, as the 
reward of our valour, precious gifts, annual 
subsidies, and fruitful possessions." They 
afterwards advanced into Poland and Ger- 
many ; and in 626 joined the Persians in an 
attack on Constantinople, but were repulsed. 
Having committed various aggressions, and 
provoked numerous wars, they were, after a 
conflict of eight years' duration, subdued by 
Charlemagne in the year 799. 

Ave Maeia. — This form of prayer, use& in 
the Eoman Catholic church, is a repetition 
of the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the 
Virgin Mary (Luke, i. 28) . Bingham shows 
that the use of this invocation to the Virgin 
cannot be traced higher than the beginning 
of the 15th century. " Ferrarius," he 
adds, "ingeniously confesses that Vincentius 
Ferrerius was the first ecclesiastical writer 
that ever used it before his sermons. Ba- 
ronius has not a syllable of its antiquity in 
aU his twelve centuries ; there being a perfect 
silence both among the ancients and all the 
Eituahsts about it, till that Dominican 
preacher, in his abundant zeal for the wor- 
ship of the Holy Virgin, began to use it 
before his sermons." John XXII. ordered 
Christians to annex it to their prayers, 1420. 
Tliis invocation is now generally used in the 
services of the Eoman Cathohc church. 
The early summons to worship was called 
the Ave-beU; and indulgences granted by 
various pontiffs for frequent repetition of 
the invocation were termed Ave Marias. 

Atebukt, or AvBTTET. — This village in 
Wilts occupies the site of a Celtic structure, 
composed of blocks of stone, and generally 
believed to be a Druidical work. Aubrey 
visited it in 1648 ; Dr. Stukeley commenced 
his examination of these antiquities in 1720 ; 
and Sir Eichard Hoare in 1813. It is sup- 
posed to be the remains of a national 
temple, or place of assembly for the per- 
formance of sacred rites, erected by the 
Druids before the Christian sera. 

Ateesa (Italy). — Bmlt a.d. 1020, by 
Eain\ilph, a Norman chief, near the ruins 
of the ancient Atella, from which place the 
bishopric was transferred to Aversa, about 
1050. Alfonso V., of Aragon, took it in 
1440; and it was frequently besieged. It 
suffered greatly from an earthquake in 1805. 

AviGWOM" (France). — This ancient city is 



AVI 

seated in a beautiful valley on the left bank 
of the Rhone. The adjacent territory, the 
Venaissin county, "a populous and fertile 
spot," was ceded to the papacy by Philip III. 
in 1273 ; and the sovereignty of Avignon was 
sold to Clement VI. for 80,000 gold florins of 
Florence by Jane, queen of Naples and 
countess of Provence, in 1348. Clement V., 
elected through the influence of PhUip IV. 
of France, removed the papal chair to 
Avignon, 1309. The follo\ving popes re- 
mained here under French influence. 



1309. Clement V. 

1314. See vacant two years. 

1316. John XXI. or XXII. 

1334. Benedict XI. or XIL 

1342. Clement VI. 

1352. Innocent VL 

1362. Urban V. 

1370. Gregory XX 

1378. Commencement of scLism of the West Two 

popes elected. Clement VIL at Avignon. 
1394 Benedict XIIL 

Urban V. went to Eome for a short time, 
but returned to Avignon ; and Gregory XI. 
is said to have meditated flight, when sur- 
prised by death. In the schism called " the 
great schism of the West," occasioned on 
the election of his successor, in 1378, the an- 
tipope Clement VII. took up his residence 
here, and was succeeded by Benedict XIII. 
The popes at Rome, however, triumphed, 
and Avignon was deprived of its rival pon- 
tiffs (1409). The French kings seized this 
city on various occasions. The annexation 
of the Venaissin and Avignon to France by 
the revolutionary government, Sept. 14, 
1791, was their first act of aggression. By 
the treaty of Tolentino, Feb. 19, 1797, 
Pius VI. formally ceded these possessions 
to France. Avignon was made a bishopric 
in the 1st century, and was erected into an 
archbishopric in 1475. By the concordat of 
1801 it ceased to be a metropoHs, but the 
privilege was restored in 1821. Councils 
were held at Avignon in 1080, 1209, 1270, 
1279, 1282, 1326, 1327, 1337, and 1457. 

Avis (Order of). — Instituted in 1147 by 
Alfonso I., the founder of the Portuguese 
monarchy, and raised by him in 1162 to the 
rank of an ecclesiastical order of chivalry. 
The knights were then called "Knights of 
Evora," but took their present title in 1187, 
from their gallant defence of the fortress 
of Avis against the Moors. The order was 
changed from an ecclesiastical to a civil 
institution in 1789. 

AvKANCHES ( Normandy ) , anciently 
Ingena, also called Abrincae, came into the 
possession of England at the Norman con- 
quest. In its cathedral Henry II. received 
absolution of the pope's legate in 1172, for 
the murder of Becket; a flat stone marks 
the spot where he did penance. The Bretons 
captured it in 1203, and committed great 
havoc. The town was restored by Louis IX., 
and it again fell under the power of the 
English in 1415, but was recovered by France 
in 1450. The bishopric, estabhshed in the 



AZO 

5th century, was suppressed and united to 
Coutances in 1801. 

AxAEQUiA (Battle). — In the winding de- 
files of the Axarquia, the Moors inflicted a 
severe loss on the Spaniards, in actions 
extending over two days, March 20 and 21, 
1483. 

Axe. — The Franks in their expedition into 
Italy in the 6th century made use of an axe 
with a large blade. Hence it was termed 
francisca. The principal weapons of this 
kind were the taper axe, the broad axe, and 
the double axe. The pole axe and the adze 
axe were varieties of these. The Lochabar 
axe was used in the 16th century. 

AxuM, anciently Auxume, in Abyssinia. — 
This ancient city, founded about B.C. 650, 
became in later times the seat of a powerful 
kingdom, nearly co-extensive with modern 
Abyssinia, and embracing portions of Arabia. 
Though its origin has not been ascertained, 
it is mentioned as existing in the second cen- 
tury of our sera. Justinian formed an alliance 
with the Auximites a.d. 533. Gibbon is of 
opinion that the Auximites, or Abyssinians 
as he calls them, were a colony of Arabs, 
and there can be no doubt that the Arab 
element is blended with the Ethiopian in 
their composition. They were converted to 
Christianity in the 4th century; and in its 
defence came into coUision with the followers 
of Mohammed, who deprived them of their 
possessions in Arabia, and destroyed their 
commerce. The Chronicles of Axum, a 
kind of history of Abyssinia, a copy of wMeh 
the traveller Bruce brought to England in 
1774, are deposited in a Christian church in 
Axum, built about 1657. Axum was made a 
bishopric about 356, and Frumentius was the 
first bishop. 

Atacttcho ( Battle ) . — On this plain, in 
Peru, the Spaniards were defeated by the 
repubhcan forces July 9, 1824, and a capitu- 
lation was soon afterwards made, by which 
Spain surrendered the whole of Peru and 
Chili. 

AxtESBiTEY (Buckinghamshire) . — This an- 
cient town formed one of the principal strong- 
holds of the Britons in their resistance to the 
Romans. In 571, Cuthulf, a West-Saxon chief, 
took Aylesbury, which was ravaged by the 
Danes in 921 . The town was incorporated and 
made a borough by Queen Mary in 1554. 
During the disputes between Charles I. and 
the Parliament, it espoused the cause of 
the latter, and in 1643 it formed the head- 
quarters of Lord Essex. John Wilkes repre- 
sented it in parliament in 1761. 

Atleseokd (Battle). — A victory was 
gained by the Britons over the Saxons a.d. 
455, near a village of this name, in Kent. 

AzoE. — This sea, called by the ancients the 
Palus Mseotis, communicates with the Euxine 
by the Strait of Yenikale, or the Cimmerian 
Bosphorus. It was the scene of some 
important operations during the Crimean 
war. An alUed expedition 15,000 strong, 
composed of Enghsh, French, and Tiirkish 
troops of all arms, with five batteries of 
artillery, left the anchorage at Sebastopol 
85 



BAB 



on the 23nd of May, 1855, a&d arrived otf 
Eertch on the 2-ith. The Kussians blew up 
their fortifications on both sides of the 
straits, destroyed three steamers and several 
heavy-armed vessels, and large quantities of 
provisions, ammunition, and stores. Opera- 
tions were carried on against the chief 
Russian positions. A small garrison was 
left at Kertch and Yenikale, and the ex- 
pedition returned June 12. 

Azores (Atlantic), or Westeek Islands, 
nine in number, were discovered by Joshua 
Van der Berg, of Bruges, about the year 
1430. The Portuguese no sooner heard of 
the discovery than they sent out Cabral, 
who sighted one of the group in 1432 ; and 
in 1449 Prince Henry of Portugal took 
formal possession of the islands. Alfonso Y. 
gave them in 1466 to his sister, the duchess 
of Burgundy, and they were colonized by 
the Dutch. When Philip I. seized the 
vacant throne of Portugal in 1580, they fell 
\mder the dominion of Spain. The earl of 
Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh failed in an 
attempt to capture them in 1597. They 
reverted to Portugal in 1640, and still remain 
in her possession. Angra, the capital of 
Terceira, one of the group, was made a 
bishop's see by Paul III. in 1534. Owing to 
volcanic disturbance, rocks and islands have 
frequently been thrown up from the sea. 
The most remai-kable phenomena of this 
Idnd occurred in 1538, 1720, and 1811. 

Aztecs. — The earliest known seat of this 
tribe was Aztlan, a country to the north of 
the Grulf of Cahfornia, where they were 
dwelling in 1160. They soon after com- 
menced their migrations, arri\ing at Tula in 
1196. They removed to Zumpanco about 
1216, and eventually settled on a group of 
islands to the southof Lake Tezcuco. They 
were reduced to slavery by the Colhuans in 
1314; and moving to the westward of the 
lake, founded Tenochtitlan, their capital, on 
the site of which Mexico now stands, in 1325. 
They were assailed by the Spaniards under 
Cortes in 1519. 



BaaIi and Ashtaeoth, the former sup- 
posed to represent the sun, and the latter 
the moon, were idols worshipped by the 
Phoenicians, Chaldseans, and other ancient 
nations. The IsraeHtes frequently fell into 
this idolatry. Josiah punished it with great 
severity, b.c. 624 (2 Kings, xxiii.) 

Baalbec (Syria), or Heiiopolis, the 
name given to the place by the Seleucidae, 
both words signifying " the city of the sun," 
is by some supposed to correspond with the 
Baal Gad of scripture. Little is known of 
its early history. Julius Csesar made it a 
Roman colony. Trajan consulted its famous 
oracle previous to his departure on his 
second Parthian expedition, a.d. 114. Antoni- 
nus either enlarged its temple to Jupiter or 
built a new one, that became one of the 
wonders of the world. Baalbec capitulated 



to the Saracens, paying an enormous ransom, 
A.D. 635 ; it was sacked and dismantled by the 
caliph of Damascus in 748; seized by Tamer- 
lane in 1401 ; and has since gradually declined. 
Thevet in 1550 ; Pococke in 1740 ; Mauudrell 
in 17.45 ; Wood and Dawkins in 1751 ; and 
Yoluey in 1785, are amongst the most cele- 
brated travellers who have visited and de- 
scribed its ruins. This Syrian city must not 
be confounded with another Baalbec, or 
HehopoHs, in Lower Egypt, one of the 
earhest cities of which any record remains. 
Smith (Diet, of Greek and Roman Geog.) 
remarks concerning the last-mentioned city : 
' ' Its obeUsks were probably seen by Abraham 
when he first migrated from Syria to the 
Delta, 1600 years B.C. ; and here the father- 
in-law of Joseph filled the office of high- 
priest." 

Babel (Tower of). — Described Gen. xi. 
1 — 9, and built 120 years after the Deluge, 
by the descendants of N"oah, about b.c. 
2247. Much controversy has been excited 
respecting its exact position. It is now 
generally believed that Babylon was built 
upon the site, if not upon the actual ruins of 
this temple. 

Babceuf's CoirspisACT. — Babceuf, a 
Jacobin, surnamed Gracchus, formed a con- 
spiracy against the French Directory in 1796. 
[ His chief aim was to obtain a division of 
j property. The deliberations of this society 
were carried on in a large vault imder the 
i Pantheon, where, as Alison (iv. ch. 24) re- 
I marks, " by the hght of flambeaux, and 

■ seated on the humid ground, they ruminated 
; on the most likely method of regenerating 

France." They had agents in the provinces, 
and they also elected a secret directory of 
public safety in Paris. Their design was 
, at length acknowledged to be to estabhsh 
; what they termed "the Public Good," by 
; means of a division of property, and the 

■ formation of a government consisting of 
"true, pure, and absolute democrats." They 
had framed a solemn instrument, called an 
" Insurrection Act," the publication of 
which was to be the signal for revolt. This 
was fixed to take place on the 21st of May, 
1796; but one of the party having given 
information, tbe chief conspirators were 
arrested the day before. Babceuf and one 
of his associates suifered on the scaftold. 

Babtlon (Asia). — The capital of the pro- 
vince of Babylonia, and afterwards of the 
Babylonio-Chaldsean kingdom, called by 
Isaiah (xiii. 19) "the glory of kingdoms, 
the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," 
was at one period the metropohs of the 
ancient world. Its history is naturally 
mixed up with that of the state to which it 
gave its name. " The Babylonian and 
Assyrian empires," says Sir John Stoddart, 
" in all historical records, are much blended 
together. These empires, whether distinct 
or united, possessed in very early times two 
vast cities ; Babylon on the Euphrates, and 
K^ineveh on the Tigris. The country on 
the Tigris was called Assyria; that on the 
Euphrates Babylonia; and the large inter- 



I 



BAB 

vening space was commonly termed Meso- 
potamia, or ' between the rivers :' and this, 
together with Babylonia, seems to be meant 
in Scripture by the land of Shinar. Accerd- 
ing to the scriptural account, it would seem 
that Babylon was the first great city built 
after the Deluge, and that it was founded by 
Nimrod, a great-grandson of Noah, or at aU 
events by a tribe of his descendants, bearing 
his name." The city of Babylon is supposed 
to have been built on the site of Babel 
(Gen. X. 10), the scene of the confusion of 
tongues, about B.C. 2247 (Gen. xi. 9). The 
next notice of Babylon in tke Old Testament 
has reference to the invasion of Samaria, 
B.C. 730 (2 Kings, xvii. 24), and the generally 
received opinion is, that during the long 
interval of above 1,500 years, it formed a 
dependency of the great Assyrian empire. 



747. Babylon independent of Assyria. Nabonassaa: 

king. 
721. Miirdouempadus, king of Babylon, revolts 

against the king of Assyria. 
699. Eisarhaddon, or Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 

takes Babylon. 
677 or 675. Asaridinua, king of Babylon, invades 

Jndah, and makes prisoner its king, 

Manasseh, who is restored to his kingdom 

the following year. 
625. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, asserts his 

independence of the king of Assyria. 
604. Nebuchadnezzar succeeds his father, Nabopo- 
lassar. During his reign the Babylonian 

empire attains its highest splendour. 
569. Nebuchadnezzar sets up the " golden image," 

and becomes insane the same year. 
658. Neriglissar, the Belshazzar of Scripture, king. 
538. Babylon taken, and the kingdom annexed to 

the Persian empire by Cyrus. 
518. Babylon revolts from Darius Hystaspes, king 

of Pei-sia : it is besieged and taken the fol- 
lowing year. 
331. Babylon surrenders to Alexander the Great. 
324. Alexander enters Babylon, and commences the 

restoration of its architectural greatness. 
323. May. Alexander dies in Babylon. 
321. Seleucus Nicator is made governor of Babylon. 
315. Antigonus expels Seleucus, and establishes 

Python, son of Agenor, in his dignities. 
312. Seleucus returns to Babylon, which he recovers, 

and founds the kingdom and dynasty of 

the Seleucidse. 
240. Invaded by the Gauls under Hierax : they are 

repulsed by Seleucus II. 
64. On the conquest of Syria by Pompey, Babylon 

falls into the hands of the Romans. 
62. Babylon forms part of the Eoman province of 

Syria. 

Many enterprising travellers, amongst whom 
may be mentioned Eich, Ker Porter, Layard, 
Frazer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and Eaw- 
linson, have, by their explorations amongst 
the ruins of the ancient city, during the 
present century, thrown considerable light 
upon the history of Babylon. Sir Henry 
Kawhnson, in particular, has intei'preted 
many of the iascriptions found on various 
relics brought to this country. 

BABTLONIAK SOVEEEIGNS. 
B.C. 
Feb. 26, 747. Nabonassar. 
733. Nadius. 
731. Chinzirus. 
725. Jugaeus. 



BAG 



i.e. 



721. Mardocempadxis 

709. Ai-chiaiius. 

704. (Interregnum). 

702. Belibus. 

699. ApronadiuB. 

693. Regibalus. 

692. Mesesimordachus. 

688. (Interregnum). 

680. Asaridinua. 

667. Saosduchinus. 

647. Chinaladanus. 
Jan. 27, 625. Nabopolassar. 
Jan. 21, 604. Nebuchadnezzar 

561. Evil Merodach. 

558. Belshazzar. 

553. Nabonadius. 

538. Cyrus takes Babylon. 

Babtlokish Captititt of the Jews. — 
This calamity, foretold by Isaiah (xxxix;. 6) 
and Jeremiah (xxv. 9 — 11), lasted seventy 
years, from B.C. 606 to 536. It commenced 
under Jehoiakim (2 Chron, xxxvi. 5 — 7) and 
terminated with the decree issued for their 
restoration by Cyrus (2 Chron. xxxvi. 22 
and 23). 

BABTSrGTOlf's CONSPIBACT. — In 15S6, 
Anthony Babyngton, an Enghsh gentleman, 
instigated by John Ballard, a Eoman Catholic 
priest, entered into a conspiracy to assas- 
sinate Queen Elizabeth, with the view of 
placing Mary, queen of Scots, on the throne, 
and of restoring the Eoman Catholic rehgion. 
John Savage (a soldier serving under the 
king of Spain, who had first made the pro- 
posal to assassinate the queen) , and thirteen 
others, including Babyngton, embarked in 
this desperate project, and Mary herself did 
everything in her power to further its suc- 
cess. Intimation of the plot having been 
given to Walsingham by a spy, the conspira- 
tors were seized, brought to trial Sept. 13 — 15, 
and executed Sept. 20 and 21, 1586. Mary's 
share in this conspiracy alarmed Elizabeth, 
and was the principal cause of her subse- 
quent trial and execution. 

Bacchanalia, or festivals of various 
kinds in honour of Bacchus, are said by 
Herodotus to have been of Egyptian origin 
(see Dioktsia), and led to such abuses, as 
practised at Eome and in other parts of 
Italy, that they were suppressed by a decree 
of the senate B.C. 186. This decree, engraved 
upon a brazen table, was discovered at Bari 
in 1640, and is preserved in the imperial 
collection at Vienna. 

Bacheloss were branded with infamy by 
the laws of Lycurgus, and at festivals were 
exposed to pubhc derision. Dionysius of 
Hahcarnassus notices a law requiring aU 
persons of a certain age to marry. The 
Eomans imposed a fine on bachelors by 
the Lex Julia, b.c. 18. It was, however, 
abolished by Constantine. Bachelors of 
twenty -five years of age, and widowers with- 
out children, were, by 6 & 7 WOl. III. c. 6 
(1694) , required to pay yearly, so long as they 
remained single, a tax of one shilling. It 
was levied for five years, commencing May 1, 
1695. By 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 20, s. 14, the 
tax was continued tiU Aug. 1, 1706, when it 
was suffered to expire. In addition to the 
87 



BAG 

tax of one shilling per annum, every person 
of the undermentioned rank paid yearly as 
foUows ; — 

£. s. d. 

Duke 12 10 

Ihike's eldest son 7 10 

Yotmger sons, each 6 5 

Marquis 10 

Marquis's eldest son 6 5 

Younger sons, each 6 

Earl 7 10 

Earl's eldest son 5 

Younger sons, each 3 15 

Viscount 6 5 

Viscount's eldest son , 4 7 6 

Younger sons, each 3 6 8 

Baron 5 

Barr x's eldest son 3 15 

Yoiinger sons, each 3 

Baronet 3 15 

Knight of the Bath 3 15 

Knight bachelor 2 10 

King's sergeant 5 

Other Serjeants at law, each 3 15 

Esquire 1 5 

(Jentleman 5 

Archbishop 12 10 

Bishop 5 

Dean 2 10 

Archdeacon 12 6 

Canon or prebendary 12 6 

Doctor of divinity, law, or physic 1 5 

Sons of archbishops, bishops, deans, arch- ■) 

deacons, canons or prebendaries, and Vo 5 
of doctors of divinity, law, or physic . . ) 
Persons with £50 per annum real estate, \ 

or personal property of £600, not charged >0 5 

in the above ) 

Their sons, each 2 6 

A registry was ordered to be kept by persons 
in holy orders, for the better coUeeting of 
the duty, by s. 20 of 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6 
(1694). By 43 Geo. III. s. 43 (1785), 
bachelors above the age of twenty-one 
years were required to pay annuaify, in 
addition to tbe usual tax, £1. 5s. for every 
male servant in their employ ; and those that 
bad three or more female servants, paid 10s. 
per annual for eacb, in. addition to the ordi- 
nary tax. 

Backgammon'. — This, or some similar 
game played with dice, was known to the 
Greeks. It was a favourite amusement 
amongst the Saxons, by whom it is said to 
have been invented about the 10th century. 
Dr. Henry attributes tbe invention to the 
Welsh. It is recorded of Canute, that he 
frequently played at backgammon, which 
was called the Enghsh game in the early part 
of the 14th century. 

Back-staff, or Davis's Quadrant, for 
taking the sun's altitude at sea, was iavented 
by Captain J. Davis, about 1590. It has 
been superseded by later inventions. 

Bactea, called by Strabo and PHny 
Zariaspa, though Heeren contends that 
they were different places, the capital of 
Bactriana, was one of the oldest centres of 
commerce and civilization in the world. 
Heeren says it was the first place of exchange 
for the productions of India ; and that the 
great highways of commerce from east to 
west followed this direction. {See Balkh.) 

Bacteiana (Asia), or Bacteia. — This 



BAD 

India, being watered by the Oxus, by which 
it was bounded on the north, varied at dif- 
ferent periods in extent. IS'inus, king of 
Assyria, is said to have invaded it with an 
immense army. All his efforts against its 
capital proved unavailing, until Semiramis 
suggested a plan for its capture, thereby 
gaining the favour of the king and a share of 
his throne. For a considerable period Bac- 
triana formed part of the Persian empire, 
and in eastern traditions is represented aa 
having been the seat of powerful and 
iudependent princes long before it became a 
Persian satrapy. Alexander conquered it in 
his sixth campaign, B.C. 329. Its Grecian 
governor Theodotus, called by Strabo Dio- 
dotus, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidae 
about B.C. 250, and made it an independent 
state. It was afterwards conquered by the 
Scythians and Parthians, and remained under 
their yoke until Ardshir, or Artaxerxes, the 
founder of the dynasty of the Sassanides, 
restored the Persian empire, a.d. 226. It is 
now a dependency of the khanat of Bokhara, 
under the name of Balkh. 



250. Diodotus revolts from Antiochus 11. of Syria, 
and founds the kingdom of Bactriana. 

221. Euthydemus deposes and succeeds Diodotus II. 

207. Antiochus of Syria defeats Euthydemus. 

181. Commencement of the reign of Euoratides I., 
the period of Bactriana's prosperity. 

168. Part of India is added to Bactriana. 

143. Eucratides II. assassinates his father, a.nd 
succeeds to his throne. 

130. Bactria overrun by tribes of wandering Scy- 
thians, by whom the kingdom is destroyed. 

SOVEBEIGNS OP BACTBIAIfA. 



B.C. 

196. Menander. 
181. Kucratides I. 
143. Eucratides II. 



B.C. 

250. Diodotus I. 
245. Diodotus II. 
221. Euthydemus. 
200. Demetrius. 



Badajos (Spain). — This barrier fortress, 
the capital of a province of the same name, 
only five miles from the Portuguese frontier, 
has sustained numerous sieges, and was 
several times taken and retaken during the 
occupation of the peninsula by the Moors. 
It was besieged by the Portuguese in 1660, 
and was assailed, but without success, by a 
combined EngHsh, Portuguese, and Dutch 
force, Oct. 1705. Galway was beaten in 
a battle here bv the Spanish army. May 7, 
1709. Soult captured it March 11, 1811; 
and Wellington having been compelled to 
raise the siege June 10, in the same year, 
obtained possession April 7, 1812. Badajos 
was made an episcopal see at an early period. 
The cathedral was commenced in 1248 ; and 
its granite bridge was biiilt in 1460, restored 
in 1597, and rebuilt in 1833. 

Badajos (Treaty). — Between Spain and 
Portugal, was signed at Badajos June 6, ratifi- 
cations were exchanged at Badajos June 16, 
and it was pubHshed at Madrid Aug. 8, 1801. 
It brought to a close the short contest between 
Portugal and Spain, which Napoleon I. had 
stirred up for the purpose of carrying out 



ancient state, situated between Persia and his ambitious designs. Spain restored all her 



BAD 

conquests, excepting Olivenza and its terri- 
tory, which were ceded to her; and she 
guaranteed the prince regent of Portugal 
the entire possession of all his states and 
possessions. Portugal agreed to close her 
ports against England, and to pay the 
expenses of the war. 

Baddesdown Hill (Battle), or Badon 
Mount. — This spot, near Bath, was the scene 
of a celebrated victory gained by the Britons 
over the Saxons in 493, according to Bede. 
This appears to be an error, as it is generally 
believed to have taken place in 520. 

Bad EH" (Germany) was made a mar- 
graviate about the year 1130, by Herman II., 
grandson of Berthold, landgrave of Brisgau; 
his father, Herman I., having previously 
acquired Baden by marriage. The rank 
held by Baden is that of seventh in the 
Germanic Confederation, and in time of war 
it is required to furnish 10,000 men to the 
federal army. 



1130. Herman IL takes the title of Margrave of 

Baden. 
1190. Herman IV. accompanies Frederick Barbarossa 

to the Holy Land, and dies vrith him in 

CUicia. 
1226. Herman v., the Pious, cedes the. county of 

Bagsburs; to the bishop of Strasburg. 
1250. Death of Herman VI., who is succeeded by 

his infant son Frederick, imder the regency 

of his mother, Gertrude of Aiistria. 
1267. Oct. 29. Frederick is beheaded at Naples. 
1283. Rodolph I. acquires part of Eberstein by 

purchase. 
1288. Baden is divided among the four sons of 

Rodolph I. 
1353. Eodolph VII. reunites Baden into a single 

state. 
1405. Confederation of Marbach formed between 

Bernard, marquis of Baden, the archbishop 

of Mayence, the count of Wui-temburg, and 

some minor powei-s, against the emperor. 
1462. June 19. Frederick II., king of the Romans, 

gains a great victory over Charles I. of 

Baden, and takes him prisoner. 
1488. Christopher of Baden sends 4,000 men to 

deliver Maximilian, son of the eniperor 

Frederick, from the inhabitants of Bruges. 
1503. Christopher claims the marquisate of Hoch- 

berg : the claim is referred to the imperial 

tribunal. 
1515. Aug. 1. Christopher abandons the govern- 
ment to his sons, Bernard, Philip, and 

Ernest, who rule as his vicars. 
1527. Baden is divided into Baden-Baden and 

Badeij-Durlach. 
1533. Bernard establishes Protestantism in Baden- 
Baden. 
1569. Oct. 3. Philibert of Baden-Baden assists the 

Catholics, and is slain at Moncontour. 
1581. The lawsuit, in reference to the possession of 

Hochberg, terminates in favour of Baden. 
1594. The creditors of Edward of Baden obtain 

permission from the emperor to indemnify 

themselves by seizing his territories. 
1627. Arrangements as to territory made between 

the rulers of Baden-Baden and Baden- 

Durlach. 
1683. Louis William, marquis of Baden-Baden, 

delivers Vienna from the Tm-ks. 
1707. Death of Louis William, the most warlike 

marquis of Baden-Baden. 
1733. The French ravage Baden, and coihpel Louis 

George to seek refuge in Bohemia. 
1771. Baden-Durlach united to Baden-Baden. 
1796. Treaty of peace with the French republic. 
1801. Badeu receives an accession of territory by the 

treaty of Luneville. 



BAG 



1803. Charles Frederick of Baden is raised to the 
rank of Elector. 

1805. Brisgau added to Baden by the treaty of Prea- 

burg. 

1806. July 12. The elector, Charles Frederick, ig 

raised to the rank of Grand-duke. 
1815. March 25. Baden joins the alHes against 

Napoleon. 
1818. Aug. 22. Representative constitution granted. 

1849. May 14. Insurrections in Baden. The grand- 

duke quits Carlsruhe. 

1850. Sept. 6. Treaty of peace with Denmark and 

other powers. 
1857. July 9. General amnesty for the political 
offenders of 1848 and 1849. 

1859. Deo. 1. The concordat signed with the Pope 

June 28, is published. 

1860. June 16. Interview, at Baden-Baden, between 

Napoleon III., the Prince Regent of Prussia, 
ajid other German princes. 



GEAND-DUKES OV BADEN. 
A.n. 

1806. Charles Frederick. 
1811. Charles Louis Frederick. 
1818. Louis William Augustus. 
1830. Charles Leopold Frederick. 
1852. Frederick WiUiam Louis. 



Baden- (Treaty) .—Signed at Baden, in 
Switzerland, Sept. 18 (O.S. 7), 1714, between 
the emperor Charles VI. and Louis XIV. 
It confirmed the treaty of Kadstadt. By 
one of its provisions Landau was ceded to 
France. 

Baeza (Spain) . — K'ear this town, which is 
of great antiquity, and contains many Roman 
relics and inscriptions, the younger Scipio 
vanquished Asdrubal B.C. 208. Having fallen 
under the Saracen yoke, it was taken by the 
Spaniards a.d. 1239. 

Baffin's Bat.— -This inland sea, between 
Greenland and the N.E. coast of America, 
was first explored in 1616, by the Enghsh 
navigator WiUiam Baffin, from whom it 
takes its name. 

BAGATrD.S!. — An appellation given to the 
peasants of Gaul who rebelled against the 
Eomans a.d. 287. Their work was executed 
with fire and sword. " They asserted," says 
Gibbon, "the natural rights of men, but 
they asserted those rights with the most 
savage cruelty." Eor some time they ob- 
tained the ascendancy, but were subdued by 
Maximian. The term was subsequently 
appHed to other turbulent rebels, 

Bagdad (Asia), on the Tigris, wasfoimded 
by Al Mansur, the second caliph of the 
Abbassides, in 762, and remained the seat of 
the caliphate until Feb. 20, 1258, when it 
was captured after a siege of two months by 
the Mongols, and Mostasem, the last of the 
Abbassides, was put to death. Tamerlane 
sacked the city July 23, 1401, erecting on its 
ruins a pyramid of 90,000 heads. Its Tartar 
rtilers returned, but were expelled in 1417, by 
Kara Yusef. His descendants were in 1477 
replaced by Usum Cassim, who was followed 
by the Suffide dynasty, of Persian origin, in 
1516. The possession of the city was long 
contested by the Persians and the Turks, and 
amongst the numerous sieges it sustained, 
may be mentioned those of 1534, when it 
was captured by Sohman the Magnificent j 



BAG 

of 1590, when taken by Abbas tlie G-reat ; of 
1637, when it was captured by Amuratli IV., 
— 30,000 Persians having been ruthlessly 
massacred; and of 1740, when Ifadir Shah 
was repulsed by Achmet, who rendered the 
pashahc independent of the Porte. Its cele- 
brated college was founded in 1233. A 
Nestorian pati'iarch resided at Bagdad, and 
the Greek metropolitan was eipeUed in 913. 

BAGZfALO (Treaty) .—Concluded Aug. 7, 
14S4, between the "S enetians on the one hand, 
and the king of ISTaples, the duke of Milan, 
and the Florentines, on the other. The news 
is said to have so affected Pope Sixtus IV. 
that it brought on a fit of the gout, which 
caused his death, Aug. 13, 1484. 

Bahama Islands (Atlantic), called also 
the Lttcaxos, consist of about twenty inha- 
bited islands, with innumerable rocks and 
islets. St. Salvador, the chief of the group, 
was discovered by Columbus Oct. 11, 1492, 
being the first portion of America discovered 
by him. The Spaniards conveyed the natives 
to Mexico, and the islands remained un- 
peopled till colonized by the Enghsh, under 
a patent granted Dec. 4, 1630. In 1641 the 
Spaniards destroyed the colony, but it was 
re-estabhshed by the English in 1666, and 
remained in their hands till 1703, when it 
was ravaged by a combined French and 
Spanish fleet. It afterwards became noto- 
rious as a rendezvous for pirates, who were 
extirpated in 1718, when a regular colonial 
admiaistration was estabhshed. In 1776 
New Providence was stripped by the Ameri- 
cans of its artillery and stores, and the 
governor and some other officers were made 
prisoners. On the 8th of May, 1782, the 
islands surrendered to the Spaniards, but 
were restored to England by the 7th article 
of the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. 

Bahae, or Behae ( Hiudostan) . — This 
territory, -after changing rulers several times, 
was formally ceded to England by the treaty 
of Allahabad, Aug. 12, 1765. 

Bahaeites, the first Mameluke dynasty 
that reigned in Egypt, were descended from 
Turks sold to slavery by the Tartars. They 
began to reign in 1244", and the last sultan 
of the race was expelled by the Borgites, or 
Circassians, the second Mameluke dynasty 
of Egypt, in 1381, after having reigned 137 
years. (See Boegites.) 

Bahawttlpooe (Hindostan), — This state, 
formerly ruled by deputy governors from 
Cabul, soUcited an alliance with the Enghsh 
in 1808 ; and it came under the direct pro- 
tection of the East-India Company in 1838. 
The khan having proved faithful, received as 
a reward, in Feb. 1843, a part of Seinde. 

Baheeih- Islam-ds (Persian Gulf). — This 
small group of islands, celebrated for its 
pearl-fishery, is called by the natives Awal, 
or Aval. The Portuguese, who had seized 
them, were expelled by the Persians in 1622 ; 
and the islands have since fallen under the 
sway of different Arab chiefs. During the 
expedition of 1809 against the pirates in the 
neighbourhood, they were occupied by British 
troops. 
90 



BAK 

Bail. — "The system of giving sureties, or 
bail," says Sharon Turner (Anglo-Saxons, iii. 
Ap. i. ch. 6), " to answer an accusation, seems 
to have been coeval with the Saxon nation." 
The Statute of Westminster 1 (3 Edw. I, 
c. 15), in 1275, defined what persons were 
baUable, and what were not; and this act was 
enforced by 27 Edw. I. stat. 1, c. 3 (1299). By 
1 Eieh. III. c. 3 (1484), justices of the peace 
were allowed to bail offenders, and the 
facihty thus accorded having led to some 
abuses, not less than two justices were, bj' 
3 Hen. VII. c. 3 (14S7), required. Bail was 
regulated by subsequent statutes, more par- 
ticularly by the Habeas Corpus act (31 
Chas. II. c. 2, 1679) , which, as Hallam remarks 
(Const. Hist, of Eng. iii. ch. 12), "introduced 
no new principle, nor conferred any right 
upon the subject." ProAisions against exces- 
sive bail are embodied in various statutes. 
Bail in cases of felony is regulated by 
7 Geo. IV. c. 64 (May 26, 1826). This act, 
entitled "An Act for Improving the Admi- 
nistration of Criminal Justice in England," 
repealed several previous statutes. 

Bailiff. — Two bailiffs were appointed for 
the city of London in the fii-st year of the 
reign of Eichard I. (1189) ; though such 
officers under another name existed in 
Anglo-Saxon times. "\Ye learn from the 
"Liber Albus" that the sheriffs of the city 
of London were formerly styled bailiffs ; and 
we know, from the same authority, that 
such officers were in existence at the time of 
the Norman conquest. In 1207 the office of 
sheriff superseded that of bailiff. 

BaIOLENSIANS, or BAGI^^OLEIfSIAXS. — 

Manichaeans, so called from Bagnols, in 
Languedoc, where they sprung up in the 
8th century. Another sect, vri'th the same 
name, a branch of the Cathari, arose in 
Provence during the 12th century. 

Baize. — The art of making baize wag 
introduced into England by a body of Dutch 
artisans, who settled at Colchester in 1568 ; 
and their privileges were confirmed by letters 
patent under the great seal in 1612. An act 
of parhament was passed in 1660 (12 Chas. II. 
c. 22) for the regulation and protection of 
their trade. It took effect from Sept. 20, 
1660. 

Bakee. — In early ages every household 
prepared its own bread. Pubhc bakers are 
first mentioned as existing at Rome B.C. 173. 
Athenaeus speaks of the Cappadocians, the 
Lydians, and the Phcenicians as the best 
bakers. It is probable the trade arose 
in the East. The punishments for bakers 
who transgressed the law were, at an early 
period of our history, extremely severe. 
Fabyian notices that in 1258 the tumbrel' 
was temporarily substituted for the pillory ; 
and that "sharpe correction upon bakers 
for making of light bread," was administered 
upon several of the fraternity in 14S5. The 
bakers formed a brotherhood in the reign of 
Henry II., about 1155. The white bakers 
existed as a company in 1308, and obtained 
in 1485 a new charter, which was confirmed 
by Henry the Seventh's successors. The 



BAK 

brown bakers, who are said to have existed ! 
as a company in 1380, were incorporated 
June 9, 1621. . 1 

Baku (Asia). — This port, in the Caspian, i 
and the neighbouring territory, were sur- 
rendered by Persia to Eussia in 1723, and , 
restored to Persia in 1735. The Russians | 
seized Baku in 1801, and it was ceded to 
them by the treaty between Kussia and 
Persia, Oct. 19 (O.S. 7), 1813. 

Balaclava (Crimea), — A small port 
about ten miles to the east of Sebastopol. 
The harbour is commodious, though the 
entrance is very narrow; and it was with 
great difficulty that accommodation was 
obtained for the British ships during its 
occupation in the Crimean war. Our troops 
took possession Sept. 26, 1854, a portion of j 
the fleet having already arrived. They 
improved the harbour, constructed quays, | 
built a new town, with storehouses, hospitals, i 
&c., and laid down a line of rail to the camp, 
about seven miles distant. Soon after the 
conclusion of the treaty of Paris, our army of 
occupation was gradually withdrawn, and 
the last soldier quitted the place during the 
summer of 1856. 

Balaclava (Battle of).— Fought Oct. 25, 
1854, between the Russians and the British 
and Turkish troops. Early in the morning 
a powerful Russian force, led by Liprandi, 
drove the Turks from some earthen redoubts 
facing the Tchernaya, a weak point in the 
Enghsh position. The further advance of 
the Russians was checked by the 93rd High- 
landers, under Sir C. Campbell (Lord Clyde), 
and the enemy was quickly repulsed by a 
charge of the heavy cavalry. From this day 
the British lines were, on account of the 
insuificiency of our force, contracted, and 
the communication by the Woronzoff road 
was effectually closed. 

Balaclava (Charge), called "The Ride 
of the Six Hundred."— Owing to some mis- 
conception of orders, the light cavalry 
brigade, only 670 strong, followed up the 
battle of Balaclava (Oct. 25, 1854), by charg- 
ing the Russian infantry and cavalry m 
position, protected by a powerful artillery. 
The exploit is without a parallel in the 
annals of war. In spite of the fearful and 
almost hopeless nature of their task, that 
handful of British horsemen rode fearlessly 
onward. When at a distance, their ranks 
were shattered by a murderous discharge, 
and many a gallant fellow was struck down 
before he could reach the foe. The Russians 
quailed before this band of heroes. Their 
artillery fired upon the struggling mass of 
friend and foe. The heavy cavalry and the 
•French Chasseurs d'Afrique covered their 
retreat. The glorious but fatal charge lasted 
twenty-five minutes. More than two-thirds 
of the men were kiUed or wounded, and 
400 horses destroyed. The moral effect it 
produced was, however, extraordinary. 

Balaghaut Distbicts (Hindostan). — 
These provinces once formed part of the 
Hindoo kingdom of Bijyanagur, and on its 
fall were divided into sever 5. independent 



BAL 

states, until conquered in rapid succession 
by Hyder Ah, between 1766 and 1780. On 
the dismemberment of Tippoo's empire in 
1799, a considerable portion came into the 
possession of the East-India Company, and 
the remainder was taken in 1841. 

Balambangaic (Indian Archipelago). — 
This island was ceded by the Idng of Sooloo, 
in 1762, to the East-India Company, and a 
settlement was formed by them in the 
following year. In Aug. 1774, intelligence 
was received that the Spanish governor of 
the Manillas had threatened to destroy the 
works and fortifications in case the English 
settlers did not retire ; and this threat was 
put into execution Feb. 24, 1775. Another 
settlement, founded in 1803, was abandoned, 
and the island is now uninhabited. 

BALAifCE OF PowEK. — ^The first combined 
attempt to preserve the balance of power in 
European affairs was made during the inva- 
sion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France, 
1494 — 1496. Incited by the emperor Maxi- 
mihan I., the ItaUan states, and some other 
European powers, held secret conferences 
by night at Venice, and the celebrated 
league was signed at that city, March 31, 
1495, between Austria, Milan, Rome, Spain, 
and the Venetian republic. Its object was 
to defeat the ambitious projects of the French 
king. Robertson remarks that princes and 
statesmen " had extended on this occasion, 
to the affairs of Europe, the maxims of that 
political science which had hitherto been 
apphed only to regulate the operations of 
the petty states in their own country. They 
had discovered the method of preventing 
any monarch from rising to such a degree of 
power as was inconsistent with the general 
liberty ; and had manifested the importance 
of attending to that great secret in modern 
pohcy, the preservation of a proper distribu- 
tion of power among aU the members ot the 
system into which the states of Europe are 
formed." After shovring that the attention 
of Itahan statesmen was from that period 
directed to the maintenance of the principle, 
he adds: "Nor was the idea confined to 
them. Self-preservation taught other powers 
to adopt it. It grew to be fashionable and 
universal. From this sera we can trace the 
progress of that intercourse between nations, 
which has linked the powers of Europe so 
closely together ; and can discern the opera- 
tions of that provident pohcy which, during 
peace, guards against remote and contingent 
dangers ; and, in war, has prevented rapid 
and destructive conquests." The principle 
was first pubhcly acknowledged at the peace 
of Westphaha, Oct. 24, 1648. 

Balasoke (Hindostan). — Different Euro- 
pean nations estabhshed factories here at 
the commencement of the intercourse with 
India. The English factory was destroyed 
by fire in Nov. 1688. The town itself was 
ceded to England by the Danes in 1844. 

Baleaeic Islands ( Mediterranean ) .— 

This group, off the coast of Spain, is supposed 

to have been colonized by the Phoenicians. 

The Carthaginians reduced the inhabitants 

91 



BAL 

to subjection. After the fall of Carthage 
they regained their independence. The 
Bomans, under the pretence that the peo- 
ple were pirates, took possession of the 
Balearic Islands B.C. 123. The Vandals 
seized them a.d. 423, and the Moors a.d. 
790 ; but they were wrested from the latter 
by the troops of Charlemagne in 799, and 
placed under his protection. The Moors, 
however, regained their footing and were 
not expelled until 1286. {See Majokca and 

MlWOECA.) 

Balista. — Described by Gibbon as "a 
powerful cross-bow, which darted short but 
massy arrows." Belisarius made use of the 
bahsta in his defence of Kome against the 
Goths, A.D. 537. The more modem weapon is 
supposed to have been a species of "gyn," 
rather than a hand instrument. Its intro- 
duction into England is usually assigned to 
the 12th century. Eichard I. appears to 
have been the first to adopt the manu- 
balista after its use had been prohibited by 
Innocent II. in 1139. 

Balkh (Asia), the ancient Bactriana, is 
now a dependency of the khanat of Bokhara. 
Its chief city, also called Balkh, the ancient 
Bactra, is styled by Orientals the " Mother 
of Cities," on account of its great antiquity. 
It was taken from the Uzbeg Tartars by the 
khan of Bokhara in 1820. 

Ball. — Games with the ball have been 
common amongst ancient and modern na- 
tions. The Anglo-Saxons played at ball. 
An amusement of this kind was in vogue in 
this country amongst ladies and gentlemen 
in the 14th century, and it became fashionable 
at courts in the 16th. Fitzstephen, who 
wrote in the reign of Henry II., in alluding 
to sports at Shrove- tide, says, — " After 
dinner, aU the youth of the city goeth to play 
at the ball in the fields ; the scholars of every 
study have their balls. The practisers also 
of all the trades have every one their ball in 
their hands." Some writers suppose foot- 
ball is here meant. A complaint of the 
citizens of London was brought before the 
Privy Council in July, 14M, respecting the 
erection of several places where the people 
played " at the ball, cleche, and dice." It 
hasbeen highly recommended as a gymnastic 
exercise. 

Ballet. — Dancing applied to theatrical 
representation is an ancient amusement, 
supposed to have been revived in Italy during 
the 16th century. Baltagerini, director of 
music to Catherine of Medieis, was the first 
to introduce the ballet into France, where 
it became very popular in the time of 
Louis XIII. Since that period it has Tinder- 
gone various improvements. The first dra- 
matic piece performed in England, in which 
the story was entirely carried on by dancing 
and action, was a production by Mr. John 
Weaver, called "The Tavern Bilkers," per- 
formed at Drury Lane in 1702. A work of 
higher pretensions was produced by the 
same author at Drury Lane in 1716. It was 
entitled "The Loves of Mars and Venus," 
and its success led to the estabhshment, in 



BAL 

this country, of the ballet as a branch of 
theatrical amusements. 

Ballinamuck (Battle). — A French force 
landed at Killala Aug. 22, 1798, and having 
been joined by some Irish rebels, were 
defeated and taken prisoners at Ballinamuck, 
Sept. 8, 1798. 

Balliol Colle&e (Oxford). — Founded 
by John BaUiol, of Barnardcastle, Durham 
(father of BaUiol, king of Scotland), be- 
tween the years 1263 and 1268. He died 
in 1269, during the progress of the work, 
which was completed by his widow. Her 
statutes, dated the 10th year of the reign of 
Edward I. (1282) , are still preserved in the 
college. 

Balloon. — Albert of Saxony, a Domini- 
can monk, who flourished at the commence- 
ment of the 14th century, was the first to 
form a correct notion of the principle on 
which balloons might be constructed. The 
idea was taken up by several learned men ; 
and Bishop Wilkin s, in 1680, speaks of a 
carriage with sails, hke a windmill, to be 
propeUed through the air. The brothers 
Montgolfier, paper -makers, at Annonay, 
near Lyons, were the first to secure a prac- 
tical result ; and June 5, 1783, lavmched the 
first balloon, which, after them, was then 
called a Montgolfier. The experiment was 
repeated at Paris, Aug. 27, 1783 ; and on 
the 21st of November, in the same year, 
M. Pilatre de Eozier, and the Marquis 
d'Arlandes, made the first ascent from 
Paris, which was accomijfished with suc- 
cess, and the adventurers ahghted in 
safety about six miles from the point at 
which they had started. "The Montgolfiers," 
says a -writer in the " Encyclopaedia Britan- 
nica," " had the annual prize of 6O0 hvres ad- 
judged to them by the Academy of Sciences ; 
the elder brother was invited to court, deco- 
rated with the badge of St. Michael, and 
received a patent of nobility ; and on Joseph 
a pension was bestowed, with the further 
sum of 40,000 Hvres, to enable him to pro- 
secute his experiments with balloons." The 
first ascent in a hydrogen balloon was made 
Dec. 1, 1783, at Paris, by Messieurs Charles 
and Eoberts, who, after a pleasant voyage, 
alighted in safety about twenty-five miles 
from the spot where they started. Since 
that time great improvements have been 
made in the construction of balloons. 
The first ascent made in England was by 
Lunardi, Sept. 21, 1784. Blanchard and 
Jefferies crossed the Channel, from Dover 
to Calais, Jan. 7, 1785. Count Zamflec- 
cari, Admiral Vernon, and a Miss Grice, 
of Holborn, took their seats in the car of 
one of these machines March 23, 1785. The 
balloon was, however, over-weighted, and 
the lady was compelled to retire, which she 
did with great reluctance, and burst into 
tears at her disappointment. A successful 
ascent was made at Eanelagh Gardens, 
Dublin, Jan. 20, 1785. Balloon ascents 
have since been of frequent occurrence; 
and we read of one at Constantinople, by a 
Persian physician, in 1786. Eozier and 



BAL 

Eomain were killed through the ignition of 
their balloon, in an attempt to cross the 
Channel, June 15, 1785 ; and WiUiam Sadler, 
son of the celebrated aeronaut of that name, 
was killed by a fall from a balloon in 1825. 
The French are said to have employed 
balloons on various occasions for the purpose 
of reconnoitring the position of an enemy. 
The most remarkable instances occurred at 
Liege, in September, 1794, and during the 
Italian campaign of 1859. 

Ballot was used in several states of 
ancient Greece, as well as amongst the 
Romans. It was first introduced at Eome 
for the election of magistrates, by the 
Gabiana lex, b.c. 139; for state trials, 
treason excepted, by the Cassia lex, B.C. 137 .: 
and for the legislative assembly, by the 
Papinialex, B.C. 131. The ballot was used 
in the republic of Venice. It was employed 
at a political debating society, called the 
Eota, held nightly, in 1659, at Miles's coffee- 
house, New Palace Yard, Westminster. Its 
adoption in the election of members for the 
House of Commons has been frequently 
urged. 

Ballthoe (Battle). — O'lfeOl was checked 
in his career of plunder and devastation 
within the British pale, at a battle fought at 
BaUyhoe, in August, 1539. 

BALLTifAHiNCH (Battle). — Pought during 
the Irish rebellion, June 13, 1798. The 
rebels, led by Munroe, a draper of Lisburn, 
were defeated, and this terminated the rising 
in the north of Ireland. 

Balmoeal Castle. — Queen Victoria 
selected this mansion and domain, situated 
on the right bank of the river Dee, about 
forty-five miles from Aberdeen, as a royal 
residence, in September, 1848. The property, 
which had been previously rented, was pur- 
chased in 1852, and a new castle has been 
erected on the estate. 

Balta-Liman (Treaty). — Concluded 
between Russia and Turkey, at Balta-Liman, 
in 1849. It arose out of the transactions 
relating to the insurrection in the Danubian 
provinces and the Eussian occupation. 
Eussia was secured in the sanae rights as 
she then exercised in the principalities for 
seven years. 

Baltic Expeditions. — During the war 
with Eussia, two expeditions were sent into 
the Baltic Sea by the English government. 
The first, under the command of Sir Charles 
Napier, sailed from Spithead, March 11, 
1854, and was afterwards joined by a Erench 
squadron, and reinforcements from England. 
The fleet entered the Baltic Sea March 20th. 
Several merchantmen were captured, and 
the Eussian ports blockaded, until more de- 
cisive operations were undertaken on the 
arrival of a French expeditionary force 
{See Aland Isles). The fleet returned 
home during the autumn. The second, 
accompanied by gun and mortar boats, 
under the command of Admiral Sir E. S. 
Dundas, sailed April 4, 1855, an advance 
squadron having left March 20. It was 
joined by a French squadron June 1. Several 



BAM 

infernal machines were taken up, and the 
ships penetrated within sight of Cronstadt. 
The chief operations at Hango and Swea- 
borg are described under these titles. The 
fleets returned during the autumn. 

Baltimore (Battle).— The Americana 
were defeated by the Enghshnear this town, 
in the United States, Sept. 12, 1814. 

BAMBEE& (Bavaria) is said to have been 
founded by a colony of Saxons ki 804. Other 
authorities state that it was founded by the 
emperor Henry II. in 1004, finished in 1012, 
and rebuilt, 'after a conflagration, in 1110. 
It surrendered to the Prussians May 16, 
1759, and during two days was given up for 
pillage. It was again captured in 1763. 
Bamberg was made a bishopric in 1007 ; and 
in 1020, on the visit of Pope Benedict VIII. 
to Germany, the emperor presented the city 
and bishopric to the Eoman see, on condition 
of receiving every year a white horse and a 
hundred silver marks. The bishopric after- 
wards became independent, was secularized 
in 1801, and assigned to Bavaria in 1803. 
Councils were held here in 1020, 1052, and 
1148. 

Bamboeough, or Bambueg- (Northumber- 
land). — This ancient town was built by Ida, 
who reigned twelve years, from 547. Bede 
says it was called Bebba, after its queen. 
It was frequently piUaged by the Danes, 
The castle, built in 1070, was wrested by 
stratagem from his rebellious barons by 
Wilham II., in 1096, and was besieged and 
taken by Edward IV., Dec. 24, 1463. 

Bameean (Battle). — Fought between 
Dost Mohammed Khan's army and his 
Oosberg aUies, under the Walee of Khoo- 
loom, and a small English and Sepoy force, 
conmianded by Brigadier Dennie, Sept. 18, 
1840. The former were completely routed, 
and their leader fled into Kohistan. 

Bameleet (Essex). — This fortress was 
stormed and captured by king Alfred, and 
several Danish ships in the neighbourhood 
were destroyed in 894. 

Bampton Lectures. — Founded by Eev. 
J. Bampton, canon of Salisbury, who be- 
queathed to the university of Oxford, 
estates, the proceeds of which were to be 
devoted to the endowment of eight divinity 
lecture-sermons, to be preached every year 
at Great St. Mary's. The cost of the publi- 
cation of the lectures, withia two months of 
dehvery, was to be defrayed out of the 
endowment. The first course was deHvered 
in 1780, by the Rev. J. Bandinel. Only those 
who have taken the master's degree at 
Oxford or Cambridge are eligible ; and a 
second course by the same person is not 
allowed. 

Banbtjet (Oxfordshire). — In 1125, Blois, 
bishop of Lincoln, erected a castle here, which 
was frequently assailed. The royalists cap- 
tured it in 1642, defended it vrith great gal- 
lantry duruig a siege of thirteen weeks in 1644, 
and again in 1646. The parliamentary party 
demohshed it when it came into their pos- 
session. A battle was fought at Danesmore, 
near this town, Wednesday, July 26, 1469, 



BA5f 

in whieli the Lancastrians were defeated by 
King Edward's troops. 

Banca, or BiifJA (Indian Ocean). — This 
island, possessing tin mines, discovered in 
1710, was ceded to the East- India Company 
by sultan ;N"ajemudin, of Palembang, in 
1812. By the second article of the conven- 
tion of August 13, 1814, the Enghsh ceded 
the island to the king of the ISTetherlands, in 
exchange for Cochin and its dependencies, 
on the coast of Malabar. 

Bancroft's Hospital. — Almshouses, 
near Mile End, erected in 1735, pursuant to 
the will of Francis, grandson of Archbishop 
Bancroft. Accommodation is afforded for 
twenty -four poor men of the Drapers' 
Company, and a school for one hundred 
boys. 

Bak-da IsiAS-DS (Pacijac), ten in number, 
were discovered, in 1511, by the Portuguese, 
who were expelled by the Dutch in 1603. 
The English established a factory in 1608. 
After various struggles between them and 
the Dutch, the latter obtained possession in 
1664. They retained their hold until March 8, 
1796, when the islands surrendered to an 
Enghsh squadron. Having been restored to 
the Dutch, by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802, 
they were agaiu captured by the Enghsh, 
Aug. 9, 1810, and once more restored to the 
Dutch at the peace of 1814. 

Bangaloee (Hindostan), was captured 
by Lord CornwaUis, March 22, 1791. The 
fortress was, however, restored to Tippoo 
Saib, by the treaty of peace of March 19, 
1792. He destroyed it, but it was repaired 
in 1802. 

BAif&OB (Caernarvonshire) was made a 
bishopric early in the 6th century, Daniel, 
abbot of Bangor, in Ehntshire, its first 
bishop, having been appointed in 516. The 
cathedral was destroyed in 1071 ; and having 
been rebuilt, suffered severely in subsequent 
wars. An" order for union of the see with 
St. Asaph, issued in 1833, was rescinded, by 
10 & 11 Vict. c. 108, July 23, 1847. 

Bastgoe (United States) was captured by 
a party of Enghsh sailors and marines, 
Sept. 3, 1814. 

Bakgoe-iscoed (Elintshire) , or Bakchoe, 
which must not be confounded with Bangor, 
in Caernarvonshire ; or Benchor, in Ireland ; 
was the seat of the largest ancient monastic 
estabhshment in Great Britain. It contained 
above 2,000 monks, and was founded by 
Dunod in the begiuning of the 6th century. 
Etholfrith, king of Northumberland, insti- 
p-ated it is supposed by Augustine, who was 
resolved to reduce the primitive Christian 
Church in these islands to subjection to 
Eome, destroyed the monastery and massa- 
cred all the monks and students. This event 
probably took place in 603, but as some 
confusion has arisen in the chronology of 
the time, the date cannot be ascertained 
with certainty. Augustine is said to have 
died in 604, though there is some doubt on the 
subject. Bede says, Augustine foretold of 
these monks that if they would not join in 
t.nity with their brethren, they should be 
94 



BAJJf 

assailed by their enemies, and that if they 
would not preach the way of life to the 
Enghsh people, they should perish at their 
hands. 

BAifGOEiAir CoifTEOTEEST. — During the 
reign of WiUiam III., the Lower House of 
Convocation had requested " that some 
synodical notice might be taken of the dis- 
honour done to the Church by a sermon 
preached by Mr. Benjamin Hoadley, at St. j 
Lawrence Jewry, Sept. 29, 1705, containing 
positions contrary to the doctrine of the 
Church, expressed in the fii'st and second 
parts of the homily against disobedience and 
vrilful rebeUion." Theenmity of this writer's \ 
opponents was ' further excited by a sermon ; 
which he preached before George I., 
March 31, 1717, and afterwards printed 
under the title, "The Nature of the Kingdom 
or Church of Christ." He had been made 
bishop of Bangor in 1715 ; was translated to 
Hereford in 1721 ; to Sahsbury in 1723 ; and 
to Winchester in 1734. What they termed the 
dangerous tenets of this discourse, and a 
work entitled, a " Preservative against the 
Principles and Practices of the Non- Jurors," 
were denounced in the report of a committee 
of the Lower House of Convocation in 1717. 
This gave rise to a general paper war 
between the supporters and opponents of 
Bishop Hoadley' s views on various points, 
and it is known as the Bangorian Contro- 
Tersy. 

Ban-k of En-giand. — Incorporated by 
royal charter, July 27, 1694, was projected 
by Wilham Paterson, who, with other mer- 
chants in London, subscribed £1,200,000 as 
a loan to the Government, to bear interest 
at 8 per cent, per annum. The first charter 
provided that at any time after the 1st of 
August, 1705, on a year's notice and the 
repayment of the £1,200,000, the said charter 
should cease and determine. It received 
the sanction of Parhament, and thus were 
the governor and company of the Bank of 
England estabhshed. Further loans have 
since been advanced to the government, the 
rate of interest has been reduced, and the 
charter has been repeatedly renewed and 
extended. The last, known as Sir E. Peel's 
act (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32), received the royal 
assent July 19, 1844. The bank suspended 
cash payments in 1696, but having recovered 
from a temporary pressure flourished greatly, 
until again compelled by the drain upon its 
resources, caused by the French war at the 
close of the last century, to suspend cash 
payments, for which an order in council 
appeared Feb. 27, 1797, and they were not 
resumed until May 1, 1821. By the sixth 
section of the Bank Charter Act, of 1S44, the 
directors are required to render a weekly 
account in a prescribed form to the Commis- 
sioners of Stamps and Taxes, to be pubhshed 
in the next succeeding Gazette. Since 1823 
branch estabhshments of the Bank of Eng- 
land have been formed in several provincial 
tovms. Its business was transacted in the 
Grocers' HaU until June 5, 1734, when it was 
I removed to a building that forms part of the 



BAN 

present Bank of England. Sir John Soane 
commenced alterations in 1788. 

Bank of Ireland, was establislied by act 
of Parliament, with privileges similar to 
those enjoyed by the Bank ot England, and 
opened in June, 1783. In 1802, the go- 
vernors purchased the buildings in CoUege 
Green used as the houses of Parhament 
previous to the Union in 1801. These were 
adapted for the purposes of the bank, which 
was transferred here in 1808. The Bank of 
Ireland is now regulated by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 37 
(July 21, 1845). 

Bank of Scotland, the first establish- 
ment of the kind iu that part of the kingdom, 
was foimded at Edinburgh in 1695, receiving 
a charter from Wilham III. and the Scottish 
Parhament. The second, the Eoyal Bank 
of Scotland, was incorporated in 1727. 

Bankeuptct. — ^The word bankruptcy is 
derived through the French from bancus the 
counter, ruptus broken. Ancient legislation 
on this subject was extremely severe. Accord- 
ing to the generally received interpretation, 
the Roman Law of the Twelve Tables gave 
to creditors the power of cutting a debtor's 
body in pieces, each of them receiving a pro- 
portionate share. Debtors were imprisoned 
in chains, subjected to stripes and hard 
labour at the mercy of the creditor, and 
liable with their vnves and children to be 
sold to foreign servitude. The severity of 
these laws was relaxed by the "Lex Poeteha 
Papiria," b.c. 326, and the Christian em- 
perors subsequently introduced the law of 
cession, by which a creditor making cessio 
honorum {i.e., giving up all his goods), was 
exempted from personal penalties. The 
first Enghsh statute on this subject, 34 & 35 
Hen. YIII. c. 4 (1543), was principally 
directed against the frauds of traders, who 
were in the habit of acquiring goods from 
other persons and then escaping to foreign 
countries. This was made felony, and 
punished capitally. By 13 Ehz. c. 7 (1571), 
bankruptcy was confined to those who used 
the trade of merchandise, or sought their 
hving by buying and selling. By 21 James I. 
c. 19 (1624), a bankrupt might, unless his 
inabOity to pay his debts arose from some 
casual cause, be set upon the pillory for two 
hom-s, and have one of his ears nailed to the 
same and cut oft". It was repealed in 1816, 
By many subsequent statutes scriveners, 
aliens, denizens, bankers, brokers, factors, 
farmers, graziers, &c., were made hable to 
bankruptcy. All these statutes were conso- 
hdated by 6 Geo. IV. c. 16 (May 2, 1825). 
These laws were again amended and consoli- 
dated by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 1, 1849) ; 
and this act was further amended by 15 & 16 
Vict. c. 77 (June 30, 1852), and by the 
Bankruptcy Act of 1854. The Court of 
Bankrupte V was estabhshed by 1 & 2 Will. IV. 
c. 56 (Oct. 20, 1831). This act was amended 
by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 29 (Aug. 21, 1835) ; and 
by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 122 (Aug. 12, 1842), which 
came mto operation Nov. 11, 1842. A further 
alteration was made in the law by 17 & 18 
Vict. c. 119 (Aug. 11, 1854). The Irish bank- 



I ruptcy laws were consohdated by 6 WiE. IV. 

I c. 14 (May 20, 1836) ; and they were further 

I amended and assimilated to the Enghsh law 

j by several subsequent statutes, the last 

being 20 & 21 Vict. e. 60 (Aug. 25, 1857). 

] The Scotch bankruptcy laws were consoh- 

I dated by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 79 (July 29, 1856), 

which came into operation Nov. 1, 1856, and 

was further amended by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 19 

(Aug. 10, 1857). 

Banks. — These estabhshments existed 
amongst the Greeks and Eomans. In mo- 
dern times the Jews were the first bankers. 
Banks were estabhshed in Italy in the 12th 
century. The first pubhc bank was founded 
at Venice in 1157, and the first bank of 
exchange and deposit was estabhshed at 
Barcelona in 1401. Money matters were 
for some time regulated by the Eoyal 
Exchangers, but their calling fell into disuse 
until revived by Charles I. in 1627. The 
Eoyal Mint, in the Tower of London, was 
used as a bank of deposit until Charles I. by 
a forced loan, in 1638, destroyed its credit. 
The Goldsmiths' Company undertook private 
banking in 1645, but on' the closing of the 
Exchequer in 1672 their transactions ter- 
minated. Child, of Fleet Street, was the 
first regular banker, and he commenced 
business soon after the Restoration. [See 
Bank of England.) 

Bannattne Club, was estabhshed by Sir 
Walter Scott in 1823, for printing works 
illustrating the history, antiquities, and 
hterature of Scotland. 

Bannee. — Is of very early origin, being 
referred to in Numbers, ii. 2. Banners of 
some kind or other were used amongst aU 
ancient nations, and the practice has been 
followed in modern times. Bede represents 
Augustine and his companions going in pro- 
cession to meet Etheked in 597, bearing 
banners, with a silver cross, and the image 
of our Saviour. Alfred captured the cele- 
brated Danish banner, called the Eaven, in 
878. In the monasteries various banners 
were kept for festivals and great commemo- 
rations. 

Banneeet, or Knight B anneeet, aperson 
who received the order of knighthood, under 
the royal standard, for some distinguishedser- 
vice in the field. Shakespeare (King John, i.l) 
speaks of, — 

" A soldier, by the lionoTir-givlng hand 
Of Coeur-de-lion, knighted in the field." 

The time and place at which the dignity was 
iirst conferred have excited much controversy. 
"No man," says HaUam (Middle Ages, 
iii. ch. 9, pt. 2), " could properly be a 
banneret uxdess he possessed a certain 
estate, and could bring a certain number of 
lances into the field. His distinguishing 
mark was the square banner, carried by a 
squire at the point of his lance ; while the 
knight-bachelor had only the coronet or 
pointed pendant. When a banneret was 
created, the general cut off this pendant to 
render the banner square." Selden states 
that the first account of this dignitv occurs 
95 



BAN 

in the reign of Edward I. Edtnondson 
traces it as far back as 736. The Black 
Prince made Sir John Chandos a knight- 
banneret in 1367. The order was discon- 
tinued from 1642 ; the last, Sir John Smith, 
having been created after the battle of Edge- 
hill by Charles I., in that year. It was, 
however, revived by G-eorge II. after the 
battle of Dettingenj in 1743 ; and Sir Wm. 
Erskine was made a knight-banneret by 
George III. in 1764, for distinguished ser- 
vices at the battle of Emsdorff. la 5 Eich. II. 
s. ii. c. 4 (1382), bannerets are mentioned 
amongst those summoned to Parliament. _ 

Bannockbuen- (Battles). — Two bearing 
this name were fought ; the first at Bannock- 
burn, Scotland, between the English and 
the Scotch, in which the latter gained the 
victory, and secured their independence, 
Monday, June 24, 1314 ; and the second, at 
Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn, June 11, 
1488, on which occasion James III., of 
Scotland, was slain by an army raised by 
the partisans of the duie of Albany. 

Bawns. — TertuUian, who died a.d. 245, 
states that the primitive Chui-ch was fore- 
warned of marriages. The practice was 
probably introduced into France in the 9th 
century. The bishop of Paris enjoined it in 
1176 ; and it was regularly estabhshed in the 
Latin Church by the fourth Lateran council, 
in 1215. The earhest enactment on the 
subject in the Enghsh Church is the 11th 
canon of the synod of Westminster, in 1200, 
which decrees that no marriage shall be 
contracted without banns thrice pubhshed in 
the church. The 62nd canon of the synod 
of London (1603-4), forbids the celebration 
of marriage unless the banns have first been 
published three several Sundays, or holy 
days, during divine Service, in the parish 
churches or chapels where the parties dwell. 
The publication was required to be made on 
Sundays, and not on holy days, by 26 Geo. II. 
c. 33 (1752) . This act "has been superseded 
by 4 Greo. IV. c. 76 (1823), and various laws 
have since then been passed, but this regula- 
tion remains in force. By the latter act it 
is provided that if the marriage does not 
take place within three months after the 
publication of the banns, they must be 
repubhshed. 

Banquetiko- House (Whitehall). — 
Intended for the reception of ambassa- 
dors and state ceremonials, was built by 
Inigo Jones in 1606. It occupies the site of 
an old building that had been devoted to 
similar uses. The ceiling was painted by 
Eubens. 

Bantam (Java). — The Dutch commenced 
trading at this place in 1602, and the Enghsh 
in 1612, and, after various disputes, the latter 
estabhshed a factory in 1619 ; but were ex- 
pelled in 1683 by the Dutch, who abandoned 
the place in 1817. 

BAifTET Bat (Sea Eight). — Admiral 
Herbert, afterwards Lord Torrington, with 
19 sail of the fine, attacked, in this bay, 
May 1, 1689, a Ereneh fleet of 28 ships of 
war, carrying from 60 to 70 guns each, and 



BAP 

5 fire-ships. A short action ensued, when 
Admiral Herbert tacked in order to obtain 
the weather-gauge, and the engagement was 
not renewed. AFrenchfieet carrying 16,000 
troops, intending to co-operate with the 
Irish rebels, anchored in this bay on the 
22nd of December, 1796. They were com- 
pelled by a severe gale to cut their cables 
and stand out to sea on the 25th, and it was 
not until the 29th that they were able, in a 
sadly damaged state, 'to again cast anchor in 
the bay. A landing was not even attempted, 
and the remnant of the expedition returned 
to Prance. The men in Admiral Miehell's 
squadron mutinied here Dec. 1 to 11, 1801. 
The trial of fourteen of the mutineers com- 
menced on board the Gladiator, at Ports- 
mouth, Jan. 8, 1802, and terminated on the 
12 th, when thirteen out of the fourteen 
culprits were sentenced to death, and suf- 
fered on the 15th ; the day on which the trial 
of some of their associates commenced. 

Baph^oit (Battle).— Othman, founder of 
the Ottoman empire, passed the heights of 
Mount Olympus, descended into the level 
country of Bithynia, and defeated the 
emperor Andronicus III., at Baphseon, in 
the commencement of the 14th centuiy. 

Baptism. — ^The first use of baptism is 
ascribed by Lightfoot to Jacob, on the 
admission of the proselytes of Shechem into 
his family and the Church of God, about 
B.C. 1732 (Gen. xxxv.). The Jews adminis- 
tered baptism to all Gentiles before admit- 
ting them into their church; but baptism 
was not made a permanent institution until 
the time of John the Baptist, who performed 
the rite in the waters of Jordan on those 
that flocked to hear his preaching in the 
autumn of the year 26 (Matt. iii. 6) ; and 
Christ himself was baptized by him in 
January of the year 27 (Matt. iii. 13—15). 
It was practised in various forms by the primi- 
tive Church, and was received as the initiatory 
rite by Christians, though certain heretics 
rejected it altogether. The ceremony was at 
first, according to the testimony of Justin 
Martyr, who wrote in the 2nd century, and 
of TertuUian, who wrote in the 3rd, performed 
by trine inmiersion in rivers. This is said 
to have been discontinued on account of 
persecution. Baptisteries containing pools 
for the performance of the rite were erected 
outside the churches about the 3rd century. 
Sacred fonts were constructed in the porches 
about the 4th century, and in the 6th cen- 
tury within the churches. The early English 
Church retained the practice of immersion 
tin a late period, as the council of Chelsea, 
July 27, 816, condemned the innovation of 
sprinkling. The Quakers reject baptism, 
altogether. 

Baptists. — The name applied to several 
sects who deny the validity of infant baptism, 
and require immersion, after the example of 
John the Baptist. They are in many respects 
followers of the Anabaptists, who arose in 
Germany in 1521. They are divided into 
several sects : the chief in England are the 
General, or Arminian Baptists, who beUeve 



BAR 

that God has excluded no man from salva- 
tion by any sovereign decree ; and the 
Particular, or Calvimstic Baptists, who pub- 
lished a confession of faith in 1&43, vrhich 
was reprinted in 1644 and 1646, and revised 
in 1689. The first congregation of English 
Baptists, the followers of John Smith, who 
died at Leyden in 1610, was organized in 
London in that year. These were General 
Baptists, and the Particular Baptists trace 
their origin to a congregation estabhshed in 
London in 1616. Their first institution in 
America was at Providence, in 1639. {See 
Anabaptists.) 

Bab (Confederation of) . — The Eoman 
Cathohcs of Poland, during their fierce 
rehgions struggles with the Dissidents, the 
latter being supported by the Eussians, 
seized the fortress of Bar, in Podoha, and 
formed the Confederation of Bar, in 1768. 
Anarchy ensued, and the confederates were 
defeated by the combined forces of Austria, 
Prussia, and Eussia, those powers having 
coalesced for the purpose of interfering in 
Poland. 

Baebadoes (Atlantic), one of the Caribbee 
islands discovered by the Portuguese at the 
close of the 15th century. The Enghsh first 
landed here in 1605 ; and their first settle- 
ment was formed in 1614. Various disputes 
having occurred between different claimants, 
the earl of Carhsle obtained the right of 
possession by patent, dated July 2, 1627. Sir 
William Courteen, an Enghsh merchant, had 
fitted out ships to effect a settlement, one of 
which landed colonists Feb. 17, 1625, who 
founded Jamestown. He was displeased at 
this arrangement, and obtained a grant of 
the island in 1628 ; but by another patent, 
dated April 7, 1629, Carhsle was confirmed 
in the possession. It afforded a refuge to 
the royahsts, and was captured by the repub- 
licans in 1652. After the Eestoration, htiga- 
tion ensued between rival proprietors, and 
these led to the imposition of a tax on the in- 
habitants, which was not repealed until 1838. 
Barbadoes was devastated by tremendous 
hurricanes in August, 1675, 1780, and 1831 ; 
and was created a bishop's see in 1824, 

Baebabt (Africa). — This term has been 
appUed to describe the northern portion of 
Africa, divided, both in ancient and modern 
tunes, into several states. The name is sup- 
posed to be derived from the Berbers, who 
occupied the country on its invasion by the 
Saracens in the 7th century. 

Baebastro (Spain), or Balbasteo. — This 
city was taken from the Moors in 1097 by 
Pedro I., king of Aragon. A sanguinary 
struggle occiu-red in its suburbs between the 
Carhsts and the Queen's troops Jmie 2, 1837. 
Both parties claimed the victory. The 
Carlists, however, crossed the Ciuea and 
entered Catalonia without opposition on the 
5th of the same month. It is the seat of a 



Baebee. — The art of the barber was prac- 
tised in Greece about B.C. 420. Their shops 
were then, as in more modern times, cele- 
brated as places of gossip. Barbers are said 
97 



BAE 

to have been introduced into Eome from 
Sicily, B.C. 299. Formerly barbers practised 
surgery iu England. Chicheley pubhshed a 
decree in 1415 forbidding them to keep their 
shops open on Sundays. The barbers, long 
an ancient company, were incorporated by 
letters patent Feb. 24, 1462. It was con- 
firmed by Henry VII. and Henry VIII. By 
city law, in the time of Edward I. (Liber 
Albus), barbers who were so bold and 
daring as to expose blood in their windows, 
instead of having it privily conveyed into 
the Thames, were subject to a fine of two 
shillings. 

Baebee-Suegeows. — Though the barbers 
at first practised surgery, yet a company of 
surgeons had been formed, but not incor- 
porated, consisting, as Stow states, of not 
more than twelve persons at the commence- 
ment of the reign of Henry VIII. In 1540 
(32 Hen. VIII. c. 42), an act was passed 
uniting the barbers and the surgeons in one 
body corporate, called " Masters or Go- 
vernors of the Mystery and Commonalty of 
Barbers and Surgeons of London." It pro- 
vided that none of the company that used 
barbery and shaving should occupy any 
surgery, letting of blood, or any other thing 
belonging to surgery, except only drawing of 
teeth ; nor he that used the mystery of 
surgery, should exercise the feat or craft of 
barbery or shaving. They were made distinct 
corporations in 1745, by 18 Geo. II. c. 15. 

BAE-suK-AtTBB (Battle). — The allies ob- 
tained a signal victory over the French near 
this town, in France, Feb. 27, 1814. 

Baeca (S. Africa). — This mai-itime dis- 
trict, the ancient Cyrenaica, was colonized 
from Cyrene, B.C. 560, and formed a part of 
the "Libya about Cyrene," mentioned in 
the Acts (ii. 10). The Persians besieged 
and captured its chief town, Barca; and it 
was conquered by the Saracens in 641. It 
was a bishopric of the early Church. 

Baecelona (Spain). — The foundation of 
this ancient city is assigned by tradition to as 
early a period as 400 years before the build- 
ing of Eome. Hamilcar Barcas, the Car- 
thaginian, is said to have restored it B.C. 
235 ; and from him it received the name of 
Barcius. The Carthaginians were expelled 
B.C. 206 ; and it belonged to Eome from B.C. 
146 until A.D. 411, when it was taken by the 
Goths. The Moors captured it a.d. 718, and 
Charlemagne in 801. It became the capital 
of a Spanish march, held by the counts of 
Barcelona, uutU their title was merged in 
that of Axagon in 1137. Its inhabitants 
having revolted, the city was besieged by 
John IL, of Aragon, and captured Oct. 17, 
1471. It became a great centre of commerce 
in the 15th century; and the first bank of 
exchange and deposit in EurojDe was esta- 
bhshed here io. 1401. Barcelona has since 
that period sustained several sieges. The 
French took it Aug. 7, 1697 ; it was restored 
by the treaty of Eyswick, and taken again 
Oct. 9, 1705 ; by the eccentric Lord Peter- 
borough, Sept. 13, 1706 ; and by the duke of 
Berwick, after a long siege, Sept. 12, 1714. 



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The Erencli captured it on their invasion of 
Spain, Feb. 28, 1808. It was made the seat 
of a iDishop at an early period. Councils 
were held here in 540 ; Nov. 1, 599 ; in 906 ; 
Nov. 20, 1054 ; and in 1068. Its university, 
estabhshed in 1430, was suppressed in 1714, 
and restored in 1841. 

BAECELOJfA (Treaties). — A treaty between 
Charles YIII. of France, and Ferdinand 
and Isabella of Spain, was signed by the 
former at Tours, and by the latter at 
Barcelona, Jan. 19, 1493. It was an alliance 
offensive and defensive between France and 
Spain. Charles VIII. ceded the counties of 
Eoussillon and Cerdagne to Spain. Another 
was concluded at this place between the 
emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII., 
June 29, 1529. Eobertson says that Charles, 
among other articles, agreed to restore 
all the territories belonging to the Eccle- 
siastical state ; to re-establish the Medici at 
Florence, and give his daughter to Alex- 
ander, the head of that family ; and to put it 
in the Pope's power to decide respectmg the 
fate of Sforza and the possession of the 
Milanese. Clement VII. gave the emperor 
the investiture of Naples without the reserve 
of any tribute, but the present of a white 
steed in acknowledgment of his sovereignty; 
absolved all who had been concerned in 
assaulting and plundering Eome, and per- 
mitted Charles and his brother Ferdinand to 
levy the fourth of the ecclesiastical revenues 
throughout his dominions. Other treaties 
of no great importance were also concluded 
at Barcelona. 

Baecelona, New (S. America). — This 
town was founded by the Spaniards in 1634. 
The province of the same name, of which it 
was the capital, with six other provinces, 
formed themselves into the American con- 
federation of Venezuela, April 19, 1810. 

Baedenet (Lincolnshire), orBAEDNET. — 
This ancient monastery, in the province of 
Lindsey, is said by Bishop Tanner to havebeen 
founded before a.d. 697, because Osthryda, 
queen of Mercia, who caused King Oswald's 
remains to be removed to this place, was 
murdered in that year. It was destroyed by 
the Danes in 869, and all the inmates were 
put to the sword. 

Babdesai^ists. — A Christian sect which 
flourished in Mesopotamia from a.d. 161 to 
180. They were the followers of Bardesanes 
of Edessa, who at one time advocated the 
tenets of Valentinus the Egyptian, though 
he afterwards abjured them. Mosheim con- 
tends against this view, declaring that Bar- 
desanes admitted two principles, hke the 
Manichaeans. His followers denied the in- 
carnation and the resurrection. 

Baeds, or Peofessional Poets, were in 
high repute amongst ancient nations. They 
were the recorders of important events, 
celebrating in poetry and music the virtues 
and heroic deeds of their gods and great 
men. Amongst the ancient Gauls and 
Britons they were regarded with pecu- 
har veneration, and wielded considerable 
authority. The Druids had their order of 
97 



BAE 

bards. They continued to flourish in Wales, 
where Eisteddfods, or sessions of the l^ards, 
were held; and the supreme dignity, and the 
privileges of the bards, are dwelt upon at 
great length in their early laws. Edward I. 
has been accused, though unjustly, of having 
massacred the Welsh bards in 1283. The 
last commission for holding an eisteddfod is 
dated Oct. 23, 1568. The ancient Irish bards 
were also celebrated. The court bard is 
mentioned as a domestic officer in Welsh 
records of the year 940. 

BAEEB03srE's Paeiiament. — This " motley 
convention of one hundred and tweuty 
persons," as HaUam terms it, was assembled 
at Cromwell's command July 4, and dis- 
solved Dec. 12, 1653. It was sometimes 
called the Little Parliament. Amongst the 
seven representatives for London, was one 
Barebone, a leather-seller, of Fleet Street, 
a fanatic notorious for his long prayers and 
sermons, with the Christian name of " Praise 
God." Hence arose the term " Praise-God 
Barebone's Parliament," by which this 
assembly was afterwards known. It consisted 
of 122 members for England, 6 for Wales, 
6 for Ireland, and 5 for Scotland, chosen by 
Cromwell and his officers. 

Baeeillt (Hindostan). — This district, 
in the province of Delhi, was ceded by 
the rulers of Oude to the East -India 
Company in 1801. A formidable mutiny 
broke out at its chief town, also named 
BareiUy, April 16, 1816. It was caused by 
a form of taxation obnoxious to the people. 
Conflicts ensued, April 18 and 21, and order 
was soon restored. The sepoys rose against 
the English, murdered some, and expelled 
others, Sunday, May 31, 1857. The muti- 
neers marchedinto Delhi Jvdy 2. Bareilly was 
recaptured by the British forces May 7, 1858. 

Baeeletje (Normandy). — A portion of 
Wniiam the First's fleet was equipped at 
this port for the invasion of England a.d. 1066. 
Near Barfleur, Prince William, only son of 
Henry I., perished by shipwreck during the 
nights of Nov. 25 and 26, 1120. Two of the 
king's illegitimate children and several 
nobles perished on this occasion, the total 
nimiber of persons being about three him- 
dred. Only one escaped, — a butcher, of 
Eouen. William had married Matilda, 
daughter of the count of Anjou, in June, 
1119. The vessel was called the Blanche- 
Nef. The shipping at Barfleur was destroyed 
and the harbour filled up by Edward III. in 
his invasion of Normandy, in 1346. 

Baei (Italy). — This town, occupying the 
site of the ancient Barium, having been cap- 
tured by the Saracens a.d. 840, was wrested 
from them in 871, by Louis II., Charle- 
magne's great-grandson, after a siege of four 
years' duration. The Greek emperors made 
it the capital of the province of Apulia in 
982. Afterwards it came into the possession 
of the Normans, and Eobert Guiscard be- 
came duke of Apulia in 1060. It was the 
seat of a bishop as early as 347, and became 
an archbishopric in 931. A celebrated coun- 
cil assembled here Oct. 1, 1098, at the com- 



BAR 

mand of Urban II., no less than 183 bishops, 
and among thena Ansebn of Canterbury, 
attended; the principal subjects discussed 
being the reunion of the Greek and Latin 
churches, and what is termed the Jilioque, 
or the procession of the Holy Ghost from 
the Father as well as the Son. 

Barinas (S.America), or Vaeinas. — One 
of the Spanish colonies which joined the 
confederation of Venezuela, April 19, 1810, 
formed for the expulsion of the Spaniards. 

Barium. — Protoxide of barium was 
discovered in 1774, by Seheeler; and barium, 
the metallic base of baryta, by Davy, in 1808. 

Bark, called Peruvian, or Jesuits' Bark. — 
Its medicinal qualities were discovered by 
the Jesuits in South America; a diseased 
person having, by accident, taken water 
impregnated with it. As a medicine it was 
first used in Spain in 1640 ; and in England, 
about 1654. The Mercu/rius Foliticus, Feb. 
3 — 10, 1659, announces where "the Feaver 
Bark, commonly called the Jesuits' powder, 
brought over by James Thompson, merchant 
of Antwerp," may be obtained. 

Baelaamites. — Followers of Barlaam, a 
native of Calabria, and a monk of the order 
of St. Basil, who, in the controversy between 
the Greek and Latin churches, after support- 
ing the cause of the latter, became an advocate 
of the former. He brought a complaint be- 
fore the patriarch of Constantinople, against 
the tenets of the Hesychistae, or Quietists, 
the name given to the monks of Mount 
Athos. The cause was tried, and the monks 
acquitted, in 1337. In 1339 Barlaam was 
the emperor's ambassador to the pope at 
Avignon for a luiion of the two churches. 
The old controversy was afterwards renewed, 
and to such a pitch did it proceed, that a 
council was held at Constantinople, June 11, 
1341, in which the monks, with Palamas at 
their head, were victorious. The Barlaamites 
were condemned by subsequent councils, 
and Barlaam himself is said to have once 
more joiaed the Latins, He died about 
1348. 

Barletta (S. Italy), was besieged by 
the French in 1502. During the siege, the 
celebrated military rencontre between eleven 
Spanish and as many French knights took 
place. The lists were formed on neutral 
territory, under the walls of Trani, and the 
combat came off Sept. 20, 1502. Though 
five of the French knights were slain. Bayard 
and a companion are said to have defended 
themselves with such skill against the seven 
Spaniards, that it terminated in a drawn 
battle. There are various accounts of this 
trial of arms. Bayard fought in single com- 
bat with the Spanish cavalier Sotomayor 
(Feb. 2, 1503), when the latter was slain. 
The French having been defeated in two 
battles, Friday, April 21, and Friday, the 
28th, 1503, in the last of which the duke of 
Nemours was slain, abandoned the siege of 
Barletta. 

Barnaeites. — This religious order was 
formed at Milan, in 1530, by three persons, 
named Antony MariaZaQharias,Bartholomew 

99 L-oFG, 



BAR 

Ferrarius, and Jacopo Antony Morigia. It 
was approved by Clement VII. in 1533, and 
confirmed by Paul III. in 1535. They were 
called regular clerks of St. Paul, from their 
assiduous study of his epistles, recommended 
to them by their first master ; and are said 
to have received the name of Barnabites 
from the church of St. Barnabas at Milan, 

fiven them in 1535. They spread through 
taly and Germany, and were invited into 
France by Henry IV., in 1608, to be 
employed in the mission of Bearne. On 
their first establishment they lived on the 
gratuities of the pious, but afterwards held 
property. 

BARifAED's Inn was named after Lyon el 
Barnard, who resided here in the year 1434 
(13 Hen. VI.), at which time it was the pro- 
perty of Dr. John Mackworth, dean of 
Lincoln, by whose name it had been before 
known. In 1601, one Mr. Warren was 
fined £1. 6s. 8d. for wearing his hat in haU, 
and for his long hair, and otherwise misde- 
meaning himself. The first attempt to intro- 
duce attorneys into the inn was made in 
1608. 

Baenet (Battle) .—Fought during the wars 
of the Roses, on Gladsmore Heath, near Chip- 
piag-Barnet, onEaster Sunday, April 14, 1471. 
The Yorkists, commanded by Edward IV., 
gained a complete victory over the Lancas- 
trians, led by the earl of Warwick, the king- 
maker, who fell in the battle. A monument 
was erected on the spot where the encounter 
took place, in 1740. 

Baeoach (Hindostan). — This district was 
conquered by the British in 1781, and was 
afterwards restored to the Mahrattas. The 
city of Baroaeh and its fortress were cap- 
tured Aug. 29, 1803, and the whole territory 
ceded to the East-India Company, by treaty, 
Dec. 30, 1803. It was a place of great trade 
in the 16th centxiry, and was taken by Acbar 
in 1572. 

Baroda (India), the capital of the Guico- 
war's territory, was a large and wealthy city 
in the reign of Aurungzebe, who died in 1707. 
A treaty of amity was concluded between its 
ruler and the East-India Company in 1780. 
In 1802 the king applied to the East-India 
Company for assistance to put down a 
rebellion. This was accomphshed, and the 
relations between the two governments were 
regvdated by arrangements made ia 1802, 
1805, 1817, and 1820. 

Barometer was invented by TorriceUi, a 
Florentine, pupU of Galileo, in 1643. Pascal 
unproved it in 1648, and from that period 
great improvements have been effected in its 
construction by various scientific men. 

Baron. — This term, now apphed to the 
lowest title in the peerage, was formerly 
extended to all the nobihty of England. Its 
origin and real signification in the early 
period of our history have excited much 
controversy. The ancient baron is generally 
supposed to have been the same as our pre- 
sent lord of the manor. He was at first 
called vavassour, this being changed by the 
Saxons into thane, and by the 2f ormans into 
H 2 



BAR 

baron. Originally, all barons had seats in 
the king's council. lu the reign of King 
John, the barons had become so numerous 
that they were divided, the greater barons, 
■who held in capite of the crown, being sum- 
moned by writ to attend the king's council; 
whilst the lesser barons, who held under the 
greater barons by military tenure, were 
summoned by the sheriff to sit by repre- 
sentation ; hence arose the lower house of 
parliament. The first precept to be found 
is of the 49th of Henry III., Dec. 24, 1265, 
from which period no other seems to have 
been issued until 22 Edw. I. (1294), or, as 
Sir H. N. Nicolas is of opinion, until 
23 Edw. I., June 24, 1295. Eichard II. 
converted it into a mere title of honour, by 
conferring it on persons by letters patent ; 
the first barony of this kind being that of 
Beaucharap and Kidderminster, datedOct. 10, 
1387, and conferred upon John Beauchamp, 
of Holt. This baron never sat in parhament, 
as he was attainted in the following year. 
At the Eestoration, Charles II. granted a 
coronet to barons. The first instance of 
their being styled peers is in the award of 
exile against Hugh le Despencer and his son, 
in 1321. The citizens of London, York, 
Chester, and other towns, were at an early 
period honoured with the title of baron. 

Baeonet. — This order was instituted, or, 
as some assert, adopted, because the title 
existed previously in Ireland, by James I., 
in 1611 ; and the first patent, to Nicholas 
Bacon, is dated May 22, in that year. Each 
knight or esquire was, under the pretence of 
providing a fund for the defence of the 
English settlement of Ulster, to pay a sum 
of £1,000, to support thirty foot-soldiers for 
three years at 8d. per day, together vdth the 
official fees. The number fixed was 200, but 
only ninety-three patents were sold in six 
years. Baronets of Ireland were estabhshed 
in 1619, the first patent being dated Sept. 30; 
and of Scotland, called baronets of Nova 
Scotia, by Charles I. in 1625 ; the first 
patent being dated May 22. Females have 
assumed the dignity. The Gentleman's 
Magazine for 1754 gives the following 
instance of one created by James II. : — 
" Sept. 9, 1686.— Cornelius Speeknan, of the 
United Provinces, a general of the states of 
Holland ; with a special clause to the gene- 
ral's mother, of the rank and title of a 
baronetess of England." 

Baegn-s of G-eesian-y. — ^During the Middle 
Ages many of the German barons were 
little better than reckless freebooters. Hal- 
lam (Middle Ages, iii. ch. 9, pt. 1) says :— 
"Germany appears to have been, upon the 
whole, the country where downright robbery 
was most unscrupulously practised by the 
great. Their castles, erected on almost 
inaccessible heights among the woods, be- 
came the secure receptacles of predatory 
bands, who spread terror over the country. 
From these barbarian lords of the dark 
ages, as from a living model, the romances 
are said to have drawn their giants and 
other disloyal enemies of true chivalry." 
100 



BAH 

Their depredations compelled the inhabitants 
of towns to form leagues for purposes of 
protection and self-defence. Sixty cities 
were associated in the League of the Rhine 
in 1255. The Hanseatic union owes it3 
origin to the same cause ; and in 1370 the 
cities of Suabia and the Rhine entered into a 
similar confederacy. 

Baeons' Wae, originated in the refusal 
of Henry III. to ratif »• the statutes enacted 
at Oxford, in the "Mad Parliament," June 11, 
1258. The matter was referred to the 
arbitration of Louis IX. of France, who 
decided, at a council held at Amiens, that 
the statutes should be annulled, Jan. 23, 1264. 
The barons, with Simon de Montfort at their 
head, took up arms, and, on the 14th of May, | 
totally defeated the king at Lewes. A par- 
liament assembled at London Jan. 20, 1265. 
Disputes arose amongst the bai ons, and on the 
4th of August (1265) , a second great battle 
was fought at Evesham, in which the king 
was victorious, and De Montfort was slain. 
The barons, who continued to oppose the king, 
took refuge in the castle of Kemlworth, and 
they were compelled by famine to surrender, 
in November, 1266. The war was stdl car- 
ried on, and Prince Edward, afterwards 
Edward I., reduced the island of Ely, their 
last stronghold, July 25, 1267. 

Baeossa (Battle). — An allied British, 
Spanish, and Portuguese force, of 12,000 
men, with 24 pieces of artillery, were attacked 
at this place, in Spain, by 16,000 French 
under Victor, on the 5th of March, 1811. 
The former were victorious, though the 
British contingent under General Graham, 
which amounted to only 4,000 men, received 
no support wh.atever from the Spaniards. An 
eagle, six pieces of artUlery, and 500 prisoners 
fell into the hands of the British. 

B AEEACEPOEE ( Hindostan ) . — A revolt 
occurred here in 1824, and the mutiny of the 
sepoys commenced at Dum-Dum and at this 
town, near Calcutta, in 1857. On the first 
occasion the 47th regiment of native infantry, 
then about to depart to assist in the Burmese 
war, displayed a mutinous spirit Sept. 15, 
and they refused to parade Oct. 30, 1824. 
They declared that they would not go to 
Rangoon, or anywhere else, by sea, or 
even march by land, unless they received 
double batta. A further manifestation took 
place Nov. 1, when a battery opened on 
their rear, killing a few, and putting the 
remainder to flight. Many arrests were 
made, the offenders were found guilty by a 
court-martial, and the ringleaders were exe- 
cuted. The 47th native regiment was erased 
from the army list. It was here that the 
sepoys, in Feb. 1857, objected to bite off 
the ends of the new cartridges, on the pre- 
tence that they contained fat, which, if per- 
mitted to come in contact with their hps or 
tongues, entailed a loss of caste. An inquiry 
took place Feb. 6, but it did not produce any 
satisfactory result ; and the 34th native 
regiment rebelled March 29th. The 19th 
I regiment of native infantry was disbanded 
I and dismissed here, March 31 ; and the 34ith, 



BAE 

May 5th. Three native regiments were dis- 
armed at Barrackpore, June 14th. 

Barkicades, constructed of the first mate- 
rials that came to hand, were used in 
popular insurrections during the Middle 
Ages. Paris has obtained notoriety as the 
city in which they have been most frequently 
employed. In 1358, its streets were barri- 
caded against the Dauphin. The first Battle 
of the Barricades took place on the entry of 
the duke of Guise into Paris, in 1588. 
Henry III., at his instigation, consented to 
take severe measures against the Huguenots, 
on the promise that the duke would assist 
him in purging Paris of strangers and 
obnoxious persons. No sooner, however, 
was an attempt made to execute this plan, 
than the people rose, erected barricades, and 
attacked the king's troops with irresistible 
fury. Henry III., having requested the 
duke of Guise to put a stop to the conflict, 
fled from Paris, and the moment the duke 
showed himself to the people, they puUed 
down the barricades. It was followed during 
the war of the Fronde, by another contest 
of a somewhat similar character, Aug. 26, 
1648, when Anne of Austria ordered the 
arrest of Charton, Blancmeuil, and Broussel, 
three popiilar members of the Parliament. 
The first-mentioned managed to escape, but 
the other two were captured ; whereupon 
the people rebelled, formed barricades, and 
attacked the troops vnth cries of " Broussel 
and lii erty ! " The queen was intimidated, 
and, by the advice of Mazarin, ordered the 
release of the prisoners. In July, 1830, the 
elder branch of the Bourbons, and in Feb., 
184S, the Orleans branch of the same family, 
were driven from the French throne after a 
struggle at the barricades. Cavaignac in 
defence of the Provisional Govermnent 
waged a fearful contest with the insurgents 
who had erected barricades, June 23, 24, 25, 
and 26, 1848, in which he was at length 
victorious. The killed and wounded amounted 
to 15,000, and about 8,000 of the rebels were 
taken prisoners. Napoleon III. has widened 
the streets, and taken other precautions to 
prevent the recurrence of such scenes. 
Barricades have been erected during popular 
outbreaks at Berhn, Vienna, and other 
continental cities. An attempt at something 
of the kind was made in London, on the 
occasion of the funeral procession of Queen 
C\roline in August, 1821, but it was speedily 
su.ipressed. 

Baeeiees (Battle), was fought under the 
walls of Paris March 30, 1814, when the 
aUied army after an obstinate contest gained 
a victory, which led to the capitulation of 
Paris and the abdication of Napoleon I. 

Bakrier Treaties. — The first between 
England and the Netherlands, was negotiated 
by Lord Townshend, and signed at the 
Hague Oct. 29, 1709. England engaged to 
assist the Dutch in preserving their barrier 
towns, whilst the Dutch pledged themselves 
to maintain the queen of England's title to 
her dominions, and the Protestant succes- 
8ioii. It was very unpopular in this country, 



BAR 

and was called Lord Townshend's treaty. It 
was annulled in 1712, and a new barrier 
treaty concluded at Utrecht Jan. 30, 1813. 
Another treaty known by this name was 
signed at Antwerp, between England, the 
Netherlands, and the emperor Charles VI., 
Nov. 15, 1715. It determined the bounda- 
ries of the Netherlands, and the emperor 
recognized the Hanoverian succession, as 
the states general had done in the former 
treaties. 

Barristers, or Barrasters, at first styled 
apprenticii ad legem (apprentices) were first 
appointed, according to Dugdale, by an 
ordinance of the 20th year of the reign of 
Edward I. (1292). The clergy, who for some 
time supphed the only persons learned in the 
law, were at the commencement of Henry 
the Third's reign prohibited from practising 
in the secular courts. Reeves (Hist, of Eng. 
Law, V. 247), remarks, — "We have seen that 
heretofore there were only two descriptions 
of advocates ; these were Serjeants and 
apprentices. But we find in this reign 
(Elizabeth), and no doubt it had been so for 
some time, that the orders of the profession 
were these, — the lowest was a student, called 
also an inner barrister, and so distinguished 
from the next rank, which was that of an 
outer or utter barrister; then came an 
apprentice, and next a serjeant." The first 
order relative to the quahfications of barris- 
ters was made June 21, 1571, being the 13th 
year of Ehzabeth's reign. The following 
entry occurs in the churchwardens' accounts 
of St. Margaret, Westminster, for 1476: — 
" Also paid to Roger Fylpott, learned in the 
law, for his counsel-giving, 3«. 8^., with 4d. 
for his diimer." In the reign of Charles II. 
the client consulted the barrister in person, 
and handed him the honorarium vrithout the 
intervention of an attorney or clerk. The 
qualifications required varied until 1852; 
when the four societies agreed upon one set 
of rules. 

Barrow Island (Arctic Sea) . — Discovered 
by Captain Beechy, Jan. 26, 1826. Like 
Barrow's Straits, it is named after Sir John 
Barrow, Bart., secretary to the Admiralty, 
and author of "Chronological History of 
Arctic voyages," and other works. 

Barrows. — These tumuh, or mounds of 
earth, are the most ancient monuments in 
the world. Gough says they were both 
tombs and altars. They were used by the 
Assyrians, the Egyptians, and other ancient 
people. Homer makes mention of one raised 
by Achilles in memory of Patroclus, and of 
another to Hector. In some cases they 
were erected in honour of a deceased hero, 
whose remains were not deposited beneath 
them, and frequently to signalize some 
important event. After the battle of Plataea, 
and the utter failure of the Persian invasion, 
B.C. 479, Pausanias ordered the dead to be 
interred in tumuli or barrows. "A single 
burying-place," says a writer in the " Ency- 
clopaecEa Metropolitana," "was appointed 
to the use of the Athenians, Tegaeans, 
Megaraeans, and Philiasians; but the slain of 
101 



BAE 

the Lacedaemonians formed three separate i 
momids ; one consisting of those who had j 
borne the priestly office, another of the 
Lacedaemonians in general, and the third of 
their Helots." Barrows were very common 
in Britain at an early period. Those at Abury 
and Stonehenge are the most ancient. They 
are of numerous shapes, and devoted to 
various purposes. Many have been opened, 
and in addition to bones (calcined), ashes, 
stone coffins, &c., amber ornaments, and 
other rehcs have been discovered. 

Baeeow's Steaits. — This channel, leading 
from Baffin's Bay into the Polar Sea, was 
discovered by Baffin in 1616 ; and explored 
in 1819 by Lieutenant Parry, who named it 
after Sir John Barrow. 

BAETEif STEIN (Treaty).— Between Prussia 
and Kussia, was concluded at Bartenstein, 
April 25, 1807. It provided for a vigorous pro- 
secution of the war against France, and the 
contracting parties engaged not to make a 
separate peace. 

Baetholomew Faie. — To the priory of 
Bartholomew, founded by Eahere, King 
Henry I. iu 1133, granted the privilege of 
holding a fair in Smithfield on St. Bartholo- 
mew's Day, O.S. Aug. 24, N.S. Sept. 3. 
The original grant was for three days, but 
this was gradually extended to fifteen. In 
1593, 1603, 1625, 1630, 1665, and 1666, the 
fair was suspended on account of the plague. 
An order of the Common Council in 1708, 
limited its duration to three days. At one 
time it was a great place of resort for traders, 
but it declined in importance until it was 
only attended by itinerant showmen and the 
o^vners of a few stalls. Proclamation of the 
fair was made for the last time in 1855. 
Jlorley's work entitled "Memoirs of Bartho- 
lomevir's Fair" contains fuU and interesting 
details on this subject. 

BAETHOiiOMEw's Dat (Massacrc of the 
Protestants). — On the evening of St. Bartho- 
lomew's Day, Aug. 24, 1572, the massacre of 
the Huguenots at Paris commenced. The 
Boman CathoHc leaders, the dukes of Guise, 
Aumale, and Anjou, with the connivance of 
Charles EX., and at the instigation of 
Catherine de Medici, resolved by a general 
assassination to exterminate the French 
Protestants. Their leader, Admiral Coligny, 
the first victim, was shot Aug. 22, and the 
inhuman slaughter of man, woman, and 
child, which commenced on the 24th was 
carried on till it was believed that aU the 
Protestants iu Paris had been destroyed. 
The plot had been secretly organized, and 
similar' scenes were enacted in many towns 
in the provinces. According to the lowest 
estimate, 30,000 persons perished. The reign- 
ihg pope, Gregory XIII., celebrated this 
deed of blood by a procession and a Te 



Deum at Eome, and proclaimed a year of 
jubilee. He also ordered a medal to be 
struck in its commemoration. 

BAETHoiiOMBw's HOSPITAL was founded m 
1102, by Eahere, who had been king's min- 
strel. It was originally in. connection with 
the priory, which Eahere established about 
102 



BAS 

the same time. Edward II., by letters 
patent, conferred upon it the privilege of 
sanctuary ; consequently no person covdd be 
arrested within its precincts. Both priory 
and hospital were dissolved by Henry "VIII., 
who founded the hospital anew, giring 500 
marks per annum towards its maintenance, 
on the condition that the city should give a 
like sum. It escaped the great fii-e in 1666, 
and has been several times enlarged. 

Baetholomites. — This rehgious order of 
St. Basil, driven from Armenia in 1296, owing 
to the cruelties committed upon them by the 
sultan of Egypt, formed an estabhshment at 
Genoa in 1307. They obtained a second 
house at Parma in 1318, and afterwards 
spread to other towns in Italy. They assumed 
the habit of St. Dominic, and eventually 
followed the rule of St. Augustine, which 
was confirmed to them by Innocent VI., in 
1356. The Bartholomites gradually decreased 
in numbers, and were suppressed by Inno- 
cent X. in 1650. 

Baewalde (Treaty). — Between France 
and Sweden, concluded by Gustavus, in his 
camp at Barwalde or Barenwald, Jan. 13, 
1631. It provided for a defensive aUiance, 
and its duration was fixed at six years. It 
was aimed against the emperor and Spain. 

Baetholomew, St. (W. Indies). — This 
island was colonized by the French in 1648 ; 
taken by the EngUsh in 1689 ; and restored 
to France in 1697. The EngHsh took it again in 
1746, restored it in 1748, and captured it again 
March 17, 1781. It was ceded in perpetuity 
by France to Sweden in 1784, in return for 
certain concessions. The Enghsh again cap- 
tured it March 22, 1801, but restored it to 
Sweden the same year. 

Basel (Svritzerland). — This ancient city 
was ruled during the Middle Ages by a b ishop, 
who was a prince of the German empire. It 
was taken by Eodolph of Habsburg in 1267 ; 
in 1392 became a free imperial city, which 
was, with the adjoining territory, admitted 
into the Confederation in 1501, when the 
bishops were expelled. A council was held 
here in Oct. 1061. The eighteenth General 
Council, transferred from Pavia to Sienna 
and from Sienna to Basel, assembled July 23, 
1431, and was brought to a conclusion May 16, 
1543. Its chief objects were the reunion of 
the Greek and Latin churches, and a general 
reformation of the Church. The university 
of Basel was founded by a papal buU from 
Pius II. in 1459. Treaties of peace were 
concluded at Basel between France and 
Prussia, AprQ 5 and May 17 ; between France 
and Spain, July 22; and between France 
and Hesse-Cassel, Aug. 28, 1795. The French 
seized the city in 1798. 

Bashee, or Bashi Islands (Pacific), 
five in number, were discovered by Dam- 
pier, in 1687, and colonized by the Spaniards 
in 1783. They form a dependency of the 
Philippines. 

Bashi Bazottks. — Irregular troops in the 
Turkish service, principally Asiatics. They 
formed a contingent of the Turkish army 
during the Crimean war 1853-56. As light 



BAS 



BA8 



cavalry they are considered excellent, sur- 
passing the Cossacks in courage and powers 
of endurance. 

Basientello (Battle) .—Otho III., empe- 
ror of Germany, was defeated near this place, 
in Italy, by the Greeks and Saracens, Jiily 13, 
982. 

Basiliasts. — Monks of the order of Basil, 
surnamed the Great, bishop of Csesarea a.d. 
370. He had retired in 358 into a desert in 
Pontus and founded a monastery. He after- 
wards founded several similar establishments, 
placing them under rules of his own institu- 
tion. The order was introduced into the 
Western Church in 1057, and was reformed 
by pope Gregory XIII. in 1569. 

Basilica. — This code of Byzantine law was 
published a.d. 884 by Basil I., from whom its 
name is derived. It was revised and extended 
by Leo VI. and Constantine VII. (Porphy- 
rogenitus), and appeared in its amended 
form between 905 and 911. This remained 
the law of the Byzantine empire tiU its 
conquest by the Turks, and has been adopted 
in the modern kingdom of Greece. 

Basiijdians. — The followers of Basihdes 
of Alexandria, who is supposed to have 
quitted the Church during the reign of Tra- 
jan or that of Hadrian, were thus named. 
Cave says that he flourished in 112, Basnage 
in 121, and MiU in 123. Basilides, who died 
in 130, perverted the doctrine of the Logos. 
Clement of Alexandria asserts that Basilides 
boasted that he had been taught by a disciple 
of St. Peter. 

Basilikos" Doeon", or Eotai. Gipt, a 
treatise composed by James I., and pubUshed 
at Edinburgh in 1599. It is divided into three 
books, and contains precepts on the art of 
government, addressed by the king to his son, 
Henry, prince of Wales, who died suddenly, 
Nov. 6, 1612, aged 17. 

Basino (Hants) . — ^The scene of the Danish 
victory over Ethelred and Alfred in 871. 
Near this place is Basing House, celebrated 
for its heroic defence by the marquis of Win- 
chester, against the parhamentary forces in 
16Mi. It was relieved by Col. Gage, after 
having sustained a siege of three months; but 
on his retirement, the enemy again returned. 
When Col. Gage once more approached to 
relieve it in November of the same year, they 
took to flight. The besiegers returned: 
Cromwell stormed the place in 1646, and put 
the garrison to the sword. 

Basket-making, or Wickee-woek. — The 
ancient Britons, from whom the Romans are 
said to have learned it, excelled in this kind 
of manufacture. Their boats, shields, and 
various implements were fashioned of wicker- 
work. Herodotus (i. 194) mentions boats of 
this kind on the Euphrates. A company of 
basket-makers once existed in London. 

Baslabd. — Sir W. Walworth wounded Wat 
Tyler in the neck with a baslard or basiliarde, 
a species of dagger, worn at that -time sus- 
pended from the girdle. By 12 Rich. II., 
c. 6 (1388), no servant or labourer was allowed 
to carry one of these weapons. This statute 
was repealed by 21 James I. c. 28 (1623). 



Wright states that in 1403, it was decreed 
that no person not in receipt of an income of 
£20 per annum should use a baslard orna- 
mented with silver. 

Basque Pkovinces. — Three provinces oi 
Spain — Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, o( 
which the origin is unknown. The inJiabitanti. 
preserved their independence against suc» 
cessive invasions of Romans and Goths, but 
were at length subdued by the latter about 
A.B. 585. Guipuzcoa and Alava were united 
to CastUe in the 13th century, and Biscay 
was annexed to Castile by Peter the Cruel in 
the 14th. 

Basque Roads (Sea-fight). — On the 11th 
of April, Captain Lord Cochrane, afterwards 
earl of Dundonald, in the Jmperieuse, with 
explosion-vessels, fire-ships, gunboats, &c., 
sailed from Basque Roads to attack the 
French fleet at anchor under the shelter of 
the batteries in Aix Roads. A boom, half a 
mile in length and composed of the thickest 
cables, floated by buoys, had been moored a 
few yards in front of the line of French fri- 
gates. An explosion vessel, fired by Lord 
Cochrane, broke through the boom, and such 
was the terror caused amongst the French 
fleet that the cables were cut and the ships 
drifted on shore. Lord Cochrane in the 
morning of the 12th signalled to Admiral 
Lord Gambler to send half the fleet to 
destroy the French ships, several of which 
were aground. This, however, Lord Gambler 
refused to do, and a large portion of the 
French fleet, by dint of great exertions, 
managed to escape. At St. Helena Napo- 
leon I. admitted, that if Lord Cochrane had 
been properly supported, aU the French 
ships must have been captured or destroyed. 

Bassano (Battles). — During the French 
revolutionary war, the Austrian general 
Wurmser was defeated at this town in Lom- 
bardy, Sep. 8, 1796, by the French republican 
army under Massena and Angereau. Bassano 
was restored to Austria, by the treaty of 
Campo-Formio, in 1797 ; but in the Itahan 
campaign of 1813 Eugene Beauharnaia 
wrested it from the Austrians. 

BASSEiif (Treaty), between the Peishwa 
and the East-India Company, was concluded 
at this place, in Hindostan, Dec. 31, 1802, and 
ratifications were exchanged, March 18, 1803. 
It was an alliance offensive and defensive be- 
tween the contracting parties, and in return 
for certain concessions the English engaged 
to support the rights of the Mahratta chief- 
tain. 

Basset. — ^This game at cards, said to have 
been invented by a noble Venetian in the 15th 
century, was introduced into France in 1674. 
The courtiers of James II. are, in an account 
dated Feb. 6, 1685, represented as playing at 
basset on the day of his proclamation. It 
was played at the court of Louis XIV., until 
that monarch lost a large sum by means of 
false cards ; whereupon he ordered that per- 
sons found playing basset should be fined 
1,000 livres. 

Bassetekee (Sea Fight). — Count de Grasse 
made three attacks upon the British fleet, 
103 



BAS 

anchored in Basseterre Eoads, St. Christo- 
pher's, on the 26th of January, 1782, and 
"was, on each occasion, repulsed with great 
loss. 

Bassoeah, or Bttsea (Asiatic Turkey). — 
This city was founded by Omar a.d. 636, and 
captured during the revolt against Ah, by 
Telha and Zobeir, accompanied by Ayesha, 
the widow of the prophet, in 658. The rebels 
were, however, defeated under its walls in 
the same year. The Saracen rule terminated 
by its conquest by the Turks in 701. Though 
it became aflourishing place it was abandoned, 
some writers allege, because the canal onwhich 
it was built had fallen into neglect ; and the 
modern Bassorah, eight miles to the north- 
east of the ancient site, was estabhshed. The 
Turks made themselves masters of Bassorah 
in 1668 ; but it was wrested from them by the 
Persians April 16, 1776, after a siege of twelve 
months. It was recovered by the Turks in 
1778, and is knovra under the name of Bus- 
sorah and Basra. 

Bass Eock (Frith of Forth). — This 
small island is first mentioned in history 
as affording a retreat for St. Baldred, a 
Scottish enthusiast, who died here March 6, 
606 A.D. It was granted to the Lauder 
family by charter, dated June 4, 1316. A 
castle existed on this island in the 15th 
century, if not before. James VI. of Scot- 
land visited the Bass Eock in 1581, and 
the EngUsh government purchased it for 
a state prison in October, 1671. Having 
surrendered to the new government in 1690, 
some adherents of James I. regaiaed pos- 
session the same year, and they held it, 
plundering all vessels that came near, until 
April, 1694. It was the last place in Scotland 
that held out for James II. The fortifications 
were finally destroyed in 1701, by order of 
William III. To the Dalrjnnple family, in 
whose possession it has since remained, it 
was ceded by charter, July 31, 1706, ratified 
by parliament in March, 1707. Several of 
the Covenanters were imprisoned in this 
island. 

Bass's Strait (Pacific). — This channel, 
separating Van Diemen's Land from Aus- 
traHa, is named after Mr. Bass, surgeon of 
the ship Reliance, who, accompamed by 
FHnders, in 1798, circunmavigated Van Die- 
men's Land, long beheved to form part of 
Australia,' 

Bastia, was the capital of Corsica until that 
island was annexed to France in 1768. The 
town and its citadel were captured by the 
EngUsh in 1745, and again May 22, 1794. 

Bastille. — There were three lastOles or 
state-prisons, namely those of the Temple, 
St. Denis, and the Eue St. Antoine, at Paris. 
On the ground occupied by the last-men- 
tioned, a kind of fortress, which was strength- 
ened in 1356, had long before existed. The 
place generally known as the Bastille was 
commenced by order of Charles V., and the 
first stone was laid April 22, 1369. It was 
not completed until 1383, and was afterwards 
improved and strengthened in such a manner 
that it became one of the strongest fortresses 
10^ 



BAT 

of the kind in Europe. It was taken in 1418, 
in 1594, and Jan. 13, 1649, by the Fronde 
army. The mob attacked it July 14, 1789, 
released the prisoners, put the governor to 
death, committed great havoc, and soon after 
the order was given for its demohtion. This 
was the commencement of the French Eevo- 
lution. 

Batalha (Portugal). — John I. built a 
convent at this place in commemoration of 
his victory over John I. of Castile, at Aljuba- 
rota in August, 1835. 

Batavia, an island in the Ehine, occupied 
in the time of C^sar, B.C. 55, by a German 
tribe, called the Batavi. Claudius Civilis, 
a Batavian chieftain, rose in arms against 
the Eomans a. d. 69, and after a fierce 
struggle, in which he gained many victories, 
was at last defeated. Zosimus, who was the 
first to caU the island Batavia, states that in 
thetimeof Constantius, about360, it belonged 
to the Franks. {See Holland.) 

Batavia (Java) . — A factory was estabhshed 
by the Dutch at the village of Jacatra in 1612, 
and upon its site the town of Batavia was 
founded in 1619. The new settlement be- 
came the seat of the government of their 
East-Indian colonies. The French obtained 
possession in 1811, and were expelled by the 
EngUsh Aug. 8 in the same year. It was 
restored to the Dutch by a convention signed 
in August, 1814. 

Batavian Ekpitblic. — ^In 1795 the French 
repubUcans invaded the Netherlands, and 
subverted the then existing government. The 
seven united provinces formed with France 
an offensive and defensive alUance against 
England, May 15, 1795. The constitution 
for the Batavian repubUc was promulgated 
Sept. 14, 1801. This new repubUc was gua- 
ranteed by the treaty of LimevUle in the 
same year. Other changes were made, and 
at last the Batavian repubUc was annexed to 
France, and named the kingdom of Holland, 
June 5, 1806. 

Bath (Order of ) .—Knights of the Bath 
were thus named from the ceremony of 
bathing, performed the night before their 
creation, and Sir Harris Nicolas mentions 
two cases of knights created in this manner 
during the reign of King John, the first in 
1204 and the second in 1205. The order is 
supposed to have existed at a much earUer 
period. It is first noticed under the name of 
fhe Bath, March 17, 1400, when Henry IV., 
at his coronation, created forty-six knights. 
The practice was continued at the coronation 
of our sovereigns, but after that of Charles II., 
ia 1661, feU iato neglect, until it was revived 
by George I., May 18, 1725. The order was 
re-organized and extended Jan. 2, 1815, and 
April 14, 1847, the number of knights ia the 
existing classes was increased, whilst civil 
knights, commanders, and companions were 
added. 

Bath (Somersetshire). — The first colony 
of the Eomans in England is supposed to have 
been fixed at Camalodunum, near this city. 
B.C. 46. Thence they transferred their quar- 
ters to Bath, about B.C. 44. The Eomaaa 



BAT 



BAT 



improved the place with many noble buildings. 
Its hot springs are mentioned by their wri- 
ters. Bath suffered during the struggles 
between the Saxons and the Britons, and was 
seized and plundered by the Danes. Kichard I. 

f ranted the town a charter, which was con- 
rmed by Henry III. Edgar was crowned 
at Bath by Dunstan, a.d. 973. The hospital 
of St. John was founded in 1180 ; the abbey 
church was completed in 1609, and the town- 
hall in 1780. Sydney Gardens were opened in 
1795, and Victoria Park in 1830. 

Bath and Wells. — The bishopric of WeUs 
was founded A. D. 909, and that of Bathinl078. 
William II. removed the see of WeUs to 
Bath, by charter, Jan. 25, 1092. This gave 
rise to a dispute between the canons of WeUs 
and the monks of Bath, and it was not ter- 
minated until about 1139, when, with the 
pope's consent, it was determined that the 
bishops should be called bishops of Bath and 
Wells ; that the election should be made by 
the canons of Wells and the monks of Bath 
conjointly; that the event of the election 
should be pronounced by the dean of WeUs, 
and that the bishop should be enthroned in 
both cathedrals. The episcopal residence is 
now at WeUs. 

Baths are mentioned in the Old Testament, 
and Homer speaks of the baths in the houses 
of the Grreeks. Hot baths were also used in 
ancient times, and Homer commends the 
warm fountains of the Scamander, though he 
attributes to them the effeminacy of the Phsea- 
cians. They were not common at Rome until 
the 1st century of the Christian sera. Augustus 
constructed public baths in every part of the 
capital. The baths of Antoninus CaracaUa, in 
the 2nd century, contained above 1,600 marble 
seats, and those of Diocletian, in the 4th cen- 
tury, about 3,000. Gibbon says (ch. xxxi), 
•' The meanest Eoman could purchase, with a 
emaU copper coin, the daily enjoyment of a 
scene ot pomp and lux\iry which might 
excite the envy of the kings of Asia." 

Baths and Wash-houses. — These useful 
establishments are of humble origin. During 
the prevalence of the cholera at Liverpool, in 
1832, a poor woman, Uving in a back street 
in that town, knowing from experience the 
misery and sickness consequent upon dirt, 
offered her neighbours the opportunity of 
washing at a copper which she was fortunate 
enough to possess. Her dweUing was soon 
crowded ; benevolent ladies rendered assist- 
ance, and eighty -live families used this humble 
wash-house at a charge of one penny per 
week. The idea was soon taken up, and a 
small estabhshment was opened in Frederick 
Street, Liverpool, in 1842. In September, 
1844, a meeting was held at the Mansion 
House, and a subscription raised, with the 
view of introducing them in London ; and 
while the first was in course of erection, an act 
ofparliament was passed to encourage the es- 
tabhshment of pubUc baths and wash-houses 
(9 & 10 Vict. c. 74), Aug. 26, 1846. Another 
act, relating to the establishment of similar 
places in Ireland (9 & 10 Vict. c. 87), received 
the royal assent the same day. Temporary 



establishments had been provided as early as 
1844, and these were speedily followed by 
buildings erected for the purpose, affording 
every accommodation both for purposes of 
washing and bathing. 

Bathubst (N. S. Wales). — Gold was dis- 
covered at Ophir, nt^ar Bathurst, Feb. 12, 
1851. The governor issued a proclamation 
on the 22nd of May, claiming the gold, but 
allowing persons to search or dig, on taking a 
license at 30s. per month. By the month of 
June 20,000 persons had arrived at the new 
diggings. 

B ATNE AB (Hindostan) . — The former capital 
of the Batnears or Battles of Hhidostan was 
taken by Tamerlane in 1398, and by the 
rajah of Beykaneer in 1805. 

Batteeins - BAM. — This machine, em- 
ployed for making a breach in the waUs of 
besieged cities, is mentioned in the Old 
Testament, and was used by the Greeks and 
Romans. Battering-rams were often of 
great length, the beam of wood having at 
the end the head of a ram, made of brass or 
iron. They were used e xtensively in the Middle 
Ages, and Sir Christopher Wren found them 
of great service in throwing down old waUs 
and disjointing stones. 

Battebsea Paek.— By 9 & 10 Vict. c. 38 
(1846), the Commissioners of Woods, &c., 
were empowered to form a royal park in 
Battersea Fields. Additional powers were 
granted to them by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 102 
(1848) ; by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 7, 1851) ; 
and by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 47 (1853). The park 
was opened in 1858, and the suspension- 
bridge across the Thames, leading to it, 
March 28, 1858. 

Battin (Battle). — The Russians defeated 
the Turks in a sanguinary attack upon their 
camp, near this place, Oct. 14, 1811. 

Battle Abbet (Sussex) was founded 
by WiUiam I., in 1067, on the spot near 
which the battle of Hastings was fought. It 
was dedicated to St. Martin, "in order that 
glory might be offered up to God for his 
•victory, and that offices for the souls of the 
dead might be there perpetuaUy performed." 
It was endowed with peculiar privileges 
and exempted from episcopal rule and juris- 
diction. The abbot was mitred and sat in 
parHament. 

Battle-axe. — Herodotus speaks of the 
battle-axes of the Scythians in Xerxes' army. 
The Teutonic tribes introduced the modern 
battle-axe into Europe, audit was afterwards 
so common amongst the Franks, that it was 
caUed francisca. They gained great cele- 
brity for dexterity in using it, on their invasion 
of Italy in the 6th century. The battle-axe 
was known in England at a very early 
period, and the assertion that it was intro- 
duced by the Danes is erroneous. Fragments 
of this weapon have been found in Druidical 
remains of a period antecedent to their 
arrival. Hoveden celebrates the might dis- 
played by King Stephen at the battle of 
Lincoln, in 1141 : — " Equal to a thunderbolt, 
slaying some with his inmiense battle-axe, 
and striking down others." It was borne, 
105 



BAT 

as a royal weapon, at the funeral of 
Henry VII., and offered up at the altar with 
the helmet, gauntlet, and crest. 

Battle-dooe. — This game was known in 
England in the 14th century, and was a 
fashionable pastime, even among adults, in 
the reign of James I. In a comedy called 
" The Two Maids of Moreclacke," printed in 
1609, the expression occurs, — "To play at 
shuttle-cock methinks is the game now." 

BATTLEriELD (Battle). — Fought on a 
plain, that has since been called Battlefield, 
about two miles from Shrewsbury, Saturday, 
July 21, 1403. It occurred during the Percy 
insurrection against Henry IV. ; there the 
fiery Hotspur ieU, and Henry V. (then prince 
of Wales) distinguished himself. In this 
action Falstaff' is represented by Shakespeare 
as having led his ragamuffins where they were 
well peppered, only three out of has 150 
ha\ang been left alive. Faktaff himself was 
found by the prince of Wales lying on the 
ground, and he declared that with a for- 
midable adversary, he had "fought a long 
hour by Shrewsbury clock." It was also 
caUed the battle of Shrewsbury, and some- 
times of Hartlefleld. 

Battle Eoll. — On the day following the 
battle of Hastings, WOliam I. called over, 
from the roll drawn up at St. Valery, the 
names of those chieftains who had accom- 
panied him. The number amounted to 629, 
and amongst them a large portion of the 
English territory was divided. 

Battles. — The most important battles 
recorded in history, whether by sea or land, 
are described under their appropriate titles, 
and an alphabetically arranged list appears 
in the Index. 

Batts (Parliament of), assembled at 
Leicester, Monday, Feb. 18, 1426, and was 
called the Parliament of Batts, because, arms 
having beenforbidden, servants and adherents 
followed the members with bats or clubs on 
their shoulders. 

Bauge (Battle). (See Asjov.) 

Bautzen- (Battle). — I^apoleon I. at the 
head of 100,000 men, supported by a nimie- 
rous artillery, attacked an allied Prussian 
and Eussian army, much inferior to his own 
in point of numbers, near Bautzen, Saxony, 
May 21 and 22, 1813. The French loss was 
very great ; but they compelled their 
opponents to retire, which they did in 
good order, presenting a bold front to their 
assailants. 

Bavaeia. — This country, occupied by the 
Boii, a Celtic tribe, was annexed to the 
Roman empire as part of JSTorieum and 
Vindelicia, B.C. 15. It subsequently fell 
into the power of the Ostrogoths and the 
Franks ; and was conquered by Charlemagne, 
who annexed it to his empire in 788. After 
his death it was governed by one of his 
grandsons, under the title of margrave, or 
lord of the marches. 

AD. 

895. Formed into a dukedom. 
1070. PHSsesi. by imperijil grant, into the possession 
of the Guelphs. 
106 



BAV 



1180. The emperor Frederick I. bestows Bavaria 
on Otho of Wittelsbach. 

1231. Otho II. becomes duke of Bavaria, uniting to 
Bavaria the Palatinate of the Rhine. 

1294. Sei>aration of the Palatinate from Bavaria. 

1648. The treaty of Westphalia restores the Pala- 
tinate, and constitutes Bavaria the eighth 
electorate. 

1702. FoiTiis an alliance with France to oppose 
Austria. 

1704. Aug. 13. Battle of Blenheim, in which Marl- 
borough and Prince Eugene defeat the 
united forces of Fi-aiice and Bavaia. 

1714 Sept. 7. The treaty of Baden reinstates the 
elector in his dominions. 

1740, The elector, Charles Albert, aspires to the 
imperial crown, and invades Austria in 
furtherance of his views. 

1744. Maria Theresa defeats the Bavarians, and 
seizes the electorate, which was soon after 
restored. 

1778. Death of the elector Maximilian Joseph. 

with whom the younger line of the house 
of V/ittelsba'-h bee .mes extinct. 

1779. Treaty of Teschen, which recognizes Charles 

Theodore as elector of Bavaria, and cedes 
the district of thf Inn to Austria. 

1798. A French army, under Moreau, occupies 
Munich, and forces Bavaria to conclude 
a treaty with France. 

1801. Feb. 9. Treaty of LuneviUe, by which Bavaria 
cedes all her posse-ssiuns on the left bank of 
the Ehine, and receives, as an indemnifi- 
cation, territory of greater extent. 

1805. Dec. 26. By the treaty of Fresburg, Napoleon 
confers the title of " King " on the elector 
of Bavaria, together with extensive addi- 
tions of territory. 

1813. Bavaria joins the allies against Napoleon, and 
in the two following years has the additions 
to her territories confirmed to her by defi- 
nitive treaties. 

1818. Mav 26. The king grants a constitutional 
charter. 

1848. March 21. Louis, king of Bavaria, abdicates 
in favour of Maximilian II., the reigning 
monarch. 

1850. Feb. 27. Conventionsigned at Munich, between 
Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirtembuj-g, relative 
to the revision of the German constitu- 
tion. 



SOVEEEIGITS OF BATAEIA. 
KAKGBAVES. 



A.D. 

805. Charles IL 

Pepin I. 
811. Bernard I. 
817. Louis, XL 



A.o. 

895. Leopold I. 

907. Amulph the Bad. 

937. Eberhard. L 

939. Berthold. 

942 Henry I. 

9.5.5. Henry IL 

995. Henry III., em- 
peror in 1002. 
1004. Henry IV. 
1025. Henry V. 
1047. Conrad L 
1052. Henry VL 
1054 Conrad II. 
1056. Agnes, Duchess. 
1061. Otho. 
1071. Guelph L 
1101. Guelph IL 
lieo. Henry VII. 
1126. Heuiy VIIL 



A.D. 

876. Carloman 1. 
880. Louis IIL 
882. Charles the Fat. 
888. Amulph L 



I 



1138. Leopold rr. of Au- 

1142. HeniyrX. [stria. 

1154 Henry X. 

1180. Otho I. the Great. 

1183. Louis L a 

1231. Otho IL 

1253. Louis IL 

1294 Louis m., emperor 

in 1314 
1347. Stephen. 
1375. John I. 
1397. Ernest. 
1438. Albert L 
1460. John IL and Sigis- 

mund. 
1465. Albert IL 
1508. WLLUam L 
1550. AlVrt in. 
1579. William IL 



BAY 



ELECTORS. 
A.D. 

1596. Maximilian I. made elector 1623; confirmed 

in title 1648. 
1651. Ferdinand Maria. 
Iii79. Maximilian Emanuel. 
1726. Charles Albert, emperor in 1742. 
1745. Maximilian Joseph I. 
1778. Charles Theodore. 
1799. Maximilian Joseph II., created king 1805. 



180.5. Maximilian Joseph I. 

1825. Louis Charles. 

1848. Maximilian Joseph IL 

Bayazid (Battle). — The Eussians, 8,000 
strong, defeated a Turkish army of 5,000 men 
at this place, in Armenia, July 29, 1854. 

Bateux (Normandy) was burnt to the 
ground by Henry I. in August, 1105; on 
which occasion its magnificent cathedral was 
much injured. Bayeux sujffered greatly in 
the wars between England and France. It 
capitulated to Charles VII. ia 1449. The 
bishopric was founded in the 4th century. 

Bayeitx Tapestet. — This celebrated roll 
of linen cloth or canvass, 214 feet in length, 
and 20 inches wide, contains, in seventy-two 
distinct compartments, a representation, in 
embroidery, of the events of the Norman 
invasion, from Harold's leave-taking of 
Edward the Confessor, on his departure for 
Normandy, to the battle of Hastings. The 
Bayeux tapestry is supposed to have been 
worked by Matilda, wife of William I., and was 
by her presented to the cathedral of Bayeux. 
Montfaucon caused researches to be made 
that ended in the discovery of the tapestry 
in Bayeux Cathedral in 1728; and Napo- 
leon I. had it conveyed to Paris in 1803, 
where it was kept some time, and exhibited. 
It has been engraved, and several works 
upon the subject have been pubhshed. 
Bruce (Bayeux Tapestry elucidated) says 
it contains figures of " 623 men, 202 horses, 
55 dogs, 505 animals of various kinds not 
hitherto enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 ships 
and boats, and 49 trees, — in aU 1,512 figures." 

Bat Islands. — This cluster, in the Bay of 
Honduras, was made an English colony in 
1852. By a treaty in 1860, Great Britain 
ceded the Bay Islands to the republic of 
Honduras. 

Bat op Islands (Pacific), at the northern 
extremity of New Ulster, one of the New 
Zealand Isles, became the seat of a whaling- 
station in the 18th century. 

Batlen (Battle), — In 1808, Dumont's 
army was shut up in Baylen, where a battle 
was fought with the Spaniards, July 20. It 
terminated in the complete discorofiture of 
the French, 20,000 strong, who surrendered 
at discretion. 

Batonet. — Military instructions issued to 
the French army in 1646 and 1647 contain 
the earliest notice of this weapon: In 1671 
they were introduced generally into the 
French army. From official documents it 
appears that in 1682 the bayonet was inserted 
into the barrel of the musket. The plug- 



BAZ 

bayonet was used in England until 1690, 
after which date the socket-bayonet was 
introduced. It superseded the pike; and 
was doubtless taken from the sweynes- 
feather, or swine's feather, called also 
swan's feather, invented during the reign 
of James I. This was a long thin rapier- 
blade, which the musketeer, after discharging 
his piece, fixed into the muzzle. The bayonet 
is said to have received its name from 
Bayonne, where it was invented. 

Batonne (France). — This ancient town 
was made a bishopric towards the end of the 
4th century. Its cathedral was erected in 
the 13th century. It was taken by the 
Enghsh, Jan. 1, 1295, during the invasion of 
France by Edward I. The bayonet is said 
to have been invented at this place, from 
which its name is derived. Charles IV. 
resigned his crown to Napoleon, at the 
castle of Marac, near Bayonne, in 1808. 
Several encounters between the French and 
English took place near Bayonne, Dec. 9, 10, 
11, and 13, 1813, in which the Enghsh were 
victorious, and the place was invested by 
them Feb. 24, 1814. The French were re- 
pulsed in a desperate sally, April 14th. This 
action was fought after peace had been 
concluded. The castle of Marac was de- 
stroyed by fire in 1825. 

Batonne Coneekence was held in June, 
1565, between Charles IX., the queen mother, 
Catherine of Medici, Ehzabeth, queen of 
Spain, and the duke of Alva, envoy of 
Phihp II., to arrange plans for the repres- 
sion of the Huguenots. It is generally 
beheved that the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew's Day was determined upon at this 
meeting. 

Batonne (Treaty). — Agreed to May 4, 
1808, and signed May 5, between Napoleon I. 
and Ferdinand, king of Spain. The latter 
resigned his kingdom, and Napoleon engaged 
to maintain its integrity, and to preserve the 
Roman Catholic religion. 

Batkeuth (Germany). — This principaMty 
was ceded to Prussia in 1791 ; and its annexa- 
tion was agreed to by a treaty between France 
and Prussia, Dec. 15, 1805. France acquired 
it by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807 ; but it 
was transferred to Bohemia in 1810. Its 
capital, of the same name, is a place of some 
importance. The church of St. Mary Mag- 
dalen was built in 1446, and the gymnasium in 
1664. 

Baza (Spain). — Thisstronghold of Granada 
was wrested from the Moors, after a siege of 
six months' duration, by Ferdinand and 
Isabella, in November, 1489. The Spanish 
sovereigns made their triumphal entrance 
into the city, Dec. 4, 1489. 

Bazaar. — This term is applied in Eastern 
countries to a large square or street ap- 
propriated to purposes of trade. The 
bazaar of Tauris is the most extensive in the 
world, and that of Khan Khaliel, at Cairo, 
which occupies the site of the tombs of the 
caliphs, contains some valuable records. It 
j was buUt in 1292. The bazaar at Ispahan 
I is, perhaps, the most magnificent of any. 
107 



BEA 

Adrianople and Constantinople have large 
bazaars. The last-mentioned was built in 
1462. 

Beachet Head (Sea Kght). — A French 
fleet, consisting of 78 sMps of war and 22 
fire-ships, defeated the combined Dutch 
and English squadrons, amounting to 56 
sail, off Beachey Head, June 30, 1690. The 
French obtained the command of the Chan- 
nel, and great consternation was created 
throughout England, particularly in the 
metropohs. Wilham III. was incensed 
against the earl of Torrington, commander of 
the combiaed squadrons, who, being tried by 
court-martial, was honourably acquitted. 

Beacons, or Signal-Fiees, are referred 
to by Jeremiah (vi. 1), and were used by the 
Greeks and Eomans. The intelligence of 
the capture of Troy is represented by 
^schylus as having been conveyed to the 
Peloponnesus by signals of this kind. Coke 
says: — "Before the reign of Edward III. 
they were but stacks of wood set up on high 
places, which were fired when the coming of 
enemies was descried ; but in his reign 
pitch-boxes, as now they be, were, instead of 
these stacks, set up ; and this properly is a 
beacon." By 8 Eliz. c. 13 (1566), the cor- 
poration of the Trinity House were em- 
powered to set up beacons, or sea-marks, 
in ail places where they deemed them 
necessary, and the penalty for destroying 
them was the fine of £100, and, in case of 
inability to pay, outlawry. They were some- 
times erected on the towers of churches. 
The eastern beacon nearest London was on 
Shooters' HiU; and that in Middlesex, on 
Hampstead Hill, as was represented in 
HoUar's View of London in 1666. The 
erection of beacons is a branch of the royal 
prerogative. 

BEADEH--HEAD (Battle). — The kings of 
Wessex and Mercia fought an indecisive 
battle at this place, supposed to be Great 
Bedwyn, in WUtshire, a.d. 675. 

Beads, made of various materials, were 
used as ornaments amongst ancient nations, 
and have been frequently found in bar- 
rows, more particularly in those of the 
Druids, in different parts of England. They 
were used for devotional purposes by the 
Chinese, Hindoos, and Egyptians ; and Au- 
gustine, in the 4th century, is said to have 
introduced the practice among the Chris- 
tians. According to the 10th of the canons 
of Cealcythe, passed in 816, seven belts of 
paternosters were to be said for the repose of 
a bishop. About the year 1200, St. Dominic 
introduced the rosary, which contains for 
every ten lesser beads, representing aves, one 
larger bead, or paternoster, amounting alto- 
gether to 150 smaller and 15 larger beads. 
It was afterwards neglected, but again 
brought into use about 1460. 

Beandune (Battle). — CynegUs, king of 
Wessex, defeated the Britons at this place, 
supposed to be Bampton, in Oxfordshire, 
though some authorities are in favour of 
Bampton, in Devonshire, in 614. More than 
2,000 of the Britons fell in the action. 
108 



BEA 

Bear. — This military order was instituted 
at St. GaU, in Switzerland, by the emperor 
Frederick II., in 1213, St. Ursus being the 
patron. It was abohshed when Switzerland 
threw off the Austrian yoke. 

Beak-baiting. — This cruel pastime was 
very popular in England during the Middle 
Ages, and frequently took place on a Sunday, 
after service. In Pitzstepheu's description 
of London, — and he wrote in the time of 
Henry II., bear-baiting is enumerated 
amongst the sports of the citizens; and 
Stow speaks of the bear-gardens as being 
much frequented in his day. The act against 
cruelty to animals (5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 59), 
Sept. 9, 1835, inflicts upon persons keeping 
bear-pits a fine not exceeding £5 nor less 
than 10s. per day; and the 47th clause of the 
act for improving the police in and near the 
metropolis (Aug. 17, 1839) gives them the 
power of entering such places. 

Beard is first noticed in Lev. xix. 27 : 
"Thou shalt not mar the corners of thy 
beard." It was held in veneration amongst 
ancient nations, who regarded it as an emblem 
of wisdom, and a symbol of authority. So ne 
classes of the IsraeUtes wore long beards 
(2 Sam. X.). The flowing beards and ma- 
jestic mien of the Roman senators awed 
the Goths on their invasion of Italy, B.C. 390. 
The fashion of the beard has varied greatly at 
different periods. The Saxons wore forked 
beards. Owen, bishop of Evreux, allowed 
his beard to grow, as a sign of mourning. 
Taylor, the water poet, dwells on the great 
variety of beards in his day. The beard 
diminished in size and gradually went out 
of fashion in England after the reign of 
Charles I. The fashion has, however, of late 
years revived. 

Beaulieu Abbey (Hants), was foimded 
by King John for Cistercian monks, in 1204. 
Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., 
took sanctuary here after the battle of 
Barnet in 1471, and Richard, duke of 
York,* after his failure upon Exeter, also 
sought sanctuary in this monastery, Sept. 21, 
1497. 

Beauvais (France). — The Caesaromagus, 
or Bratuspantium of the Romans, was taken 
by Caesar B.C. 57. It received the name of 
Bellovacum in the time of Constantine. ChU- 
peric obtained possession a.d. 471, and after 
undergoing various vicissitudes, it resisted an 
attack by the EngUsh, June 7, 1433. Charles, 
duke of Burgundy, laid siege to it, Saturday, 
June 27, 1472, and aft^ making the most 
extraordinary efforts, was compelled to retire, 
Wednesday, July 22, in the same year. The 
women, called the heroines of Beauvais, 
distinguished themselves during the siege. 
Jeanne Laine, battle-axe in hand, carried off 
a Burgundian standard, for which she was 
called Jeanne Haehette ; and in honour of 
this deed of daring, a procession, headed 
by girls carrying her banner, takes place 



* The statement that he was an impostor named 
Perkin Warbeck, son of a Jew of Toumay, though 
generally received, does not rest upon good authority. 



BEA 

in her native town every October. The 
bishopric of Beauvais was erected iu the 
3rd century. 

Beaver Dam (N. America). — Atthis place, 
near Queenstown, Captain Kerr, vdth a force 
not amounting to 200 men, captured a detach- 
ment of 500 men belonging to the army of 
the United States, June 24, 1813. 

Becancelde, or Baccancelde. — ^A coun- 
cil summoned by Withred, king of Kent, 
was held at this place in 694, to consult 
respecting the bettering of God's church in 
that part of England. Abbesses took part 
in its deUberations, and five subscribed the 
constitutions in the form of a charter, drawn 
up on the occasion. Beckenham, in Kent, 
is generally supposed to be the place at which 
this early synod was held. 

Beckascog- (Treaty), renewing the conven- 
tion of Helsinborg, dated Aug. 31, 1805, was 
concluded between Great Britain and Swe- 
den, at Beckascog, Octobfer 3, 1805. Sweden 
agreed to send 12,000 troops into Pomerania 
to co-operate with the Eussians against 
France, for which England was to furnish an 
annual subsidy, at the rate of £12. 10s. each 
man; and to pay for preliminary expenses 
the subsidy calculated at that rate for five 
months, on the ratification of the treaty. It 
consisted of ten articles, and by the ninth, 
England agreed to furnish an additional 
£50,000 sterhng, for the purpose of improving 
the defences of Stralsund. 

Bedee (Battle). — This battle, won by 
Mohammed over the Koreish of Mecca, was 
fought between that town and Medina, a.d. 
623. It was the first struggle after the flight 
from Mecca, and was represented, from the 
great disparity in numbers, as having been 
gained by miraculous agency. 

Bedpoed. — The Saxon " Bedcanford," 
" the lodging at the ford," so called from its 
situation at an ancient ford of the Ouse. The 
West Saxons and the Britons fought a battle 
here in 572. The town, nearly destroyed by 
the Danes in 1010, was restored by Edward 
the Elder. Stephen took the castle in 1137, 
during his war against Matilda. King John 
captured it in 1216. It was frequently 
besieged. John Bunyan preached in a 
chapel here from 1671 to 1688 ; and in its 
gaol, on the site of which a new one has been 
erected, wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress." 
The bridge was rebuilt in 1811. 

Bedkoee (Hindostan). — This place, made 
in 1645 the seat of the rajahs of Ikeri, was 
captured, with a large amount of plunder, 
by Hyder Ali in 1763. Though he ordered 
the name to be changed to Hydernagur, it 
still retains its former appellation. It was 
taken by General Matthews in January, 1783, 
and was retaken by Tippoo Saib, April 18, in 
the same year. In 1833 it came into the pos- 
session of the East-India Company. 

Bed op Justice, the seat or throne on 
which the sovereign sat in the parliament of 
France. As the authority of the parliainent 
ceased when the king was present, a bed of 
justice came to signify a session of the king 
m parhament. The last bed of justice was 



BEG 

assembled at Versailles, Nov. 19, 1787, by 
order of Louis XVI. 

Bedeiacum, or Bebbiacttm (Battles).— 
The first, between the generals of Marcus 
Otho and Aulus ViteUius, rivals for the im- 
perial sceptre, was fought in April, a.d. 69, 
when the former sufiered a defeat, and 
Marcus Otho committed suicide on the 15th 
or 16th of April. The second was fought the 
same year between the generals of ViteUius 
and Vespasian, the latter being victorious. 
Bedriacum lay between Verona and Cremona, 
but its exact position has not been ascer- 
tained. 

Beds, — The earliest practice amongst 
ancient nations was to sleep upon the skins 
of beasts. Among the Israehtes an ordinary 
couch, with light coverings, served the pur- 
pose of a bed. At a later period ivory bed- 
steads were used by the wealthy (Amos vi. 4) . 
They were sometimes decked vnth rich 
hangings, and sprinkled with perfumes 
(Prov. vii. 16 & 17). The Greeks did not 
make use of pillows until about B.C. 850. 
Towards the end of the Eoman republic, and 
under the empire, when simplicity of living 
had given place to Asiatic luxury, the beds 
of the opulent classes were most costly and 
magnificent. Straw is said to have been used 
in the royal chambers in England in the 13th 
century. The great bed of Ware, to which 
Shakspeare alludes in "Twelfth Night" — 
"Although the sheet were big enough for 
the bed of Ware in England" (act iii. sc. 2) 
— is stOl in existence, and will hold twelve 
persons. 

Bee (Order of), was instituted at Sceaux, 
by Louise of Bourbon, vnfe of Louis Augus- 
tus of Bourbon, duke of Maine, June 4, 1703. 
It was intended for women as well as men. 

Beee-steak Club was established in the 
reign of Queen Anne, and is described in 
Ward's "Secret History of Clubs" (1709). 
Estcourt, the actor, who died in 1712, was 
its first president. The club was frequently 
noticed in contemporary hterature, and 
appears to have been famous for the jovial 
character of its meetings. A club under the 
same name was estabUshed at the Theatre 
Eoyal, Dubhn, in 1749. 

Bees, St. (Cumberland). — This ancient 
town derives its name from Bega, an Irish 
saint, who is said to have formed a small 
monastery here a.d. 650. It was destroyed by 
the Danes, and restored in the reign of 
Hen. I., about 1120, being intended for 
Benedictine monks. Archbishop GrindaU, 
who died a.d. 1583, founded the grammar- 
school. The founder's statutes were after- 
wards confirmed, and the governors incor- 
porated in 1585. The college was estabhshed 
in 1817. 

Beggaes have in all ages and amongst 
most nations of which any record remains, 
practised various arts in order to enlist the 
sympathies of the benevolent. Severe enact- 
ments have, from time to time, been passed 
against them. By 12 Eich. II. e. 7 (1388), 
beggars able to work were ordered to be 
punished, and a provision was made for the 
109 



BEG 

impotent. Various enactments followed. By 
22 Hen. _VIII._ c. 12 (1530), justices of the 
peace might issue licences to poor and 
impotent persons to beg within a certain 
precinct ; they were punished if they went 
beyond the limits, while vagabonds found 
begging were to be whipped and compelled 
to labour ; and by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1535), 
persons giving alms to beggars were to 
forfeit ten times the value. All former acts 
were repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 3 (1547), and 
new regulations made. These, however, 
were abandoned, and the act 22 Hen. VIII. 
c. 12 revived by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 16 
(1549-50). Byl4Eliz. c. 5 (1572) vagabonds 
above the age of 14 were to be grievously 1 
whipped and biirnt through the gristle of | 
the right ear with a hot iron. A second ; 
offence was punished more severely, and for 
the third they were to suffer death. This | 
statute was repealed by 35 Ehz. c. 7, s. 24 I 
(1593), and fresh regulations were made by I 
39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597). All the statutes relating | 
to rogues, vagabonds, sturdy beggars, &c., 
were reduced into one law by 12 Anne, st. 2, 
c. 23 (1713), which was explained and 
amended by 10 G-eo. II. c. 28 (1737) ; and 
enforced by 13 Geo. II. c. 24 (1740). It 
was repealed by 17 Geo. II. c. 5 (1744), 
which made fresh provisions. The act 
5 Geo. IV. c. 83 (June 21, 1824), repeals aU 
former acts, and lays down other regula- j 
tions. 

Beggar's Opeea was written by John 
Gay, and produced at the theatre in Lincoln' s- 
Inn Fields, ha\ing been refused bv CoUey 
Gibber for Drury Lane, Jan. 29, 1728. It 
ran for sixty-two nights, thirty-two being in 
succession ; and Gay received £693. 13«. 6d., 
and afterwards sold the copyright of the 
opera, with some fables in verse, for £94. 10s. 
Miss Fenton, the original " Polly Peachum," 
retired from the stage, and became duchess 
of Bolton during the run of the piece. 
Mahon (Hist, of Eng. ii. ch. 18) attributes 
it to the resentment of Gay against the 
Queen, who had offered him the appoint- 
ment of gentleman usher to one of the 
princesses, a child of about two years of age. 
The post was an easy one, and the salary 
£200 per annum. Gay was induced not 
only to refuse this offer of "an honourable 
sinecure," but to resent it as an insult. 
" Soon afterwards," says Lord Mahon, "he 
joined the opposition, and declared his 
quarrel by the production of the 'Beggar's 
Opera,' teeming with satirical strokes against 
the court and government. The name of 
'Bob Booty,' for example, always raised a 
laugh, being vmderstood as levelled at Sir 
Eobert TV'alpole. The first idea of the play 
seems to have sprung from a suggestion of 
Swift (Spence's Anecdotes, p. 159), but the 
praise of its execution belongs entirely to 
Gay." 

Beghaebs, Beguaeds, or BEGTJiifES, is a 
term applied to several reh'gious orders, as 
well as heretics, during the Middle Ages. 
It was probably first used to describe those 
half monks of the third order of St. Francis, 
110 



BEJ 

who arose in the 11th century. They must 
not be confounded with later sectaries, a 
branch of the FraticeUi, condemned by the 
Fifteenth General Council, thut of Vienne, 
in 1311 and 1312. This mistake was so often 
made at the time that Pope Jolm XXII., by 
a decretal of 1322, declared the last-men- 
tioned to be execrable impostors, and in no 
way connected with the Begliards of the 
third order of St. Francis. Mosheim shows 
that the name is derived from the old 
German word heggen or beggeren, to beg, 
with the word hard subjoined ; and that it 
signified to beg earnestly and heartUy ; and 
he accounts by this derivnCion for the 
indiscriminate manner in which it was applied 
to so many orders and sects. The subject is 
involved in almost inextricable confusion, as 
the student or inquirer will discover if he 
attempts to reconcile the conflicting accounts 
of different authorities. 

Beguines, or Begtjttje, praying ladies, 
as Mosheim calls them, arose in the Nether- 
lands, and spread through France and 
Germany during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
They were pious women, virgins or widows, 
who formed themselves into societies, xmder 
the direction of a superior of their own sex. 
The first estabhshment of which any record 
remains, was at NiveUe, in Brabant, foimded 
according to some authorities in 1207, and 
according to others in 1226. They soon 
became so numerous that Matthew Paris 
speaks of 2,000 Beguines in Cologne and its 
neighbourhood about the year 1243. The 
example set by the ladies was soon followed 
by the men, and a society of Beghards, 
consisting of both bachelors and widowers, 
was formed at Antwerp in 1228. They were 
known under various appellations in different 
parts of the Continent, where, although they 
spread rapidly, they never became so nume- 
rous as the Beguines. As a natural conse- 
quence, the Beghards and Beguines became 
infected with heretical opinions and declined 
from the simple rule of Mfe observed in the 
earlier days of their organization. The popes 
tolerated and sometimes interfered to pro- 
tect them from their numerous enemies; 
but they suffered persecution and gradually 
diminished in numbers, although a few 
remain to this day in parts of Belgium, 
Holland, and Germany. 

Behmus Heights (Battle). — During the 
American revolutionary war. Gen. Burgoyne 
defeated the Americans at Behmus Heights, 
on the Hudson, Sept. 19, 1777. 

Behking's Sthaix, connecting the Pacific 
Ocean and the Arctic Sea, was discovered by 
Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the Eus- 
sian service, in 1728. Captain Cook surveyed 
it in 1788. On an island in the N. Pacific, 
named after him, Behring was wrecked 
Nov. 3, 1741, where he died of exhaustion 
Dec. 8, in the same year. 

Beja (Portugal), the ancient Pax Julia, 
was captured by the Moors in 1145, and 
retaken by Sancho, king of Portugal, in 1189. 
The see is known to have been in existence 
in the 6th century, as Aprigius was bishop 



BEJ 

in 540. The see was suppressed in 1647, and 
restored in 1770. 

Bejapoee (E. Indies). — This town was 
formerly the capital of an independent 
Mussulman state of the same name. Its 
founder, Yusuf, built the citadel in 1489. In 
1566 the walls were completed by All Adil 
Shah, who died in 1579. Aurungzebe took 
Bejapore in 1686, and annexed it to Delhi, 
from which it was separated by the Nizam, 
in 1724, and ceded to the Mahrattas in 1760. 
In 1818 Bejapore passed into the hands of 
the British, who assigned it to the rajah of 
Sattara. 

Belchite (Battle). — The Spaniards under 
General Bake were assailed here by the 
French, commanded by Suchet, June 16, 17, 
and 18, 1809, and on the last-mentioned day 
the Spanish army took to flight without 
firing a shot. 

Belfast (Ireland). — The earliest mention 
of Belfast occurs m 1315, when Edward 
Bruce, on the inyitation of the native Irish, 
landed at Carrickfergus, and wasted Belfast 
and other towns. In 1476 the castle was 
destroyed by O'Neill; and agaLa in 1503 by 
G-erald, earl of Kildare, who returned in 
1512 and committed still further ravages. In 
1552 the castle was repaired and garrisoned, 
and given by Edward VI. to Hugh McNeill. 
In 1613 Belfast was incorporated by James I., 
and sent two members to the parliament of 
that year. The " Great Bridge of Belfast," 
which consisted of twenty-one arches, was 
founded in 1682, and seven of the arches fell 
in ten years afterwards, 1692, The first 
edition of the Bible printed in Ireland is 
that of Belfast, 1704. On the 4th of April, 
1708, the castle was burnt. The first Belfast 
newspaper was pubhshed in 1737. The old Ex- 
change was built by the earl of Donegal in 1769. 
Cotton manufacture was introduced in 1777. 
The savings bank, established in 1811, was one 
of the first in Ireland. The museum was built 
in 1830. Queen's College was opened for the 
reception of students in November, 1849. In 
July, August, and September, 1857, the 
town was the scene of a series of disgraceful 
riots, in consequence of the opposition of 
the Eoman Catholics to the attempts of 
some Protestant ministers to introduce open- 
air preaching. On the 2nd of July, 1859, a 
fire destroyed the Victoria Chambers, Bel- 
fast, causmg a loss of £100,000. In the 
same year the town was one of the centres 
of the so-called religious revivals. 

Belfkoi, or Belfret. — This movable 
tower with difterent stories, used in besieging 
towns, is mentioned by Caesar. Some of 
them were of extraordinary height, the 
upper story rising above the walls of towns. 
Gibbon speaks ol one employed at the siege 
of Nicsea in 1097, and Eroissart describes one 
used against the castle of Breteuil in 1356. 
They were commonly employed during the 
crusades, 

Belgium. — An insurrection broke out at 
Brussels, Aug. 25, 1830, which led to a revo- 
lution and the separation of the Belgian 
proTincea from Holland. A national con- 



BEL 

gress, instaH-ed at Brussels Nov. 10, pro- 
claimed the iadependence of the Belgian 
people. A conference of the five great 
powers, assembled at London, interfered to 
prevent war between Holland and Belgium, 
and recognized the independence of the 
latter power, Dec. 20. The Belgian congress 
chose the duke of Nemours for king, Feb. 3, 
1831, but Louis Phihppe refused to sanction 
the election, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg 
was selected, June 4. The five great powers, 
Austria, England, France, Prussia, and 
Eussia, concluded a treaty, at London, with 
Belgium, Nov. 15, 1831, defining the hnuts 
of the new kingdom imder the guarantee of 
the contracting powers. 



1830. Sept. 22. The separation from Holland resolved 

Tipou. Oct. 16. Arrangements made for a 
natioual congress. Oct. 27. The insurgents 
take Antwerp. 

1831. Feb. 25. M. Surlet de Chokier is instaUed 

Regent of Belgium. July 21. Prince Leopold 
of Coburg is installed at Brussels. Aug. 4. 
Beuewal of hostilities with the king of Hol- 
land. Aug. 23. A French army of 50,000 
men assists the Belgians, and a truce is 
resolved upon. 

1832. Nov. 30. The Fi-ench besiege the Dutch in the 

citadel at Antwerp, which surrender's Dec. 
23, after a gallant resistance. 

1833. Great distress among the Belgian manufac- 

turers, in consequence of the cessation of 
trade with Holland. 

1834. AprU 6. Riots in Brussels. 

1838. Commercial panic, owing to the failure of the 

bank of Belgium. 

1839. Feb. 4. Holland concludes a treaty -with 

Belgium. 
1846. Dec. Terrible famine in Belgium. 
1850. Aug. Calamitous floods in Belgium. 

1852. Aug. 10. Queen Victoria visits Belgium, 

Oct. 17. Treaty of commerce betweex 
England and Belgium. 

1853. Aug. 22. Man-iage of the duke of Brabant, 

heir apparent of Belgium, with the Arch- 
duchess Maria of Austria. 

1857. The Roman Catholic clergy introduce a bili 
placing the administration of public chari- 
ties in their power. It passes ilay 19, but 
is abandoned June 12, in conss^quence of its 
unpopularity. 

1860. June 17. Deputies from all the Belgian pro- 
vinces, assembled at Brussels, decii'.e iipou 
forming a league for the preservation of 
national independence. 

Belgeade (Servia), or The White Citt, 
built on the site of the ancient Singidunum, 
destroyed by the Avars in the 6th century, 
was founded in 1372. John Huniades de- 
fended it against Mohammed II. from July 23 
to Sept. 4, 1456. The latter was repulsed, 
and Gibbon remarks, "the joyful nations 
celebrated Huniades and Belgrade as the 
bidwarks of Christendom." The Turks cap- 
tured it Aug. 20, 1521 ; the Austriaus obtained 
possession in 1688, but the Turks recovered it 
in 1690. Prince Eugene invested Belgrade, 
June 19, 1717, defeated the Turkish army 
sent for its relief, Aug. 16, and entered the 
town the following day. By a humiliating 
treaty it was restored to the Turks in Sep- 
tember, 1739. The Austrians retook it 
Oct. 8, 1789, and restored it in 1791. The 
Servians seized it in 1806; but in 1813 it 
reverted once more to the Turks. 

Ill 



BEL 

BsL&EADE (Treaty). — This humiliating 
peace, dictated at the point of the sword, 
was concluded between Austria, Eussia, and 
Turkey, Sept. 18, 1739. Austria ceded Ser- 
via, "VVallachia, with Belgrade and other 
fortresses, and Eussia restored her conquests 
to the Porte, and renounced her pretensions 
with respect to the navigation of the Black 
Sea. It was the most glorious treaty the 
Turks had ever made with any European* 
power. 

Bellaie (Battle). — Captain Sir Peter 
Parker, at the head of 120 men, landed from 
the Ilenelaus, at anchor in the Chesapeake, 
and attacked the Americans posted at Bellair, 
near Baltimore, Aug. 30, 1814. The enemy, 
who appeared in greater force than had been 
anticipated, were put to flight. Captain Par- 
ker was killed and the expedition returned 
carrying away their wounded. 

Bellegaede (France). — This barrier for- 
tress, near the Pyrenees, was taken by 
Pedro III. of Aragon, in 1285. The Span- 
iards regained possession in 1674 ; but were 
expelled by Marshal Schomberg in 1675. 
Louis XIV. constructed the present fortress 
in 1679. The Spaniards captured it June 25, 
1793, and Dugommier, at the head of the 
French repubhcans, regained it Sept. 17, 
1794. 

Belleisle.— This island, off the coast of 
France, was captured by the English in 1761. 
Having failed in effecting a landing on the 
8th of April it was accomphshed on the 22nd, 
and on the 7th of June the whole island surren- 
dered. It was restored to France by the 
treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 

Bellmen. — Stow says that Alderman 
Draper set up the first beUman in Cord- 
wainer Street Ward, in January, 1556. The 
number was speedily increased, and the beU- 
man was often attended by a dog. He was 
added to the London watch, and went through 
the streets and lanes ringing his beU, and 
crying, "Take care of fire and candle; be 
kind to the poor, and pray for the dead." 
It was also a part of the bellman's office to 
bless the sleepers as he passed their doors. 
Milton refers to this in " II Penseroso :" — 

" Tlie bellman's drowsy charm. 
To bless the doors from nightly hai'm." 

Bells were in use amongst ancient 
nations both for religious and other pur- 
poses. They are first mentioned in the 
book of Exodus. The Egyptian monuments 
do not, however, contain any appearance 
of them. Bingham rejects as a vulgar error 
the story that they were fii'st introduced 
into the Christian church by Pauhnus, 
bishop of ISlola, about a.d. 400, and beheves 
that they were not known long before the 
7th century. Benedict, abbot of Wear- 
mouth, brought one from Italy to England 
in 680. Ingulphus relates of Tux-ketul, abbot 
of Croyland, who died in 975, that he had a 
very large bell made, called G-uthlac, and that 
this, with six others soon afterwards added, 
produced such an exquisite harmony, that 
112 



BEIT 

England had no such peal of beUs in those 
days. William of Malmesbury speaks of the 
bells given to the churches \)j_ Dunstan. The 
custom of consecrating, anointing, and bap- 
tizing beUs, giving them the name of some 
saint, Bingham shows to be a modern inven- 
tion. Baronius himself does not assign the 
date earlier than the year 968, when 
John XIII. consecrated the great beU of 
the Lateran chxrrch, naming it John. The 
Turks have a saying that "bells drive away 
good spirits from the abodes of men," and 
do not allow them to be used. The Greek 
church under their dominion employ various 
modes of summoning peojple to service. In 
the 15th century bells of enormous size were 
cast. In olden times many superstitions 
were connected with the ringing of beUs. It 
was beheved to be efficacious in dispelling 
tempests. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 75, passed 
June 14, 1827, the court of the Company of 
Watermen were required to erect and main- 
tain a bell at Billingsgate, and another at 
Gravesend ; the former to be rung at high 
water, and the latter at first flood. 



Breslau 

Bruges 

Cologne 

Dantzic 

Erfurth 

Exeter 

Halbei'stadt . 



1448 
14.53 
1497 
1675 
1457 

Lincoln (Tom) .... 1610 
Uucoln (new bell) 1834 
Lucerne 1636 



Montreal 

Moscow (great bell) 

1653 and 

Notre Dame (Paris) 

Oxford 

St. Paul's 

Vienna 

Westminster (Big 

Ben) 

York 



1716 
1711 



Bells (Ringing of). — This custom, almost 
pecuhar to England, was introduced in the 
Anglo-Saxon period of our history. 

Beloochisxan (Asia). — The early history 
of this state is involved in obscurity. Hajee 
Mohammed Khan, a kind of heutenant of 
Nadir Shah, was assassinated in 1739, by his 
brother, Kusseer Khan, who obtained the 
chief authority. In 1758 he declared Beloo- 
chistan independent, and after a struggle 
succeeded in concluding a treaty with the 
Afighan monarch. Under his successors Be- 
loochistanlost several of its provinces. Owing 
to the hostile and treacherous attitude as- 
sumed by the government and people towards 
the EngHsh in their advance through the 
Bolan Pass, Kelat, the chief town of Beloo- 
chistan, was captured 'Soy. 13, 1839, and 
temporarily occupied by them. The Beloo- 
chees regained possession July 27, 1840 ; but 
it was recovered by the Enghsh, jS'ov. 3, 1840, 
and held by them until the conclusion of the 
Affghan war. 

Bexaees (HijadoBtan). — The holy city of 
the Hindoos is tlie capital of a district of the 
same name, and the ancient seat of Brah- 
minical learning. It is studded with mosques 
and temples, whilst thousands of pilgrims 
flock to it annually to wash away their sins 
in the waters of the Ganges. It came into 
the possession of the East-India Company, 
May 21, 1775. There is a Sanscrit college 
here, founded in 1792, to which an Enghsh 
department was added in 1832. The 37 th 



regiment of native infantry, and tte 13th 
irregular cavalry, and Loodianah Sikhs, 
mutinied here June 4, 1857. Owing to the 
energy displayed by General Neill, the su- 
premacy ot the Knglish was maintained. 

Bencoolen (Sumatra). — The East-India 
Company, on being expelled from Bantam, 
formed a settlement, afterwards called Fort 
Marlborough, at this place in 1683. It was 
much enlarged in 1695. The natives massacred 
a large portion of the settlers in 1719. Ben- 
coolen and other English settlements in the 
island were destroyed by the French in 1760. 
They were, however, again restored. By the 
ninth article of the treaty between England 
and the Netherlands, concluded at London, 
March 17, 1824, they were ceded to the Dutch 
in exchange for their settlements on the con- 
tinent of India. The respective settlements 
were to be given up March 1, 1825. 

Bendee (Bessarabia). — Varnitza, the 
retreat of Charles XII. of Sweden after 
his defeat at Pidtowa (July 8, 1709), is 
situated near this place. He remained here 
in captivity until the end of 1714. Bender 
was taken by the Russians, Sept. 28, 1770. 
A sanguinary battle was fought at Tobak, 
near Bender, between the Turks and Russians 
in 1789, in which the former were defeated. 
Bender itself surrendered in the middle of 
November. It was again taken in 1809, and 
was finally ceded to Russia by the treaty of 
Bucharest in 1812. 

Benedictines. — This order of monks was 
founded by St. Benedict or Bennet, who in- 
troducedmonachismintowesternEurope, and 
erected his first monastery on the site of a 
temple of Apollo on Monte Cassino, about 50 
miles from Subiaco, in Italy, A. D. 529. The order 
spread rapidly in Europe; St. Benedicthimself 
founded several monasteries, and his example 
was followed by others. The monks took 
the vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty. 
By some authorities the Benedictines are 
said to have been introduced into England 
by Augustine in 596, and by others the event 
is assigned to a later period, Duncan being 
considered the first English abbot of that 
order. Edgar (958-975) is said to have 
founded above forty Benedictine convents. 
MiLman, referring to the beautiful spots 
chosen for their monasteries, says, " In 
general, if a district in England be surveyed, 
the most convenient, most fertile, moat 
peaceful spot, wiU be found to have been the 
site of a Benedictine abbey." Towards the 
end of the 8th century they had become so 
numerous that Charlemagne caused inquiry 
to be made whether any other kind of monks 
existed than those of the order of St. Bene- 
dict. The austerity of their rule soon became 
relaxed, and Matthew Paris mentions a refor- 
mation that was attempted in 1238. Their 
merits in collecting, preserving, and multi- 
plying copies of classical manuscripts must 
not be forgotten ; and the order is every 
way distinguished for the numerous services 
rendered to hterature. There were several 
branches of the Benedictines Uving under the 
same rule but obser\'ing a diifereut discipline; 
113 



BEN 

the chief being the Cluniacs, established in 
912 and brought into England in 1077, the 
Carthusians, founded in 1084 and introduced 
into England in 1180, and the Cistercians or 
Bernardines, founded in 1098 and brought 
into England in 1128. The habit of the 
Benedictines was black, and from this cir- 
cumstance they have been called Black 
Monks or the Black Monks of St. Benedict. 
According to an inquiry instituted bv Pope 
John XXII. (1316-1334), this order "had at 
that time produced 20 emperors, 10 empresses, 
47 kings, 50 queens, 4 popes, 68 princes, lUO 
princesses, 200 cardinals, 7,000 archbishops, 
15,000bishops, 15,000 abbots, and 4,000 saints, 
besides a host of other dignitaries, both in 
church and state. There were nuns as well 
as monks of this order. 

Benefice. — An estate held by feudal 
tenure was originally termed a benefice, 
which at length came to signify the ecclesi- 
astical estate granted to a clergyman for 
term of fife, to be enjoyed by him on account 
of his ministry in the Church. Lord Coke 
says benefice is a large word, and is taken for 
any ecclesiastical promotion whatever. The 
custom of endowingchurches arose in the time 
of Justinian, about a.d. 500. Towards the 
end of the 12th century the bishops of Rome 
issued mandates, requesting that particular 
benefices might be conferred upon their 
nominees. This was speedily assumed as a 
right, and Clement V. (1305-1314) claimed 
the disposal of all benefices. This claim was 
resisted, more particularly in England, 
and the statute of provisors of benefices 
(25 Edw. III. St. 6), passed in 1351, was 
aimed against this system. It was followed 
by other enactments of a similar character. 
The temporary submission of former sove- 
reigns to the claim had inundated the country 
with Italians and other foreign clergy. The 
statute of provisors was confirmed by 
3 Rich. II. c. 3 (1380) ; and by 7 Rich. II. 
c. 12 (1383) it was enacted that no ahen 
should be eligible to purchase or to be pre- 
sented to any ecclesiastical preferment within 
the realm. The most terrible abuses arose on 
account of the pretensions of th e pope respect- 
ing the presentation to benefices. Milman 
(Lat. Christ, vol. vi. b. xiii. c. 3), treating on 
Boniface IX. (1389-1404), says, "The smaUer 
benefices were sold from the day of his ap- 
pointment with shameless and scandalous 
notoriety. Men wandered about Lombardy 
and other parts of Italy, searching out the 
age of hoary incumbents, and watching their 
diseases and infirmities. For this service they 
were well paid by the greedy aspirants at 
Rome. On their report the tariff rose or 
fell. Benefices were sold over and over 
again." A distinction between benefices and 
cathedral preferments is drawn in 1 & 2 Vict. 
c. 106, s. 124 (Aug. 14, 1838), and in a later 
act, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 98, s. 3 (Aug. 14, 1850), 
the word " a benefice " is explained to signify 
a benefice with cure of souls and no other. 

Benefit of Clergy. — The exemption of 
the clergy from secular jurisdiction was one 
of the privileges claimed by the Roman 
I 



BEN- 



BEN 



Catholic church. Mihnan remarks (Lat. ! 
Christ, vol. hi. b. via. c. 8), " Crimes of great 
atrocity, it is said, of gi'eat frequency, crimes 
such as robbery and homicide, crimes for 
which secular persons were hanged by scores 
and without mercy, were committed almost 
with impunity, or vnth punishment altogether 
inadequate to the offence by the clergy ; and 
the sacred name of clerk, exempted not only 
bishops, abbots, and priests, but those of the 
lowest ecclesiastical rank from the civil 
power." The system, gradually introduced 
into this country after the Norman conquest, 
gave rise to many abuses. Not only the 
clergy, but clerks and all members of the 
laity who could read, in cases in which capi- 
tal punishment was awarded, were at length 
entitled to claim benefit of clergy, so that 
when the penalty of death was to be rigidly 
enforced, the statute expressly intimated that 
it was vrithout benefit of clergy. On the in- 
troduction of the custom the claim was not 
allowed unless the prisoner appeared in his 
clerical habit and tonsure. When ability to 
read became the test, this ceremony ceased, 
and he was merely required to read from a 
psalter or some other book before the judge. 
By 4 Hen. VII. c. 13 (1489), it could only be 
pleaded once by persons not in orders, and 
by 4 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1512) it was denied to 
murderers and felons. Abjurers in cases of 
treason were not allowed benefit of clergy, 
by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1 (1536), and the same 
statute placed persons in holy orders, in 
respect to many offences, exactly on the 
same footing as the laity. Women were 
allowed to plead benefit of clergy by 3 & 4 
Will. & Mar*', c. 9, s. 6 (1691), and by 4 & 5 
Win. & Mary, c. 24, s. 12 (1692), women were 
only allowed to plead benefit of clergy once. 
Both these statutes were made perpetual 
by 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 14, s. 1 (1695). The 

Eractice of requiring the prisoner to read 
'om a book was abolished by 5 Anne, e. 6, 
s. 4 (1706). Benefit of clergy was abolished 
by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27, s. 6 (June 21, 1827), 
and 4 Vict. c. 22 (June 21, 1841) removed 
all doubts as to the habUity of peers to pun- 
ishment for felony. It was abohshed in 
Ireland by 9 Geo. IV. c. 54, s. 12 (July 15, 
1828). 

Be^tevexto (Italy). — The ancient Bene- 
yentum was made the capital of a duchy by 
Alboin, king of Lombardy, a.d. 571. In the 
time of Charlemagne, the duchy embraced the 
modern kingdom of Naples, and Arrechis, its 
reigning duke, saved it from the French 
yoke ; and though defeated at Amalphi in 786, 
presei'ved his dominions by doing homage. It 
was besieged by the Saracens in 874, and 
being severely pressed, a fearless citizen 
dropped from its walls, passed through the 
enemy, besought aid of the Greek emperor, 
and was returning with a favourable answer, 
when he was made prisoner. His captors 
offered him a rich reward to betray his 
countrymen, but as soon as he was led within 
hearing, he cried in a loud voice, — " Friends 
and brethren, be bold and patient ; maintain 
the city ; your sovereign is informed of your 
114 



distress, and your dehverers are at hand. I 
know my doom, and commit my wife and 
children to your gratitude." He had scarcely 
uttered the words, when he fell transfixed 
by the spears of the Saracens. It was a 
simple bishopric until 969, when it was made 
the seat of an archbishopric. It was taken 
by the Normans, and declared in favour 
of Pope Leo IX. in 1050. Eobert Guiscard 
besieged it in 1078, and Pascal II. expelled 
from Rome in 1117, sought refuge at Bene- 
vento. It was ceded to Rome in 1139, and 
taken by Frederick II. in 124(X Charles of 
Anjou, supported by France, defeated Man- 
fred, king of Sicily, who was slain in a great 
battle near it, Feb. 26, 1266. The city itself 
was sacked, and a general massacre of both 
sexes took place. The French seized it in 
1798, but it was restored to the pope in 1815. 
In 1806 the principaUty was conferred by 
Napoleon I. on Talleyrand, with the title of 
prince of Beaevento. Councils were held 
here Aug. 1, 1059 ; in Aug. 1087 ; March 28, 
1091 ; Aug. 12, 1108 ; in April, 1117 ; and 
March 10, 1119. 

Beneventum (Italy). — This important 
city fell into the hands of the Romans during 
the third Samnite war. Pyrrhus was de- 
feated near it B.C. 275, and it was made a 
Roman colony b.c. 268. The Carthaginians 
were defeated in the neighbom-hood B.C. 214 
and B.C. 212. It suffered frequently from 
the ravages of war ; and was sacked a.d. 545, 
during the Gothic invasion. {See Bene- 

VENTO.) 

Benevolekce, though nominally a free 
gift, was, in fact, a forced loan. The old 
Chronicler of Croyland records, amongst 
other events of the year 1473, the intro- 
duction of a new and unheard of impost, by 
which every one was to give "just what he 
pleased, or rather, just what he did not 
please, by way of benevolence." Hallam 
(Middle Ages, iii. ch. 8, pt. 3) gives Ed- 
ward rV. the credit of having introduced 
this new method of obtaining the subjects' 
money, under the plausible name of bene- 
volences, and says " that they came in 
place of the still more plausible loans of 
former monarchs, and were principally levied 
on the wealthy traders." This form of 
exaction soon became intolerable, and was 
annulled for ever by 1 Rich. III. c. 2 (1484), 
though this monarch had recourse to them 
in order to raise money to carry on the war 
against the earl of Richmond in 1485. 
Henry VII. was the first Enghsh king who 
obtained the sanction of parhament to a 
benevolence, and this he effected in 1492. 
By 11 Hen. VII. c. 10 (1495), proclamation 
was to be made against defaulters, requiring 
them to pay the sum due within three 
months, and in default they were to be 
imprisoned, without bail, until payment was 
made or sufficient sureties obtained. In 
case of death the goods and chattels of a 
defaulter became chargeable. Wolsey ex- 
acted several benevolences between 1522 and 
1525. In the latter year an extraordinary 
demand caused much discontent, and the 



BEN 

citizens of London who appealed to the 
statute against benevolences, passed in 
Kichard the Third's reign, were told that he 
was a usurper, and consequently that his 
laws were not binding on the king. In 1545, 
Henry VIII. exacted another benevolence 
which was very unwiUingly paid. Ehzabeth 
wdsely abstained from the practice, but 
James I. raised one in 1614. This method 
of obtaining supphes was declared illegal by 
the Petition of Kight in 1689 ; and 1 Will. & 
Mary, st. 2, c. 2, passed in 1689, declared 
levying of money without the authority of 
Parliament illegal. 

Bengal (Hindostan). — Was conquered 
by the Mohammedans in 1203, and became 
independent in 1340. The emperor Acbar 
made it a dependency of Delhi in 1580. 



A.D. 

1517. 
1336. 



1620. 
1634. 
1640. 



1658. 
1664. 



liS". 
1688. 
1690- 



1726. 
1765, 



1772, 
1773, 



1774 
1793 
1813 



Some Portiiguese are cast upon the coast of 
Bengal ; their ships enter the Ganges. 

Nine Portuguese ships sent to assist Mahmoud 
Shah. 

Bengal made a dependency of Delhi. 

An attempt is made to establish a factory at 
Patna, but fails. 

The English obtain permission to trade to 
Piplee, in Orissa, where a factoiy is built. 

An English factory on the Hooghley estab- 
lished. 

The English obtain great influence in Bengal. 

Bengal placed under Madras. 

The French and Danes form establishments 



Bengal made an agency distinct from Fort 
S+. George, Madras. 

Dec. 20. The Council remove from the 
Hooghley to Chuttannuttee, or Calcutta. 

Sept. The Hooghley factory resumed. 

Dec. The factories in Bengal abandoned. 

The Company's agents return to Chuttan- 
nuttee and are allowed to erect a factory. 

The towns of Chuttannuttee, Govindpore, and 
Calcutta, granted to the Company. Fort 
William is erected, and the station made a 
presidency. 

Calc\itta made the 8e»t of a presidency dis- 
tinct from Madras. The garrison increased 
to 300 men. 

A mayor's court established in Bengal. 

Aug. 12. By the treaty of Allahaba^, the 
Company are empowered to receive the 
reveniies of Bengal. Bahar, and Orissa. 

The Comxsany assume direct authority. 

July 1. Bengal made the chief presidency in 
India, and the residence of the governor- 
general fixed at Calcutta. Supreme coui-t 
of judicature established. 

Aug. 1. The new arrangements commence in 
Bengal. 

Pennanent settlement introduced by Lord 
Comwallis. 

Calcutta made a bishopric. 



A.». 

1746. 



1764 
1765. 
1767. 
1769. 



GOVEElfOES OP BENGAL. 



Alexander Dawson. 

WUliam Fytche. He died Aug. 8, and was 

s\icceeded by Roger Di-ake. 
Watts, Manningham, Becker, and Holwell, 

govern alternately, each for four months, 
Robert Clive, afterwards Lord Clive. 
John Zephaniah Holwell, retired July 27, 

when Mr. Henry Vansittart succeeded. 
John Spencer. 
Lord Clive again. 
Hai-ry Verelst. 
John Cartier. In 1772, Warren Hastings 

■nas appointed to succeed him. (See Lsdia.! 
115 



BER 

Bennington (Battle). — A party of 
Hessians were defeated at this place in 
Vermont, by the Americans, July 16, 1777. 

Bensington (Battle).— Otfa, Ethelbald'a 
successor in the kingdom of Mercia, having 
subdued Kent, reduced the more powerful 
kingdom of Wessex by the defeat of Cyne- 
wufi", at Bensington, a.d. 777. This victory 
rendered him master of all the territory 
north oi the Thames. 

Beean-bikig (Battle). — Eought between 
the Britons and Savons at this place, sup- 
posed to be Barbary HiU, near Marlborough, 
Wilts, though some authorities are in favour 
of Banbury, Oxfordshire, a.d. 556. Henry of 
Huntingdon says that the Britons formed 
their battle array in nine battahons : three 
being posted in the van, three in the centre, 
and three in the rear, the archers, slingers, 
and cavalry being arranged in the Eomau 
order. The Saxons came on in a compact 
body, and charged with such fury, that the 
standards were dashed together, and a hand- 
to-hand fight ensued. The battle lasted tiU 
nightfall without any decisive result. 

Beebice (S. America), was discovered by 
the Spanish navigator Pinzon in 1499. The 
Dutch formed a settlement in this district in 
1580. The English settled in the neighbour- 
hood in 1634, but withdrew in 1667. The 
French attacked the colony in 1690, and in 
1712 ; on each occasion levying a contribution. 
An insurrection of the negroes occurred in 
Feb. 1762, when they destroyed a large 
amount of property. Berbice surrendered 
to an Enghsh expedition May 2, 1796 ; but it 
was restored to the Dutch by the 3rd article 
of the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was 
again taken Sept. 23, 1803 ; and retained by 
an agreement signed between England and 
the Netherlands in August, 1S14. With 
Demerara and Essequibo it was formed into 
one colony in 1831, under the name of British 
Guiana. 

Beeengaeians. — The followers of Beren- 
garius, archdeacon of Angers, who, about 
1047, denied the real presence in the Eucha- 
rist. He was excommunicated by a council 
at Eome May 2, 1050. The cause was tried 
again in a council held at Tours, in 1055, when 
Berengarius is said to have recanted, and 
to have been reconciled to the Church. At a 
later period he persisted in maintaining the 
views he had previously advocated, and is said 
to have been again summoned before a coimcil 
at Kome in 1059, and to have once more 
recanted. He again wrote in defence of 
his former opinions, and was condemned at 
councils held at Angers, April 4, 1062; at 
Eome in 1063 ; at Poitiers in 1073 ; at Eome 
in Nov. 1078, and Feb. 1079, when he is 
said to have made a confession of faith ; and 
at Bordeaux in 1080, when he made another 
exposition of his faith. It is probable that 
some of the above-mentioned councils did not 
deal with Berengarius, who died in com- 
munion with the Church, Jan. 5, 1088. 

Beeesina (Battle).— The French, during 
their retreat from Eussia, were defeated at 
this river with great slaughter, 'No\. 26, 27, 
I 2 



BEE 

and 23, 1812. Such scenes of carnage and de- 
struction as those of the night of the 28th and 
the follomng days have seldom been wit- 
nessed. The camp-followers — men, women, 
and children, — terrified by the Kussian 
artillery, pressed forward to the bridges, 
one of which broke down, and thousands 
were precipitated into the stream. On the 
return of spring above 12,000 bodies were 
taken out of the bed of the river, near the 
place where the struggle occurred. 

Bee& (Germany), was ruled by counts for 
many years, and on the failure of the first 
line in 1348, devolved on the princes of 
JuLiers. It was raised to a duchy in 1380, 
and in 1423 Juliers was incorporated with 
it. Berg and Juliers came into the posses- 
sion of the dukes of Cleves on the failure of 
the Juliers line in 1511. The Cleves hue 
became extinct in 1609, and after a long con- 
tention, the elector palatine and the elector 
of Brandenburg, in 1666, agreed to divide the 
possessions, the former taking Berg. It was 
merged in Bavaria, the elector of wliich 
ceded it to France in 1806 ; and Napoleon I. 
raised it into a grand-duchy, and conferred 
it with other territory upon Murat, Mar. 15 
in that year. Murat went to Naples in 1808. 
This grand-duchy was extinguished in 1815, 
and the territories transferred to Prussia. 

Bekgamo (Italy), the ancient Bergomum, 
was ravaged by jittila a.d. 452. Under the 
Lombard monarchs it was made the capital of 
a duchy. It was annexed to Venice in 1428 ; 
and was taken by the French in 1509. The 
Venetians having succeeded in re-occupying 
it, the French again obtained possession in 
1512; but it once more fell into the power of 
the Venetians in 1515. Bergamo revolted ' 
March 12, 1797 ; was incorporated with the 
Cis-alpine republic by the treaty of Campo 
Formio, Oct. 18, 1797 ; was given to Austria 
in 1814-15, and ceded by that power to 
Sardinia in 1859. It was a bishop's see in 
the early Church. It had two cathedrals, 
the oldest destroyed by the Venetians in 
1531, and the other was founded in 896. 

Bergen- (Battles). — The first was fought 
between Bergen and Allonaar, in the north i 
of Holland, Sept. 19, 1799. The duke of 
York, commanding the Eussian and British 
troops, attacked the French and Dutch 
under Gen. Brune. The Eussians fled in 
disorder, but the English obtained some 
advantages. Both armies, however, at night 
resumed the positions they had occupied 
before the battle. In the second battle, 
fought at the same place Oct. 2, 1799, the 
duke of York, with 30,000 EngHsh and 
Eussians, engaged and defeated General 
Brune, at the head of 25,000 French and 
Dutch troops. 

Bergen (Germany). — A battle was fought 
near this place, in Germany, between the 
French and the allied English and German 
troops, April 13, 1759. The latter retired 
from the contest, but were not pursued by 
the French army. 

Bergen (Norway), was founded in 1070, 
and daring the 12th and 13th centuries was 
116 



BEE 

the residence of the kings of Norway. The 
merchants of the Hanse towns obtained 
great privileges in the way of trade in 1278, 
and these were confirmed and extended in 
1343. From this time they obtained an 
ascendancy, which was destroyed by a law 
passed by Frederick II. of Denmark, July 25, 
1560. It has several times suffered from the 
ravages of pestilence and fire. The former 
connnitted great ravages in 1348, 1353, 1618, 
1629, and 1637 ; and a fire that broke out 
May 19, 1702, destroyed the larger portion 
of the town. 

Beegen-op-Zoom (Holland). — This strong 
fortress was unsuccessfully assailed by the 
duke of Parma in 1581 and in 1588, and by 
Spinola in 1622. The French captured it 
Sept. 17, 1747 ; and it was restored to the 
Dutch by the treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe in 
1748. It again fell into the hands of the 
French in 1795. Graham carried it by 
stoi-m March 8, 1814, but some of the troops 
having broken into the wine-shops, were 
overcome by ^vine, and the garrison, taking 
fresh courage, expeUed the assailants. It 
was surrendered by the treaty of Paris in 
1814. 

Bergerac (France). — The earl of Derby 
defeated the French at this place in Guienne 
in 1344. So great was the booty on the 
occasion that the earl of Derby is said to 
have obtained a pipe of gold. The French 
recovered Bergerac in 1371 ; but the Enghsh 
recaptured it, and were not finally expelled 
until 1450. It became one of the strongholds 
of the Huguenots. Louis XIII. captured it 
in 1621, and demolished its fortifications. 

Bergerac (Treaty). — Concluded at Ber- 
gerac between the Huguenots and the 
Eoman Cathohcs Sept. 17, 1577. Protestants 
were allowed to practise their rehgion in 
those places in which it was tolerated, on 
the day the treaty was signed, though its 
exercise was entirely prohibited in Paris, or 
within 10 leagues of the city. The nobility 
were free to follow the Protestant worship 
in their own houses. These and other points 
were settled by the treaty, which in the end 
satisfied neither party. It is also called tha 
treaty of Poitiers. 

Berkhamstead (Herts). — A council was 
held here A.D. 697, convened by Withred, king 
of Kent. Several constitutions were passed, 
and amongst them one ordering the suspen- 
sion of any priest who deferred the baptizing 
of children beyond the proper time. 

Berlin (Prussia). — This city is said to 
have been founded by Albert the Bear, 
margrave of Brandenburg. The elector 
Frederick WiUiam improved and embellished 
the city, 1640 — 1683 ; and Frederick III., who 
erected Prussia into a kingdom in 1701, and 
bore the kingly title of Frederick I., grea'ly 
extended its area. The French aid Austrians 
surprised Berhu Oct. 17, 1757. Tae Aus- 
trians and Eussians captured it Ojt. 9, 1760, 
and having committed various depredations 
quitted it on the 13th. Napoleon I. entered 
Berlin Oct. 21, 1806. An insurrection broke 
out during the revolutionary trou )les on the 



BER 

Continent, June 15, 184S. Its Academy of 
Sciences was founded in 1702; its bank in 
1765 ; and its university in 1810. 

Beklin (Treaties).— Several treaties have 
been concluded at this city, the principal 
being the peace between Prussia, Poland, 
and Hungary, by which the former obtained 
Silesia, July 28, 1742 ; the treaty of union 
and confederation for maintaining the indivi- 
sibility of the German empire, caused by the 
attempt of Austria to exchange her posses- 
sions in the Netherlands for the duchy of Ba- 
varia, which was signed at Berlin J uly 23, 1785, 
by the king of Prussia, the king of England 
as elector of Brunswick - Lunenburg, the 
elector of Saxony, and other German princes ; 
and the treaty between Prussia and France 
guaranteeing the neutrahty of the north of 
Germany, Aug. 5, 1796. 

Berlik Decree. — Prussia and a great 
part of the Continent being under his domi- 
nation. Napoleon issued this celebrated in- 
terdict against English commerce at Berlin, 
Nov. 20, 1806. It prohibited all commerce, 
and even correspondence between countries 
under his sway and Great Britain. England 
was declared to be blockaded ; Enghsh pro- 
perty was liable to seizure ; all subjects of 
England found in countries occupied by 
French troops were declared prisoners of 
war ; ad letters addressed to Englishmen or 
written in the Enghsh language were to be 
stopped ; and ships touching at any port in 
England or her colonies, were excluded from 
the ports under French control. 

Bermudas (Atlantic) , or Someks' Islands, 
were discovered by Juan Bermudez, a 
Spaniard wrecked upon them in 1522, during 
a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of 
hogs. Henry May was wrecked upon them 
in 159.3 ; and Sir George Summers in 1609, 
who claimed them for the Virginia company. 
They sold them to another company, to 
which a charter was granted by James I. 
June 29, 1615. A settlement was imme- 
diately formed, and George -town founded. 
Their first general assembly was held Aug. 1, 
1620. The group consists of between three 
and four hundred, but of these only six or 
seven are inhabited. The charter expired in 
1684. 

Beenardines. — The Cistercians, a branch 
of ths Benedictines, instituted at Citeaux in 
1098, were reformed by Bernard, abbot of 
Clairvaux, in Champagne, at the commence- 
ment of the 12th century ; from which circum- 
stance theyreceived the name of Bernardines. 
The second crusade, in 1146, was preached 
by Bernard, who was one of the most 
influential men of his time. He resolutely re- 
fused all ecclesiastical dignities, and is said 
to have founded 160 rehgious houses. The 
Bernardines came into England in 1128. 
Their first house, at Waverley, in Surrey, 
was founded in that year, and completed in 
1129. At one time the numbfer of their 
estabhshments was about ninety. From the 
colour of their habit, they were called White 
Monks. There were nuns of this order, 
{See CisxEBCiAKS.) 



BES 

Berne (Switzerland) joined the Swiss 
confederation, being the eighth canton, in 
1352. Its chief town, of the same name, 
was founded by Berthold V., duke of Za;rin- 
gen, in 1191 ; and was made a free and 
imperial city by a charter from Frederick II . , 
dated May, 1218. It was besieged, though 
unsuccessfully, by Eodolph of Habsburg in 
1288. It long exercised considerable autho- 
rity, and obtained several accessions of ter- 
ritory. It was destroyed by fire in 14(i5. 
Berne was made the capital of Switzerland 
by the National Assembly of 1848. Its 
university was founded in 1834. 

Berwick-on-Tweed. — This ancient town, 
between England and Scotland, suffered 
greatly in the wai's between those countries. 
When first mentioned in history, it belonged 
to Scotland, and its castle was ceded to 
England in 1174, and restored to Scotland in 
1189. Balliol did homage for himself and his 
heirs for the whole kingdom of Scotland at 
Berwick, Nov. 30, 1292. Edward I. captured 
Ber^vick, Mar. 30, 1296, united it to England, 
and granted it a charter, afterwards extended 
and confirmed by Edward III. Bruce took 
it in 1315, and again April 2, 1319; and 
Edward III. recovered it Jxdy 20, 1333. 
The Scots surprised it Nov. 6, 1355, but 
Edward III. retook it in 1356. Henry VI. 
surrendered Berwick to the Scotch, April 25, 
1461 ; it was, however, retaken by Edward IV. 
in 1482, who conferred manv privileges upon 
it by 22 Edw. IV. c. 8 (1482). It was made 
independent of both countries in 1536. 
Cromwell captured it in 1648, and Monk in 
1659 ; and it has since remained in the 
possession of England. The statute 20 Geo. II. 
c. 42, s. 3 (1746), provided that where 
England only is mentioned in any act of 
ParUament, the same, notwithstanding, shall 
be deemed to comprehend the dominion of 
Wales and the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed. 
A treaty was concluded here in 1560; and 
another between Elizabeth and James VI., 
of Scotland, July 1, 1586, proriding for 
mutual assistance in case of invasion by 
Eoman Cathohc powej's. 

BESAN90N (France). — This ancient city, 
called Vesontio by the Eomans, was occupied 
by Julius Ccesar B.C. 56. The Burgundians 
sacked it a.d. 456, and the Hungarians in 937. 
The emperor Frederick I. held a diet of more 
than usual magnificence at Besan9on, Oct. 24, 
1157- It was an imperial city from 1184 till 
about 1664. It was captured by Louis XIV. 
in 1668, and soon after annexed to France. 
The allied army failed in an attack upon it 
in 1814. It was made a bishopric in the 3rd 
century. 

Besika Bat (Archipelago). — The Czar 
Nicholas having. May 31, 1853, issued an 
order for the passage of the Pruth by his 
troops, the French and English fleets sailed 
for this bay, at the entrance of the Darda- 
nelles, June 2, 1853, and anchored here 
June 13. 

Bessarabia. — This province, taken by the 
Turks vmder Mohammed II. in 1474, was 
seized by the Russians in the autumn of 
117 



BET 

1770, and finally ceded to Kussia by the 
treaty of Bucharest in 1812. 

Bethlehem (Out Lady of). — Thismilitary 
order was instituted by Pius II. Jan. 18, 
1459, in honour of the recovery of Lemnos 
from the Turks. It again fell into their 
power, and the order was not estabUshed. | 

Bethlehem (Syria). — This town, about 
six miles south of Jerusalem, is celebrated 
as the birthplace of the Saviour of mankind 
(Matt. ii. 8, and Luke ii. 4). It was called 
Ephi'ath, and is mentioned as the place at 
which Eachel died and was buried (Gen. 
XXXV. 17—19, and xlviii. 7), B.C. 1729. 
Eehoboam fortified or rebuilt it (2 Chron. 
xi. 5, 6), B.C. 973. David was born here 
(cire. B.C. 1085), and hence it was called 
the city of David. Helena, the mother of' 
Constantine, a.d. 325, erected a church, which i 
remains to this day, on the place of the \ 
^Nativity. It was ceded, vrith other towns, to : 
Erederick II. by the sultan of Egypt in 1229. j 
It was called Bethlehem- Judah to distinguish 
it from Bethlehem in Zebulon (Joshua, xix. 
15, 16). Bethlehem was made a bishopric 
in 11^0. 

Bethlehem (United States) was 
settled by the Moravians under Count 
Zinzendorf in 1741. 

Bethlehem Hospital, commonly called 
Bedlam, a priory for canons, both brothers 
and sisters, founded by a deed of gift dated 
Wednesday, Oct. 23, 1247, from Simon 
FitzMary, sheriff" of London, was with aU 
its revenues granted by Henry VIII., in 
1547, to the city of London, for an hospital 
forlimatics. It was transferred from Bishops- 
gate Without to Moorfields in 1675. The 
foundation of the new building was laid in 
April, 1675, and it was finished in July, 1676. 
Tiie hospital was transferred to its present 
site in St. George's Fields in 1814. The 
foundation-stone was laid April 18, 1S12 ; 
and the erection of a new wing was com- 
menced July 26, 1838. Patients partially 
cured, and suff"ered to go at large, were called 
Bedlam beggars. 

Bethlehemites. — These monks were also 
styled Star-bearers, because they wore a red j 
star of five rays, with a blue circle in the 
middle, on their breast, in memory of the 
star which appeared to the wise men. 
Matthew Paris states that they obtained an 
estabhshment at Cambridge in 1257, and 
adds, — "So many orders of brethren now 
made their appearance in England that there 
was a most extraordinary confusion among 
them." A rehgious order bearing this name 
was founded at Guatimala, in New Spain, by 
Pierre de Bethencourt, about 1660. They 
attended the sick in hospitals. Innocent XI. 
confirmed the order in 1687, and ordered 
the brethren to follow the rule of St. Augus- 
tine. 

Betting-shops. — A considerable number 
of these places, the owners of which pro- 
fessed themselves ready to bet upon the 
principal races with all comers, sprung up 
in the metropohs between the years 1850 
and 1853. Servants, apprentices, and work- 
118 



BHU 

men frequently robbed their employers to 
invest money in this new form of gambling, 
and a bill for their suppression (16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 119) received the royal assent Aug. 20, 
1853. 

Beyekwtk (Battle). — In this position, 
near AUanaar, in the l^etherlands. General 
Brune's outposts were attacked by the 
Enghsh and Russian forces, Oct. 6, 1799. The 
French and Dutch were at length compelled 
to give way, though their antagonists did 
not succeed in capturing the position. 

Betlau ( Battle ). — Ibraham Pasha, at 
the head of the Egyptian army, defeated 
the Turks at this place, in Asia Minor, 
July 29, 1832. The battle was fought near 
the spot where Alexander the Great defeated 
Darius in the battle on the Issus. 

Betkout (Syria), the ancient Berytus, 
was the seat of a famous school of jurispru- 
dence from the 3rd to the middle of the 6th 
century. The city having been destroyed by 
an earthquake July 9, 551 a.d., the school was 
removed to Sidon. Beyrout suffered severely 
during the crusades, and having been taken 
by the Saracens, was wrested from them by 
Baldwin in 1110. The Saracens, however, 
regained possession in 1187. Ibrahim Pasha 
seized it in 1832 ; and it was bombarded by 
the combined fleets of England and Turkey, 
Sept. 11 — 16, 1840, and being captured, was 
restored to the Porte. Beyrout was made a 
bishopric by Theodosius the Younger, and 
after its capture by Baldwin I. it became the 
seat of a Latin bishop about 1136. 

Bezabde (Mesopotamia) was captured by 
Sapor II. A.D. 360, when aU the inhabitants, 
even women and children, were massacred. 
Constantius II. made a vain efibrt to wrest 
it from the Persians during the same year. 
It was the seat of a bishopric before the 
Persians seized it. 

Beziees (France). — This ancient city, 
made a Roman colony a.d. 636, was besieged 
during the crusade against the Albigenses, 
and captured Jiily 22, 1209. "A general 
massacre," says Milman (Lat. Christ, vol. iv. 
b. ix. ch. 8), " followed ; neither age nor sex 
were spared ; even priests fell in the remorse- 
less carnage. Then was uttered the fright- 
ful command, become almost a proverb, 
' Slay them all, God will know his own.' In 
the church of St. Mary Magdalene were 
killed 7,000 by the defenders ot the sanctity 
of the Church. The amount of the slain is 
variously estimated from 20,000 even up to 
50,000. The city was set on fire ; even the 
cathedral perished in the flames." It was 
rebuilt in 1289, and suffered severely in the 
rehgious wars in France. Tradition assigns 
the introduction of Christianity to St. Paul. 
Its bishopric, founded at an early period, 
was suppressed in 1801. 

Bhitetpoke (Hindostan). — The capital of 
a native state of the same name. General 
Lake concluded a treaty of perpetual friend- 
ship with the rajah in December, 1803. The 
rajah, however, espoused the causeof Holkar 
in 1804, and his chief town, Bhurtpore, was 
besieged Jan. 3, 1805, by General Lake. The 



BIA 

English general failed in several attempts to 
carry the place by storm; but the rajah 
surrendered April 10, and a second treaty 
was concluded, by which, on the payment of 
a heavy fine, the rajah was allowed to retain 
his authority. A rebeUion broke out Feb. 25, 
1825. Lord Combermere captured Bhurt- 
pore, Jan. 18, 1826, and the rightful heir was 
restored Feb. 4. 

BiAGEOSSA (Treaty) . — Concluded between 
Louis XII. and the cardinal of Pavia, on 
behalf of Pope Juhus II. in July, 1509. 

BiALTSTOCK (Poland). — This province was 
incorporated vtdth Eussia by the third treaty 
of partition in 1795. A portion of it was 
transferred to the duchy of "Warsaw by the 
treaty of Tilsit, in July, 1807, whilst the 
remainder ^ as erected into a separate pro- 
vince. 

BiAifCHi. — Men and women, called White 
Penitents, from a white linen vestment that 
they wore, appeared all over Italy in August, 
1399. In their progress from province to 
province, and city to city, they kept their 
faces covered and bent downward, carrying 
before them a large crucifix, and shouting 
" Misericordia." They sang continually 
"Stabat mater dolorosa." They were not 
confined to Italy, where, according to some 
authors, they effected a remarkable reforma- 
tion of manners. In 1400 Boniface IX. had 
their leader seized at Viterbo. He was sent 
to Eome, and burned there by his orders, and 
he prohibited these processions. 

BlABTCHI AND NeRI, or WHITES AND 

Blacks, appeared amongst the numerous 
factions into which the inhabitants of various 
Italian towns were divided early in the 14th 
century. They are said to have originated in 
the following manner. Two branches of a 
rich and powerful family in Pistoja, called 
the Cancellieri, were descended from the 
two wives of their common ancestor. The 
descendants of one of them, named Bianca, 
called themselves Bianchi, whilst the descend- 
ants of the other wife were termed Neri. A 
quarrel having ensued at a convivial meeting, 
one of the Bianchi wounded a member of the 
Neri branch. The latter in revenge waylaid 
and maltreated another of the Bianchi. The 
father of the last-mentioned aggressor com- 
pelled him to wait upon, and ask pardon of, 
Gughelmo CanceUiere, the father of the 
wounded man. Gughelmo could not, how- 
ever, be appeased ; he chopped off the hand 
of the penitent, bidding him return to his 
parent and tell him that wounds were to be 
healed by wounds, not words. The feud 
between the families gathered strength from 
this savage act; the citizens joined in the 
struggle, and factions, bearing these names, 
spread to other towns in Tuscany, At Flo- 
rence two noble families, the Cerchi and the 
Donati, took up the quarrel in 1300, the for- 
mer siding with the whites and the latter 
with the blacks. In 1302 Dante Aligheri, 
with several of the Bianchi, were expelled 
from Florer-ce, and in his exile the poet wrote 
the great work that has unmortalized his 
name. BLaUam (Middle Ages, vol. i. ch. 3, 



BIB 

pt. 1), remarks, "An outrage committed at 
Pistoja in 1300 spht the inhabitants into 
the parties of Bianchi and Neri ; and these, 
spreading to Florence, created one of the 
most virulent divisions which annoyed that 
republic." 

BiBEEACH (Battle). — During the French 
revolutionary war, the republicans, led by 
Moreau, defeated the imperialists at Bibe- 
rach, in Wiirtemberg, with considerable loss, 
Oct. 2, 1796. This is often mistaken for 
another combat at Biberach, in which Moreau 
defeated Marshal Kray, the Austrian general, 
May 9, 1800. 

Bible, or The Book. — A term derived 
from the Greek, apphed to the sacred 
writings by St. Chrysostom in the 5th cen- 
tury. The name Old Testament first occurs 
in St. Paul's second epistle to the Corinthians 
(iii. 14), written in the year 55. The canon is 
generally believed to have been closed by 
Simon the Just, about B.C. 292. The Apo- 
crypha was added B.C. 150. The Old Testa- 
ment canon consists of 39 books, divided into 
929 chapters, containing 592,439 words. Of 
this portion of the Bible, the oldest edition is 
the Septuagint, translated into the Greek, ac- 
cording to the tradition of Aristeas, B.C. 277, 
by seventy -two Jews. The work was under- 
taken at the desire of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
The books of the New Testament, written in 
Hellenistic Greek, were first collected about 
the middle of the 3rd century. Peter (2nd 
epistle, iii. 16), a.d. 65, speaks of St. Paul's 
epistles as though they had been collected in 
his time. Doiibtless the separation of the 
genuine from the spurious had already com- 
menced when St. Peter wrote. The New 
Testament is divided into 27 books, containing 
260 chapters. The sacred writings were trans- 
lated by the early Christians into various lan- 
guages. Eusebiussays, "They were translated 
into aU languages, both of Greeks and barba- 
rians, throughout the world, and studied by 
all nations as the oracles of God." Many of 
the fathers bear similar testimony. Origen 
pubhshed a Bible, called Hexapla, in six 
columns, with different versions, and on adding 
two, called it the Octapla. The division of 
the Bible into chapters has been erroneously 
attributed to Stephen Langton, archbishop 
of Canterbury, in 1206. The Psalms were 
always divided as at present, and Hugo de 
Sancto Caro, a Dominican friar, and after- 
wards a cardinal, who compiled the first 
concordance to the Bible, divided the matter 
into sections, and the sections into under- 
divisions, and these sections are the chapters. 
He flourished about 1240, and died in 1262. 
Eabbi Isaac Nathan in 1445 introduced 
regular verses. These alterations have since 
been much improved. In the Latin trans- 
lation of the Bible, by Paginus of Lucca, 
published at Lyons in 1528, Arabic numerals 
are placed in the margin, opposite the 



EAELT TEAN-SLATIONS. 
B.C. 

277 (about). The Septuagint. The Old Testament 
translated into Greek. 

119 



BIB 



100. Oia Syrlac version. 

128. Aqulla, a Jewbih proselyte, translates the Old 
Testament into Greek. 

176. Theodotion translates the Old Testament. 

205. Symma hus, by order of Septimus Severus, 
translates the Old Testament into Greek. 

200-300. Coptic Translation. 

300-400. F.thiopic version. 

360. Gothic vei-sion, by Uphilas. 

405. Jerome completes the Latin Vulgate, com- 
menced about 385. 

410. Armenian version. 

70.'). Saxon translation of the Psalms. 

721. Saxon translation of the Gospels. 

725. Bede's Saxon translation of the whole Bible 
completed. 

864 Slavonian translation. 
1160. French translation of the whole Bible, by 

Peter de Vaux. 
1290. English translation. 
1380. "WyckliS'e'3 English version. 

PHUiTTED BIBLES. 



Mazarin (Latin) . . 

Vulgate 

German (Vulgate) 
Italian „ 

Dutch „ . . 

Spanish „ 

French „ 

Bohemian „ 
Hebrew (Old Tes- \ 

tament) j 

Greek 

German 

Helvetian 

English 

Ditto 

French 

Swedish 

Danish 

Dutch 

Italian 

Spanish 

Russian 

Finnish Dialect . . 

Wel.sh 

Hungarian 

Icelandic 

Polish 

Bohemian 

Virginian Indians 
Vulgate (English") 

edition) J" 

Modern Greek 

Turkish 

Irish 

lapponic 

Manx 

Gaelic 

Portuijuese 

Green landish 

Chinese 



N.T. 


Bib. 




1455 




1462 




1467 




1471 




1475 




1478 




1487 




1488 




1488 


1516 




1522 


1534 


1525 


1529 


1526 






1.535 




1.535 


1534 


1541 


1524 


1550 




1.560 




1562 


1556 


1569 


1519 


1581 


1548 


1642 


1567 


1588 


1574 


1589 




1584 


1585 


1596 




1593 


1661 


1663 




1635 


1638 




1666 




1602 


1685 


1755 




1763 




1767 


1802 


17H1 


1783 


1799 




1814 





Place of 
Printing. 



Paris. 
Mentz. 

Venice. 

Cologne. 

Valencia. 

Paris. 

Prague. 



Basle. 

Wittenberg. 

Zurich. 

Antwerp. 

Uncertain. 

Geneva. 

Upsall. 

Copenhagen. 



Geneva. 

Franklort or Basle. 
Ostrog. 
Stockliolm. 
London. 

Holum, Iceland. 

Cralitz, Moravia. 
Cambridge, New 

England. 
Rouen. 
Geneva. 
Oxford. 
London. 



Edinburgh. 
Lisbon. 
Copenhagen. 
Calcutta. 



EDITIONS OF ENGLISH BIBLES. 
A.D. 
1526. Tyndale's New Testament. Antwerp. 

1530. Tyndale's Pentateuch. Malborow, Land of 

Hesse. 

1531. Joye's Isaye (Isaiah). Strasburg. 
1535. Coverdale's folio Bible. 

1537. Matthew's Bible. (Abroad.) 
1537. An edition of Coverdale s Bible. South wark. 
1539. The Great (or Cromwell's) Bible. London. 
(The first Bible printed by authority in 
England.) 
120 



A.D. 

1539. 
1540. 



1657. 
1717. 
1850. 



BID 



Tavemer's Bible. Folio. T.ondon. 

Cranmer's edition of the Great Bible. 
London. 

Genevan Bible. Geneva. 

The Bishops' Bible. London. 

The Gospels, in Saxon .and English. Tlie 
Saxon from the Vu gate, and the English 
from the Bishops' Bible. London. 

Genevan Bible. Etliuburgh. (The first Bible 
printed m Scotland.) 

The Royal Bible, or King James's Bible. 
London. 

The •' Wicked Bible." London. 

Fii-st Scotch edition of Authorized Bible. Edin- 
burgh. 

Walton's Polyglot Bible. 

Vinegar Bible. Oxford. 

Wyclifiie's Bible. Oxford. 



Bible Societies. — Many societies have 
been formed for the dissemination of the 
Scriptures. The following are the principal 
associations of the kind, mth the date of the 
institution. 



New England re-incorporated in lf'61. 
Society for the Pi-opagation of the Gospel in 

Wales. 
Promoting Christian Knowledge. 
Propagation of Gospel in Foreign Parts. 
Pi'omoting Christian Knowledge in Scotland. 
Society at Halle. 
Promoting Christian Knowledge among the 

Poor. 
Naval and Military Bible Society. 
Support and Encouragement of Sunday 

Schools. 
French Bible Society. 

Society for promoting a more Extensive Cir- 
culation of the Scriptures, both at home 

and abroad. 
British and Foreign Bible Society ; being the 

Society of 1803 remoilelled. German Bibla 

Society. New York Society. 
Berliii Society, changed to Prussian Bibla 

Society in 1814 
Philadelphia Bible Society. 
Russian Bible Society. Suspended in 1826. 
American Bible Society. 



1701. 
1709. 
1712. 
1750. 



1808. 
1813. 
1817. 



Some of these societies have a large number 
of branch establishments. Pius VII. issued 
a bull, dated at Eome, June 29, 1816, against 
bible societies, denouncing the movement as 
a cral'ty device, by which the very foundatione 
of religion are undermined. 

BicoccA (Battle). — Prospero Colonna, at 
the head of the Imperiahsts, repulsed the 
French and Swiss at this place, April 22, 
1522. The latter were compelled to retire 
from Italy, where Francis I. had nothing left 
but the castles of Milan and Cremona, both 
of which were closely besieged. 

BiDASOA, or ViDASOA (Spain). — ^Wellington 
effected a passage of this river in Spain, de- 
feating the French army under Soult, Oct. 7, 
1813, 

BiDDEXDETT Maids. — On the afternoon of 
Easter Sunday, 600 roUs are distributed to 
strangers, and 270 loaves, weighing 3^ lb. 
each, with cheese in proportion, to the poor 
of the parish of Biddenden, in Kent, the 
expense being defrayed from the rental of 
twenty acres of land, called Bread-and-Cheese 
Land, said to have been left for this purpose 
by the Biddenden Maids. The donors are 
represented as two sisters, named Elizabeth 



BIL 

and Mary Chulkhurst, who were born joined 
together by the hips and shoulders, at Bid- 
denden, in 1100. They hved together in 
this state for thirty-four years, when one 
of them died, and the other, refusing to be 
separated from the body of her sister, suc- 
cumbed a few hours after. An impression 
of the Biddenden Maids is stamped upon the 
rolls. Halstead, in his " History of Kent," 
rejects this story, saying that the lands were 
left by two maiden ladies of the name of 
Preston, and that the impression on the 
cakes is intended to represent two widows, 
as general objects of charity. W. Horner, 
rector of the parish, brought an action to 
obtain the lands as part of his glebe, but he 
was nonsuited. 

Bilbao (Spain). — This city, founded in 
1300, quickly rose into importance. It was 
taken by the French in July, 1795, but re- 
stored by the treaty of Basel, July 22 in that 
year. The Spaniards expelled the French, 
who had again seized it, in September, 1808, 
but Napoleon recovered it in the same year. 
It surrendered to Wellington after his vic- 
tory at Vittoria, June 21, 1813. The Carlists 
besieged it during the civil war. It was re- 
lieved by Espartero and the British Legion, 
Dec. 24, 1836. 

BiLWAEDS. — ^This game is said to have 
been invented by the French, though by 
some authorities the invention is ascribed to 
the Italians. It was introduced into England, 
and became a favourite diversion in the 16th 
century. Evelyn speaks of a new sort of 
biUiards, with more hazards than ours usually 
have. 

Billingsgate. — Geoffrey of Monmouth 
(b. iii. c. 10) relates that amongst other works 
erected by Behn, was a wonderful gate in 
Trinovantum, upon the bank of the Thames, 
which is to this day called after him, BiUings- 
gate ; and that above it he erected an immense 
tower, and beneath a haven for ships. This 
somewhat strange and legendary story is the 
only account given of its origin. ToU 
was paid here in 1016, as appears from 
Ethefred's laws ; and in the time of Ed- 
ward III. the charge on every large vessel 
was twopence, for a smaller one a penny, and 
for a boat one halfpenny for standage. Bil- 
lingsgate was made a free market to aU 
persons from May 10, 1699, by 10 & 11 
WiU. III. e. 14. Abuses having arisen, an 
order was issued in 1707, enforcing certain 
payments. The hours of the market were 
fixed, and a beU ordered to be rung by a 
proper oflBcer by 9 Anne, c. 26, s. 5 (1710). 
BiUingsgate was destroyed by fire Jan. 13, 
1715, when fifty lives were lost ; it was, how- 
ever, rebuilt. An entirely new market was 
constructed, with superior accommodation, 
in 1852. 

Bill of Eights. — The petition of right, 
drawn up by parliament in 1628, and agreed 
to reluctantly by Charles I., June 7, 1628, 
was converted into a statute (3 Chas. I. c. 1), 
and called the BiU of Eights. The term is, 
however, generally used to describe the statute 
passed after much discussion (1 WiU. & Mary, 



BIE 

sess. 2, c. 2) , in November, 1689. It embodied 
the declaration of rights presented to William 
and Mary when the tender of the throne was 
made to them, Feb. 13, 1689, which defined 
and vindicated the rights and liberties of the 
subject, at the same time that it settled the 
succession to the throne. 

Bills of Exchange.— The origin of bills 
of exchange has not been clearly traced, 
though it is certain that they were known in 
Europe in the 13th century. Henry III. of 
England and Pope Alexander IV., for the 
purpose of carrying out their plans in Italy, 
in 1254, borrowed large sums of the Italian 
bankers, authorizing them to draw bills for 
the amount on the English bishops, the latter 
being compelled, under threats of excommu- 
nication, to furnish the necessary funds. 
Beckmann quotes an ordinance issued at Bar- 
celona, in 1394, requiring biUs of exchange to 
be accepted within twenty-four hours of 
presentation, and the acceptance to be on 
the back of the bill. In 1404 the magistrates 
of Bruges applied to the magistrates of Bar- 
celona for information as to how they were 
to act when bills of exchange were in certain 
cases dishonoured. Baldus, the jurist, quotes 
one dated March 9, 1328. They are mentioned 
in 3 Eich. II. c. 3, s. 2, 1379, and various 
enactments have been made for their regu- 
lation. 

Bills of Moktalitt. — Stow, on the au- 
thority of a learned author, says they com- 
menced in 1592, a year of great mortality ; 
and having fallen into disuse, were revived in 
1603, the first of the weekly bills being dated 
Oct. 29 in that year. Diseases were first 
noticed in them in 1629. They were pubhshed 
every Thursday, and dehvered at the houses 
of the citizens for 4s. a year. They were 
superseded by the new machinery introduced 
by the Eegistration Act (6 & 7 WiU. IV. 
c. 86), that became law Aug. 17, 1836. Its 
operations commenced March 1, 1837. 

Binaey Aeithmetic. — This kind of nota- 
tion, said to have been used amongst the 
Chinese 4,000 years ago, was invented by 
Leibnitz at the end of the 17th century. 

BiEKESTHEAD (Cheshire). — A Benedictine 
priory was founded here a. d. 1150, of which the 
ruins still exist. Birkenhead remained an 
obscure village until very recently. Its 
population of 200 in 1821, had, in 1851, 
increased to nearly 25,000, and it pos- 
sesses extensive docks, commenced Oct. 23, 
1844. 

BiEKENHEAD, stcam transport, conveying 
troops to the seat of the Oaflre war, was 
wrecked near the Cape of Good Hope, 
Feb. 26, 1852, when only 194 persons out of 
630 on board at the time were saved. 

BlKMiNGHAM (Warwickshire). — This 
manufacturing town, of which the name 
is said to be spelt in 150 ways, one being 
BromwycJiam, was founded in the Anglo- 
Saxon period, and was a market-town before 
the Norman conquest. It sided with Crom- 
well during the civil war, and a battle was 
fought near it in 1643, when Prince Eupert 
obtained possession of the town. 

121 



BIE 



15S2. King Edward VI. founds the Gr 
School. 

1643. Besieged, taken, and partially burnt, by 
Prince Rupert. 

1665. Visited by the plague. 

1764. Matthew Boltou founds the Soho manu- 
factory. 

1767. Birmingham Canal commenced. 

1774. Watt and Boulton commence their partner- 
ship. 

1779. The General Hospital opened. 

1791. July 14. Riots, in consequence of attempts to 

celebrate the anniversary of the French 
revolution. 

1792. A\ig. 24. The theatre burnt. 
1813. Government proof -house erected. 

1817. May 15. Walter-street MUls entirely con- 
sumed by fire. Damage estimated at 
£200,000. 

1820. Jan. 7. The theatre again destroyed by fire. 

1831. Bii-mingham Political Union formed, to 

insure the success of the Reform Bill. 

1832. Made a borough by the Reform BUI, and 

returns two members to parliament. 

1833. Town-hall built. 

18;i4. May 10. Dissolution of the Political XTnion. 
Erection of the present Grammar School 

1837. July. Grand Junction Railway opened 

between Bii-uitngham and Jjiverpool. 

1838. Sept. 17. London and Birmingham Railway 

opened. Oct. 31. Mimicipal Charter 
granted. 

1839. July 15. Great riot by the Chartists. 
1343. Queen's College incorporated. 

1846. Queen's College authorized by royal warrant 

to issue certificates to candidates for degi-ees 
in London University. 

1847. Oct. Com Exchange opened. People's Park 

opened, the gift of 5Ir. Adrlerley. New 
Music Hall opened. Lord Calthorpe's Park 
opened. 

1858. June 15. The Queen opens Aston Hall and Park, 

which become the propsi-ty of the people 
of Birmingham. 

1859. Sept. 27. Twenty persons killed by an explo- 

sion of gunpowder in a percussion - cap 
manufactory. 

BiETHS were first taxed in this country by 
6 & 7 WiU. III. c. 6, 1694. The tax was 
granted for five years, from May 1, 1695, 
and was by 8 & 9 WiU. IIT. c. 20, s. 14, con- 
tinued till Aug. 1, 1706, and every person 
not receiving alms was required to pay 2s. 
for each child. The nobUity, &c., paid, in 
addition to the 2s., as foUows : — 

For each 

Eldest son. son and 

daughter. 

£. «. d. £. s. d. 

Duke 30 .... 25 

JIarquis ... 25 20 

Earl 20 15 

Viscount 17 10 .... 13 6 

Baron 15 12 

Baronet, knight of the ■) 

bath, or knight-bache- > 5 10 

lor j 

Serjeant-at-law, esquire 1 •, a ^ inn 

or gentleman /^ ** ^ ••• 1 <* 

Archbishop,bishop,dean,1 

archdeacon,canon,pre- linn t n n 

beudary, doctor of di- r -l " « •••• 10 

vinity, law, or physic J 
Every person not includ-"| 

ed in the above list, j 

having a real estate of i „ ,^ „ mo n 

£50 per annum, or per- f " ^" .... 10 

sonal estate of £600 or 

■apwards J 

BiETHs, Deaths, anb Makkiages.— A 



BIS 

j stamp duty on the registry of births, chris- 
tenings, marriages, and burials, was granted 
from Oct. ], 1783, by 23 Geo. III. c. 67 
(1783) . The amount was threepence on each 
entry. The tax was extended to Dissenters 
from Oct. 1, 1785, by 25 Geo. III. c. 75 
(1785), and both acts were repealed by 
34 Geo. III. c. 11 (March 1, 1794), the 
duties ceasing Oct. 1, 1794. 

Bishop, or Ovekseeb, the title given by 
the Greeks and Eomans to certain civU 
officers, was adopted in the Christian Church 
for one of its chief authorities during the 
apostoHcal period. Bishops were at first 
styled apostles. By canons passed at the 
councils of Chalcedon (the fourth General 
Coimcil), A.D. 451 ; of Agda, Sept. 11, 506 ; 
of Lerida, Aug. 6, 546, and at many others, 
ascetics, hermits, and monks were made 
subject to them. Bishops were appointed ia 
England soon after the introduction of Chris- 
tianity during the 1st century, the monkish 
account of the foundationof the see of London 
by Lucius, between a.d. 170 and 185, being 
rejected as aii invention intended to convey 
the idea of the subjection of the ancient 
British church to Eome. The hierarchy be- 
came very powerful in Anglo-Saxon times. 
William I. changed the frank-almoign, or free 
alms, the spiritual tenure under which the 
bishops before held their lands, into the 
feudal or Norman tenure by barony in 1070 ; 
and in'right of succession to these baronies the 
bishops and abbots were afterwards allowed 
seats m the House of Lords as lords spiritual. 
They were at first elected to their office. 
Charlemagne claimed the right of confirming 
each appomtment, and of granting investiture 
of the temporahties, and this was recognized 
by Hadrian in 773, and the Council of Lateran. 
This custom prevailed in England until the 
year 1106, when Ansehn induced Henry I. to 
be satisfied with homage from the bishop for 
his temporahties. King John conceded by 
charter to the cathedrals and monasteries the 
right of electing their bishops and abbots. 
This right was recognized and confirmed ia 
Magna Charta, and by 25 Edw. III. st. 6, 
s. 3, in 1351. The ancient right of nomination 
was restored to the crown by 25 Hen. VIII. 
c. 20 (1534). Twelve bishops were impeached 
and committed to the Tower, Dec. 30, 1641, 
for protesting (Dec. 28) against the legality 
of all laws, orders, votes, resolutions, and 
determinations passed during their enforced 
absence, from the violence of the mob, by 
whom they were daily assaulted on their way 
to parliament. Bishops were excluded from 
parhament by 16 Chas. I. c. 27 (Feb. 1641), 
but the act was repealed by 13 Chas. II. 
St. 1, c. 2 (1662), and they have since sat in 
the upper house. {See Nonjueoes, and 
Sevek Bishops, (Trial of).) 

BisHOPEics (England and Wales). — Many 
bishoprics were founded in this country during 
the early period of the Church. All particu- 
lars, and even, in most cases, the names of 
the sees, are lost. British bishops were pre- 
sent at the councils of Aries in 314, of Nieaea 
in 325, and Arminium in 360; and their 



BIS 

signatures are affixed to the canons passed 
at these synods. It is impossible to ascer- 
tain the exact date of the foundation of all 
the Enghsh bishoprics, and in cases in which 
this is not known, the earliest notice of them 
that occurs is given in the following Mst. By 
10 & 11 Vict. c. 108 (July 23, 1847), which 
provided for the erection of the see of Man- 
chester, it was enacted that the number of 
bishops having seats in the House of Lords 
should not be increased, and that in case of 
a vacancy, London, Durham, and "Winchester 
being excepted, the junior bishop should re- 
main without a seat. The bishop of Sodor 
and Man never sat in parliament, and con- 
sequently this arrangement did not affect 
that see, 

ARCHBISHOPEICS. 

A.D. 

Canterbury 597 

York.— Founded 180. Restored 622 



BISHOPSICS. 

A.ix 
616 

Bath.— Founded 1078. Wells transferred to 

Bath 1092 

Bristol.-United to Gloucester 1836 1541 

Carlisle 1132 

Chester 1541 

Chichester.— At Selsey 680. Removed to Chi- 
chester 1078 

Durham. — At Lindisfarne 634. Removed to 

Durham 995 

Ely 1108 

Exeter.— See of Devonshire 909, and Corn- 
wall 909. United 1040, and removed to 

Exeter 1046 

Gloucester.- United to Bristol 1836. Founded 1541 

Hereford. — First noticed 67d 

Hexham.— First noticed 678. Extinct 810 

Lichfield. — Removed to Coventry, and also to 

Chester. Founded 669 

Lincoln.— Founded at Lindsey in 680. Re- 
moved to Lincoln 1078 

Llandaif. — Founded, according to some autho- 
rities, in 180, and according to others 516 

London. — Said to have been an archbishopric 

in 180. Bishopric founded 604 

Manchester . 1847 

Norwich.— The see of the East-Angles was 
founded at Dunwich 673, and at Elmham 673. 
Removed to Thetford 1078, and to Norwich 1092 

Oxford 1541 

Peterborough 1541 

Ripon 1836 

Rochester 604 

Salisbmy.— See founded at Sherborne 705. 
Divided ta 909 ; one being called Wilton. 

Reunited 10.58 

Sodor and Man.— At Man 447. Sodor and Man 1109 

St. Asaph 550 

St. David's. — Formerly archbishopric of 

Caerleon. Bishopric founded 516 

Wells. United to Bath 1092. Founded 909 

Westminster.— Founded 1541. Suppressed .. 1550 

Winchester 705 

Worcester 680 



BiSHOPEics (Ireland). — Two archbishop- 
rics were reduced to bishoprics, and several 
sees merged into others by 3 & 4 WiE. IV. 
c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), and 4 & 5 WiU. IV. 
c. 90 (Aug. 15, 1834). The archbishop and 
two bishops sit in the House of Lords, a 
change being made each session, that all the 
bishops may sit in turn. 



BIS 



AECHBISHOPRICS. 

A.D. 

Armagh. — Bishopric founded 445. Made an 
archbishopric 1152 

Cashel.— Foundation, before 901. Became an 
archbishopric 1152; received Emly in 1568 ; 
and was reduced from an archbishopric, and 
became the bishopric of Cashel, Emly, Water- 
ford, and Lismore 1839 

Dublin.— Foundation uncertain. Became an 
archbishopric 1152 

Tuam. — Founded about 501 ; became an arch- 
bishopric 1152 ; received Mayo 1559 ; was re- 
duced from an archbishopric, and became the 
bishopric of Tuam, KLUala, and Achonry . . 1839 



BISHOPEICS. 

A.D. 

Achonry. — Founded 530. United to KUlala ltj22 

Ardagh. — Founded 454 ; united to Kilnaore 
1660 ; separated 1692 ; reunited 1693 ; again 
separated and united to Tuam 1742 ; sepa- 
rated from Tuam and united to lulmore . . 1841 

Ardfei-t and Aghadoe. — First noticed 500. 
United to Limerick 1663 

Clogher. — First noticed 493. United to 
Armagh 1850 

Clonfert. — Founded 558. Received Kilmac- 
duach 1602. Both united to Kiilaioe and 
Kilfenora 1834 

Clonmacnois. — Founded 548. United to Meath 1568 

Cloyne.— Founded before 604 ; united to Cork 
1430 ; separated 1679 ; and united to Cork 
and Ross 1835 

Connor. — Founded about 500. United to Down 1441 

Cork. — Founded about 606. Received Cloyne 
1430, and Ross 1583. Cloyne separated 1679. 
It became Cork, Cloyne, and Ross 1835 

Derry before 618 ; and became Derry and 
Raphoe 1834 

Down. — Founded about 499 ; became Down and 
Connor 1441 ; and Down, Connor, and 
Dromore 1842 

Dromore. — Founded about 510. United to 
Down and Connor 1842 

Elphin.— Founded 450. United to Kilmore 
and Ardagh 1841 

Emly.— Founded about 448. United to Cashel 1568 

Ferns. — Founded about 598. United to 
leighlin 1600 

Glandalagh. — Founded before 612. United to 
Dublta 1214 

Kildare. — Founded before 519. United to 
Dublin 1846 

Kilfenora. — Founded before 1254. United to 
Tuam 1661 ; and to Kiilaioe 1752 

KUlala.— Foimded about 434 ; became Killala 
and Achonry 1607 ; and both united to 
Tuam 1834 

Kiilaioe.— Earliest certain date 1019. Became 
Kiilaioe and Kilfenora 1752 ; and Kiilaioe, 
Kilfenora, Clonfert, and KUmacduach 1839 

Kilmacduach. — Founded about 620. United to 
Clonfert 1602 

Kilmore. — Founded 1136 ; received Ardagh 
1660 ; separated 1742 ; again received Ardagh 
1839; and became Kilmore, Elphin, and 
Ardagh 1841 

Leighlin.— Founded 632. United to Femsl600. 
Both annexed to Ossory 1835 

Limerick. — Founded before 1106. Became Lim- 
erick, Ai'dfert, and Aghadoe 1667 

Lismore. — Founded 631, or 636. United to 
Waterford 1.363 

T outh. — Founded 534. Suppressed 1044 

Mayo.— Founded about665. United to Tuam 15-59 

Meath.— Founded 520 

Ossory.— Founded 402. Became Ossory, Ferns, 
and Leighlin 1835 

Raphoe.— Earliest authentic date, 885. United 
to Derry 1834 

Boss.— Founded about 570. United to Cork and 
Cloyne 1583 

Waterford.— Founded 1096 ; united to Lismore 

1363 ; and both annexed to Cashel 1834 

123 



BIS 

Bishoprics (Scotland).— Episcopacy was 
abolished in Scotland in 1561, restored in 
1606, again abolished in 1639, again restored 
in 1661, and abolished at the revolution m 
1689, when the bishops were expelled. Be- 
fore the Revolution there were two arch- 
bishoprics and twelve bishoprics in Scotland, 
the last, that of Edinburgh, having been 
founded by Charles I. in 1633. Though the 
Presbyterian church was acknowledged as 
the national church at the Eevolution, some 
of the old episcopahan bishoprics have been 
revived. There are now seven, the last being 
that of Argyll and the Isles, re-established 
October, 1847. 

AECHBISHOPKICS. 

A.D. 

Glasgow.— Founded about 560 or 583. Erected 

into an ai-uhbishopric 1488 

St. Andrews.— Bishopric 800. Made an arch- 



BISHOPEICS. 

A.D. 
Aberdeen. — Founded at Mortlach, Banffshire, 

1010. Transfen-ed 1125 

Argyll 1200 

Brechin.— Before 11-55 

Caithness.— About 106« 

Dunblane.— Before llo3 

Dunkeld H^^O 

Edinburgh 1633 

Galloway.— Before 500 

Isles 360 

Moray U",V1 ^^^^ 

Orkney. — Foundation very obscure. EarUest 

authentic date 1188 

Boss 112-i 

The above were all suppressed at the 
Eevolution, and the following sees have been 
since erected : — ■ 



Argyll and the Isles 

Brechin 

Dunblane, 1731. United to Dunkeld 

Dunkeld, 1727. Transferred to St. Andrews 

Ediuburgh 

Fife, 1743. Transferred to Dunkeld and Dun- 
blane 

Glasgow, 1731. Suppressed 1734. Restored, and 
made Glasgow and Galloway 

Moray, 1727. United to Ross 

Ross, 1798. Became Ross and Moray 1838 

St. Andi-ews.- The bishoiu-ic of Dunkeld and 
Dunbl.me was cuanged to thatof St. Andrews, 
Dunkeld, and Dunblane 1844 

Bishoprics (Colonial). — The first colonial 
sea in connection with the Church of England 
was that of Nova Scotia, to which the Eev. 
S. Seabury was consecrated at Aberdeen, 
Nov. 24, 1784. Bishoprics were afterwards 
erected for New York and Pennsylvania, and 
other American colonies. These are now 
included in the Episcopal church of the 
United States. The following Ust contains 
all the colonial sees that had been founded 
previous to the year 1861. 

A.D. 

Adelaide 1847 

Antigua 1842 

Australia.— Founded 1836. Changed to Sydney 1847 

Barbadoes and Leewara Isles 1824 

Bombay 1837 

Brisbane, Moreton Bay lo5» 

124 



BIT 

A.D. 

British Columbia 1850 

Calcutta 1814 

Cape Town 1847 

Ceylon 1845 

Chi'istchurch, New Zealand lo-^b 

Fredericton 1845 

Gibraltar 1842 

Goulbourn, N. S. Wales 185!) 

Graham's Town 1853 

Guiana 1842 

Huron 1857 

Jamaica 18*24 

Labuan 1855 

Madras 1835 

Mauritius 1854 

Melbourne 1847 ! 

Montreal 1850 

Natjil 1*53 

Nelson, New Zealand ^8-?8 

New Zealand 1841 

Newcastle 1847 

Newfoundland 1839 

Nova Scotia 1787 

Perth, West Australia 1856 

Prince Rupert's Land 1850 

Quebec 1793 

Sierra Leone 1850 

St. Helena, Cape 1859 

Tasmania 1842 

Toronto 1839 

Victoria, Hong Kong 1849 

Waiapu. New Zealand 1850 

Wellington 1858 

Bishops (Eoman Catholic).— The Church 
of Eome has no less than 731 archbishops and 
bishops on its establishment. After the Re- 
formation, England and Wales were placed 
under the care of bishops in partibus, the 
first appointment having been made March 23, 
1623, and afterwards of Vicars-Apostohe. By 
a brief dated Sept. 30, 18aO, the hierarchy 
was restored in England, and one archbishop 
and twelve bishops appointed. In Ireland 
there are four Eoman Cathohc archbishops 
and twenty-four bishops. The Eoman Ca- 
thohc Church in Scotland is under the juris- 
diction of three bishops in partibus. 

BiTHTNiA (Asia Minor).— The original 
inhabitants of this ancient province were, 
according to the traditional account, expelled 
by some Thracian tribes, of which the Bithyni 
were the most numerous. The Megarians 
formed a colony at Astacus B.C. 712, which 
became a flourishing city. Bithynia was 
incorporated with the Lydian empire by 
Croesus about b . c . 560. BithjTiia is included 
in the modem Anatoha, 



541. Succumbs with Lydia to the Persian yoke. 

431 or 436. Dydalsus, or Dsedalsus, chief of the 
Bithyni, seizes Astacus, and founds the 
kingdom of Bithynia. 

409. The Bithynians deliver to Alcibiades the pro- 
perty of the Chalcedoiiians intrusted to 
their safe keeping. 

401. The Bithynians vigorously oppose the retreat 
of the Ten Thousand. 

333. The Bithynians de ■ eat Galas, one of the generals 
of Alexander the Great. 

315. Zipcetes wars with Astacus and Chalcedon. 

281. Lysimachus, the Thracian, sends an army to 
subdue Bithynia ; but his troops are de- 
feated, and his generals i-lain. 

278. Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, invites the 
Gauls into Asia, and assigns Galatia as their 
territory. 

264 Nicomedes L founds Nicomedia, 



BIT 



228 (about). Zielas having treacherously planned 
the massacre of the chiefs of Galatia, is 
detected and slain by them. 

216. Prusias I defeats the Gauls iu a gi'eat battle. 

183. Hannibal, who had sought refuge with Pru- 
sias I. and assisted him in his wars with 
the king of Pergamus, poisons himself, to 
avoid betrayal into the hands of the 
Eomans. 

167. Prusias II. visits Kome, and is magniflcently 
received. 

156. War between the kings of Bithynia and Per- 
gamus, in which the former is victorious. 
88. War between Nicomedes III., of Bithynia, and 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, in which the 
latter is victorious. 
74. Death of Nicomedes III. , who heq\ieaths Bi- 
thynia to the Komau people. 

A.D. 

63. The provinces of Bithynia and Pontus are 
united about this time. 

103. Pliny becomes governor of Bithynia. 

104. PUny complains of the Christians in his pro- 

vince. 
260 (about). Ravaged by the Goths. 
1074. Seized by the Seljukian Turks. 
12.31. First settlement of the Tart;irs in Bithjmia. 
1298. The Ottomans found a new empire in Bithynia, 

and constitute Prusa their capital. 
1339. The Emir Orchan conquers Nicomedia, and 

subdues the whole of Bithynia. 



KllfaS OP BITHYNIA. 



B.C. 

— DydaUus. 

— Boteiras. 
376. Bas. 
326. Zipoetes. 
278. Nicomedes I. 
250. Zielas. 



B.C. 

228. Prusias I. 
180. Prusias II. 
149. Nicomedes II. 

(Epiphanes). 
91. Nicomedes III. 
(Philopator). 



BiTONTO (Battle). — The Imperialists were 
defeated at this place, in Apulia, by the 
Spanish troops, led by the duke of Monte- 
mar, general to Don Carlos, May 27, 1734. 
Don Carlos was crowned king of Naples, the 
German viceroy expelled, and Montemar 
created duke of Bitonto. The whole of Sicily 
was soon after subjugated. 

Black Act, passed in 1722 (9 Geo. I. 
c. 22) , and so called because it was intended to 
put an end to the wanton destruction of deer, 
tame, plantations, the obtaining of the same 
by threats, and other outrages committed 
l)y persons called blacks, having their faces 
blackened, and being otherwise disguised. 
'JTiese offences were punished as felony, the 
delinquents to suffer death without benefit 
of clergy. Offenders under this act were 
excepted from the general pardon granted 
by 20 Geo. II. c. 52 (1746). The act was to 
last for three years from June 1, 1723, and 
it was continued for five j^ears by 12 Geo. I. 
c. 30 (1725), and after other renewals was 
made perpetual by 31 Geo. II. c. 42 (1757). 
It was repealed by 7 &8 Geo. IV. c. 27, s. 1, 
June 21, 1827. The acts of the Scottish 
jiarhament from the re'gn of James I. of 
Scotland to the year 15S6 are also denomi- 
nated black acts, because they are printed in 
Saxon characters. 

Black Assize. — A fatal pestilence that 
broke out at Oxford, at the close of the 
assizes, July 6, 1577. It lasted until the 12th 
of August, and 510 persons in Oxford and its 
neighbourhood are said to have fallen victims 



BLA 

to this malady. Antony "Wood attributes it 
to the noisome smell of the prisoners or the 
damp ground. Something of the same kind 
occurred at the Lent assizes in Cambridge, 
in 1521, when all " there present were sore 
sick, and narrowly escaped with their lives." 

Black Cap, called the "Judgment Cap," 
isworn on extraordinary occasions, asforming 
a portion of the full dress of the judge. It 
is for this reason it is used when sentence of 
death is passed upon a prisoner. When the 
Lord Mayor is presented in the court of 
Exchequer, Nov. 9, the judges wear "the 
black cap" during the ceremony. Covering 
the head was a sign of mourning amongst the 
Israehtes, as may be seen from 2 Sam. xv. 30, 
and other passages in the Old Testament ; 
also amongst the Greeks, Eomans, and other 
ancient nations, and even amongst the Anglo- 
Saxons. It is not known when the custom 
for a judge to put on the black cap in passing 
sentence of death upon a prisoner was intro- 
duced in this country. 

Black Death. — This pestilence, so called 
from the black spots which at one of its stages 
appeared upon the bodies of the sufferers, 
desolated the world in the 14th century. It 
is said to have broken out in China. After 
having traversed Asia, it appeared in Europe 
in 1348, where it prevailed with more or less 
severity until 1351. The loss of human life 
was great, no less than 25,000,000 persons 
having perished in Europe alone. The terrors 
it excited gave rise to several sects, who wan- 
dered about, lashing themselves, singing 
penitential psalms, and declaring that the 
day of judgment was at hand. In some 
places the calamity was attributed to the 
Jews, who were, in consequence, persecuted 
with great severity. Our historians dwell 
upon the ■ great ravages it committed in 
London. It returned at a later period, 
but its visitations were less fatal in their 
character. 

Black Feiaes. — ^This name was given, on 
account of their black habit, to the Domi- 
nicans, who came into England in 1221. (See 
Dominicans.) 

Blackfeiaks Beidg-e. — The first pile was 
driven January 7, and the foundation stone 
of this edifice was laid Oct. 31, 1760. The 
temporary bridge was opened for foot- 
passengers Nov. 19, 1766 ; for horses, in 
1768 ; and for carriages, Nov. 19, 1769 ; the 
edifice having been completed in 1770. ToU, 
to the amount of one halfpenny per foot- 
passenger, was at first levied ; but this was 
abohshed June 22, 1785. The bi-idge has 
nine arches, the width of the central one 
being 100 feet, and the length of the whole 
structure 995, and the width 42 feet. It was 
repaired in 1840, when the carriage-way was 
closed until October in the following year. 
It was at first called Pitfs Bridge, in honour 
of the great earl of Chatham. 

Blackeeiaes Theatee was built in 1576, 
and rebuilt in 1596. The edifice was pulled 
down, and tenements erected on its site, 
Aug. 6, 1655. In the reign of Charles I. the 
Blackfriars theatre was the first iu London. 
125 



BLA 

BtACKHEATH (Kent) . — ^This common, about 
five miles S.E. from London, has been the 
scene of many important events. The Danes 
were defeated here in 1011. Wat Tyler and 
his followers assembled here June 12, 1381, 
marching upon London the following day. 
Here, S'ov. 23, 1416, the citizens of London 
welcomed Henry V., after the victory at 
Agincourt. Jack Cade encamped on the 
heath June 1, 1450, and after having de- 
feated the king's army at Sevenoaks, entered 
London, July 1. The people of Cornwall 
resisted the "payment of a subsidy granted 
to Henry VII., for the prosecution of a war 
against Scotland, by a parhament held at 
Westminster, Monday, Jan. 16, 1497, and 
under the leadership of Lord Audley, ilichael 
Joseph, a blacksmith, and Thomas Flam- 
mock, a lawyer, advanced towards London, 
and were defeated at Blaekheath, June 22, 
1497. Their leaders were taken and exe- 
cuted. Charles II., at the Eestoration, was 
met here by the army. May 29, 1660, and 
made his triumphal entry into the metro- 
poHs. It was a resort of highwaymen during . 
the 18th century. j 

Black-hole. — Dowlah, viceroy of Bengal, 
captured Calcutta June 20, 1756, when he 
ordered Mr. Holwell, its valiant defender, 
and 145 of his fellow-countrymen, to be im- i 
prisoned in the common dungeon of Fort j 
William, usually called the Black-hole. The 
dungeon was only 18 feet square ; but little 
air was admitted ; and the consequence was, 
that when the door was opened, only 23 of 
the 146 incarcerated the night before were 
found aHve. Clire exacted signal vengeance 
for this act of barbarity. He took Calcutta 
Jan. 2, 1757 ; won the battle of Plassey 
June 23 in the same year ; and the perfidious 
Dowlah was slain b}' one of his own officers 
on the 25th of the same month. 

BiiACK-iiAiL. — This tax, in kind or money, 
was levied by the borderers of England and 
Scotland, uuder the pretence of atfording 
protection from robbers, with whom those 
demanding the tribute were generally aUied. 
By 43 £hz. c. 13 (1601), aU persons in the 
counties of Northumberland, Westmoreland, 
Cumberland, and the bishopric of Durham, 
receiving or carrying black-mail, or giving 
it for protection, were to suffer death as 
felons, without benefit of clergy, and to for- 
feit all their goods. These iUegal exactions 
were carried to such an extent, that they 
became the subject of legislation just before 
the Union. The practice was, in spite of 
every effort for its suppression, continued 
in Scotland until the rebellion of 1745. 

Black MoifDAX. — Easter Monday, April 
6, 1360, was thus named from the severity of 
the weather on that day. Stow, under the 
year 1360, says, "And here is to be noted 
that the 14th day of April, and the morrow 
after Easter -day, King Edward, with his 
host, lay before the city of Paris, which day 
was fuU dark of mist and hail, and so bitter 
cold, that many men died on their horse- 
backs with the cold ; wherefore unto this day 
it hath been called the Black Monday." 
126 



BLA 

Easter Monday in that year fell on the 6th 
of April. Launcelot, in the " Merchant of 
Venice," remarks, "Then itwas not for nothing 
that my nose fell a bleeding on Black Mon- 
day last." By school-boys, the first Monday 
after the hohdays — the day on which work 
usually commences — is also called Black 
Monday. 

Black Moket. — Base coin, brought into 
England from foreign cotmrries, was thus 
denominated. The importation of black 
money was prohibited by 9 Edw. III. c. 2 
(1335) ; and 9 Edw. III. c.4 (1335). declared 
that it should not be current in this realm. 
The term was also applied to jettons and 
counters. 

Black Monks. — The Benedictines, from 
the colour of their outward garments, were 
usually called black monks. {See Bene- 
dictines.) 

Blackeock (Battle). — At this place, near 
Buffalo, the American army, amounting to 
nearly 2,500 men, were defeated by a Bri- 
tish force consisting of 1,4<.)0 regttlars and 
militia, Dec. 30, 1813. The Americans 
attempted to make a stand at Buffalo, but 
speedily gave way ; whereupon the village of 
Blackrock and the town of Buffalo, with all 
stores, &c., were destroyed. This was done 
in retaliation for the acts of plunder and 
devastation committed by the Americana 
during their invasion of Upper Canada. 

Black Eod. — The gentleman-usher of the 
black rod was appointed by letters patent 
from the crovm, at the institution of the 
order of the G-arter, of which he is an officer, 
in 1350. He, or his deputy, the yeoman- 
usher, is sent to desire the attendance of the 
Commons in the House of Lords when the 
royal assent is given to bdls, and on other 
occasions. 

Black Sea (Expedition). — The allied 
Enghsh and French squadrons entered the 
Black Sea, Jan. 4, 1854. Odessa was bom- 
barded April 22, and the British war steams 
Tiger was lost off that port May 12. The 
landing of the allied armament was effected 
at Old Fort, Sept. 14 — 18, Balaclava entered 
Sept. 26, and Sebastopol bombarded Oct. 17. 
A terrible gale occurred iJiTov. 11, and the 
hurricane in which so many British . and 
French ships were lost, Nov. 14. The expe- 
dition to Kertch sailed May 23, 1855, and 
after having captured several places and 
destroyed warlike stores, returned to Bala- 
clava June 14. The expedition to the Bug 
and the Dnieper anchored off Odessa Oct. 8, 
was detained by fogs and contrary winds tiU 
the 14th, captured Kinburn on the 16th, and 
returned to Balaclava in November. On the 
signature of the treaty of peace in 1858, the 
EngHsh and French squadrons were gra- 
dually withdrawn, and the Black Sea was 
thrown open to the commerce of all nations. 

Blackwates (Battle), took place during 
Tyrone's rebellion, between the Englishforces 
led by Sir Henry Bagnal, and the rebels, 
Aug. 14, 1598. The former were defeated, 
and the result of the disaster was a general 
rismg of the Irish in Ulster. 



BLA 

Bladensbueg (Battle). — AnEnglisli army 
defeated the Americans on the heights of 
Bladensburg, Aug. 24, 1814. The American 
force consisted of between 7,000 and 8,000 
infantry, with 3,000 cavalry, in a strong 
position, supported by a powerful artillery; 
whilst the British could scarcely muster 5,000 
men, and only 1,500 were actually engaged. 
The defeated army retreated through Wash- 
ington, of which the victors took possession. 

Blanket'EEKS. — Eioters, who assembled 
from all parts of Lancashire at St. Peter's 
church, Manchester, on Monday, March 
10, 1817, for the purpose of carrying a 
petition for reform to London, in order 
to present it to the prince regent. They 
brought with them a blanket, amongst other 
necessaries for the journey, and on this 
account received the name of blanketeers. 
The authorities, by adopting proper pre- 
cautions, and suspending the Habeas Corpus 
act, were enabled to suppress the movement 
before mischief had been done. 

Blank Veese was, according to Hallam, 
first used in Enghsh poetry by Henry Howard, 
earl of Surrey, who was executed Jan. 21, 
1547. His chief production in this measure 
is a translation of the second book of the 
-ffineid, pubhshed in 1557. Blank verse was 
much improved by Marlowe. Some authors 
give Chaucer the merit of having first em- 
ployed it. 

Blasphemy was severely ptmished, both 
in ancient and modern times. The penalty 
by the law of Moses was death, and the same 
was av/arded by the civil code of Justinian. 
The ecclesiastical codes were very severe 
upon persons guilty of any form of the 
offence. The Long Parhament passed a law 
(May 2, 1648) visiting it in some cases with 
capital punishment without benefit of clergy. 
By 3 James I. c. 21 (1605), any person or 
persons in any stage play, interlude, show. 
May-game, or pageant, jestingly or profanely 
speaking or using the name of either person 
of the Trinity, were fined £10 for every offence. 
The act for more effectually suppressing 
blasphemy or profaneness (9 & 10 WiU. III. 
c. 32), 1698, punished these offences with 
general disqualification and imprisonment 
for three years. By 53 Geo. III. c. 160, 
8. 2 (July 21, 1813), Unitarians are reheved 
from its operation. The law respecting 
blasphemy is regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8, 
passed Dec. 30, 1819. 

Blenheim, or Blind heim (Battle). — The 
allied army, under Marlborough and Eugene, 
defeated the French and Bavarians at this 
place, Aug. 13 (O. S. 2), 1704. The forces of 
the former consisted of 52,000 men and 52 
pieces of cannon; those of the latter of 
57,000 men, advantageously posted and de- 
fended by a powerfid artillery. The battle 
commenced at eight in the morning, and by 
nine in the evening the triumph of the allies 
was complete. Their loss was 4,500 killed 
and 7,500 wounded ; that of the French and 
Bavarians, 12,000 killed and 13,000 prisoners ; 
whilst several thousands perished in the 
Danube. The victors took 100 pieces of 



BLO 

cannon, 24 mortars, 129 colours, and 171 
standards. This was Marlborough's greatest 
achievement, and on the evening of the battle 
he wrote in pencil, on a sHp of paper torn from 
his memorandum-book, the following letter, 
still preserved in the family archives, to the 
duchess : — 

" I have not time to say more, but to beg you 
will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know 
her army has had a glorious victory. Monsieur 
Tallard and two other generals are in my coach, and 
I am following the rest. The bearer, my aide-de- 
camp. Colonel Parke, will jive her an account of 
what has passed : I shall do it in a day or two, by 
another more at large. " MAfiLBoRouGH." 

This distinguished general received as a na- 
tional gift, the manor and honovir of Wood- 
stock, and the hundred of Wootton, where the 
palace of Blenheim was erected for him. The 
trophies of the victory were removed from 
the Tower to Westminster Hail, Jan. 3, 1705, 
amid the thunders of artillery and popular 
demonstrations . 

Blind.— Louis IX. founded the hospital of 
the Quinze Vingts at Paris, in 1260, for the 
reception of soldiers who had lost their sight 
in the Crusades. Simpson's hospital for the 
bhnd at Dublm was founded in 1781. The 
first school for the bhnd was opened by 
Valentine Haiiy at Paris, in 1784. Institu- 
tions for the bhnd were estabhshed at Liver- 
pool in 1791, at Edinburgh in 1792, at Bristol 
in 1793 ; the school for the indigent bhnd in 
London in 1799, at Norwich in 1805; the 
Eichmond Institution in Dublin in 1809, the 
Molineux in Dublin in 1815, at Glasgow in 
1828, at Limerick m 1835, at York in 1837, at 
Manchester in 1838, at Newcastle in 1838, 
and at Exeter in 1839. The nimaber of 
these excellent institutions increases rapidly. 
Printing for the blind was introduced in 1827, 
and the methods of conveying instruction 
have been greatly improved. 

Blinding-. — Dueange, under the term 
Abacinaire, enumerates the various methods 
by which this barbarous punishment of 
depriving persons of sight was inflicted. 
Burning with hot irons was the most com- 
mon. Shakespeare, in the case of Gloucester 
(King Lear, act iii. sc. 7), and in the scene 
between Arthur and Hubert in King John 
(act iv. sc. 1), gives a vivid description of its 
horrors. Michael Palasologus blinded the 
young emperor John Lascaris, in order to 
render his own usurpation secure (Dec. 25, 
1261). Gibbon (ch. Ixii.) remarks: "The 
loss of sight incapacitated the young prince 
for the active business of the world : instead 
of the brutal violence of tearing out his eyes, 
the visual nerve was destroyed by the intense 
glare of a red-hot basin, and John Lascaris 
was removed to a distant castle, where he 
spent many years in privacy and obhvion." 
This mode of torture was a fearful weapon 
in the hands of oppressors and tyrants in 
ancient times, as well as during the Middle 
Ages. 

Blois (Treaties). — A secret treaty was 
concluded here between Louis XII. and the 
127 



BLO 

arcliduke Philip, in September, 1504, by 
which the former ceded to Prince Charles 
(afterwards the emperor Charles V.) Bri- 
tanny, part of Burgundy, and certain places 
in Italy, as the dowry of his daughter, the 
princess Claude : the marriage never took 
place. A.nother alliance, between Louis XII. 
and the Venetians, was concluded here 
March 14, 1513, and a league between Eng- 
laad and France, negotiated at Paris, was 
signed at Blois, April 11, 1572. The latter 
was an offensive and defensive alliance, 
intended to Idl the suspicions of the French 
Protestants. 

Blood. — During the early and Middle 
Ages, human blood was regarded as a medi- 
cine of great efficacy, and blood-baths, in 
which the patients sat, were used in cases of 
leprosy. Louis XI. of France, after having 
tried a number of remedies, is said by the 
historian Gaguin to have hoped to recover 
by the blood of certain children, which he 
swallowed. The Harveian theory of the cir- 
culation of the blood was confirmed by the 
experiment of transfusing blood, tried upon 
dogs in 1657. Various attempts were made 
in France in the 18th century to renovate 
old and broken constitutions by means of 
some system of transfusion of blood. 

Blood (Circulation of). — The discovery 
of the general circulation of the blood has 
been attributed to several indi%dduals. Hal- 
lam, who substantiates the claim of Wilham 
Harvey, after reviewing the controversy, 
remarks: "It is thus manifest that several 
anatomists of the 16th century were on the 
verge of completely detecting the law by 
which the motion of the blood is governed ; 
and the language of one (Csesalpin) is so 
strong, that we must have recourse, in order 
to exclude his claim, to the irresistible fact 
that he did not confirm by proof his own 
theory, nor proclaim it in such a manner as 
to attract the attention of the world." Ser- 
vetus (1543-1553) was acquainted ^vith the 
pulmonary circulation, Columbus (1559) pos- 
sessed the same knowledge, and Caesalpin, 
about 1583, had a more just notion than any 
of his predecessors of the general circulation 
of the blood, discovered in 1619, by William 
Harvey, who fully demonstrated its truth 
in 1623. Asellius, in 1622, discovered the 
lacteal vessels. The common origin of the 
lacteal and lymphatic vessels was discovered 
by Pecquet in 1647, and madepuVdic in 1651. 

Blood of our Saviour. — This order of 
knighthood was instituted at Mantua by the 
duke Vincentio di Gonzaga, on the marriage 
of his son with Margaret of Savoy, in 1608. 

Bloody Assizes. — After the suppression 
of Monmouth's rebellion, a special commis- 
sion, dated Aug. 24, 16S5, for the trial of 
offenders, was directed to Jefferies and four 
otherjudges. They set out for the west of Eng- 
land under a military escort, commanded by 
Jefferies, with the rank of lieutenant-general, 
and at Dorchester, Exeter, Taunton, and 
Wells, condemned above 300 persons to 
death, almost without trial. Nearly 1,000 
were 8")ld as slaves to the West-Indian 
128 



BLU 

plantations, and others were whipped, fined, 
and imprisoned. James II. termed the 
expedition Jefferies' Campaign, rewarding 
him with the lord-chancellorship Sept. 28. 
This is generally known as the Bloody 
Assizes. 

Bloomer Costume. — Hohnshed, in his 
description of England in the 16th centuiy, 
says, " I have met with some of these trulles 
in London, so disguised that it hath passed 
my skUle to discerne whether they were men 
or women." These were doubtless the first 
•wearers of what is called the Bloomer cos- 
tume, being a dress for females, attempted 
in America in 1848, and introduced into Eng- 
land in 1851, where, though recommended !1 
by lecturers, it fell into contempt, and 
speedily disappeared. 

Bloomsbuky Gang, a clique of politi- 
cians, who, towards the close of the 18th 
century, exercised an undue influence over 
the councils of George III. They were so 
called from the fact that their meetings often 
took place at Bloomsbury House, the resi- 
dence of their leader, John, fourth duke of 
Bedford. To such an extent was their tyranny 
carried, that the sovereign was frequently 
compelled, though reluctantly, to submit to 
their demands. The marquis of Bath, and 
Lords Sandwich and Weymouth, were mem- 
bers of this political knot. The marquis of 
Stafford, who died Oct. 26, 1803, was the last 
survivor of the Bloomsbury Gang. 

Blore-heath (Battle).— Fought during 
the wars of the Roses, Sunday, Sept. 23, 1459, 
when the Yorkists, commanded by the earl 
of Salisbury, defeated a superior force of the 
Lancastrians, 1 ?d by Lord Audley. Henry VI. 
and Queen Margaret were in the neighbour- 
hood at the time of the encounter. 

Blotting-paper. — Though no account of 
its first use is known to exist, it was probably 
introduced soon after the invention of paper. 
Fuller (circ. 1655) says, " Paper participates 
in some sort of the characters of the country 
which makes it ; the Venetian being neat, 
subtile, and courtUke ; the Frenchhght, slight, 
and slender ; the Dutch thick, corpulent, and 
gross, sucking up the ink with the sponginess 
thereof." Blotting-paper is included amongst 
the items, in an account o stationery supphed 
to the Exchequer and the Treasury 1666-1668. 

Blowpipe. — The date of its invention has 
not been ascertained. It was first employed ! 
in the analysis of metals by Swab, in 1738, j 
and its use in the science of mineralogy was [ 
demonstrated by Cronstedt in 1758. It has 
been improved by various men of science since 
his time. I 

Blue Coat. — Blue was the colour in which ! 
the Gauls and ancient nations clothed their 
slaves ; and a blue coat with a badge was, in 
the time of Shakespeare, the livery worn by 
servants of the nobility. A serving-man in [ 
one of Ben J onson's dramas remarks, "Ever | 
since I was of the blue order." Blue was ! 
also the colour worn by beadles; hence blue- | 
bottle became a term of reproach for both, j 
DoU Tear-sheet (Henry IV., pt. ii. act t. \ 
sc. 4) says to the beadle who is dragging her j 



ELU 

to prison, " I will have you a3 soundly swinged 
for this, you blue-bottle rogue ! " Blue was 
also worn by apprentices, and even younger 
brothers; and a blue gown was the dress 
of ignominy for a harlot in the house of 
correction. 

BLtTE-STOCKiNe Cltibs.— Boswell, in his 
**Life of Johnson," thus describes their 
origin : — "About this time (1781) it was 
much the fashion for several ladies to have 
evening assemblies, where the fair sex might 
participate in conversation with literary and 
ingenious men, animated by a desire to please. 
These societies were denominated £lue- 
Stocking Clubs; the origin of which title 
being little known, it may be worth while to 
relate it. One of the most eminent members 
of those societies, when they first commenced, 
was Mr. StiUingfieet, whose dress was re- 
markably grave, and in particular it was 
observed that he wore blue stockings. Such 
was the excellence of his conversation, that 
his absence was felt as so great a loss, 
that it used to be said ' We can do nothing 
without the blue stockings ; ' and thus by de- 
grees the title was established." 

BoAED OF CoNTKOL was established by 
Pitt's East-India Bill, 24 Geo. III., sess. 2, 
c. 25 (May 18, 1784) . Six privy coxmcillors 
were appointed as commissioners to have 
control and superintendence of aU the affairs 
of the British possessions in the East Indies. 
The act was amended by 33 Geo. III. c. 52 
(Jvme 11, 1793), and subsequent acts. The 
first president was Lord Sydney, appointed 
Sept. 3, 1784. The Board of Control was 
abohshed by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 2, 
1858) , when a council of India, consisting of 
fifteen members and a secretary of state for 
India, was appointed. 

BOABD OF GeEES- ClOTH, or COUET OF 

Maeshalsea, was a court of justice, noticed 
as early as the time of Henry III., having 
exclusive jurisdiction in the king's palace 
and within the verge, described by 13 Rich. II. 
St. 1, c. 3 (1390), not to exceed twelve miles 
of the king's lodging. Its power, confirmed 
by several statutes, was derived from the 
common law. The statute 28 Edw. I. st. 3, 
c. 3 (1300), determined what pleas should be 
held m the court of Verge ; that of 2 Hen. IV. 
c. 23 (1400) , laid down regulations respecting 
fees. Its powers were extended to treasons, 
misprisions of treasons, murders, manslaugh- 
ters, bloodsheds, &c., by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12 
(1542) . This court was abohshed by 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 31 (June 27, 1828). 

BoAED OF Health. — ^The general Board 
of Health was established by 11 & 12 Vict. 
c. 63 (Aug. 31, 1848), for sanitary purposes, 
with the power of creating local boards in 
provincial towns. It was reconstructed by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 95 (Aug. 10, 1854), entitled 
"An Act to make better provision for the 
administration of the laws relating to pubhc 
health." Sir B. Hall was made president, 
with a salary of £2,000 per annimi. By 21 
& 22 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 2, 1858), all the powers 
of the General Board of Health were given 
to the privy council. Further provision for 
129 



B(E 

the local government of towns and populous 
districts in this matter was made by 21 & 22 
Vict. C.98 (Aug. 2, 1858). 

BoAED OP Teade and Plaittations. 

Cromwell in 1655 appointed his son Eichard, 
with several lords of the council, merchants, 
&c., to consider by what means trade and 
navigation might be best promoted and regu- 
lated. Charles II. estabhshed a council to 
superintend and control the whole commerce 
of the nation, Nov. 7, 1660, and a council of 
Foreign Plantations, Dec. 1 in the same year. 
The boards were united in 1672, undergoing 
many changes imtil 1782, when, by 22 Geo. III. 
c. 82, the board was abohshed. A committee 
of members of the privy council was ordered 
to be appointed for the consideration of all 
matters relating to trade and foreign planta- 
tions. The order of council, issued March 5, 
1784, was revoked, and a new committee, 
appointing the board as at present consti- 
tuted, was nominated Sept. 5, 1786, Lord 
Hawkesbury being the first president. 

BoBEE (Battle) . — Blucher was driven from 
his position on this river, in Silesia, by the 
French army, commanded by If apoleon I., 
Aug. 21, 1813. 

BoccA TiGEis, or The Bogue Foets, at the 
entrance of the Canton river, having been at- 
tacked, two were taken by the EngHsh, Jan. 7, 
1841. The Chiuese having failed to carry out 
the provisions of a treaty by which a cessa- 
tion of hostihties had been secured, the 
rest of the forts were captured Feb. 26 in the 
same year. 

Bodleian LiBEAET(Oiford) . — Humphrey, 
the good duke of Gloucester, founded a 
hbrary at Oxford ; but it was destroyed, and 
in 1555 the desks and benches were ordered 
to be sold. The room remained empty until 
repaired and again devoted to the purposes 
of a hbrary by Thomas Bodley, an eminent 
diplomatist, who had been sent on several 
embassies by Queen EHzabeth. On retiring 
from his emplojrments in 1597, he undertook 
tp restore tMs hbrary. He endowed it richly, 
and presented it with a collection of books 
worth £10,000. It was opened Nov. 8, 1602, 
and alterations in the building were completed 
in 1606. The foundation-stone of a new 
hbrary was, however, laid by Sir Thomas 
Bodley himself, July 17, 1610. It was not 
completed until 1613, the year after his death. 
It has since received many valuable additions, 
and contains upwards ot 256,000 volumes of 
printed books and 22,000 volumes of manu- 
scripts. Several catalogues have been 
pubhshed, the first by Dr. James, in 
1605. Casaubon calls the Bodleian hbrary 
a work rather for a king than a private 
man. 

BcEOTiA. — ^The early history of this pohtical 
division of ancient Greece, included in the 
modem kingdom, is involved in obscurity. 
Thucydides represents it as having been 
inhabited by various barbarous tribes until 
about sixty years after the Trojan war, when 
the Boeotians, an^ohanpeople, expeUedfrom 
their native seat by the Thessahans, settled 
in the country, at that time called Cadmeis, 



BOG 

to whicli they gave the name of Bceotia, 
B.C. 1124. According to traditional accounts, 
Ogyges was king of BcBotia b.c. 1796, and 
Cadmus is said to have founded Thebes in 
B.C. 1550, or, according to other authorities, 
B.C. 1493. There is, however, httle, if any, 
authentic information respecting the early 
period. The cities of Boeotia, with Thebes at 
their head, entered iuto a league, though the 
date of its formation is not known. The num- 
ber is generally supposed to have been ten, 
or at the outside fourteen. 



608. "Wai in Boeotia between the Mityleneans and 
the Athenians. 

519. Platsea withdraws from the Bceotian League. 

507. The League joins the Peloponnesians and the 
Chalcidians against Athens. 

480. The Bceotians join the Pei-sians. 

456. The Athenians reduce all Boeotia to subjec- 
tion by the victory of CEnophyta. 

447. The Bosotians defeat the Athenians at Coronea, 
and regain their iadependence. 

395. The Boeotians take part against Sparta in the 
Corinthian war. Their country is invaded. 

394 The Spartans defeat the Boeotians, &c. at 
Coronea. 

387. Peace of Antalcidas. 

386. Boeotia regains Platsea. 

379. Pelopidas seizes the Cadmea at Thebes, and 
this causes war. 

378. AgesDaus and Cleombrotus invade Bceotia. 

377. Agesilaus invades Bceotia a second time. 

371. The Spartans invade BoBotia, and are de- 
feated at Leuctra. 



From this time the history of Boeotia is 
merged in that of Thebes. The Bceotian 
confederacy, that had long had only a no- 
minal existence, was entirely dissolved by 
the Romans B.C. 172. 

BoGEStTND (Battle), between Sten Sture 
the younger, protector of Sweden, and Chris- 
tian II., king of Denmark, in which the latter 
was victorious, was fought in 1520. 

BoGOMiLEs, or BoGAEMiT.^;. — ^A sect of 
heretics that sprung up in Bulgaria early in 
the 12th century. The name is compoxmded 
of two Slavonic words, — bog, ' God,' and 
miloui, 'have mercy on us,' given to them 
from their custom of muttering prayers to 
themselves. They are said to have been 
Maaiichaeans. They rejected images, dis- 
carded aU mysteries in the sacraments and 
the historical books of the Old Testament. 
Their leader, one BasU, a monk, having been 
condemned by a council held at Constanti- 
nople in 1110, was afterwards burned ahve 
by order of the Greek emperor Alexius 
Commenus, 

Bohemia (Germany) derives its name 
from the Boil, its ancient inhabitants, who 
were expelled by the Slavonians. Charle- 
magne conquered the country a.d. 805, and 
annexed it to his empire. After various vi- 
cissitudes, its independence was restored by 
Borzivoi, who became its first duke in 891, 
The dukes were frequently nominated by 
the emperor of Germany, and two of them, 
Wratislaus II. in 1086, and Ladislaus III. 
in 1158, received the title of king as a mark 
of personal honour, before Bohemia was defi- 
nitivelv erected into a kingdom. 
i30 



BOH 



A.D. 

480 (about). The Czeches establish themselves in 

Bohemia. 
630. Samo raises Bohemia into an independent 

state. 
680. About this time the first advance in civUized 

arts is made by the Bohemians. 
722. Libussa, granddaughter of Samo, weds Pre- 
loislaus, who founds the dynasty which 
bears his name. 
805. Conquered by Chai-lemagne. 
864. Borzivoi, a Bohemian chief, receives the sacra- 
ment of baptism. 
967. Boleslaus U. founds the bishopric of Prague. 

1004. Mescho, king of Poland, lays siege to Prague, 
which is delivered by Jaromir. 

1039. War between Bretislaus I. and the emperor 
Conrad, in which the former is defeated. 

106L On the death of Spitigneus I., Wratislaus II. 
unites Bohemia, Poland, Silesia, Lusatia, 
and Moravia into one kingdom. 

1174. Ladislaus II., lung of Bohemia, is banished by 
his subjects, and takes refuge in Lusatia, 
where he dies. 

1176. A large number of the Vaudois immigrate 
into Bohemia. 

1191. Conrad II. dies of the plague at the siege of 
Naples, and leaves the succession to his 
dukedom much disputed. 

1198. Premislaus Ottocar I., who succeeded to the 
dukedom the year before, is made the first 
king of Bohemia whose title is hereditary. 

1241-2. The Tartars overrun Moravia. 

1253. Premislaus Ottocar II. is king of Bohemia and 
its dependencies, and of Austria, and soon 
obtains possession of Styria, Carinthia, and 
Istria, when his dominions extend from the 
Baltic to the Adriatic. 

1272. Premislaus refuses the imperial crown. 

1278. Battle of Mai-chfield, and death of Premislaus 
Ottocai- II. Rodolph of Habsburg gains 
Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. 

1289. Marriage of WenceslausIV. to Judith, daughter 
of Rodolph of Habsburg. Part of Misnia 
and Eger added to Bohemia. 

1300. Wenceslaus IV. is elected king of Poland. 

1306. Death of Wenceslaus V. , the last sovereign of 
the house of Premislaus. 

1310. John of Luxemburg succeeds to the throne 
of Bohemia. 

1319. Lusatia reunited to Bohemia. 

1327. Silesia reunited to Bohemia. 

1348. The University of Prague founded by 
Charles I. 

1408. John Huss, rector of the ITnlversity of 
Prague, declares himself a disciple of 
WycLiffe. 

1416. The Hussites, indignant at the martyrdom of 
their leader, take up arms to defend liberty 
of conscience. They form two sects, known 
as the Calixtins and the Taborites. 

1419. Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague. 

1438. Death of Sigismund, and extinction of the 
house of Luxemburg. The Hussites invite 
Cassimir, prince of Poland, to succeed him, 
but the crown falls to the lot of Albert of 
Austria. 

1466. Pope Paul II. excommunicates George Podie- 
brad, the Hussite king of Bohemia, and 
sends an army against him, which is de- 
feated at Tina. 

1483. Seditions and massacres at Prague. 

1526. On the death of Louis I., the Bohemians 
confer the crown on Ferdinand I. of Austria, 
in whose family it has ever since remained. 

1567. Maximilian II. abolishes the religious com- 
pacts which had restrained the spread of 
Protestantism. 

1609. Rodolph II. establishes freedom of conscience 
in Bohemia. 

1618. The Bohemian Protestants take up arms 
under Count Von Thum, and commence 
the Thirty Years' war. 

1620. The Austrians totally defeat the Bohemians 
at the battle of Prague. 

1648. The treaty of Munster puts an end to the 
Thirty Years' war, and to the political ex- 



BOI 



A-D. 



istence oif Bohemia, which is incorporated 

•with the Austrian empii-e. 
1744. Frederick the Great, of Prussia, invades 

Bohemia, and takes Prague. 
1757. May 6. Frederick the Great gains the great 

battle of Prague over the Austrians. 
1762. The Prussians ravage Bohemia. 
1772. A terrible famine devastates Bohemia. 
1775. Insurrection of the peasantry. 
1781. Joseph II. abolishes slaveiy. 
1813. The Austrian army, under Schwai-tzenberg, 

assembles in Bohemia, preparatory to the 

campaign against INapoleon. 
1848. June 12. Insun-ection at Prague. 



SOVEEEIGNS OS BOHEMIA. 



Bpitigneus I. 
Wratislaus I. 
Wenceslaus I. 
Boleslaus I. . . 
Boleslaus II. 
Boleslaus III. 

Jaromir 

Udalric 

Bretislaus I. 
Spitigneus II. 



.. 967 
,. 999 
.. 1002 
.. 1012 
.. 1037 
.. 1055 



Wratislaus II 1061 

Conrad 1 1092 



A.D. 

Bretislaus II 1093 

Borzivoill IIOU 

SuatopluG 1107 

Ladislaus II 1109 

Sobielaus 1 1125 

Ladislaus m 1140 

Sobielaus II 1174 

Frederick 1178 

Conrad 11 1190 

Wenceslaus II 1191 

Henry Bretislaus.. 1193 
Ladislaus IV 1196 



KLSGS. 
A.D. 

1198. Premislaus I. 
1230. Wenceslaus III. 
1253. Premislaus IT. 
1278. Wenceslaus IV. 

1305. Wenceslaus V. 

1306. Henry and Eodolph of Habsburg. 
1310. John of Luxembui-g. 

1346. Charles I. , emperor in 1347. 
1378. Wenceslaus VI. , emperor. 
1419. Sigismund, emperor. 
1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. 
1440. LitdislausV. 
1458. George Podiebrad. 
1471. Ladislaus VI. 
1516 Louis I. 

1526. Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany. 
1564. Maximilian IL 
1575. RodolphIL 
1611. Matthias. 
1619. Ferdinand II. 

1637. Ferdinand III. (incorporated with Austria), 
in 1648. 



BoiMNft TO Death.— By 22 Hen. VIII. 
c. 9, passed in 1531, this punishment was 
awarded to poisoners. The act related that 
one Eiehard Roose, otherwise called Coke, a 
cook in the bishop of Rochester's diocese, 
had, by mixing poison in their food, caused 
the death of two and the iUness of several 
persons. He was declared guilty of treason, 
and ordered to be boiled to death, without 
receiving benefit of clergy ; and the like 
punishment was decreed for aU, from that 
time, found guilty of any manner of poison- 
ing. He suffered at Smithfield, April 5, 1532 ; 
and Margaret Dany, a maid-servant, was 
boiled to death at the same place. Mar. 17, 
1542, for "poisoning of three households, 
that she had dwelt in." This act was re- 

?ealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12, s. 11 (154.7). 
he punishment itself was common both in 
England and on the continent, previous to 
131 



BOL 

the enactment of the statute of Henry VIII. 
The Chronicle of the Grey Friars of Lon- 
don (Camden Society) records a case at 
Smithfield of a man who was fastened in a 
chain and pulled up and down divers times, 
tin he was dead. It appears to have been a 
common punishment for coining. 

Bois-LE-Duc (Holland). — Besieged and 
taken by the French republican army Oct. 10, 
1794. It was taken by Bulow, Jan. 25, 1814. 

BoJACA (Battle). — During the war of 
independence in South America, the Span- 
iards were defeated at this place, in New 
Granada, by Bohvar's army, Aug. 7, 1819. 

BoKHABA (Asia), the ancient Sogdiana, 
also called Transoxiana, though not, as has 
been asserted, by ancient writers, was con- 
quered by the Saracens about 710 a.d. It was 
overrun by Zenghis Khan in 1222 ; by Timour 
in 1361 ; and by the Uzbeg Tartars in 1505. 
Bokhara has remained under the sway of 
various khans of this race ever since. Colonel 
Stoddart and Captain Conolly, sent by the 
British government on a mission to the 
Khan in 1843, were murdered by him at 
Bokhara, the chief town of the khanat; and 
Aug. 1, 1844, intelligence was received from 
the enterprising traveller Dr. Wolfi", who, in 
1843, went to ascertain their fate, that they 
had been put to death in June or July of 
1843. After undergoing a short imprison- 
ment. Dr. Wolff was allowed to leave Bok- 
hara, and he reached England in April, 
1845. 

Bolivia (South America) . — The provinces 
of Upper Peru, which had separated from 
the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, having by 
the victory of Ayachucho, Dec. 9, 1824, 
secured their independence, were formed 
into a republic in 1825. The deputies met 
in August of that year, and decided in favour 
of separation, and upon calling the new state 
Bohvia, in honour of its liberator, Bolivar. 
This assembly separated Oct. 6, 1825, and a 
new congress met May 25, 1826. In 1836 
slavery was abohshed in Bolivia. Changes in 
the constitution took place in 1839, 1843, and 
the new system was not settled until 1848. 
A commercial treaty was concluded with 
England in 1840. An attempt was made to 
assassinate the President Aug. 10, 1858. 

Bologna (Italy), the ancient Bononia, 
is said to have been founded by the Tus- 
cans, and was called by them Felsina, a name 
used by Livy. It became a Roman colony 
B.C. 189. A bishop's see was founded here 
at a very early period, and it was raised to 
an archbishopric by Gregory XIII. Dec. 10, 
1582. Its university, the oldest in Italy, 
was established in 1116 ; the story of its 
foundation about 430, and its restoration by 
Charlemagne, being rejected by the best 
authorities. The emperor Henry V. granted 
Bologna a charter in 1112, and it was long 
governed by a podesta and consuls, being at 
the same time a zealous partisan of the 
pope. John XXII. sent Bertrand de Poiet, 
his legate, here in 1327, and though the city 
received bim as its lord, he was, in 1333, 
violently expelled. Giovanni Viseonte, tem- 
K 2 



BOM 

poral and spiritual lord of Milan, purchased 
Bologna in 1351, but it threw off the yoke of 
Milan in 1356 ; and, having surrendered to 
the pope, Milan formally resigned its claim 
by treaty in 1359. Anarchy prevailed for 
some time, during which period Bologna 
frequently changed masters. It was taken 
by the papal army, and Julius II. made his 
triumphal entry ISTov. 11, 1506, but it fell 
into the hands of the French in 1511 ; was 
besieged by the papal forces early in 1512, 
and Gaston de Foix compelled them to re- 
tire Feb. 7, in the same year. Juhus II. 
had seized Bologna and its territory in 
1506, and it was annexed to the papal do- 
minions by the treaty of peace between 
Louis XII. and Pope Leo X. in 1514. The 
French king dying that year, his succes- 
sor, Francis I., met the pope at Bologna in 
1515, and confirmed the acts of Louis XII. 
Napoleon I. entered the city June 19, 1776 ; 
and it was made the capital of the Cispadane 
repubhc in 1797. It was occupied by the 
Austrians in 1S14), and was formally restored 
to the papal government in 1815. An insur- 
rection occurred here Feb. 4, 1831, when a 
provisional government was proclaimed. 
The sovereignty of the pope was, however, 
restored by Austrian interference. It re- 
belled again in 1848, and surrendered to an 
Austrian army, after a sanguinary struggle 
of eight days' duration, May 16, 1849. The 
Austrians quitted Bologna June 12, 1859; 
and a national assembly, soon after convened, 
threw off the papal yoke Sept. 7. A deputa- 
tion sent to offer the legations to Sardinia 
were received by the king, and their request 
acceded to, Sept. 24 in the same year. A 
council held at Bologna in 1264 excom- 
municated the Enghsh barons who had 
rebelled against Henry III. 

BoMAESUiTD (Gulf of Bothina). — This, 
the capital and principal of the Aland Isles, 
was captured by the French and Enghsh 
Aug. 14 and 15, 1854. Russia, by a con- 
vention annexed to the treaty of Paris of 
1856, engaged not to restore the fortifica- 
tions. {iSee Ala>t) Isles.) 

Bomb. — This invention is, by Strada, attri- 
buted to an inhabitant of Yenlo, in 1558, in 
which year they were employed at the siege 
of "WachtendonJk, in the Netherlands ; whilst 
others, on the authority of Valturinus, con- 
tend that bombs were invented in the middle 
of the 15th century. The Moors are said to 
have used them at the siege of Baza in 1325. 
Conde (Arabs in Spain, iii. p. 231) speaks of 
"machines that cast globes of fire, with 
resounding thunders and hghtnings, resem- 
bling those of the resistless tempest." At 
any rate, they did not come into general use 
tiU much later. The Turks employed them 
at the siege of Ehodes in 1522, the French at 
that of La Mothe in 1634. 

Bomb AT (City), signifying 'good har- 
bour,' was founded by the Portuguese soon 
after they obtained possession of the island 
of Bombay, in 1530. The seat of the East- 
India Company's government was removed 
here from Surat in 1686. 
132 



JBOM 



A.D. 

1676. 



Mint established at Bombay. 

1688. Bombay besieged by Amungzebe, who is 
prevailed upon to withdraw. 

1691. Bombay visited by the plague. 

1702. The plague commits great ravages. 

1718. Dec. 25. First English church opened. 

1803. Great fire. 

1810. The Minden, 70 -gun ship, launched at 
Bombay. 

1818. The cholera breaks out. 

1827. Supreme Court of justice established. 

1833. Aug. 28. Power given to the crown to estab- 
lish a bishopric at Bombay. 

1887. Elphinstone College founded. Bombay made 
a bishopric. Steam, communication with 
Suez established. 

1845. Oct. Nearly 200 houses destroyed by fire. 

1853. Feb. First Indian railway, from Bombay to 
Tannah, opened. 

Bombay (Island). — The Portuguese first 
arrived off the coast of this part of India in 

1508, and visited the island of Bombay in 

1509, at which period it formed a dependency 
of the Mohammedan rulers of Guzerat. 



1530. The island of Bombay, &c., ceded by the 
Mongols to the Portuguese. 

1534. Bombay fortified by the Portugue-se. 

1612. Dec. Fii-man obtained for the establishment 
of the first English factory at Surat. Its 
solemn confirmation received Jan. 11, 1613. 

1662. May 20. Bombay becomes an English posses- 
sion by the raaixiage of Charles II. with 
Catherine of Braganza. The fleet arrives 
Sept. 18, to take possession, but the Portu- 
guese governor refuses to give it up. 

1664. Bombay is delivered to the EngUsh by the 
Portuguese. 

1668. The island of Bombay is granted to the East- 
India Company, ou payment of the rent of 
£10 in gold, on Sept. 30 in each year. 

1674 Mutiny amongst the EugUsh troops. 

1683. Mutiny again breaks out. Captain Keigwia 
issues a proclamation declaring that the 
island belongs to the king, Dec. 27. 

1686. Seat of government is transferred from Surat 

to Bombay. 

1687. Bombay is made a regency, with unlimited 

power over the Company's settlements. 

1688. Aurungzebe invades the islajid. 
(See India.) 

Bombay (Presidency) .—The seat of the 
East-India Company's government was re- 
moved from Surat to Bombay in 1686 J and in 
1687 Bombay was made a regency, with 
unlimited power over the rest of the Com- 
pany's settlements. In 1773 a measure was 
passed by which Bombav became subordinate 
to Bengal from Aug. 1, 1774. By 24 Geo. III. 
c. 25 (Aug. 13, 1784), a governor and a 
council were appointed for this presidency. 
{See IiTDiA.) 



GOVEEN-QES OF BOMBAY. 



A.D. 




1784. 


E. H. Boddam. 




A. Kamsay. 


1788! Sept. 6. Major-Gen. W. Medows. 


1790. 


Colonel E. Abercromby. 


1792. 


G. Dick. 


1795. 


J. Griffith. 


1795. 


Dec. 27. J. Duncan. 


1811. 


6. Browne. 


1812. 


Sir E. Nepean, Bart. 


1819. 


Hon. IVL Elphinstone. 


1827. 


Sir J. Malcolm. 


1831. 


Earl of Clare. 



1847. 
1848. 
1853. 



BON' 



Six R. Graxit. 
J. Fai-ish. 

Sir J. R. Carnac, Bart. 
Sir G. W. Andei-son. 
Sir G. Ai-thur, Bart. 
L. R. Reid. 
G. R. Clerk. 
Viscount Falkland. 
Lord Elphinstone. 
Sir G. Clerk, Bart. 



BoN-HOMMES, or GooD Meit, an order of 
friars, brought into England, and established 
at Ashering, in Bucks, by Edmund, earl of 
Cornwall, in 1283. Another house of the order 
was founded at Edington, in Wiltshire, in 
1350. The Bon-homnaes followed the rule of 
St. Augustine, and wore a blue habit. The 
Pauhcians called themselves Good Men, or 
Los Bos Homos. 

Bonn (Prussia), occupies the site of the 
ancient Bonna, a Roman station, the scene 
of the victory of the Bafcavi and Canninefates 
over the Eomans, a.d. 70. It was frequently 
assailed, and even captured by the German 
tribes ; and was ravaged by them in 355. 
Jiihanus recovered it and repaired its walls 
about 359. In 1320 it became the residence 
of the archbishops of Cologne. The em- 
peror Charles IV. was crowned here in 
1346. The French, who had captured Bonn, 
were besieged and expelled Nov. 12, 1673 ; and 
regained possession in 1688. Frederick III., 
elector of Brandenburg, took Bonn in 1689 ; 
and Marlborough laid siege to it May 3, 1703, 
and gained possession on the 16th. The 
French repubhcan army entered Bonn in 
1794, its fortifications having been destroyed 
in 1717. Its academy, founded in 1777, was 
made a university in 1784. Napoleon I. sup- 
pressed it, but it was re-estabUshed on an 
extended scale Oct. 18, 1818. Drusus threw 
a bridge over the Khine at this place B.C. 11. 
Bonn is an ancient bishopiic. 

BoNOifiA (Battle). — At this place, on the 
Danube, near Widdin, Constanttae defeated 
the Goths and Sarmatians a.d. 322. 

Book. — This word, derived from the 
Daaish hog, the beech-tree, the inner bark 
of which was used in former times for writing- 
material, has been applied to Uterary pro- 
ductions in general, whether in manuscript 
or in print. The ancients wrote upon wooden 
blocks, waxen and other tablets, imtil more 
flexible materials were made available for 
the purpose; and these they formed into 
rolls, or volumes, as they termed them 
when completed; and the parchment, or 
whatever material it happened to be, was 
rolled up, and placed upon the hbrary shelf. 
This form was, however, gradually abandoned 
during the Middle Ages, when books con- 
sisted of several leaves, joined together, and 
enclosed in boards or covers. The binding 
was often very magnificent. The boards, 
covered with leather or even velvet, were 
occasionally decorated with precious stones. 
Gold and silver clasps were also used. We 
read in Shakespeare, — 

" That book in many's eyes doth share the glory. 
That in gold clasps locks in the golden story." 



BOO 

In early times almost fabulous prices were 
paid for books. At the Reformation the 
Bible and other works were chained to 
desks in churches, that the people might 
have access to them. The custom is said to 
have originated from an act of Convocation 
in 1562, ordering that NoweU's Catechism, 
the Articles, and Bishop Jewell's Apology, 
should be joined in one book and taught at 
the universities, and educational establish- 
ments, and in the cathedral churches, and 
private houses of the kingdom. The custom 
has, however, been traced as far back as to 
Sir Thomas Ly ttleton, who, by his wiU, dated 
1481, ordered some of his works to be chained 
in different churches. St. Bernard, who 
died in 1153, alludes, in one of his sermons, 
to some such custom. Dictionaries were 
also chained to desks in educational esta- 
blishments. Walton's Polyglott, fol., 1657, 
was the first book published in England by 
subscription ; Tonson's foHo edition of 
"Paradise Lost," in 1688, was the next; 
and Dryden's Virgil, fol., 1697, the third. By 
8 Anne, c. 19, s. 4 (1709), any bookseller or 
printer setting what was conceived to be too 
high a price upon a book, might, after 
March 25, 1710, on complaint being made to 
the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord chan- 
cellor, and some other high functionaries 
mentioned in the act, be compelled to charge 
a price fixed by any of them, upon pain of 
forfeiting £5 for every book sold at a higher 
rate. This act was repealed by 12 Geo. II. 
c. 36, s. 3 (1739). 

Book Censoes. — Many centuries before 
the introduction of printing, authors sub- 
mitted their works to their superiors, before 
venturing to put them into circulation, and a 
regular system of censorship was established, 
by the Inquisition. Two books printed at 
Cologne in 1478, were issued with the appro- 
bation of the university censor ; and the 
"Nosce Teipsum," printed at Heidelberg in 
1480, bore the approving testimonies of four 
persons. A mandate of Berthold, archbishop 
of Mayence, dated 1486, appointing a book 
censor, is still in existence. Alexander VI. 
in 1501 issued a buU prohibiting the publica- 
tion of books that had not been submitted to 
the censor, and the covmcil of the Lateran in 
1515 ordered that no books should be printed 
excepting those which had been inspected by 
ecclesiastical censors. By the 51st of Queen 
Elizabeth's injunctions, in 1559, no person 
was allowed to print any book or paper 
without a license from the coimcil or ordi- 
nary. The Star Chamber, June 23, 1586, 
published ordinances for the regulation of 
the press. The Long ParMament, which 
aboHshed the Star Chamber, made an ordi- 
nance, Jime 14, 1643, prohibiting the print- 
ing of any order or declaration of either 
house, without order of one or both houses j 
or the printing or sale of any book, pamphlet, 
or paper, unless the same were approved and 
licensed by such persons as the House should 
appoint. A more severe enactment followed, 
Sept. 28, 1647 ; and from that time various 
regulations were made on the subject till 
133 



BOO 

1694, when the censorship in this country 
ceased, much to the displeasure of Wil- 
liam III. and his ministers. 

Book-keeping-. — The system of double 
entry, called Itahan book-keeping, had its 
rise amongst the mercantile cities of Italy in 
the 15th century. Lucas de Burgo's algebraic 
work, pubhshed at Venice in 1494, and Luke's 
work on the subject, published in 1495, are the 
first known to exist. The earhest English 
book on this subject is Hugh Oldeastle's 
treatise, pubhshed in 1543. James Peele is 
said to have published a work on book- 
keeping in 1569 ; and a new and augmented 
edition of Oldeastle's treatise, by John 
Melhs, appeared in 1588. Gotheb pubhshed 
a work on book-keeping at Nuremberg in 
1531. 

Book of Spoets. — This title was given 
to a proclamation issued at Greenwich by 
James I., May 24, 1618, sanctioning different 
recreations after divine service on the Sunday. 
It was intended only for Lancashire. As it 
proved very oifensive to the Puritans, no cler- 
gyman was compelled to read it. Amongst the 
recreations mentioned are dancing, archery, 
leaping, vaulting. May games, Whitsun-ales, 
morrice-dancers, and setting up of May- 
poles. The Sabbatarian controversy having 
been revived, Charles I. (Oct. 18, 1633) 
ratified and pubhshed his father's declara- 
tion. Some of the clergy refused to read it, 
for which one of them was deprived and 
excomonunicated by the High Commission 
Court in 1637. In 1643 it was ordered by 
Lords and Commons that the Book of Sports 
should be burned by the common hangman 
in Cheapside, and other pubhc places. 

Books (Privilege for Printing). — The 
oldest privilege known is that of Henry 
Bishop, of Bamberg, for a missal, set forth 
April 23, 1490. The first Venetian privilege is 
dated 1491, and another of 1492 is in existence. 
The first Milanese is dated 1495; Papal, 
1505 ; French, 1507 ; and Enghsh, 1510, for 
"TheHistoryofKingBoccus."BylEich.ni. 
c. 9 (1484), ahens were allowed to import 
books and manuscripts. This act was, how- 
ever, repealed by 25 Hen. VIIL e. 15 (1534). 
In 1538, an order was issued respecting the 
printing of Bibles, and in 1542 the pri'nlege 
was granted to one person for four years. 
The last patent of the kind, commencing 
Jan. 21, 1830, for printing the Enghsh Bible 
and Prayer-Book, was conferred by Geo. IV. 
upon Strahan, Eyre, & Spottiswoode for a 
term of thirty years. 

Books BuEifT.— This mode of dealing with 
objectionable doctrines was practised both 
in ancient and modern times. Jehoiakim 
burnt the roU of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxvi. 23) 
B.C. 605, and persons at Ephesus, who used 
curious arts, brought their books together 
and burned them before aU men (Acts, 
xix. 19), in the year 57. The writings of 
Arius were condemned to be burnt during 
the reign of Constantine the Great. The 
Church of Eome has, both by the decrees 
of councils and of popes, caused innumerable 
works, and in some cases their authors, to be 
134 



BOE 

committed to the fiames. V/ycliffe's bones 
as well as his writings were condemned to be 
burned by the council of Constance (being 
the seventeenth General Council), in 1415 ; 
and a convocation at Oxford in 1410 con- 
demned and burned his works. Cardinal 
Wolsey went in procession to St. Paul's, 
May 12, 1521, for the purpose of having the 
works of Luther consumed. Several works 
were burned by order of the Parhament in 
the time of the Commonwealth. 

BooxAK (Hindostan). — The inhabitants of 
this hQl country invaded Cooch Behar, a 
dependency of Bengal, in 1772, and having 
been, by the aid of the British, expelled, 
concluded a treaty of peace with the East- 
India Company in 1774. 

Boothia Felix (North America), was 
discovered by Sir J. Eoss in 1830, and named 
after Sir Felix Booth, who furnished a large 
sum of money for the purposes of the expe- 
dition. 

Boots. — The Normans wore short boots, 
and in the time of "VVUham II. peak pointed 
boots were in fashion. In the wardrobe 
accounts of Edward II., the following passage 
occurs : — " For six pairs of boots, with 
tassels of silk and drops of silver gilt, price 
each pair 5s., bought for the king's use." 
Blanche says that boots reaching to the 
middle of the thigh, and turned over with 
straps, like modern top-boots, were worn in 
the time of Eichard III. Short boots were 
worn by ladies in the 12th century. The 
Hessian and WeUington boots for gentlemen, 
and the Balmoral for persons of both sexes, 
are the principal novelties of the kind intro- 
duced during the present century. 

BoEDEATJS (France), the ancient Burdi- 
gala, the metropohs of Aquitania Secunda, 
rebuilt by the Eomans after a fire, a.d. 261, 
was taken by Adolphus, king of the Goths, 
in 412 ; recovered by Cloris in 508 ; devastated 
by the Saracens in 529; and suffered re- 
peatedly from the ravages of the Danes. 
The modern town was rebuilt by the dukes 
of Guienne at the commencement of the 10th 
century. Henry II. obtained Aquitaine by 
marriage in 1151 with Eleanor, daughter of 
WiUiam V. of Aquitaine, the divorced wife of 
Louis VII. of France, and on his accession 
to the Enghsh crown, in 1154, Bordeaux and 
the remainder of the duchy became English 
possessions. In 1451 Bordeaux submitted 
to Charles VII., and though Earl Talbot 
restored the authority of the Enghsh, Oct. 23, 
1452, it was besieged and taken by the 
French Oct. 17, 1453, and has since formed 
part of France. Eichard II., son of the 
Black Prince, was born here in Feb. 1366. 
It was made an episcopal see a.d. 314, and 
became an archbishopric. Its university, 
founded by Eugenius IV. in 1441, received 
great privileges from Loiiis XI. in 1473. 
Councils were held at Bordeaux in 384, in 
670, m 1080, in 1214 or 1215, and April 18, 
1255. Bordeaux suffered greatly during the 
civil and rebgious wars in France. 

BoEGiTES, or Ciecassians. — The second 
dynasty of the Mamelukes in Egypt de- 



BOR 

soeuded from a Circassian captive named 
Barcok, who, in 1381, on the deposition of 
the last sultan of the Baharites, obtained the 
sovereignty. Twenty-three sultans of this 
dynasty, which lasted 135 years, reigned. 
The last was hanged at the gate of his capi- 
tal, April 23, 1517, by order of SeUm, and 
the Mamelukes were expelled and the autho- 
rity of the Ottoman Turks established. 

BoENEO (Indian Archipelago), called by 
natives Brune, is, excepting Austraha, the 
largest island in the world. It was first 
visited by Lorenzo de Gomez in 1518 ; and 
by Pigafetta, with Magalhaen's expedition, 
in 1521. In addition to the Portuguese, the 
Spaniards, English, French, and Dutch 
endeavoured to form estabhshments in dif- 
ferent parts of this island. 

A.D. 

1598. Oliver Van Noort, the first Dutchman who 

visited Borneo, arrives. 
1604. The Dutch begin to trade at Suocadana. 
1608. The Dutch at Batavia endeavour to enter into 

a commercial treaty with the ruler of 



1769. 
1772. 

1775. 

1776. 

1780. 
1786. 

1787. 

1812. 
1813. 
1818. 

1839. 
1841. 

1846. 



A treaty is concluded by the Dutch with 

the ruler of Sambas, and they establish a 

factory. 
The Dutch abandon their settlement at Suo- 
cadana. 
The English take possession of Balam.bangan. 
The English endeavour to establish a factory 

at Passir. The attempt fails. 
The garrison at Balambangan are killed by 

pirates. 
The Dutch establish a factory at Pontianak. 
Part of the W. coast ceded to the Dutch. 
The Dutch, in alliance with the sultan of 

Pontianak, destroy Suocadana. 
Sovereignty of the S. coast granted to the 

Dutch. 
An English expedition against Sambas fails. 
July 3. Sambas captm-ed by the English. 
The Dutch, who had been expelled by the 

English during the war, return. 
August. Sir James Brooke aiTives at Borneo. 
Sir James Brooke is made Eajah of Sarawak, 

by treaty with the native ruler. (See 

Sarawak.) 
The Dutch colonies in Borneo formed into 

a special government, by decree of the 

Dutch governor. 
Labuan formed into an English colony. (See 

Labuan.) 



BoENOtr (Central Africa), called byHeeren 
"a great empire," was first explored by Den- 
ham and Clapperton, sent out by the EngHsh 
government in 1821. It has been more re- 
cently explored by Eichardson, Earth, and 
Overweg. 

BoEODiKO (Battle) . — During the invasion 
of Russia, Napoleon I. attacked the whole 
Russian army intrenched at this village, 
Sept. 7, 1812. After a sanguinary engage- 
ment, both armies encamped on the field 
of battle, but the Russians vdthdrew during 
the night. 

BoEoirGH, or Buegh, is supposed to have 
been first appUed to a tithing or collection 
of twelve families, bound together as sureties 
for one another. It was afterwardg applied 
to a castle, then to the group of houses built 
beneath the shelter of its defences, next to a 
walled tovm, and is now generally applied in 
this country to towns that possess the privi- 



BOS 

lege of sending representatives to the House 
of Commons. Guizot asserts that it was not 
until the 11th century that boroughs took up 
any important position in history. 

BoEOUGH-BEiDGE (Battle) .—Edward II. 
defeated the earl of Lancaster and the con- 
federated barons, with their Scottish aUies, at 
this place, in Yorkshire, Tuesday, March 16, 
1322. The earl of Lancaster, who fled, was 
afterwards taken prisoner. He was tried by a 
mUitary council, and executed at Pontefract, 
Tuesday, March 23. 

Boeotjgh-English. — A custom, so called, 
as some assert, because it first began in 
England, existing in certain boroughs, by 
which the youngest son inherited, to the 
exclusion of his elder brothers, the father's 
tenements in the borough, in case the latter 
died intestate. It is a species of burgage 
tenure, which at one time prevailed to a great 
extent in this country, and stiU exists in some 
places. The best authorities regard it as a 
remnant of the pastoral state of the tribes 
from which we claim descent. Amongst them 
the elder sons invariably took their portion, 
quitted their father's roof, and sought new 
habitations, whilst the younger son, who 
remained at home, naturally became the 
heir. 

BoEEisow (Battle).— During the retreat 
of the French from Moscow, Portoimeaux's 
division, consisting of 8,000 men, surrendered 
to the Russians at this place, Nov. 27, 1812, 
and on the following day a drawn battle was 
fought between the French and the Russians. 

Bosnia (European Turkey) .—Part of the 
ancient Pannonia, long tributary to Hungary 
and Servia, was erected into a kingdom in 
1376. Its monarch was defeated by the Turks 
in 1389. Bosnia became tributary to Turkey 
in 1463, and was annexed in 1522. Austria ob- 
tained a portion of Bosnia by the treaty of 
Passarovsitz, July 21, 1718. Thiswas, however, 
recovered by the Turks in 1738. Bosnia has 
been the scene of numerous insurrections ; 
and frequent quarrels have occurred between 
the Christian and the Moslem population. 

BosPOEUS (Asia) . — This ancient kingdom 
on the Cimmerian Bosporus was a great corn- 
growing country, and for many years served 
a,s a granary to Greece. Gibbon calls it " the 
httle kingdom of Bosporus, composed of 
degenerate Greeks and half-civilized barba- 
rians." It is supposed to have been a Milesian 
colony. The lustory of the kingdom cannot, 
however, be traced with accuracy, and much 
uncertainty prevails respecting the dynasties 
compiled from the works of the ancient 
writers. 

E.C. 

480. Kingdom founded. 

310. On the death of Parysades, the succession is 
contested by his sons Satyxus and Eumelus ; 
Satyrus defeats his brother, but dies in the 
battle ; so the younger brother, Prytanis, 
reigns in his stead. 

309. Eumelus murders Prytanis and all his ad- 
herents, and succeeds to the crown. 

108. Bosporus is ceded to Mithridates the Great of 
Pontus. 
86. Bosporus revolts &om lUtbridates. 

135 



BOS 



63. Pompey reduces Bosporus to a Koman pro- 
vince, and makes Pharnaces, soa of Mithri- 
dates, its king. 

47. Julius Caesar defeats Phamaces, and gives 
iosponis to Mithridates of Pergamus, 
■who soon afterwards dies, and his territory- 
is seized hy Asander. 

14 Agrippa gives Bosporus to Polemon, king of 
Pontus. 

A.D. 

49. Mithridates Achemenides, king of Bosporus, 
revolts against the Eomans, who depose 

258. Bosporus captured by the Goths. 
545. The Turks take the city of Bosporus. 



EITLEES OP BOSPOET7S. 



Arch»aiiactidae 
Spartocus I. . . . 



SatyrusI 407 

Leucon 393 

Spartocus IT. .... 333 

Parysades 348 

SatyrusII 310 

Prytanis 



Spartocus in 304 

Xieucanor 

Eubiotus 

Satyrus III 

Gorgippus 

Spartocus IV 

Parvsades IL .... 
Mithi-idates VI. of 

Pontus 108 

Machares 79 

Phamaces 11 63 

Asander 47 

Scribonius 14 

Polemon 1 13 



Pythodoris. . . . 
Sam-omates L . 



A.D. 

Rhescuporis L 30 

Polemon H 38 

Mithridates U 42 

Cotys 1 49 

■Rhescuporis II 83 

Sauromates IL 108 

Cotys II 115 



155 

Sauromates III 180 

Rhescuporis III 215 

Cotys m 232 

Inintheremus 235 

Rhescuporis IV 235 

Sauromates IV 276 

Teiranes 277 

Thothorses 297 

Sauromates V 303 

Sauromates VI 306 

RhescupoiTS V. ..... 321 

Sauromates VII 



Boston (Lincolnshire) , is supposed to have 
been built upon the site of the monastery of 
Icanhoe, founded by St.Bodolph a.d. 654, and 
destroyed by the Danes in 870. Boston be- 
came important as a commercial town in the 
13th century, was made a staple for wool, &c. 
by 27 Edw. III. in 1357, and was incorporated 
on the dissolution of the monasteries, of which 
there were several in the town and neigh- 
bovirhood, by Henry VIII. The church of 
St. Bodolph was founded in 1309, and its 
tower, 290 feet in height, forms a well-known 
landmark. The grammar-school was founded 
in 1554, the Bluecoat school in 1713, the na- 
tional school in 1815, and the market-house 
was erected in 1819. The bridge was com- 
menced in 1802, and completed in 1807. 

BosTOiT (United States). — Founded in 
1630 by colonists from Charlestovra. The 
American revolution commenced at this 
place, where the cargoes of tea were thrown 
into the sea, in December, 1773. The Enghsh 
forces held possession of Boston in 1775. 
They evacuated it by the terms of a capitu- 
lation, signed March 17, 1776. Slave riots 
occurred June 24, 1854; and a religious 
revival in 1858. 

BoswoETH Field (Battle). — The last 
battle between the houses of York and Lan- 
caster was fought Monday, Aug. 22, 1485. 
Eichard III., who displayed great gallantry, 
having been betrayed by Sir W. Stanley and 



BOT 

the earl of Northumberland, was defeated 
and slain, and the earl of Eichmond pro- 
claimed Mng, under the title of Henry VII. 
The crown worn by Eichard in the battle 
was placed upon his head. The line of the 
Plantagenets terminated with Eichard III., 
and that of the Tudors commenced -with 
Henry VII., who sought to strengthen his 
title by a marriage with Elizabeth of York, 
daughter of Edward IV., which took place 
Jan. 18, 1486. 

Botanical Gaedens. — Sylvaticus formed 
a botanical garden for medicinal purposes at 
Salerno in 1309, and Lorenzo de' Medici 
estabhshed one at Marburg in 1530. The 
first pubhc botanical gardens were estab- 
lished, one at Pisa, by the university, and 
another at Padua, in 1545. A professorship 
of botany was founded at Padua ia 1533. 
The first botanical garden ia France was 
estabhshed at Montpelher ia 1558 ; and the 
Jardia des Plantes, at Paris, was founded 
ia 1610. The first botanical garden ia Eng- 
land was formed at Oxford in 1632. Botanical 
gardens were established at Leyden ia 1577, 
at Jena in 1629, at Upsal in 1657, at Edin- 
burgh in 1680, at Carlsruhe in 1715, at Kew 
in 1730, at Schonbrunn ia 1753, at Madrid in 
1755, at Cambridge in 1761, at Calcutta in 
1768, at Coimbra in 1773, at St. Petersburg 
in 1785, at Dublin in 1790, at Ghent in 1797, 
at Moscow ia 1802, at Liverpool in 1803, at 
Ceylon in 1811, at Pesth in 1812, at Chiswick 
in 1822, at Birmingham in 1831, and at Mon- 
treal ia 1832. The garden at Chelsea was 
commenced ia 1673, and inclosed in 1686; 
and the gardens ia the Eegent's Park were 
opened in 1839. 

Botany. — Theophrastus, one of Aristotle's 
pupils, left the earhest existing treatise on 
botany, B.C. 322. The elder Pliny and Dios- 
corides ia the 1st century of our sera wrote 
more fully on thesubject. The Arabians began 
to cultivate the study of botany at the com- 
mencement of the 9th century, and Avicenna, 
who died in 1037, was long considered a great 
authority. The science was revived in the 
16th century, and Otto Brunfels, of Strasburg, 
published his "Herbarvun Vivse Eicones" 
in three volumes foho, with 238 woodcuts 
of plants ia 1530. Euel of Soissoas pubhshed 
his treatise " De N^atura Stirpiiun," at 
Paris, in 1536, and Leonard, amongst other 
works, his " Commentaries on the History 
of Plants," at Basel, in 1542. Dr. Turner pub- 
hshed "The New Herbal" in three parts, 
in 1551, 1562, and 1568 successively. Columna, 
in his "Ecphrasis," a history of rare plants, 
pubhshed at Eome, in two parts, ia 1606 and 
1616, laid down the true basis of the science, 
by establishing the distinction of genera, 
which Gesner, Caesalpin, and Joachim Came- 
rarius had already conceived . Eobert Mori- 
son, of Aberdeen, pubhshed works on botany, 
in 1669, 1672, and 1678; and although allowed 
to have benefited greatly fi-om the labours of 
his predecessors, he is generaUy considered 
the " founder of classification." Grew, in 
1671, and Malpighi first directed attention to 
the anatomy of plants. Kivinus, in 1690, ia 



EOT 

said to have anticipated some portions of the 
system of Linnaeus, who produced quite a 
revolution in botany by the pubhcation, in 
1735,- of his " Systema Naturae." Since that 
period the science of botany has rapidly 
advanced. 

BoTANT Bat (Pacific), on the E. coast 
of Australia, was discovered by Captain 
Cook in 1770, and thus named by a natu- 
ralist in the expedition, from the number of 
plants growing: on its shores. 

BoTHWBiiL Beidge (Battle) .—The Scottish 
Covenanters were defeated here June 22, 
1679, by the duke of IVfonmouth. 

Bottle CoifJUEOE. — ^An immense crowd 
was attracted to the Haymarket Theatre, on 
Monday, Jan. 16, 1749 (O.S.), an announce- 
ment having been made that a person would 
play on a common waUnng-cane the music of 
every instrument then in use, get into a quart 
bottle, and whilst there sing several songs, 
at the same time permitting any spectator 
to handle the bottle, and perform other 
remarkable feats. The performer did not 
appear, and some person behind the curtain 
cried out that if the audience would remain 
there till the next evening, instead of going 
into a quart he would get into a pint bottle. 
Only a small portion of those who had assem- 
bled could obtaia admission ; a riot ensued, 
and the interior of the theatre was destroyed. 
The real history of the imposture was never 
discovered, but is supposed to have been the 
result of a wager. 

Bottles.— Vessels for containing liquids 
were made of leather, pottery, or metal, and, 
according to some authorities, of glass, by 
ancient nations. Glass bottles, with handles, 
were found in the ruins of Pompeii, which 
was overwhelmed August 23, a. d. 79. 
Beekmann says the use of bottles amongst 
modern nations commenced in the loth 
century. Stone and earthen bottles were 
first subjected to duty by 6 & 7 Will. III. 
c. 18 (1695), and half the duties on glass 
wares, and the whole duty on stone and 
earthen bottles were repealed by 9 & 10 
Will. III. c. 45 (1698). 

BoxrcHAiN (France). — This fortress was 
taken from Marshal ViUars by the duke of 
Marlborough, after a siege of thirty-five days, 
Sept. 14, 1711. The French recovered pos- 
session Oct. 10, 1712. 

Boulogne (France). — The ancient Geso- 
riacum, also called Bononia, is supposed 
to have been the port at which Claudius em- 
barked for Britain, a.d. 42. The Eoman fleet 
was stationed here a.d. 287. It was sacked by 
the Danes in 882, and was frequently assailed 
during the Middle Ages. Henry VIII. took 
it, after a siege of six weeks, Sept. 14, 1544. 
The French made several attempts to regain 
possession, and having failed, purchased it 
from Edward VI. for 400,000 crowns, 
March 24, 1549. Napoleon I. assembled his 
forces here for the invasion of England in 
1801. Nelson attacked the flotilla Aug. 15, 
1801, but without obtaining any decisive 
results. On the renewal of a threat of inva- 
bIou in 1804, and in subsequent years, much 



BOU 

damage was done by our cruisers. Louis 
Napoleon, with forty or fifty followers, 
landed here early ia the morning of Aug. 6, 
1840, in his second attempt to raise an insur- 
rection against the Orleans dynasty, and 
having failed, was taken prisoner whilst re- 
treating to the steam -vessel which had 
brought ■ him and his colleagues from Eng- 
land. Napoleon III. visited this town, ac- 
companied by the king of the Belgians and 
his son, Sept. 3, 1854. The king of Portugal 
arrived Sept. 4, and Prince Albert Sept. 5. 
A grand mimic battle was fought on a plain 
between Boulogne and Calais, Sept. 8, after 
which Prince Albert returned to England. 
The seat of this ancient bishopric was re- 
moved from T^rouane to Boulogne in 1553. 
The see was suppressed in 1801. 

BouNTT (Mutiay) . — This ship sailed from 
England in 1787, on a voyage to the Society 
Islands, and, having taken on board a large 
number of bread-fruit trees for transplanta- 
tion in the West Indies, quitted Otaheite, 
April 7, 1789. At daybreak on the 28th, Cap- 
tain Bligh, the commander of the Bounty, 
was pinioned, and, with eighteen of the crew 
who had refused to join the mutineers, 
placed in the ship's boat with 140 lb. of 
bread, 30 lb. of meat, and a few gallons of 
water. They landed at Otaheite on the 30th 
of April, but ha.ving been driven off by the 
natives, made for Timor, touched at New 
Holland on the 5th of June, and reached 
Timor, where they were relieved by the 
Dutch, Jime 12, having been forty-six days 
in an open boat, with a scanty allowance of 
food. Captain Bligh reached England on 
the 14th of March, 1790. Fourteen of the 
mutineers were captured, but four perished 
in the wreck of the Pandora. Ten were 
brought to this country in irons, and tried 
by court-martial at Portsmouth, Sept. 12, 
1792. The proceedings closed on the 18th, 
when six of them were sentenced to death, 
and four acquitted. {See Pitcaien's Is- 
land.) 

BouEBON (France). — ^Formerly the capi- 
tal of the Bourbonnois, frequently called 
Bourbon I'Archambault, received the name 
of Bourges-les-Bains in 1789. Pepin took it 
A.D. 759, and bestowed the town and the sur- 
rounding territory upon one of his followers, 
from whom, through the heiress Beatrice of 
Burgundy, married to Eobert, count of 
Clermont, son of Louis IX., in 1272, the 
Bourbon family is descended. 

BouEBON (Indian Ocean) . — This island was 
discovered in 1542, by a Portuguese mariner, 
after whom it was called Mascarenhas. It 
was then uninhabited ; but the French formed 
a settlement in 1642, and in 1649 changed 
its name to Bourbon. It has since borne 
the following names, — Eeunion, Buonaparte, 
and Napoleon. It was taken by the Enghsh 
July 8, 1810, and restored to France at the 
general peace in 1815. 

BouEBONS. — Henry IV. of Navarre, who 

succeeded to the throne on the extinction of 

the house of Valois, July 31, 1589, was the 

first Bourbon sovereign of France. His 

137 



BOU 

fatlier, Antony of Bourbon, duke of Ven- 
dome, by his marriage with Jeanne d' Albret 
in 1548, beeame king of Navarre in 1555. 
He was descended through the younger 
branch, the elder having become extinct on 
the death of the constable of Bourbon, 
May 6, 1527, from Robert of Clermont, 
youngest son of Louis IX. By his marriage 
in 1272 with Beatrice of Burgundy, Robert 
of Clermont obtained the Bourbonnois, the 
Charlerois, and the lordship of St. Just. 
His son, Louis I., was created duke of 
Bourbon by Charles IV. of France in 1327. 
The Bourbons reigned in Trance from the 
accession of Henry IV. July 31, 1589, tUl 
the death of Louis XVI., Jan. 21, 1793. 
They were restored in the person of 
Louis XVIII. April 10, 1814; expeUed 
March 19, 1815, during the Hundred Days, 
and again restored, after the fall of Napoleon, 
July 8, 1815. The rule of the elder branch 
ceased on the abdication of Charles X., 
Aug. 2, 1830. Louis PhDippe, of the Orleans, 
or younger branch of the Bourbons, then 
succeeded to the throne, and their line ceased 
to reign in France on his abdication, Feb. 24, 
1848. 

BouEBONs (Collateral Branches). — The 
Conde branch took its title from Cond^, in 
Hainault, which came into the possession of 
the Bourbon family by the marriage, in 1487, 
of Francis of Bourbon, count of Vendome, 
with Mary of Luxemburg, heiress of St. 
Paul, Enghien, Soissons, and Cond^. Their 
son Charles had several children, and one 
of these, named Louis, assumed the title of 
prince of Conde. This Hne became extinct 
in 1830. The later Orleans branch sprung 
from Philip, second son of Louis XIII., 
made duke of Orleans in 1660. The Spanish 
Bourbons are descended from Philip, duke 
of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., who was 
made king of Spain under the title of 
Philip V. in 1700. The Neapolitan branch 
is descended from Charles, third son of 
Philip V. of Spain, made duke of Parma in 
1731, and king of Naples in 1735. The Conti, 
a, branch of the Conde, is descended from 
Louis, the first prince of Cond^, who mai'- 
ried Eleonore de Roye, dame de Conty or 
Conti, by whom he had two sons, Henry of 
Bourbon, prince of Conde, and Franfois, 
who took the title of prince of Conti. 

BouEGEs (France), the ancient Avaricum, 
afterwards called Bituriges and Biorga-s, 
whence the present name is derived. Csesar 
captured it B.C. 52, when it is said that only 
800 out of 40,000 inhabitants escaped. It 
was captured by the Goths a.d. 475, and by 
Clovis in 507. It suiFered greatly from the 
ravages of war. The bishopric was founded 
in the 3rd century. It was made an arch- 
bishopric. The occupant of the see was 
termed patriarch and primate of Aquitaine. 
Councils were held at this town in 473; 
Nov. 1, 1031 ; Dec. 25, 1145 ; in 1225 ; 
Sept. 13, 1276; in Aprd, 1280; Sept. 19, 
1286; in 1336; Aug. 26— Sept. 11, 1440, 
and March 21, 1528. Louis XL, who was 
born here, founded its university, which was 
138 



BOY 

suppressed at the Revolution. The Hu- 

fuenots seized the place in 1562, but were 
riven out Sept. 1, by the royal troops. 

BoTJEiGNONiSTS. — ^The followers of Antoi- 
nette Bourignon de la Porte, a fanatic bom 
at Lille, in Flanders, Jan. 13, 1616. Bayle 
says she was so ugly that it was debated for 
some days after her birth, by her family, 
whether she should be stifled as a monster. 
She took the habit and order of Augus- 
tine in 1658 ; and travelling in HoUand, 
France, and Scotland, taught that rehgion 
consists in internal emotions, and pubhshed 
a great many works. Driven from place to 
place, she died at Franeker, in Friesland, 
Oct. 30, 1680; and her tenets are said to have 
obtained a temporary popularity amongst 
the Scotch. 

BoviAS-UM (Italy).— This Samnite city, be- 
sieged by the Romans without success B.C. 
314, was taken "by them B.C. 311, again b.c. 
305, and again B.C. 298. It was an important 
mihtary position, and suffered in many suc- 
ceeding wars. Bovianum was destroyed by 
an earthquake in the 9th century, and the 
modem Bojano occupies its site. 

BoviNES (Battle), or BoxiviirES. — Fought 
Sunday, Jvdy 27, 1214, at the bridge of 
Bou^ines, where Phihp Augustus, with infe- 
rior numbers, defeated the army of Otho, 
emperor of Germany, and his alHes. The 
counts of Flanders and Boulogne, and 
WiUiam, earl of Salisbury, were made pri- 
soners. 

BowiDES. — A dynasty estabhshed in Persia 
A.D. 932. There were seventeen kings of this 
line, which lasted for 127 years, and became 
extinct in 1059. 

Bow Island (Pacific). — One of the coral 
islands discovered by Bougainville in 1768. 
He called it La Harpe, but it received its 
present name from Captain Cook, who landed 
upon it in 1769. 

BowYEE FoET (United States), near 
Mobile, was captured by the English troops, 
Feb. 11,1815. This was the last encounter 
during the American war, as the news of the 
conclusion of peace reached the beUigerents 
the next day. 

BoxTEL (Battle). — The republican army 
under Pichegru having wrested Boxtel from 
the Dutch, Sept. 14, 1794, the duke of York 
ordered General Abercrombie to advance 
during the night with the army of reserve. 
In the morning of the 15th he was engaged 
with the French, and was compelled to retire. 
On this occasion the duke of Wellington, 
then commanding the 33rd regiment, first 
came under fire. By a well-directed move- 
ment he cheeked the advance of the repubK- 
can troops, and inflicted such chastisement 
upon them, that the further retreat was 
effected without molestation. 

Boyadji-Keuy (Treaty). — Between Aus- 
tria and the Porte, was signed at Boyadji- 
Keuy, June 14, 1854. It consisted of seven 
articles, providing for the occupation of the 
Danubian principalities by the Austrians, 
who entered the principalities Aug. 20, 1854, 
and retired in 1856, at the close of the war. 



BOY 

BoT-BiSHOP, was elected in cathedrals 
and parish churches on St. Nicholas' day 
(Dec. 6), during the Middle Ages. This 
child, usually chosen from one of the choir, 
was invested with all the insignia of the 
episcopal office, and his authority lasted 
until Innocents' day (Dec. 28). He per- 
fonned aU the ceremonies and offices of 
the church except mass. At Sahsbury 
the boy-bishop is said to have had the 
disposal of aU stalls that came vacant dur- 
ing his rule. This custom was suppressed 
by proclamation July 22, 1542, and according 
to some authorities a previous proclamation 
had been issued July 22, 1540. This, with 
other Roman CathoHc pageants, was revived 
by Queen Mary ; and it was again suppressed 
by Elizabeth, though it continued to exist in 
rural districts for some time after the prohi- 
bition. A similar custom prevailed in many 
parts of the Continent. 

BoTLE Lectuees. — Instituted according 
to instructions in the will of the Hon. Robert 
Boyle (seventh son of the earl of Cork), who 
died Dec. 30, 1691. He was one of the 
founders of the Royal Society, and a man of 
extraordinary attainments. The lectures, 
eight in number, intended as a defence of 
natural and revealed religion, are preached 
at St. Mary-le-Bow church, on the first 
Monday in January, February, March, April, 
May, September, October, and November. 
The first course was preached by the cele- 
brated Dr. Bentley ia 1692, and he preached 
a second in 1694. 

BoYNE (Battle). — At this battle, in Ire- 
land, Wilham III. defeated his father-in-law, 
James II., July 1, 1690. The latter fled to 
Dublin, thence to Waterford, from which 
port he set sail for France. 

BsABAN^ONS, or BEABAifCioifES, mer- 
cenary soldiers, called also Routiers, because 
they were always en route, and Cotereaux. 
They were frequently employed during the 
Middle Ages, and in this country in particular, 
by William II., Stephen, and Henry II. ; 
and were little better than freebooters. The 
greater number came from Brabant : hence 
their name. 

Bbaba]s-t (Holland and Belgium). — This 
ancient province formed part of Charle- 
magne's empire, and in the division of his 
territories, made a.d. 806, was assigned by him 
to his son Charles. Lothaire I. obtained it 
A.D. 843, and his son, Lothaire II., a.d. 855, 
by whom it was joined to Lorraine. Bruno, 
archbishop of Cologne, made it a separate 
duchy, called Lower Lorraine, and afterwards 
Brabant ; and bestowed it upon Geoffrey, its 
first duke. It passed under the rule of the 
dukes of Burgundy in 1429, and was with 
their dominions transferred to Austria in 
1477. When Charles V., emperor of Ger- 
many, became king of Spain, in 1516, the 
Netherlands were united to Spain. PhiUp 
the Second's religious persecutions having 
caused a revolt. North Brabant joined the 
United Provinces in 1581 ; and South Bra- 
bant remained under the dominion of Spain 
until 1706, when it became part of the 



BRA 

Austrian Netherlands. Brabant, vrith the 
whole of the Austrian Netherlands, was 
united to France by decrees of the National 
Convention, dated March, 1793 and 1795, and 
armies were sent for the purpose of subju- 
gating the country. It formed part of the 
kingdom of Holland in 1815, and at the 
revolution of 1830, South Brabant became a 
province of Belgium. The heir to the throne 
bears the title of duke of Brabant. 

Beacelets, or Aemlets, were worn at a 
very early period. Abraham's servant gave 
Rebecca two bracelets of gold e.g. 1857 
(Gen. xxiv. 22) ; and the Amalekite who 
killed Saul brought the bracelet that was 
upon his arm to Da^dd, e.g. 1055 (2 Sam. 
i. 10). They were worn both by men and 
women amongst most ancient nations. 
Wilham of Malmesbury relates that Alfred 
ordered golden bracelets to be hung up in the 
highways (circ. a.d. 890), and such was the 
good order that prevailed, that nobody took 
them away. The same author mentions, as 
part of the peace-oifering sent by Earl 
Godwin to Hardicanute, a.d. 1041, eighty 
soldiers, who had two bracelets on their 
arms, weighing sixteen ounces of gold. In 
the Saxon Chronicle, under the year 975, 
Edgar is called the "bracelet-giver to he- 
roes." Amongst the Danes, the most sacred 
form of oath was that sworn on the holy 
bracelet, originally kept at an altar, but 
afterwards worn on the arm of a priest. This 
ceremony is alluded to by the Saxon Chro- 
nicle under the year 876. Various ancient 
ornaments of this kind have been found in 
different parts of the island. 

Beadogk Dowif (Battle). — Sir R. Hopton 
with inferior numbers defeated the Parlia- 
mentary army at this place, near Liskeard, 
in Cornwall, about the middle of January, 
1643. With trifling loss on his part, he 
took 1,250 prisoners, aU their cannon, colours, 
arms, &c. 

Beagan^a (House of). — Portugal threw 
off the Spanish yoke in 1640, and John, duke 
of Braganpa, was raised to the throne Dec. 1, 
under the title of John IV. The family 
dates from the beginning of the 15th century, 
when Alfonso, a natural son of John I., was 
created duke of Braganga and lord of Guima- 
raens. He married Beatrice, daughter of the 
count of BarceUos and Ourem, and from them 
the Bragan9a fine sprung. In 1801 Napoleon 
declared that the reign of the Bragan^a sove- 
reigns had ceased. John, regent of the king- 
dom, withdrew to Brazil in 1807, but he 
returned in 1821. At his death, in 1826, his son 
Don Pedro resigned the throne in favour of 
his daughter Maria II., preferring to remain 
emperor of Brazil, which he had been elected 
Nov. 18, 1825. 

Bbaganca (Portugal). — According to tra- 
dition, this city was founded by King Brigo, 
B.C. 1906. Its realfounder was Sancho I., who 
built the present city and castle in 1187. Bra- 
gan^a was erected into a duchy by Alfonso V., 
in 1442. On the revolt of the Portuguese 
from Spain in 1640, John II., eighth duke of 
Braganja, ascended the throne of Portugal 



BEA 

as John IV., and founded the reigning dy- 
nasty. In 1782 the see of Miranda was 
transferred to Bragan^a, the bishop retaiaing 
both titles. 

BEAHMiifS. — The order of Hindoo priests, 
constituting the highest of the four castes 
into which the Hindoo nation is divided, is 
of great antiquity. It is said that their 
Vedas, or sacred books, date from fourteen 
centuries before our aera, and that some of 
their codes of crimiaal and civil law go back 
nearly 3,000 years from the present time. 
The Hindoo tradition respecting the origin 
of'this caste is, that in the first creation, the 
Brahmius proceeded with the Veda from the 
mouth of Brama, their chief god. The system 
of castes prevailed both in Egypt and in 
India, and much controversy has oeen excited 
as to whether India borrowed it from Egypt 
or Egypt from India. 

Beailow (Battle) . — Fought near Brailow, 
or Ibral, in AVaUaehia, between the Eussians 
and the Turks, June 19, 1773, the latter 
having been defeated. The town, taken by 
the Eussians June 18, 1828, the siege having 
commenced May 11, was restored to the 
Turks by the treaty of Hadrianople, in 1829. 

Bramham Mooe (Battle). — Sir Thomas 
Eokeby, high sheriff of Yorkshire, defeated 
the earl of Northumberland, who had rebelled 
a second time against Henry IV. at this place, 
Feb. 19, 1408. The earl of Northumberland 
was killed in this battle. 

Beandenbueg (Prussia). — This province, 
subjugated by Charlemagne a.d. 789, some 
time after regained its independence, which it 
enjoyed until 928, when it was conquered 
and annexed to Saxony. It became a margra- 
viate under Albert, sumamed the Bear, in 
1142. On the extinction of that race in 1320, it 
was given by the emperor Louis V. to his son 
Louis, and was sold by one of his descendants 
to Charles IV. It continued in this family 
until the emperor Sigismund obtained pos- 
session in 1411, and by him it was, in 1415, 
sold to Frederick of HohenzoUern, one of 
whose successors founded the kingdom of 
Prussia in 1701. The town of Brandenburg, 
lounded about the 7th century, was made a 
bishop's see a.d. 946. It was suppressed in 
1565. 

Brandt, formerly called Brandwine, was 
first mentioned about 1671. The Aqua Vitse 
invented by Eaymond Lully, who died in 1515, 
is often mistaken for brandy. 

BEAifDT-wiNE (Battle). — At Brandy-wine 
Creek, near Newcastle, in Pennsylvania, Lord 
CornwaUis, Sept. 11, 1777, vsith inferior num- 
bers, defeated an American army of 15,000 
men, advantageously posted. 

Brasenose College (Oxford). — William 
Smyth, bishop of Lichfield, afterwards of 
Lincoln, and chancellor of the university of 
Oxford, and Sir E. Sutton fovmded this insti- 
tution about 1508. A charter was granted 
by Henry VIII., Jan. 25, 1512, for one prin- 
cipal and sixty scholars of the King's HaU 
and CoUege of Brasenose. The new library 
was finished in 1663, and the foundation-stone 
of the new chapel was laid in 1656. It has 
140 



BEA 



received numerous benefactions, 
nose HaU existed in the time of Henry III., 
in the middle of the 13th century, and was 
known by that name in 1278, a nose of brass 
being fixed to the gate. The name is said to 
be derived from a corruption of brasinium or 
hrasinhuse, because originally situated in part 
of Alfred's palace, used as a brew-house. 

Brass. — The art of making this aUoy of 
copper and zinc was known in ancient times, 
and the early Britons are said to have pos- 
sessed brass -foundries. The celebrated 
colossus of Ehodes, erected about B.C. 288, 
was formed of brass. This fact has, however, 
been disputed, and it is certain that the pre- 
sent process of making brass is altogether of 
modern invention. The first works in Eng- 
land are said to have been established at 
Esher in 1649 ; and in 1781 Emerson obtained 
a patent for making brass in a more direct 
way, by melting together its constituent 
metals. 

Bray (Berks). — Fuller's story of the vicar 
of Bray,whoheldhislivingunder Henry VIII., 
Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, being first 
a Eonian Cathohc, then a Protestant, again 
a Eoman Catholic, and once more a Protes- 
tant, on the principle that he intended to 
live and die vicar of Bray, is not borne out by 
the church records. The Hving was not held 
by the same person for so long a period as 
that required to prove the truth of the 
anecdote. 

Brazil (South America). — ^Vincent Pinzon 
landed m Brazil in February, 1500, and took 
possession of the country in the name of the 
Spanish government, and Cabral was driven 
by adverse winds on its coasts April 23 in 
the same year. It was afterwards surveyed 
by Amerigo Vespucci, who pubMshed an 
account of the country, with a map. The 
Spaniards and French occupied several por- 
tions of the country. 



1500. Vincent Pinzon, having sailed from Palos, in 
December the preceding year, anives, ia 
February, at Cape Augustine, and disco- 
vers and names the river Amazon. On the 
23rd of April, Pedi'O Alvarez Cabral is 
driven on to the coast, and takes possession 
of the country in behalf of the king of 
Portugal. 

1530. Captain Hawkins, of Plymouth, commences 
intercourse with the natives, and prevails 
on one of their chiefs to accompany him to 
England. 

1549. The Portuguese foxmd St. Salvador, and the 
Jesuits first enter BrazU. 

1553. Settlements formed by Europeans extend as 
far as the river La Plata, and the country 
is made a Jesuit province. 

1555. Coligny establishes a settlement of French 
Protestants in Brazil. 

1558. The Portuguese massacre most of the French 
settlers. 

1560. The colony of French Huguenots is entirely 
broken up, and the colonists are expelled 
by the Portuguese. 

1572. The English make an unsuccessfvd attempt to 
obtain a footing in BrazU. 

1580. Passes into the power of Philip II., king of 
Spain, who becomes sovereign of Portugal. 

1594 Captain James Lancaster takes Pemambuco, 
and returns with a large booty of sugai's, 
timber, and cotton. 



1661. 
1711. 
1723. 

1760. 
1763. 



BEE 



First invaaioBL of Brazil by the Butch, -who 
take Bahia, but are iinable to make a per- 
manent settlement. 

Second invasion by the Dutch, who take 
Olinda and the province of Pernambuco. 

Vieyra restores Brazil to the Portuguese rule. 
Free trade opened between Brazil and 
England. 

The Dutch resign all claim to BrazU. 

The French seize Blo-Janeiro. 

The French found Monte Video, which is 
seized by the Spaniards. 

The Jesuits are expelled from Brazil. 

The seat of government is transferred from 
Bahia to Kio. 

Revolt of the oppressed natives and negro 



1817. 
1821. 



Insurrection of the province of Minas. 

Nov. 29. The royal family of Portugal leave 
Lisbon for Rio-Janeiro, to which city the 
seat of the Portuguese government is trans- 
ferred. 

Jan. 21. The royal family of Portugal reach 
Brazil. 

Aug. 1. The culture of the tea-plant is intro- 
duced into Brazil. Dec. 16. John, prince 
regent of Poi-tugal, erects the state of 
Brazil into a kingdom. 

March. Insurrection of Pernambuco. 

Revolutions in Para, Bahia, Pernambuco, 
and Rio-Janeiro. The king returns to 
Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro regent of 
Brazil. 

Sept. 21. Don Pedro refuses to recognize the 
authority of the king of Portugal, and is 
proclaimed " constitutional emperor of 
Brazil." 

May 13. The king of Portugal recognizes the 
independence of the Brazilian empire. 

Brazil recognizes Monte "Video as an indepen- 
dent state. 

Insurrection in Pernambuco. 

April 6. The emperor abdicates in favour of 
his infant son, Don Pedro, and next day 
embarks for Europe. 

July 23. The emperor is declared of age by a 
coup d'6tat, and assumes the head of 
affairs. 

Sept. 4. The emperor issues a decree, making 
the importation of slaves piratical. 

Nov. 8. Inauguration of the first Brazilian 
railroad from Rio to Belem (38 miles). 



EMTEEOES. 
A.D. 

1822. Dec. 1. Pedro L 
1831. July 18. Pedro XL 

Beead. — ^Various materials were converted 
into bread in ancient times, when wheaten 
flour was not in such general use as at pre- 
sent. From the description of England 
prefixed to Holinshed's Chronicle, we learn 
that even in this country bread was made " of 
such grain as the soil yieldeth, nevertheless 
the gentility commonly provide themselves 
sufficiently of wheat for their own tables, 
while their household and poor neighbours 
in some shires are enforced to content them- 
selves with rye or barley, yea, and in time of 
dearth, many with bread made either of 
beans, peas, or oats, or of altogether, or 
some acorns among." Amongst other sub- 
stitutes for wheat, potatoes and various Idnds 
of earth have been used. Stow says Bread 
Street was so called on account of its being 
the place where bread was formerly sold, 
and adds ; "for it appear eth by records that 
in the year 1302, which was the thirtieth of 



ERE 

Edward I., the bakers of London were 
bounden to sell no bread in their shops or 
houses, but in the market." Butter was 
substituted for dripping to be eaten with 
bread at breakfast between the reigns of 
Edward IV. and Elizabeth. By a royal 
mandate issued by Henry III. in the thirty- 
sixth year of his reign (1252), bakers were 
ordered not to impress bread intended for 
sale with the sign of the cross, Agnus Dei, or 
the name of Jesus Christ. {See Assize of 
Bread, Bakees, &c.) 

Bread-feuit Tree. — This esculent, found 
in the South -Sea Islands, was introduced 
into the West Indies by order of the British 
government. The first attempt in 1789 under 
Bligh failed, on account of the mutiny of part 
of Ms crew on board the Bounty. Bligh was 
sent out again in 1791, reached Otaheite in 
1792, and landed the plants in 1793. Captain 
Bhgh received the gold medal offered in 1777 
by the Society for the Encouragement of 
Arts and Manufactures to any one who should 
bring the bread-fruit plant in a state of vege- 
tation from the South -Sea Islands to the 
West Indies. The experiment succeeded, 
but the negroes prefer their own preparation 
of food from the plantain. 

Beeakwater. — The mole at Tangier, com- 
menced in 1663, and abandoned, though not 
completed in 1676 ; the works commenced at 
Plymouth Aug. 12, 1812, and completed in 
1841; those at Cherbourg, commenced June 6, 
1784, continued at intervals, and completed in 
1853 ; and the Admiralty pier at Dover, com- 
menced about 1844, are amongst the most 
celebrated breakwaters in the world. 

Beeastplate. — A portion of the vestment 
worn by the high-priest amongst the Jews, 
was called the breastplate of judgment, and 
to it the Urim and Thummim were attached. 
The defensive armour called the breastplate, 
worn both in ancient and modern times, is 
made of various materials. 

BEECHiif (Scotland). — This ancient town, 
supposed to have been the capital of the 
kings of the Picts, was burnt by the Danes 
A.D. 1012. It was made a bishopric in 1150, 
and the see, suppressed in 1689, was revived 
in 1731. Near Brechin, at Huntly Hill, a 
battle was fought in 1452. Brechin was 
taken by Edward I., Aug. 9, 1303, and was 
burnt by Montrose in 1645. 

Beeda (Holland) was founded about 1190, 
and was annexed to Spain in 1567. It was 
recovered in March, 1590, by Prince Maurice 
of Nassau, to whose family it belonged during 
the 14th and 15th centuries. During the 
struggle with Spain conferences were opened 
here March 3, 1575, and closed July 8, 1575. 
The Spaniards besieged Breda in 1624, and 
captured it in 1625. It came into the posses- 
sion of the United Provinces Oct. 6, 1637, 
and was confirmed to them by the peace of 
Westphalia in 1648. Charles II. resided here 
during part of his exile, and his celebrated 
declaration was written at Breda, and dated 
April 14 (O.S. 4), 1660. Peace between 
England, France, and Holland was concluded 
here July 20 (O.S. 10), 1667. During the 
141 



BEE 



BEE 



revolution tlie assembly of the United Belgic 
States met Jiere Sept. 14, 1789. Breda capi- 
tulated to fixe French Feb. 25, 1793. The 
French were expelled in 1813, and Breda 
was restored to Holland at the peace in 
1815. 

Beehon Law, prevailedin Ireland previous 
to its conquest by Henry II. in 1169, and was 
so called because the Irish name for a judge 
is Brehon. The Irish nation received and 
swore to observe the Enghsh laws at the 
Great Council assembled at Lismore. Spen- 
cer, in 1596, describes Brehon Law as "a 
rule of right unwritten, but dehvered by 
tradition from one to another, in which 
oftentimes there appeared great show of 
equity in determining the right between 
party and party, but in many things repug- 
nant quite both to God's laws and man's." 
This account is not altogether correct, as 
the code existed in manuscript as early as 
the 14th centiiry. King John, who visited 
Ireland in 1210, ordained and estabUshed by 
letters patent that it should be governed by 
the laws of England. The Irish, however, 
clung to the Brehon Law. Henry III. and 
his successors made several efforts to induce 
them to abandon it, and Edward III. by the 
statuteof Kilkenny, inl366,formally abolished 
the Brehon Law, the practice of which was, 
by the last-mentioned statute, made treason. 
The Brehon Law was not, however, in spite 
of this and other enactments, entirely abo- 
lished until the reign of James I. 

Beemen- (Germany). — ^The capital of the 
repubhc of Bremen, and one of the free Hanse 
towns, is first mentioned as a bishop's see a.d. 
787. The archbishop of Hamburg removed 
his seat here in 845, and Bremen itself became 
an archbishopric in 1203. It was destroyed 
by the Hungarians in 900. In 1283 it joined 
the Hanseatic League ; and in 1648 its arch- 
bishopric was suppressed. Bremen was made 
an imperial city in 1640. A majority of the 
inhabitants having declared in favour of Pro- 
testantism, the city was separated from the 
remainder of the diocese. The latter, called 
the duchy of Bremen, was ceded to Sweden 
by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Denmark 
conquered it in 1712, and sold it to Hanover 
in 1715, with which it was incorporated in 
1732. The French captured it Aug. 29, 1757, 
again in 1758, butwere speedily expelled, and 
took it again in 1759. It was taken by the 
French in 1806, and annexed to the French 
empire in 1810, but regained its independence 
in 1813, and was made a member of the Ger- 
man Confederation in 1815. 

Beennevillb (Battle). — Louis VI. of 
France, who supported the claim of WiUiam 
CUto to the estates in j^ormandy seized by 
Henry I., was defeated by the latter in the 
plain of Brenneville, in Normandy, Aug. 20, 
1119. This is sometimes called the battle of 
Bremulle, and also of Noyon. 

Bkentfoed (Battles). — Edmund Ironside 
defeated the Danes at Brentford, with great 
slaughter, in May, 1016. Charles I. defeated 
the ParHamentary army near this place, 
Nov. 12, 1642. 
142 



Bees CIA (Italy). — The ancient Brixia 
was conquered by the Eomans. The Goths 
burned it a.d. 412, and Attila plundered it 
in 452. It became an import ant city under 
Lombard rule, and the capital of a pro- 
vince of the same name. It was taken by 
Charlemagne. It joined the league against 
the emperor Frederick I. in 1175, and suc- 
cessfully resisted the arms of Frederick II. in 
1238. It was long a prey to the various fac- 
tions by which Italy was convulsed ; was taken 
by the emperor Henry VII. iu 1311, by the 
Venetians in 1426, and by the French in 1509. 
The Venetians having regained possession in 
1512, it was taken and sacked by the French, 
under Gaston de Foix, in the same year, but 
was again captured, after along siege, by the 
Venetians, May 26, 1516. It was annexed to 
Venice in 1576, and continued under the sway 
of that repubhc until 1797. The French 
having captured it in 1796, they were expelled 
in 1799 ; but Brescia again passed imder their 
yoke until 1815, when, with the remainder of 
Lombardy, it was ceded to Austria. During 
the revolution of. 1848, the Austrians were 
expelled, but it was retaken March 30, 1849, 
and passed to Sardinia, by the treaty of 
Zurich, in 1859. Its cathedral was commenced 
in 1604, and completed in 1825. 

Beeslau (Silesia). — Frederick II. 
of Prussia took possession of Breslau 
Jan. 1, 1741. After the battle of Czaslau, 
which took place May 17, 1742, a treaty 
of peace between Frederick II. and Maria 
Theresa was drawn up at Breslau under 
the mediation of the British ambassador, 
June 11, 1742, and definitively concluded 
July 28. Silesia and Glatz, in Bohemia, 
were ceded to Prussia. A great battle was 
fought here between the Austrians and the 
Prussians, Nov. 22, 1757, and the latter having 
been defeated, the Austrians took possession 
of Breslau on the 25th, but it was retaken by 
Frederick II. on the 19th of December in the 
same year. Loudon, who had appeared be- 
fore it July 30, 1760, was compelled to raise 
the siege August 5, and the Eussians bom- 
barded it in 1761. The French took it in 
1806, and its fortifications were demoUshed 
in 1814. Its university was founded in 1702, 
and that of Frankfort-on-the-Oder was incor- 
porated with it in 1811. The bishopric of 
Smogre, founded in 960, was transferred to 
Breslau in 1062. Coimcils were held at Bres- 
lau in 1248, and Feb. 2, 1268. 

Beest (France), supposed to be the an- 
cient Brivates Portus, came into the posses- 
sion of the duke of Britanny in 1240. It was 
frequently captured and held by the Enghsh 
in the continental wars during the 14th and 
15th centuries ; and it passed to the Fi-ench 
crown, with the remainder of Britanny, by 
the marriage of Louis XII. with Anne of 
Britanny, widow of Charles VIIL, in 149S. 
Sir Thomas Howard burnt Brest May 23, 
1512 ; and an indecisive action between the 
French and Enghsh fleets occurred off the 
port Aug. 10, in the same year. Sir Edward 
Howard, lord high admiral, sailed into Brest, 
landed some men, and ravaged the country 



BEE 

in 1513, and was killed outside tlie port in an j 
attempt to destroy some French galleys. 
Sir Martin Frobisher assisted the French to 
recover Brest from the Spaniards in 1594. 
The EngUsh failed in an attack upon Brest in 
June, 1694. Lord Howe defeated the French 
fleet off Brest, June 1, 1794 ; and the port 
was blockaded by an English squadron during 
the French revolutionary war. The harboiu- 
was improved in 1631 by order of Kichelieu, 
who made Brest a naval station. Captain 
Gordon was beheaded at Brest in 1769, on a 
charge of being concerned in a conspiracy 
for setting fire to the shipping in that port. 
The hospital was destroyed by fire, and fifty 
slaves lost their hves Nov. 1776. 

Bbetignt (Treaty). — At the village of 
Bretigny, near Chartres, a treaty of peace 
was concluded between England and France, 
May 8, 1360. It consisted of forty articles. 
France ceded several provinces that England 
had conquered, and Edward III. renounced 
his claim to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, &c., 
and agreed to release the French king John, 
who had been prisoner in England since 
1356, his ransom being fixed at 3,000,000 of 
gold crowns. King John was conducted to 
Calais July 3 ; the two kiags signed the 
treaty there Oct. 24 j and John was released 
on the 26th. He returned to England Jan. 4, 
1364, and the kings of Scotland and Cyprus 
being then in London, he was received with 
great pomp ; but falling suddenly HI, he died 
at the palace of the Savoy, April 8, 1364. 
Some historians assert that he came to 
England because he was unable to fulfil the 
terms of his release; but a desire to see 
Edward III., for whom he entertained great 
affection, appears to have been his principal 
if not his sole object. 

Beeviaet, originally called the Cursus, is 
composed of psalms, lessons taken from Scrip- 
ture, homUies, histories of saints, hymns, 
anthems, prayers, &c., suited to the parti- 
cular season, festival, or canonical hour, 
collected for the use of Roman Cathohcs. 
After undergoing several alterations, it was 
settled by Pius V. in 1568. Reformation of 
the breviaries was enjoined upon bishops by 
the synod held at Cologne in 1536, and both 
popes and councils have introduced various 
alterations. 

Beewees. — The art of brewing is of great 
antiquity. By a statute of the Pillory and 
Tumbrel, 51 Hen. III. st. 6 (1267), brewers 
were fined for the first, second, and third 
offences not over grievous against the law of 
assize ; but if the offence was often, or over 
grievous, the brewer was condemned to the 
tumbrel, or some other correction. The 
trade of brewing, within the city of London, 
was at one time confined almost wholly to 
females. The company of brewers was incor- 
porated by Henry VI., Feb. 22, 1428 j con- 
firmed by Edward IV. in 1480 ; and again by 
Ehzabeth, Jxily 13, 1560. There were twenty- 
six brewers in London and Westminster in 
1585, and they brewed 648,960 barrels yearly. 
Barrels were first ordered to be gauged by 
23 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1532). The trade itself 



BRI 

has been regulated by several subsequent 
statutes. 

Beiae Ceeek (Battle). — General Prevost, 
with about 1,200 EngHsh troops, defeated 
the American ai^ny, 2,000 strong, at this 
place, in America, March 3, 1779. Several 
colours, 7 pieces of cannon, all the baggage, 
and 200 prisoners, fell into the hands of the 
victors. 

Beibeet. — This form of corruption is 
mentioned several times in the Bible, and is 
forbidden Deut. xvi. 19. It prevailed exten- 
sively amongst most ancient nations. When 
Ergocles was convicted of having embezzled 
thirty talents, and payment was demanded 
of his friend PhUocrates, his party openly 
boasted of having bribed 2,100 jurymen at 
Athens. A modern author remarks that "in 
all periods of their history, the Greeks seldom 
had sufficient principle to resist a bribe." 
Bribery prevailed to a fearful extent in 
Rome, and existed in various forms during 
the Middle Ages. The first case of punish- 
ment for bribery at an Enghsh election is 
recorded by Parry (Pari, and Councils of 
Eng. p. 221). On the 10th of May, 1571, 
Thomas Long, a very simple man, and unfit 
to serve, coniessed that he gave the mayor 
of Westbury and another £4 for his place in 
ParHament. They were ordered to refund 
the money, to appear to answer such things 
as shoxild be objected against them, and the 
corporation and inhabitants of Westbury 
were fined £20 for their scandalous attempt. 
Bribery at elections did not prevail to any 
great extent in this country until the 18th 
century. 

Beiciak, or St. Beidget. — This Swedish 
order of knighthood was founded by Queen, 
afterwards St. Bridget, in 1366. 

Beick-making was known immediately 
after the flood (Gen. xi. 3), b.c. 2234, burnt 
bricks having been employed in the con- 
struction of the tower of Babel. The Mves 
of the Israehtes in Egypt were embittered 
by their cruel task of brick-making about 
B.C. 1571 (Exod. i. 14, and ch. v.). It is 
probable that these were sun-dried bricks. 
The Jews inscribed magical and other cha- 
racters upon bricks. The art was much 
improved by the Greeks, and carried to a 
still higher state of perfection by the Romans. 
The Aaglo-Saxons and the Normans em- 
ployed brickwork in their architecture. 
Bricks were first taxed by 24 Geo. III. c. 24 
(1784), at the rate of 2s. Qd. per 1,000. This 
duty was several times increased vmtil, by 
2 & 3 Vict. c. 24 (July 19, 1839), it was fixed 
at 5s. IM. per 1,000 for ordinary-sized bricks, 
and 10s. for the larger size. It was repealed 
by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 9 (1850) . Hampton Court, 
bmlt by Cardinal Wolsey, is a good specimen 
of Enghsh brickwork. 

Beide-ale, or Beide-stake, an old cus- 
tom, so called because the bride sold ale on 
her wedding-day, and her friends contributed 
what they pleased in payment. It was also 
called bride-bush, from a bush at the end of 
a pole, the ancient badge of a country ale- 
house : bride-wain, because poor persons 
143 



BEI 

Bent a cart round to their relations and 
friends, to obtain contributions ; and bidding, 
because guests were invited. The custom is 
supposed to have been confined to tbese 
islands. Puttenham, in the "Arteof Poesie," 
pubhshed in 1589, mentions a bryde-ale, and 
one was celebrated before Queen Elizabeth, 
at Kemlworth Castle, in that year. In the 
court-rolls of Hales-Owen, Salop, amongst 
other regulations is one made in 1573, to the 
effect that the wedding couple should not 
have above "eight messe of persons at his 
dinner within the burrowe." 

Beidewell. — A tower or castle bmlt in 
St. Bride's parish, was for many years a 
residence of the English kings. Here, in 
1210, King John summoned a council, at 
which he exacted above £1,000 sterling from 
the clergy ; and after depriving the White 
Monks of their privileges, compelled them to 
contribute £40,000 in silver. Henry VIII. 
built a stately and beautiful house upon the 
ruins of this old tower, giving it the name of 
Bridewell, from a well in the neighbourhood 
dedicated to St. Bride, or St. Bridget. It is 
said to have been built specially for the 
entertainment of the emperor Charles V., 
who visited London in May, 1522. Kidley, 
in May, 1552, wrote a letter to Cecil request- 
ing him to obtain it for charitable uses ; and 
in June, 1553, Edward VI. granted it to the 
city of London for the maintenance of poor 
ancl impotent people. A mill to grind corn 
was placed in it in 1570. It was made a 
House of Correction in the 17th century, 
and was destroyed by fire in 1666. Several 
houses of correction bearing the same name 
have been erected in London and other parts 
of the kingdom. 

Beidgenoeth (Shropshire). — This ancient 
town was incorporated by John in 1214. 
Henry I. captured the castle in 1102 ; and 
Henry II. in 1157. 

Bridges, of rude materials and form, 
were constructed by ancient nations at the 
earhest periods. The first stone bridge of 
large dimensions was built at Rome by Caius 
Flavins Scipio B.C. 127. Old London Bridge 
was commenced a.d. 1176, and was not com- 
pleted until eighty-three years later. Bow 
Bridge, built in 1118, is said to have been 
the first stone bridge in England. By 
9 Hen. III. c. 15 (1225), no town or freeman 
could be distrained to make bridges ; and by 
22 Hen. VIII. c. 5 (1530), it was provided 
that if a bridge was within a city or town 
corporate, the inhabitants of such city or 
town corporate were bound to repair it ; if 
without a city or town corporate, the inha- 
bitants of the county had to effect the 
repairs ; and if part of a bridge was in one 
county and part within another, the inha- 
bitants of the respective counties were 
charged with the repairs of the portion 
within their own limits. Pritchard, in 1775, 
introduced cast-iron in the construction of 
bridges ; and the first of this material was 
built over the Severn, at Coalbrook Dale, in 
1779. The punishment for pulling down or 
destroying a pubhc bridge was made trans- 
144 



BRI 

portatiou for not less than seven years, or 
imprisonment for not more than four years 
with flogging, by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30, s. 13 
(June 21, 1827). By 13 & 14 Vict. c. 64 
(Aug. 14, 1850), the repairing, maintaining, 
and building of bridges, was placed under 
the sole management and control of the 
town councils. The following is a Hat of some 
of the principal bridges : — 



100. Ponte MoUe at Eome Stone. 



1305. 
1354. 
1454. 
1474. 
1569. 
1591. 
1611. 
1755. 
1760. 
1765. 
1771. 
1774 
1775. 
1784 
1791. 
1791. 
1794 
1796. 
1802. 
1804 
1805. 



1814 
1815. 
1816. 
1818. 
1860. 



St. Esprit „ Lan^edoc „ 

Castle Vecchio „ "Verona . . „ 

"Vielle-Brioude „ Brioude . . „ 

Sisto „ Rome .... „ 

Holy Trinity „ Florence . . „ 

Kialto „ Venice . . „ 

Claix „ Grenoble.. „ 

Pout-y-prydd „ Glamorgan „ 

Orleans „ Orleans . . „ 

Mantes „ Mantes.... „ 

Blackfriars London . . „ 

Neuilly near Pai-is „ 

Lavaur at Lavaur .. „ 

St. Maxence „ St. Maxence „ 

Sarah „ Dublin „ 

Pont de la Concorde „ Paris „ 

Piscataqui „ N. America Timber. 

Sunderland „ Sunderland Iron. 

Pont de la Cit6 . . „ Paris Timber. 

Trenton „ Pennsylvania „ 

Montlion „ Montlion.. Stone. 

Ulm „ mm 

Tongueland „ Kirkcudbright „ 

Austerlitz „ Paris .... Iron. 

Freysingen ,, Bavaria.... Timber. 

.... near Augsburg . . „ 

Bamberg in Germany . . „ 

Pont Louis at Freysingen „ 

Elsingen „ Elsingen . . „ 

Colossus „ Philadelphia „ 

Munich „ Munich . . Stone. 

Jena „ Paris „ 

Waterloo „ London.... „ 

Southwark „ London .... Iron. 

Westminster .... „ London.... „ 



Beidgewatee (Somersetshire). — This an- 
cient town, called in Domesday Book Brugie, 
received its first charter, dated June 26, 1200, 
from John. It was taken by the ParUa- 
mentary forces July 23, 1645. In 1685 the 
corporation of Bridgewater proclaimed the 
duke of Monmouth king. 

Beidgewatee Teeatises. — The sum of 
£8,000 was, by the will of Francis Henry 
Egerton, last earl of Bridgewater, who died 
in Feb. 1829, placed at the disposal of the 
President of the Royal Society, to be paid by 
him to the writer, or writers, of a treatise 
"on the power, wisdom, and goodness of 
God, as manifested in the creation," of which 
1,000 copies were to be pubhshed. The 
subject, divided into eight parts, was allotted 
to eight individuals, each of whom received 
an equal share of the money. The works, 
pubhshed between 1833 and 1840, and known 
by the name of the Bridgewater Treatises, 
are as follows : — 



The Hand ; its Mechanism and Vital Endowments, 
as evincing Design. By Sir Charles Bell. 1833. 

On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as 
manifested in the adaptation of External 
Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitu- 
tion of Man. By Rev. Thomas ChaJmex-s. 1833. 



BEI 

On the Ailaptation of External Nature to the 
Physical Condition of Man. By John Kidd. 
1833. 

Astronomy and General Physics, considered with 
reference to Natural Theology. By the Eev. 
WUliam Whewell. 1833. 

Ohemisti-y, Meteorology, and the Function of Diges- 
tion, considered with referenoe to Natiu-al 
Theology. By William Prout. 1834. 

Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered with 
reference to Natui-al Theology. By Peter IVIark 
Roget. 1834. 

Geology and Mineralogy, considered with re^'erence 
to Natui-al Theology. By the Kev. William 
Buckland. 1835. 

On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of XSod, as 
manifested in the Creation of Animals, and in 
their History, Habits, and Instincts. By the 
Ker. William Kirkby. 1835. 

The dates given are those of first publica- 
tion. Later editions have been issued. 

Beief, or Queen's Lettee. — This kind 
of document bearing the royal signature, 
addressed to the archbishops, bishops, cler- 
gjrmen, magistrates, churchvrardens, and 
overseers of the poor in England, authorizing 
the collection of money for some charitable 
purpose therein mentioned, was first issued 
in this country soon after the Reformation. 
Certain abuses crept in, and a measure was 
passed (4 Anne, c. 14) in 1706, entitled, "An 
Act for the better collecting charitable 
money on briefs by letters patent, and 
preventing abuses in relation to such 
charities." This act was repealed by 
9 Geo. IV. e. 42 (July 15, 1828) ; and though 
the power of issuing briefs is stiU retained 
by the Crown, it has not been exercised 
during the last few years. 

Beief. [See Bull.) 

Beiel, or Beill (Holland).— This fortified 
seaport surrendered to the confederates in 
1572, and was thus the first place in Holland 
to obtain its independence. It was placed in 
the hands of the EngKsh in 1585, Queen 
Elizabeth having agreed to protect the 
Netherlands, and was, with other cautionary 
towns, given back to the Dutch, May 27, 
1616. 

Beienne (Battle). — Napoleon I. defeated 
the allied German and Russian army at this 
town, in France, in a sanguinary engagement 
fought Feb. 1 and 2, 1814, 

Beigettines, or Nuns op cub Holt 
Savioue, instituted by St. Bridget, duchess 
or nrincess of Nericia, in Sweden, about the 
middle of the 14th century. She died in 
1373, and was canonized in 1391. They 
adopted, with certain modifications, the 
anole of St. Augustine. It was not lawful for 
them to have anything they could call their 
own, not even so much as a halfpenny. The 
new order arose in Spain, spread through 
parts of the continent, and had only one 
house in England, at Syon, in Middlesex, 
founded by Henry V. in 1413. Men were 
admitted into their convents. 

Beighton (Sussex), formerly Brighthehn- 
stone, was a place of some impoj-tance in 
early times ; and, having been plundered and 
Durnt by the French in 1514, was afterwards 
fortified by Henry VIII. . It declined, and 
was merely a, fishing-village at the commence- 
145 



BRI 

ment of the last century. George IV., then 
prince of Wales, visited it in 1782, and the 
foundation of the Pavilion was laid in 1784. 
It was completed in 1787, and additions 
were made in 1802 and 1817. The chain 
pier was commenced Oct. 1822, and opened 
in Nov. 1823. A battery was built in 1793, 
and rebuilt in 1830. The town-hall was 
commenced in 1830. The railroad to Lon- 
don was opened Sept. 21, 1841. The Pavihon 
was purchased by the corporation in 1850. 

Beihuega (Spain). — General Stanhope 
and 6,000 British troops were surrounded 
and taken prisoners, after a gallant resist- 
ance, at this small town, by the duke of 
Vendome, Dec. 9 (O.S. Nov. 28), 1710. The 
French were immensely superior in numbers. 

Beindisi (Calabria), occupies the site of 
the ancient Brimdusium. It was seized by the 
Romans B.C. 267, and made a Roman colony 
B.C. 244. The peace of Brundusium, between 
Antony and Augustus, was concluded here 
B.C. 40, and in accordance with one of its 
conditions, the marriage between Antony 
and Octavia, the sister of Augustus, was soon 
after celebrated. Virgil died here B.C. 19. 
It was frequently besieged, and suffered 
severely during the various invasions of 
Italy. Brindisi was nearly destroyed by an 
earthquake a.d. 1456. It became the seat of a 
bishopric a.d. 172, and was united vdth Oria, 
and made an archbishopric, about 1060 ; but 
the sees were disunited in 1591. 

Beistol. — Part of this town is in Somer- 
setshire and part in Gloucestershire. It was 
a walled town and royal burgh at the time of 
the Norman conquest. Henry of Hunting- 
don describes it as the most opulent city in 
that part of the country, and much frequented 
by shipping. The empress Maud repaired 
to this city a.d. 1140, and Stephen was impri- 
soned in its castle in 1141. Bristol has 
returned two members to parliament since 
1283; and it was made a staple for wool, 
leather, &c., by 27 Edw. III. st. 2, c. 1 
(1353) . A charter for making Bristol a town 
and county of itself was confirmed under 
the great seal (47 Edw. III.) Aug. 8, 1373. 
Henry VII. granted it another charter in 
1550. Prince Rupert captured Bristol July 27, 
1643, and it was retaken by the ParUamentaiy 
forces Sept. 10, 1645. The castle was demo- 
lished by order of Cromwell in 1656. Riots 
occurred here in 1749, 1793, and in 1831. 
The see was founded in 1534, and united to 
that of Gloucester in 1836. The docks were 
commenced in 1804, and completed in 1809. 
The councU-house was built in 1827. 

Beitannia, or Beitain. — Aristotle (b.c. 
384 — 323), the first ancient writer who makes 
direct mention of Britain, speaks of two 
very large islands, Albion and lerne {i.e. 
England and Ireland), called Bretannic, lying 
in the ocean beyond the Pillars of Hercules. 
The term Albion, applied to England on 
account of its chalky cliffs, is probably de- 
rived from a Celtic word signifying white. 
The origin of the word Britain has excited 
much controversy. In early native poems it 
is called the isle of the Prydhain, of which 



BEI 



BEl 



Carte conjectures Britannia to be the Latin- | 
ized form. Some portions of the coast of 
Britain were knovm to the PhcBnicians, who 
resorted to them for tin, before the time of 
Aristotle. They gave the name of Cassiterides, 
or the Tin Islands, to the Scilly group, off 
the coast of Cornwall. Herodotus uses the 
term, though he declares that he can give no 
information on the subject, admitting that 
he never met a man who had seen the sea on 
that side of Europe. The original inhabitants 
of Britain were a Celtic race, divided into 
two principal branches, the Gaehc and the 
Cimbric ; but of their history previous to the 
Roman invasion, httle authentic is known. 
The islands are supposed to have been 
peopled from the neighbouring contiaent 
of G-aul. Their priests, called Druids {q. v.), 
wielded the chief authority. When Cssar, 
Aug. 26, B.C. 55, landed on the coast of 
Kent, Divitiacus was the most powerful of 
the native leaders. 



B.C. 

57. Divitiacus, king of the Soissons, in Gatil, rules 
Britain. 

55. Aug. 26. Jiilius C»sar arrives in Britain, but 
making no important conquests, retires to 
Gaiil Sept. 20. 

54. May. Csesar returns to Britain, and is opposed 
by Cassivcllaunus. He crosses the Thames, 
and takes Verulam (St. Alban's). He im- 
poses a tribute on the Britons, and returns 
to Gaul in the autxunn. 

51. Commius takes refuge in Britain from the 
pursuit of C.Tesar. 

26. Augustus sets out for the purpose of invading 
Britain, but an embassy of the inhabitants 
meet hina. in Gaul, and olfer submission 
to him. 



40. Caligula is persuaded to Invade Britain by 
Adminiiis, son of CinobelIinus,kiiig of the 
Britons. He returns without making any 
attempt at conquest. 

43. Claudius sends Aulus Plautius into Britain, 

and soon afterwards comes in person, and 
reduces the greater part of the island to 
subjection. 

44. Claudius has a triumph in celebration of the 

conque-t of Britain, and assumes the sur- 
name Britanuicus. 
47. Flavius Vespasian annexes Britain to the 
Roman empire. Christianity is said to 
have been first preached in the island about 
this time, by Simon Zelotes. 

50. Ostorius Scapula, Roman governor of Britain, 

reduces the Caugii, the Brigantes, and the 
SUures, takes Caractacus, king of the 
Silures, prisoner, and sends him to Rome. 

51. Aultis Didius, governor, is opposed by Venu- 

sius, the British chieftain. 

57. Veranius, governor, dies soonafter his api)oint- 

ment. 

58. Suetonius Paulinus governor. Agricola com- 

mences his milita,ry career under his 
tutelage. 

61. The Britons revolt, and capture several Roman 

posts. Suetonius defeats their army, led 
by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, who dies 
shortly after. 

62. Petronius Turpilianus governor. 

65. St. Peter is sud to have visited Britain. 

69. The Roman legions in Britain revolt from the 

emperor Vitellius in favoiu: of Vespasian. 

70. Petilius Casrialis governor. The Brigantes 

are restored to order. 
75. Julius Frontinus governor. 
78. Agricola govtmor. He reduces the isle of 

Auglesey, and reforms the abuses of his 



146 



Agricola's second campaign in Britain. The 

Roman language begins to be studied. 
Agricola's third campaign. He penetrates 
as far as the frith of Tay. 

Agricola's fourth campaign. He erects forts 
between the friths of Clyde and Foi-th. 

Agricula's fifth campaign. 

Agricola's sixth campaign. He defeats the 
Caledonians. 

Agricola, in his seventh carai^aign, defeats the 
Caledonians under Galgaeus. He sails round 
Britain, and discovers its insular form, 
resigns his governorship, and returns to 
Rome. 

Sallustius LucuUus governor. He is put to 
death by order uf Domitian. 

The Britons rebel under Aiviragus. 

Neratius Marcellus governor. 

The Britons strive to obtain their freedom. 

The emperor Hadrian visits Britaiu. 

Hadrian builds bis walL 

Platorius Nepos governor. 

The emperor Titus Antoninus' deprives the 
Bx-igantes of part of their tei-ritories. 

The Britons subdued by LoLUua Urbicus, who 
erects a wall of turf to exclude the 
barbarians. It is called the Wall of 
Autouinus. 

C. Valerius Pansa is proconsiil in Britain. 

Marcus Aurelius send.-* Calphurnius Agricola 
against the turbulent Britons. 

Lucius, king of the Bi-itons, sends an embassy 
to the Pope. Various dates, rangiug be- 
tween the years 137 and 199, are assigned 
for this event by different chroniclers. Some 
barbarous British tribes revolt, and are 
reduced to order by Marcellus. 

Marcellus puts an end to the war in Britain. 

The Britons again revolt, and are subdued 
by P. Heltrus Pertinax. 

Virins Lupus governor. 

South Britain is divided into two provinces 
by Severus. 

Britain again revolts. 

The emperor Severus heads an expedition into 
Britain. 

Severus completes his wall. 

Feb. 4. Death of Severus, at York. Papianus 
appointed governor. 

Marius Valerianus governor. 

MaciUus Fuscus governor. 

Gn. LucUianus governor. 

Nonnius Philippus governor. 

Desticius Juba governor. 

Proculus and Bonosus claim Britain for them- 
selves, and are defeated by Probus. 

Britain is assigned to Carinus, son of the 



Cai-ausius assumes imperial dignity in Bri- 
tain. 
Carausius is slain by Allectus, who succeeds 

him in the empire. 
Constantius reunites Britain to the Roman 

empire, and slays Allectus. 
Alban and other British Christians suffer 

martyrdom. 
The emperor Constantius Chlorus dies at 

York, and is succeeded by his son Con- 

stantine. 
Constantine subdues the Britons. 
British bishops present at the Council of 

Aries. 
The emperor Constans restores Britain to 

tranquillity. 
Jraiau sends 800 vessels to Britarn to obtain 

com. 
Britain invaded by the Picts and Scots. 
The Saxons assail the British coasts, and the 

Picts and .Scots penetrate inland. 
Revolt in Britain. Continued incursions of 

the Picts and Scots. 
The Saxons ett'ect a landing in Britain. 
The Roman army in Britain revolts, and pro- 
claims Maximus emperor. • 
Ninias, a Briton, is ordained bishop of the 

Southern Picts. 



BRI 



Britain seeks and obtains aid from Eome 
against the Picts and Scots. 

The army in Britain revolts, and chooses 
Gratian, a native of the country, em- 
peror. He is killed four months after- 
wards, and Constanline usurps his empu-e. 

The Britons revolt from the Romans, who 
are too much weakened by the Goths to 
attempt to reduce them to sulyectioa. 

Vortigern reigns in Britain. 

Vortigem seeks aid from the Saxons against 
the northern barbarians. 

The Saxons form an alliance with the Picts, 
and turn their arms against Vortigern. 

The Britons obtain assistance from Borne, 
and repel their invadei-s. 

The Eomaus finally quit Britain. 

The Britons are driven to the mountains by 
the Picts and Scots. 

First Saxon invasion. Hengist and Horsa 
retui-n for the ijurpose of conquest. 

Battle of Aylesford, which establishes Hen- 
gist as king of Kent. 

Second Saxon invasion. Ella aiTives in 
Britain, and defeats the natives at An- 



BRI 



491. Ella founds the kingdom of Sussex, or of the 

South Saxons. 

492. Ella made first Bretwalda. 

495- Third Saxon invasion. Arrival of Cerdio. 

519. Cerdio founds the kingdom of Wessex. 

520. The renowned King Arthur defeats Cerdic at 



Fourth Saxon invasion. Essex founded. 
Cerdic invades and takes the Isle of Wight. 

Fifth Saxon invasion. 
Sixth Saxon invasion. Landing of Ida at 

Flamborough Head, and commencement of 

the kingom of Northumbria. 
Northumbria divided into Bernicia and Deira. 

Ella takes Deiia. 
Ethelbert, king of Kent, attacks Ceaulin, 

king of Wessex, and is driven back into 

his own territories. 
Cuthulf, brother of Ceaulin, fights the Biitons 

at Bedford, and takes from them four 

towns. 
Cuthwine and Ceaulin defeat the Britons at 

Deorham (Derham ?), and take Gloucester, 

Cirencester, and Bath. 
Crida founds the kingdom of Mercia. 
Ceaulin is defeated by his nephew Ceolric, 

and expelled ; soon after which he dies. 
AiTival of St. Augustine, 
.^than. king of the Scots, invades Bernicia, 

but is repulsed, with much slaughter, by 

Ethelfrith. 
Tewdrick, king of the Welsh, defeats Ceol- 

wulph, king of Wessex. 
Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia, is defeated and 

slain by Kedwald, king of the East Angles, 

and Edwin becomes king of Deira and 

Bernicia. 
Quicelm, king of Essex, makes an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to assassinate Edwiii, who 

is preserved by his thane Lilla. 
Penda, king of Mercia, defeats and slays 

Oswald, king of Bernicia. 
Oswy, king of Bernicia, slays Penda. 
Edilwaloh.king of Sussex, obtains possession 

of the Isle of Wight and part of Hamp- 
shire. 
A great plague in Britain. 
Sussex is united to Wessex. 
Eetirement and death of Cadwallader, last 

king of the Britons. 
Kent is devastated by the West Saxons. 
Ethelred, king of Mercia, voluntarily resigns 

his crown, and becomes abbot of Bardney. 
Ina, king of Wessex, quits the throne, and 

retires to Rome. 
Insurrection in Mercia, and death of King 

Ethelbald. 
Olfa, king of Mercia, commences an inter- 
course with Charlemagne. 
The Danes first land in England, 
147 



A.JO. 



800. Egbert is recalled from exile to aacend the 

throne of Wessex. 
813. Egbert lays waste West Wales. 

823. Essex is united to Wessex. 

824. Kent is united to Wessex. 

825. Northumbria is united to Wessex. 

The date usually assigned for the dissolu- 
tion of the Heptarchy is 827 ; but the title 
"king of the Enghsh" was first assumed, 
according to Hume, by Edveard the Elder, 
son of Alfred the Great, in 901. Sharon 
Turner makes Athelstan first king of all 
England, and settles 934 as the year when he 
assumed the title. 

THE HEPTARCHY. 
KlifGS OF KENT. 



A.D. 

455 

.^sc 488 

Octa 512 

Ei-nric 534 

Ethelbert 568 

Eadbald 616 

Ercombert 640 

Egbert 664 

Lothaire 673 

Edcic 685 

Withred 686 



A.D. 

Ethelbert & Edbert 725 

Ethelbert alone 748 

Alric 760 

Sigu-aed, Eadbert, 

audEardulf 774 

Egebert 783 

Cudi-ed 798 

Baldred 805 

Submitted to Egbert, 

king of Wessex. 

(United to Wessex) 824 



KINOS OS SUSSEX. 



Ella ... 
Cissa ... 
Ceaulin, 



A.D. 

. 491 
. 514 



king of 



Ceolric, ditto 592 

Ceolwulph, ditto .. 598 
Cynegns, ditto .... 611 
Quicelm 612 



Cynegils, king of 
Wessex (again) .. 636 

Cenwalch, ditto 643 

EdUwalch 648 

Ceadwalla, king of 
Wessex. (Perma- 
nently united to 



KINGS OP WESSEX. 



A.D. 

Cerdic 519 

KenBic 534 

Ceaulin 560 

Ceolric 592 

Ceolwulph 598 

Cynegils 611 

Cenwalch 643 

pexburga 672 

..Escwin and Kent- 
win 674 

Ceadwalla 686 

Ina 688 



A.l>. 

727 



Ethelheard 

Cuthi-ed 740 

Sigebyxth and Cyne- 

wulf 754 

Brithtric 784 

Egbert 800 

Ethelwulph 837 

Ethelbald 858 

Ethelbert 861 

Ethelred 867 

Alfred the Great. ... 870 



KINGS OE ESSEX. 



A.D. 

Ercbenwin 527 

Sledda 587 

Sebert 598 

Saxred, Seward, and 

Sigibert 616 

Sigibert the " lit- 
tle" 623 

Sigibertll 653 

Swithelm 660 

Sebbi and Sigher . . 665 
Sebbi, alone 683 



A.D. 



700 



Senfrid and Sige- 

herd 

Ofifa 

Suealred, or Sue- 

bricht 709 

Swithred 746 

Sigerio 791 

Sigerid 799 

Egbert, king of 

Wessex. (United 

to Wessex) 823 



KINGS OE EAST ANGLES. 

A.D. A.D. 

Ufi'a 527 I Eorpwald 624 

Titel 578 Sigibert 636 

Eedwald 599 | EcgricAnna 644 

I. 2 



BUI 



Adelhere Edewald . . 655 

Aldulph 664 

Selred 683 

Alphuald ... 747 

Humbean and Al- 
bert 749 



A.D. 

Beoma and Etbelred 
(Obscure period) 758 

Edmund, the king 
and martyr, slain 
this year 870 



KINGS OF MEBCIA. 



A.B. 

Crida 586 

Wibba 593 

Cearl 616 

Peuda 625 

Wulfhere 659 

Ethelred 675 

Cenred 704 

Ceolred 709 

Ethelbald 716 

Offa 757 

KINaS 

A.D. 

Ella, or Alia 559 

Ethelric, king of 

Bemicia 589 

Ethelfrith, ditto . . 593 

Edwin 617 

Osric 633 

Oswald, king of 

Beinicia 634 

Oswin 644 



Offa and Ecgfrid .... 788 

Cennlph . . 796 

Ceolwulf 819 

Beomwulf 821 

Ludioan 826 

Wiglaf 826 

BertiUph 835 

Burrhed 852 

Ceolwulf 875 

Ethelred 892 

DEIEA. 

A.D. 

Oswy, king of Ber- 

nicia 652 

Alfred 662 

Ecgfrid, king of Ber- 
nicia. (Unitsd to 
Bemicia, taking 
the name Noi-th- 
nmbria) 670 



■KimaS OF NOBTHITMBEIA, OE BEENICIA. 



547 



Ida 

Adda 559 

Clappa 566 

Theodnlf 571 

Ei-eothulf 572 

Theodric 579 

Ethelris 586 

Ethelfrith 593 

Edwin, king of 

Deii-a 617 

Eanfrid 633 

Oswald 634 

Oswy 643 

Ecgfrid. (United to 
Deii-a, the two 
kinsdoms being 
called North um- 

bria) 670 

Alfred 685 

Eadwulf (2 months) 705 

Osred 1 705 

Cenred 716 

Osric 718 



Ceolwnlph 730 

Eadbert 737 

Osulf 758 

Ethelwald, sur- 
named Mollo .... 759 

Aired 765 

Ethelred 774 

Alfwold 779 

Osrerl II 789 

Ethelred (restored) 790 
Osbald, Eardulf .... 796 

Alfwold 808 

Eanred (submits to 
Egbert, kiug of 

Wessex 825) 810 

Ella and Osbert, 
rival sovereigns of 
Northumbria, are 
slain by the Danes 867 
Egbert, succeeded by 
Kicseg (who died 
876) 871 



THE BEETWALDAS. 

The following is the list of the Bretwaldag, 
or supreme rulers mentioned by Bede. 
Mr. Hallam and others doubt whether any 
sovereign in those early times possessed such 
authority : — 

A.D. 

492. Ella, king of Sussex. 

571. Ceaulia, king of Wessex. 

594. Ethelbert, king of Kent. 

615. Eedwald, king of East Angles. 

623. Edwin, king of Deira. 

634. Oswald, king of Bemicia. 

343. Oswy, king of Bemicia. 

Beitanwia TuBTTtAE Beidge, over the 
Menai Strait, was commenced in 1846, and 
opened March .5, 1850. It was designed and 
executed by Eobert Stephenson, and is the 
first structure of the kind. 
148 •s^ 



BKI 

Beitannt (France), or Beetagne.— -This 
name was given to a portion of Armorica, in 
which some Britons from Cornwall formed a 
colony, in the latter part of the 6th century. 
The country was subjugated by Charlemagne, 
but the Bretons regained their independence 
and were ruled by their own sovereigns, tri- 
butary at times to the Frankishkings. Charles 
the Bald, after several severe struggles, in- 
duced its sovereigns to do homage to him, 
and this was afterwards rendered to the dukes 
of ]?f ormandy. 



818. Louis the Pious Intrusts Nominofe with dele- 
gated authority. 

841. Nominoe revolts, and becomes the first duke. 
NominoS captures the march - land of 
Rennes. 

843. First expedition of Charles the Bald into Bri- 
tanny. He is compelled to retreat on account 
of the severity of the weather. 

845. Charles the Bald undertakes a second expedi- 
tion, and is defeated at Baldon, the battle 
lasting two days. 

848. Nominoe assumes the title of king, and ob- 
tains the golden crown from the Pope, 

850. Charles the Bald enters Britanny for the third 

time. Nominoe, again victorious, dies sud- 
denly. 

851. His son, Herispoe, succeeds, and does homage 

to Charles the Raid. Dissensions arise be- 
tween France and Britanny, and Charles 
the Bald invades it for the fourth time. 

852. Charles the Bald's fifth expedition leads to a 

peace. 

858. The Bretons, incensed at the alliance with the 
Franks, are induced by Solomon, Heri^poe's 
nephew, to revolt, and Herispoe is killed in 
a church. Solomon succeeds. 

861. Apoi-tion of Britanny is assigned to Eobert-le- ' 
Fort, by the great council held at Com- 
pifigne. 

874. Solomon is deposed by a cousin and a nephew, 
who had conspired against him. Solomcu 
is cast into prison, and these relatives, 
Pasquitain and Gurv ard, divide Britanny 
between them. 

877. Alain, sumamed the Great, obtains the su- 
premacy. 

907. The Danes ravage Britanny, which, divided 
into four great counties, Eennes, Nantes, 
Vannes, ana Cornouailles, remains for some 
time in a very distracted state. 

921. Britanny ceded to the Danes by Count 

Eobert. 

922. Eollo's supremacy acknowledged in Britanny. 

931. Sept. 29. The Bretons revolt against the 

Northmen. 

932. Guillaume Long-6p6e, having vainly sought 

to induce the Bretons to return to their 
allegiance, invades and subdues them. The 
Channel Islands and other parts of Britanny 
annexed to Normandy. 
937. Athelstane, king of "ngland, interferes in 
behaU' of Alain, who recovers part of 
Britanny. Cornouailles is permanently 
annexed to Normandy. 
938^3. Alain defeats the Northmen at DOl, St. 
Brieux, and Nantes, and obtains part of 
Anjou. 
944. The Danes invade Britanny. Confusion pre- 
vails for several years. 
992. Geoffrey I. rules all Biitanny, and takes the 
title of Dulce, 

1076. William I. of England invades Britanny, but 
retires with loss, as the duke is aided by 
Philip I. of France. 

1148. Three diikes rule in Britanny. 

1182. Marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou, duke of 
Britanny, with Constance, daughter of 
Duke Conan. 

1186. Geoffrey is killed at a toiirnament at Paris. 



BRI 

119b". Arthur, posthumoiis son of Geoffrey and 

Constance, is acknowledged duke of Bri- 

tauny. 
1203. April 3. Mysterious death of Arthur, at 

Rouen. 
1224. Alliance of France and Britanny against the 

English. 
1237. Abdication of Peter Mauclerc, 'who is suc- 
ceeded by John I. 
1309. Project to render Britanny subject to England 

is prevented by the natives. 
1341. The duchy of Britanny is disputed by Charles 

of Blois and John of Montfort, the former 

being supported by Philip VI. of France, 

and the latter by Edward III. of England. 
1378. Unsucces.sful incursions by John of Gaunt, 

duke of Lancaster. 
1395. Oct. 20. Peace in Britanny, after long wars. 
1399. Death of John VI., " the Valiant," who is 

succeeded by his infant son John, under the 

tutelage of his mother. 
1423. Treaty between Britanny and Henry VI. of 

England, against France. 
1426. War declared between England and Britanny. 
1449. Alliance between the duke of Britanny and the 

king ot France, who fight in concert against 

the English. 
14.50. Francis I. poisons his brother- Giles, and dies, 

soon afterwards, from fear and remorse. 
1489. MaiTiage, by proxy, of Anne of Britanny and 

Maximilian, king of the Romans. 
1491. Charles VIII. of France annuls the marriage 

between Anne of Britanny and Maximilian, 

and weds her himself. 
1501. Treaty of Trente, whereby Claude, the infant 

princess of Britanny, is betrothed to Prince 

Charles of Austria, on the condition that 

her duchy shall constitute her dowry. 

1514. Death of Anne, and marriage of Claude with 

the duke of Angoul6nie. 

1515. The duke of Angoulgme becomes Francis I. of 

France, and receives the duchy of Britanny 

from his wife Claude. 
1524. Death of Claude, who bequeaths Britanny to 

the Dauphin. 
1532. Britanny is finally added to France. 

DTTKES OF BEITANWr. 



Geoffrey I 992 

Alain V 1008 

Conan II 1040 

HoelV 1066 

Alain Fergent .... lo84 

Conan III 1112 

Eudes, Hoel VI., 
and Geoffrey .... 1148 

Conan IV 1156 

Geolfi-ey II 1171 

(Interregnum) 1186 

Arthur and Con- 
stance 1196 

Guy de Tours, 

regent 1203 

Peter Mauclerc .... 1213 

John 1 1237 

Britanny is incorporated 



John II 1286 

Ai-thur II 1305 

John III 1312 

Charles de Blois and 

John de Montfort 1341 
Charles, alone .... 1343 

JohuV 1364 

John VI 1399 

Francis 1 1442 

Pfcter II 1450 

Arthur III 1457 

Francis II 1458 

Anne 1488 

Claude 1514 

Francis I., king of 
France and duke 

of Britanny 1515 

with France in 1532. 



Beitish Ameeica.— Sir Walter Ealeigh 
formed a settlement in North America, in 
1584, which, in honour of Queen Ehzabeth, 
was called Virginia. It did not, however, 
succeed, and Sir Francis Drake, who touched 
there in 1586, brought the colonists to England. 
Another attempt was made in 1607, when the 
first permanent settlement of the English in 
A.merica was formed at James Town in Vir- 
ginia. Other colonies were speedily estab- 
lished. The inhabitants of Virginia and of 
other parts of the American continent under 
English rule, in 1776 declared their indepen- 



BRI 

deuce, which was recognized by England in 
1782. The British colonies in North and 
South America are noticed under their 
various titles. 

British Associatiok foe the Advance- 
ment OF Science, instituted by Sir David 
Brewster, to ]3romote scientific investigation 
and discovery, held its inaugural meeting at 
York in September, 1831. The annual meet- 
ings haye been held at the following places : — 



A.D. 

Oxford 1832 

Cambridge 1833 

Edinburgh 1834 

Dublin 1835 

Bristol 1836 

Liverpool 1837 

Newcastle 1838 

Birmingham 1839 

Glasgow 1840 

Plymouth 1841 

Manchester 1842 

Cork 1843 

York 1844 

Cambridge 1845 

Southampton .... 1846 



A.D. 

Oxford 1847 

Swansea 1848 

Birmingham 1849 

Edinburgh 1850 

Ipswich 1851 

Belfast 1852 

Hull 18.53 

Liverpool 1854 

Glasgow 1855 

Cheltenham 1856 

Dublin 1857 



Aberdeen 1859 

Oxford 1860 

Manchester ...... 1861 



Beitish Auxiliaet Legion.— In June, 
1835, the Foreign Enhstment Act was sus- 
pended, and a legion formed in this country 
under the command of General Evans to 
assist the Queen of Spain in svippressing the 
Carlist Eevolution. The war was waged 
with great fury, and in June, 1836, General 
Evans issued a proclamation declaring that 
every Englishman found fighting on the side 
of Don Carlos would be put to death as a 
traitor. 

British Bank (London), was estabHshed 
in 1849, under the act to regulate joint stock 
banks (7 & 8 Vict. c. 113) , passed in 1844. It 
stopped payment Sept. 3, 1856, and in con- 
sequence of the terrible mismanagement and 
the malversation of the capital by its directors, 
the government ordered a criminal prosecu- 
tion. The trial of eight directors commenced 
in the Court of Queen's Bench Feb. 13, and 
terminated with a sentence of guilty Feb. 27, 
1858, when Humphrey Brown, Edward 
EsdaUe, and Hugh Innes Cameron were 
sentenced to one year's. Alderman R. H. Ken- 
nedy to nine months', W. D. Owen to six 
months', and H. D. Maeleod to three months' 
imprisonment. James Stapleton was dis- 
charged on the payment of a fine of one 
shilling, and the eighth defendant, Loran de 
Wolfe Cochran, did not surrender. An act 
(20 & 21 Vict. c. 54) to make better provision 
for the punishment of frauds committed by 
trustees, bankers, and other persons intrusted 
vrith property, received the royal assent 
Aug. 17, 1857. 

Beitish Chubch. — The Gospel was intro- 
duced into Britain at a very early period, but 
whether preached, as some authorities assert, 
by St. Paul between the years 63 and 66, it is 
impossible to decide. To St. Peter and Joseph 
of Arimathea, and to others, the honour of 
its introduction has been, on different 
grounds, attributed. Milman says there can be 
no doubt that during the 2nd and3rd centuries 
Britain gradually received the faith of Christ. 
149 



BEI 

The British church is often mentioned by wri- 
ters of the 2nd and 3rd centuries ; and British 
martyrs suffered under the edicts against the 
Christians issued by Diocletian in 303. Bede 
describes the death of Alban, the protomartyr 
of England, in 304. Julius, Aaron (the names 
adopted by these early converts at their bap- 
tism), and several members of the British 
church, suffered martyrdom about the same 
time. Sees were founded in the island, and 
colleges established. At the councils of Aries, 
in 314, and of ]S"ic8ea, the first general council, 
in 325, British bishops were present. It was 
notuntilthe 7th century that Borne attempted 
to interfere. Gregory I., about the year 597, 
sent Augustine and a band of monks to bring 
the British church into subjection to Eome. 
Ethelbert, king of Kent, was converted, and 
a struggle between the early British church 
and Grregory's emissaries at once commenced. 
Differences existed respecting the time for 
the celebration of Easter and other points. 
Augjustine peremptorily required the British 
Christians to conform in every respect to the 
Latin Church, uttering the remarkable threat 
that if they refused to comply they should 
perish at the hands of their enemies. By 
some authorities Augustine is said to have 
died in 605, but it seems probable that this 
event did not take place till later. It is sup- 
posed that the massacre of the British monks 
in Wales, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria, 
in 607, if not perpetrated under his imme- 
diate direction, was undertaken at his insti- 
gation. Though the emissaries from Eome 
at length triumphed, yet the more intolerant 
claims of the papal rulers were rejected by 
the British people. At the Eeformation the 
entire system was overthrown, and the Bri- 
tish church restored to that state of indepen- 
dence and purity in which it had originally 
existed in these islands. 

Bhitish Columbia (North America), for- 
merly IS'ew Caledonia, comprises "aU such 
territories within the dominions of her 
Majesty as are bounded to the south by the 
frontier of the United States of America, to 
the east by the main chain of the Eocky 
Mountains, to the north by Simpson's Eiver 
and the Finlay branch of the Peace Eiver, 
and to the west by the Pacific Ocean." 
Queen Charlotte's Islands and ah. other 
islands adjacent, with the exception of Van- 
couver's Island, are included in this colony, 
erected by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 99 (Aug. 2, 1858). 
This portion of America was first discovered 
by the Spaniards in the 16th century, and 
was visited by Sir Francis Drake in 1579, and 
called by him New Albion. The first settle- 
ment was formed in 1806. Small quantities 
of gold were discovered in Queen Charlotte's 
Island in 1850, and on the mainland in 1853. 
The intelligence was not, however, made 
pubhc until June, 1856, when numerous 
diggers flocked to the country. G-old fields 
were discovered on the Frazer and Thompson 
rivers in 1858, and large numbers of the gold- 
diggers from San Francisco went in that direc- 
tion during the summer of that year. British 
Columbia was made a bishop's see in 1858. 
150 



BEI 

British Gthai^a (South America). — Con- 
sisting of Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, 
which were formed into one colony in 1831. 
Stabrock, now called George-Town, on the 
Demerara, is the capital. Slavery was abo- 
hshed in 1834, and in 1838 the system of 
apprenticeship was abandoned. In 1827 this 
territory was included in the bishopric of 
Barbadoes and the Leeward Isles. It be- 
came an archdeaconry in 1838, and was 
erected into a bishopric in 1842. 

Bbitish Ixstitutios^, for the encourage- 
ment of British artists, received its charter 
June 4, 1805, and was opened Jan. 18, 1806. 
The building was erected by Alderman 
BoydeU, for his gallery of Shakesperean 
pictures. 

Beitish MiTSEirir, was formed of three 
collections, — the Cottonian, brought together 
by Sir Eobert Cotton in the time of 
Charles I. ; the Harleian, formed by Eobert 
Harley, afterwards Lord Oxford; and the 
Sloane, collected by Sir Hans Sloane. The 
Cottonian Library was for some time kept at 
Cotton House, AVestminster, and the statute 
12 & 13 WiU. III. c. 7 (1700), laid down 
regulations for its better preservation. The 
authority for purchasing Cotton House and 
gardens for £4,500 was given by 5 Anne, 
c. 30 (1706) ; and a convenient room for a 
Hbrary was, at the same time, ordered to be 
built. The death of Sir Hans Sloane, Jan. 11, 
1753, and the fact that he had, by a codicil to 
his win dated July 20, 1749, bequeathed his 
valuable collection to the nation, on the 
condition of the payment to his heirs of 
£20,000, compelled the government to take 
some decisive step. An act was therefore 
passed (26 Geo. II. c. 22, 1753), for the pur- 
chase of the Sloane Museum on the terms 
proposed by the will of Sir Hans Sloane ; 
and the Harleian Collection, then offered by 
the duchess of Portland, a grand-daughter 
of Lord Oxford's, for £10,000. For these, 
vtith the Cottonian collection, and a bequest 
made by Arthur Edwards, Esq., in his will, 
dated June 11, 1738, one general repository, 
within the precincts of London and Westmin- 
ster, was ordered to be provided. Trustees 
were appointed, and the powers to raise 
£300,000 by lottery were granted by the 
same act. Montague House, Bloomsbury, 
was purchased for £10,250 of Lord Hahfax 
in 1754, the duke of Montague having died 
in 1749 without heirs. Arrangements were 
immediately made for adapting it to the 
purposes of the new institution. 



1756. Books transferred to Montague House. 

1757. George 11. presents the library collected by 

his predecessors. 

1759. Monday, Jan. 1.5. Eeading-room, entrance in 
Montague Place, opened to the public. 

1762. A collection of 30 ,000 tracts and naanuscripts, 
bound up in volumes for the use of Charles L , 
purchased by George IIL, and by him pre- 
sented to the Museum. 

1772. Mar. 20. Sir W. Hamilton's collection is pur- 
chased for £S,410. 

1801. New rooms are added to receive Egyptian 
antiquities. 

1805. The Towidey marbles are purchased forje20,000., 






BRO 



1808. The Lansdowne MSS. are purchased for £4,925. 
1810. A larger room is allotted to readers. The 

Greville collection of minerals purchased 

for £13,727. 

1815. The Phigalian marbles are purchased for 

£19,000. 

1816. The Elgin marbles are purchased for £35,000. 
1818. Dr. Bumey's MSS., &c. purchased for £13,500. 
1823. George the Third's library, consisting of 

63,000 volumes, said to have cost £130,000, 
is presented by George IV. to the British 
Museum. The new building is commenced. 

1845. The old house is removed. 

1846. Eight Hon. Thomas Grenville bequeaths his 

library, consisting of 20,240 volumes, said 
to have cost above £54,000. 

1847. April 19. Portico finished. 

1854. First grant for new reading-room obtained. 

1855. Jan. The first standard for the new room 

fixed. 
1857. May 8. New reading-room opened. 

Beoad Bottom Administkation^. — Lord 
Granville having been compelled to retire 
from the Pelham ministry, Nov. 24, 1744, 
fresh arrangements were made which resulted 
in the formation, during the following month, 
of a coahtion between the chiefs of different 
parties. From this circumstance it was 
called the Broad Bottom Administration. 

First Lord of the Treasury 1 

and Chancellor of the >The Hon. Henry Pelham. 

Exchequer ) 

Lord Chancellor Lord Hardwicke. 

President of the Council . .Duke of Dorset. 

Privy Seal Earl Gower. 

o „_„+ • f £-*„+„ 1 Duke of Newcastle and 

Secretaries of State j ^ord Harrington. 

Admiralty Duke of Bedford. 

Master of the Ordnance Duke of Montague. 

Master of the Horse Duke of Richmond. 

Lord Chamberlain Duke of Grafton. 

Lord Keeper, Scotland .... Duke of Argylle. 

op„ „f <=+„+.« ■» Marquis of Tweeddale, 

Sec. of State „ ..J- resigned in 1746. 

This administration, with the exception of 
an interval of two days, Feb. 11 and 12, 1746 
(See LoifG-LiVED Administeatiok), re- 
mained in power untU the death of the 
Hon. H. Pelham, March 6, 1754. The 
following are the principal changes that 
ensued during the period : — the earl of 
Chesterfield replaced Lord Harrington, who 
resigned the secretaryship of state, Oct. 29, 
1746. Chesterfield, who resigned Feb. 6, 
1748, was replaced by the duke of Bedford 
Feb. 13, the earl of Sandwich having taken 
the Admiralty Feb. 10. The earl of Holder- 
nesse superseded the duke of Bedford 
June 21, 1751. Earl G-ranviUe became pre- 
sident of the council June 17, 1751. The 
duke of Richmond was replaced as master 
of the horse by the marquis of Hartington 
in 1751. Lord Anson took the Admiralty, 
vacated by the earl of Sandvrich, Jime 22, 
1751. (See N ewcastle & Pitt [Chatham] 
Admin-istkatiok.) 

Bkokeb. — Regulations for the city of 
London, passed in 1285, ordered that brokers 
should be admitted and sworn before the 
warden or mayor, and aldermen. Persons 
acting in defiance of this law were to be 
arrested and imprisoned, and were for ever 
inadmissible to the franchise. A parhament 



BRO 

held by Edward III., in 1376, ordained that 
"no stranger, merchant, nor other stranger, 
should use or exercise the occupation of 
' brocage,' between merchant and merchant, 
or other persons, nor be a 'brocour' within 
the city of London or its suburbs ;" and a 
petition was, in 1442, presented to Parliament 
demanding the enforcement of that law. 
They were called " broggers" in a statute of 
10 Rich. II. (1386) ; and in 1574 Stow says 
there were but thirty of them in London. 

Beomine. — This elementary fluid body 
was discovered by Balard, a French chemist, 
in 1826. 

Beomsebeo, or Beoemsbeoe (Treaty;. — 
This peace between Sweden and Denmark 
was concluded in 1644. 

BEOJfZE. — Works in bronze were known 
in very ancient times ; and the Israehtes, at 
the time of their escape from Egypt, B.C. 
1491, had made some progress in the art, as 
we learn from Exod. xxx. 18 ; xxxi. 4 ; and 
xxxii. 2 — 4. It was unproved by the Greeks 
and Romans, and revived in Italy about the 
14th century. Bronze casting had almost 
reached perfection amongst the Greeks about 
B.C. 330. 

Beooks's Clttb.— This Whig Club, named 
after Brooks, a wine merchant and money 
lender, was established in Pall Mall in 1764, 
and was transferred to the new building in 
St. James's Street in Oct. 1778. The British 
Institution occupies the site of the original 
club-house in PaU MaU. 

Beoom Flowee IN" THE HusK. — This 
order of knighthood was instituted at Sens 
by Louis IX., on his marriage with Margaret, 
eldest daughter of Raymond Berengarius, 
count of Provence, in 1234. It became ex- 
tinct during the 15th century. 

Beownists, or Baeeowists. — The fol- 
lowers of Robert Browne, an ultra Puritan, 
born about 1550, who denounced the discipHne 
and ceremonies of the Church of England, 
and having been imprisoned for a short time 
on account of his extreme views, quitted 
England, and formed a church at Middle- 
burg in Zealand. In 1589 he returned to 
England, sought re-admission to the Church, 
and in 1590 received the rectory of Achurch, 
in Northamptonshire. He is said to have 
died in 1630,* in the prison of Northampton, 
in which he had been confined for striking a 
constable. On his deathbed he boasted of 
having been an inmate of thirty -two prisons. 
Landon says the Brownists "heldaU church 
oflBcers and ministers to be unchristian and 
unlawful ; that the evil of the minister does 
away with the efficacy of the sacrament ; that 
marriage is but a civil contract; that aU forms 
of prayer are unlawful, and that even the 
Lord's Prayer is to be used only as a model 
for extempore prayer ; that by communicating 
vrith the wicked at the Eucharist the good 
become partakers in their wickedness ; and 
that salvation was to be obtained only in their 



* This date is not correct, as the parish registers of 
Achurch contain an cnti-y in his handwriting dated 
May 21, 1631.— A^. db Q. 

151 



BEU 

sect." They were severely dealt with by the 
law. EHas Thaeker was hanged June 4, 1583, 
and John Coping J\me 6, for distributing 
Browne's hbeb against the book of Common 
Prayer. Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, 
and Henry Penny were executed, the two 
former April 6, and the latter May 29, 1593. 
From Henry Barrowthese sectarians received 
the name of Barrowists. They were con- 
demned by the synod of London in 164.0, and 
afterwards took the name of Independents. 
Sir Walter Ealeigh, in 1592, stated that there 
were 20,000 Brownists. 

Bruges (Belgium), ranked as a city in the 
7th century, and was celebrated in the time 
of Charlemagne for its industrial productions. 
Bruges was fortified A. D. 837, walls were erect- 
ed in 1052, and extended in 1270. The counts of 
Flanders,whoresided at Bruges, obtained the 
rule in the 9th century. It became a member 
of the Hanseatic league in 1300, and passed 
under the sway of the dukes of Burgundy in 
the 14ith century. It suffered from the ravages 
of fire ia 1184, 1215, and 1230. During the 
15th and 16th centuries it attained the highest 
prosperity as an emporium of trade, and in 
1430 Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in- 
stituted the order of the Golden Fleece, in 
commemoration of its celebrated woollen 
manufactures. Bruges passed to the Habs- 
burg family in 1477, and the citizens re- 
belled against the archduke Maximilian, 
and imprisoned him in 148S. During the 
religious struggles it surrendered to Spain, 
May 20, 1584. The Dutch bombarded Bruges 
\vithout success in 1704 ; and it surrendered 
to the allied army in 1706, after the victory 
at EamiUes. The French took it by surprise 
July 5, 1708, and retired in 1709. TheEnghsh 
took it in 1712, and the French again in 1745, 
and again in 1792. They were, however, 
expelled, but regained possession in 1794, and 
the inhabitants formally acknowledged the 
sovereignty of the French repubhc June 24. 
It was restored to the Jfetherlands in 
1814, and has formed part of Belgium 
since 1830. Bruges was made a bishopric in 
1561, and was united to Ghent in 1801. Wy- 
cliffe, as second in a commission, was sent, 
in 1375, by Edward III., to treat vrith the 
papal legate at Bruges, respecting the ques- 
tions at issue between the king and Gre- 
gory XI. WycliSe remained at this place 
from July 27 to Sept. 14. Wolsey concluded 
a treaty here, called the treaty of Bruges or 
Windsor, because concluded at the former 
place, Nov. 24, 1521, and ratified at the last- 
mentioned by Henry YIII. and Charles V. 
in June, 1522. The tovm-haU at Bruges 
dates from 1377. 

Bktjxanbueg (Battle). — According to the 
best received account, Anlaf, the pagan king 
of the Irish, incited by Constantine, king of 
Scotland, sailed up the river Humber, with 
an immense fleet, 615 in number ; and having 
landed, was, with his army, encountered by 
Athelstan, who defeated him with terrible 
loss. The contest is said to have lasted from 
daybreak to dusk, and in no previous battle 
m England had so much blood been shed. 
152 



BEU 

It has been called the Waterloo of the Anglo- 
Saxons. The chronicles differ respecting the 
locahtyandthedateof this battle. Itprobably 
took place somewhere in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the Humber, and about 
the year 937. 

Beijnh- (Moravia).— This town, made the 
capital of' Moravia in 1641, and besieged 
bv Torstenson in 1645, was entered by 
Napoleon I. Nov. 20, 1805, and became hi3 
head-quarters. It is the seat of a bishop. 

Beunswick (Battle).— Otho of Brunswick, 
and Philip, duke of Swabia, were competitors 
for the imperial crown of Germany, and the 
former, besieged in. Brunswick by PhQip, 
made a sortie in July, 1200. This brought on 
an engagement, in which Philip's army was 
defeated. 

Betjnswick (Germany), formed part 
of Saxony during the reign of Charle- 
magne, and was made a separate lordship a.d. 
955. It was inherited by Henry the Proud, 
duke of Bavaria, in 1126. One of his succes- 
sors, Henry the Lion, was, in 1180, for his 
refusal to aid the emperor in the war against 
the pope, deprived of all his possessions, 
except Brunswick. In 1235, Otho, sumamed 
the ChUd, was made first duke of Brunswick- 
Liineburg, by the emperor Frederick II. 
Various changes ensued, and in 1542, the 
duchy was divided into the modern duchies 
of Brunswick -Liineburg and Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel. 

Beunswick (City), formerly called Bruno 
Vicus, was founded by Bruno, duke of Ost- 
falen, a.d. 868. It was beautified and extended 
by Henry the Lion in the 12th century, and 
became one of the chief cities of the Han- 
seatic League in the 13th. Its annual fair, 
that afterwards became celebrated, was es- 
tablished in 1498. It sutfered in various 
German wars, and was taken by the French 
July 28, 1757. They evacuated it early in 
1758, and its fortifications were destroyed in 
1794. 

Beunswick (House of). — The various 
branches of this family are derived from 
Albert Azzo I., margrave of Este, in the 
10th century. His great grandson, Albert 
Azzo II., married Cunegonda, and their son, 
GuelphlV., inherited the dukedom of Bava- 
ria in 1071, and founded the junior branch 
of the Guelph family, from which the Bruns- 
vrick House trace their descent. Otho was 
recognised as first duke of Brunswick in 
1235. 

Beukswick Clubs were Orange societies, 
formed in Ireland, in support of the princi- 
ples of the revolution of 1689, and against 
Eoman CathoUc emancipation. The proposal 
for the establishment of these associations 
was made Aug. 28, 1828, at a meeting of the 
Dublin members of the grand Orange club 
that had then been recently suppressed ; and 
the first general meeting was held in the 
Dublin Eotunda Nov. 4 in the same year. 
Similar clubs were formed in other parts of 
Ireland. A meeting of Yeomanry was held 
on Pennenden Heath, Kent, Oct. 24, 1828, 
for the purpose of petitioning the House of . 



BEU 



BUG 



Commons to preserve tlie Protestant consti- 
tution inviolate. Brunswick clubs were also 
formed in Leeds, Leicester, and other parts 
of England. 

Brunswick - LiJNEBirEG. — The modem 
duchy of Brunswick- Liineburg was founded 
by William, the second son of Ernest I., who 
on the death of his father, in 1546, took this 
portion of his dominions, with the title of 
duke of Hanover. Ernest Augvistus, one of 
his descendants, was made ninth elector of 
the empire in 1692. His son, George Lewis, 
descended from James I. of England, on the 
female side, became king of England under 
the title of George I., Aug. 1, 1714. {See 
Hanovee.) 

Beubtswick Theatee was built in 1827, on 
the site of the old Eoyalty Theatre, burnt 
down in 1826. The Brunswick theatre fell 
during a rehearsal of "Guy Mannering," 
Feb. 29, 1828, when twelve persons were 
killed, and several houses on the opposite 
side of the street destroyed. It had only 
been opened on the 25th. 

BEUNSwicE-WoLFENBTJTTEii. — The mo- 
dem duchy of Brunswick-Wolf enbiittel was 
founded by Henry II., eldest son of Ernest I., 
in 1546. Several of its dukes distmguished 
themselves in the continental wars of the last 
century, and Charles WUham Ferdinand, 
who succeeded in 1780, led the Prussian army 
against the French at Jena, Oct. 13, 1806, 
and having been wounded in that battle, died 
on the 10th of November, 1807. AH the 
Brunswick possessions were seized by the 
French after the victoir at Jena, and by the 8th 
article of the treaty of peace between France 
and Prussia, signed at Tilsit July 9, 1807, in- 
corporated with the new kingdom of West- 
phalia, conferred upon Jerome Bonaparte. 
They were, however, recovered by Frederick 
Wiluam, son of Charles WiUiam Ferdinand, 
in December, 1813. Eepresentative institu- 
tions were introduced in 1830. The then 
reigning duke was expelled and took refuge 
in England Sept. 6, 1830, and his brother, 
Augustus Levris William, assumed the sove- 
reignty April 23, 1831. 

Brusa (Asia Minor), or Botjesa. — The 
ancient Prusa was made the capital of the 
Turkish dominions in the 14th century ; and 
although the sultans transferred their re- 
sidence to Hadrianople about 1430, Prusa 
continued to be the Turkish capital until 
the capture of Constantinople, in 1453. Abd- 
el-Kadir took up his residence here in 1852 ; 
but on its destruction by an earthquake, 
Feb. 28, 1855, he obtaiaed permission from 
the French government to remove to Con- 
stantinople. 

Beussels (Belgium). — St. G^ry, bishop 
of Cambray, built a chapel on one of the 
islands in the river Senne, in the 7th century. 
A large congregation was attracted by liis 
eloquence, houses were built near his place 
of worship, and the town of Brussels was 
gradually formed. The Emperor Otho dates 
a decree, "apud Brusolam," a.d. 976. Walls 
with seven gates were formed round the 
town in 1044. 



1010. 

1213. 
1273. 
1300. 
1314. 
1346. 
1369. 
1370. 
1380. 
1401. 
1405. 



1489. 
1507. 



1518. 
1567. 



Cathedral of St. Gudule founded. (Some 

authorities give a different date.) 
Brussels is taken by the English. 
St. Gudule is completed. 
The Old Palace is founded. 
BiTissels is visited by the plague. 
The Museum is commenced. 
The walls are remo v ed, and the city is enlarged. 
The Jews are banished. 
Second wall is built. 
Town-hall commenced. 
A large portion of the town is destroyed by 

fire. 
The Town -hall is completed. 
Taken by Philip of Cleves. 
The plague commits great ravages. 
Brussels becomes the seat of government for 

the Low Countries. 
The towers are added to the cathedral. 
Alva attempts to establish the Inquisition. 
10,000 artisans quit Brussels. 
1.588. Egmont and Horn are beheaded in the market- 
place, by order of Alva. 
1578. The plague rages with great fury. 
1695. Villeroi bombards the city, destroying a 

considerable portion. 
1701. Brussels is captured by the French. 
1706. Oct. 12. Marlborough enters Brussels, after 

his victoiy at Blenheim. 
1708. Nov. 22. Assailed by the elector of Bavaria. 
Marlborough comes to its relief, and entei's 
Nov. 29. 
1746. The Old Palace is rebuilt. Marshal Saxe takes 
Brussels Feb. 16. 

1748. Restored to Austria by the peace of Aix-la- 

Chapelle. 

1749. The Museum is extended. 

1790. Nov. The Austriaus regain possession of 
Brussels, which had revolted. 

1792. Nov. 14. Dumouriez takes the city. 

1794. Dumouriez, having been driven out, regains 
possession. 

1803. July 21. Napoleon I. makes a triumphal 
entry. 

1814. Feb. 1. The Prussians enter Brussels. It be- 
comes one of the capitals of the Nether- 
lands. 

1830. Sept. 23. Revolution. Brussels made the 

capital of the new kingdom of Bek'ium. 

1831. June 4 The National Congress at Brussels 

elects Leopold king. 

1834. University founded. 

1848. Peace Congress assembles here. 

1853. A Statistical Congress assembles at Brussels. 

1859. Aug. 31. The Assembly of Deputies, by a 
majority of twenty, pronounces in favour 
of the fortification of Antwerp. The pro- 
posal is adopted by the Senate Sept. 6, and 
receives the royal assent Sept. 8. 



Bubble Act, passed in 1719 (6 Geo. I. 
c. 18), ia order to punish unpriucipled 
adventurers who proposed schemes merely 
as baits to extract money from the thought- 
less. "The whole nation," says Tindal, 
"was become stock-jobbers. The South Sea 
scheme was hke an infectious distemper, 
which spread itself in an astonishing manner. 
Every evening produced new projects, which 
were justly called Bubbles, and new com- 
panies appeared every day." The king 
issued a proclamation against them June 11, 
1720. The act was repealed by 6 Geo. IV. 
c. 91, July 5, 1825. 

BuoANEEES. — The term houean was appHed 
by the Caribbees to the flesh of cattle or 
fish dried in the sun. They taught this 
mode of curing to the early French settlers 
in Hayti or St. Domingo, and they were 
called boucaniers, or bucaneers, because 
153 



BUG 

they hunted wild boars and buffaloes, and 
preserved their flesh after this peculiar 
method. The term was afterwards appKed to 
those bold and hardy adventurers, whether 
Eughsh, French, or Dutch, who assailed the 
Spanish settlements in America. On the 
failure of Dudley's conspiracy against Queen 
Mary, several of the confederates sought 
refuge at the court of Henry II. of France, 
who furnished them, in August, 1556, 
with three or four ships, in which they 
sailed with the avowed object of waging war 
against all Spaniards. Other expeditions 
were fitted out. The island of St. Chris- 
topher was taken in 1625, and the httle island 
of Tortuga, to the north of Hispaniola, in 
1629. Here they carried on their piratical 
warfare, under various celebrated com- 
manders. The Spaniards captured Tortuga 
in 1638, and the bucaneers regained posses- 
sion in the following year. In 1603 the 
Dutch pirate, Yan Horn, sailed at the head 
of 1,200 bucaneers, and took Vera Cruz. 
Morgan captured Panama in 1664; Gram- 
mont took Campeachy in 1685 ; and in 1697, 
Pointis seized Carthagena, and gained booty 
to the amount of £1,750,000. A treaty called 
the treaty of America, for the entire sup- 
pression of this warfare, was concluded 
between Great Britain and Spain in 1670; 
but it was not until a few years after the 
peace of Ryswick, in 1697, that the bucan- 
eer confederacy was broken up. 

BucEPHALA (India). — This town, on the 
western banlc of the Hydaspes, was founded 
by Alexander, at the spot where he had 
crossed the river to attack Porus, an Indian 
Mng, whom he defeated B.C. 327. It was 
bunt in memory of his famous charger, 
"Bucephalus," which expired in the hour 
of victory. Jelum, in the Punjaub, is sup- 
posed to occupy its site. 

BucHANiTEs" — This Scotch sect sprang 
up in Irvine, in 1783. They were the fol- 
lowers of one Mrs. Elspeth Buchan, whose 
maiden name was Simpson, a woman of in- 
different character. In conjunction with 
Hugh "White, minister of the EeUef con- 
gregation of Irvine, she attempted to gain 
converts ; but an outbreak occurred, and 
they were both driven from the tovra in 
May, 1784. She was addressed "Friend 
Mother in the Lord," personified the woman 
mentioned in Eev. xii. 1, and pretended 
that Hugh TVTute was her son (Rev. xii. 5) . 
She promised her followers bodily transla- 
tion to heaven ; and on one occasion, after 
a long fast, led them to the top of a hill for 
that purpose. They retired to a place near 
Dumfries, where Mrs. Buchan died in May, 
1791. On her deathbed she declared she 
had a secret to communicate, which was to 
the effect that she was the Yirgin Mary. 
The last member of this fanatical sect is said 
to have died in 1846. 

Bucharest (Wallachia) was captured by 
the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians 
in 1789. The Russians occupied Bucharest 
in July, 1853, but qxiitted it on the 28th of 
the same month. The Turks regained pos- 
154 



BUE 

session Aug. 8, and were followed by the 
Austrians Sept. 6, iu the same year. The 
Austrian occupation terminated in 1856. By 
the treaty of Bucharest, concluded between 
Turkey and Russia at this place May 28, 
1812, the former ceded Bessarabia to Russia, 
and thus the frontier of the last-mentioned 
power was extended to the Pruth. The Czar 
agreed to restore Anapa and other places in 
Asia to the sultan; but this part of the 
treaty was not fulfilled ; and soon after 
Russia had recovered from the disastrous 
effects of the French iavasion, she again 
made war upon Turkey. 

BucKiKGHAM Palace. — Is crcctcd on the 
site of Buckingham House, so called from 
John Sheffield, marquis of Xormanby, made 
duke of Normanby March 9, and duke of 
the coimty of Buckingham, March 23, 1703. 
Old Buckingham House was erected by him 
in 1703. The government purchased it in 
1761 for Queen Charlotte, upon whom it was 
settled by George III., in case she should 
survive hnn. Hence it was called the Queen's 
House, and here nearly aU her children were 
born. The new palace was commenced in 
1825, and after undergoing various altera- 
tions. Queen Victoria took possession of it 
July 13, 1837. It cost nearly £1,000,000 
sterHng. Old Buckingham House occupied 
a portion of the mulberry garden, at which 
Evelyn relates that I^ady Gerrard treated 
him and some others. May 10, 1654. 

BuDA (Himgary), or Ofek, the ancient 
Acincum, held by the Romans till about the 
4th century. Arpad made it the residence 
of the Magyar chieftains about a . d . 900 . The 
modern city was founded in 1240, and became 
the capital of Hungary iu the 14th century. 
Soliman II. captiired it in 1526, and in 1529. 
The Turks sacked it in 1541, and it was 
considered the key of the Ottoman empire 
until 1686, when it was wrested from them 
by the Austrians, under the duke of Lorraine, 
after having been in their possession 145 
years. Its university was founded by Martin 
Corvinus between the years 1470 — 1490, and 
its library was destroyed by the Turks in 
1527. Buda, seated on the Danube, is con- 
nected with Pesth by a bridge of boats. A 
council held here Sept. 14, 1279, ordered 
sixty -nine canons for the regulation of 
the Church of Hungary to be promulgated. 
Another council was held at Buda May 7, 
1309. The Austrian army took Buda from 
the Hungarians Jan. 5, 1849. 

Buddhism, long the prevailing religion in 
India, was, according to Sir Wifiiam Jones, 
introduced iuto that country about 1,000 
years before Christ; though later authorities 
are incHned to accept the traditional account 
of its introduction by Gautama, or Godama, 
about B.C. 500. A feud arose between the 
Buddhists and the Brahmins, and the former 
were expelled from the greater part of 
Hindostan, though Buddhism is still the 
prevailing religion in China, Japan, Ceylon, 
and other parts of Asia. 

Buenos Atees (South America). — This 
province threw off the Spanish yoke in 1810, 



BUE 

and with other South American states issued 
a declaration of independence, July, 1816, 
and formed themselves into the Argentine 
Confederation. A treaty of commerce be- 
tween England and Buenos Ayres was signed 
Eeb. 2, 1825. It separated from the Ar- 
gentine Confederation, and became au inde- 
pendent state in 1853. 

Buenos Atees. — This city, the capital of 
the state of the same name, was founded by 
Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1534, but was 
abandoned, owing to the attacks of the 
Indians, in 1539 ; and was not permanently 
colonized by the Spaniards until 1580. 

A.D. 

1620. Buenos Ayres the capital of Rio de la Plata, 
is made the seat of a bishopric by 
Paul V. 

1763. Jan. 1. An English and Portuguese expedition 
fail in an attack upon the city. 

177.5. Is made the seat of a viceroyalty. 

1778. The river thrown open by Spain. 

1806. June 27. Taken by the English, and a large 

amount of treasure secured. The Spaniards 
regain possession Aug. 12, and the English 
Oct. 29. 

1807. July 5. The English fail in an attempt to 

captvu'e Buenos Ayres. 
1827 -S. Is blockaded by the Brazilian fleet. 

1859. Oct. 23. Indecisive battle between the forces 

of the Argentine Republic and of Buenos 
Ayres. Nov. 10. A treaty signed/by which 
Buenos Ayres again joins the Argentine 
Confederation. 

1860. June 6. The act of union between the Argen- 

tine Confederation ana Buenos Ayres signed 
and ratified. 

Buffalo Town (United States). — This 
town, and part of the enemy's squadron, 
with stores, were destroyed by the Enghsh 
army, after the defeat of the Americans at 
Black Kock (q.v.) Dec. 30, 1813. 

Bulgaria (East Turkey), the ancient 
Moesia Inferior, was invaded by the Bulgarians 
in the 7th century, and named after them 
Bulgaria. The first kingdom lasted from 
A.D. 640 to 1018, when it was subjected to the 
Greek empire by Basil II. The second, 
estabhshed about 1186, was amiexed to the 
Ottoman empire in 1396. 



559. The Bulgarians, tinder Zabergan, invade 
Macedonia and Thi-ace, but ai'e repulsed by 



The Bulgarians, led by Asparuch, conquer 
the country between the Hsemua and the 
Danube. 

The Bulgarians defeat the general of Thrace. 

Cardam, king of the Bulgarians, defeats Con- 
stantine VI. 

July 25. Crumn, king of the Bulgarians, de- 
feats and slays the Emperor Nicephorus. 

Battle of Bei-sinikia, in which the emperor 
Michael I. is defeated by Crumn. 

The Emperor Leo defeats and annihilates an 
army of 30,000 Bulgarians. 

Michael and Bardas defeat the Bulgarians, 
whose king becomes a Christian. 

Bogoris, or Michael, first Christian king of 
Bulgaria, abdicates and retires to a 
monastery. 

The Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine genei-al, 
Leo Hatakalon. 

Aug. 20. Battle of Achelons, in which the 
Bulgarians defeat the Byzantine army. 

Sim.eon, king of Bulgaria, defeats the Byzan- 
tine forces, and plunders Constantinople. 



BUL 



923. The Emperor Romanus purchases peace from 

Simeon on the most humiliating terms. 
981. The emperor Basil II. invades Bulgaria. He 

is driven back, with great loss, by King 

Samuel. 
996. Samuel invades Greece. His army is totally 

routed, and he himself escapes with diffi- 
culty. 
1014. July 29. Basil U. defeats the Bulgarians, and 

takes 15,000 prisoners, whose eyes he puts 

out. Samuel dies of grief. 
1018. Death of Ladislaus, last king of Bulgaria, 

whose teiTitoi-y becomes a province of the 

Byzantine empire. 
1040. The Bulgarians revolt, and invade, and render 

themselves masters of. Western Greece. 
1186. The Btdgarians revolt from the Byzantine 

yoke, and establish a second monarchy. 
1285. Bulgaria is overrun by the Tartars. 
1330. Is made subject to Servia. 
1363. Invaded by Amurath I. 
1396. The Sultan Bajaset conquers Bulgaria, and 

xmites it to the Ottoman empire. 



SOVEEEIGKS OF BULGAEIA. 



A.D. 

Mocrus 

Terbelis (about) 700 

Cormes 727 

Telesis (a few 

months) 763 

Sabin 763 

Pagan 764 

Teleric (about) 771 

Cardam 776 

Crumn (about) 806 

Doucom 814 

Ditzeng 815 

Mortagon 821 



Baldimir, or Vla- 
dimir 826 

Bogoris, or Michael 844 

Presiam 

Michael Vorize 

Simeon (about) 889 

Samuel (about) 914 

Peter 927 

Borise 971 

Gabi-iel 1014 

John Ladislaus ....1015 
Bultaria is made a 
province of the 
empire 1018 



SECOND KINGDOM. 



A.D. 

Peter IT 1186 

John 1 1196 

Vorylas 1207 

JohnAsanll 1215 

Caloman 1 1241 

Michael 1245 

Caloman n 1258 



Mytzes, A.D. 1258 or 1259. 
after whom the throne 
is a continual object 
of contention, till the 
conquest of Bulgaria 
by Bajaset, in 1396. 



Buljanak: (Crimea). — A skirmish took 
place near this river, between 15,000 Cossacks 
and 500 British horse, Sept 19, 1854. The 
former, having lost a few men, vrithdrew. 

Bull. — This term, derived from the word 
bulla, a seal, was first apphed to deeds, 
ecclesiastical as well as regal. Subsequently 
it was used to denote a papal edict, or 
rescript, written upon parchment, bearing a 
leaden seal, and issued by order of the pope 
from the Eoman chancery. The seals varied 
in form until 1088, when one side was 
impressed with the heads of Peter and Paul, 
the reverse bearing the name of the pope 
and the year of his pontificate. Vigilius, in 
the 6th century, introduced the date of the 
regnal years of the emperors into bulls, and 
this custom was continued till the middle of 
the 11th century. In buUs of grace or favour 
the lead is attached by silken (red or yellow), 
and in those of punishment by hempen cords. 
Pius V. pubhshed a bull against Elizabeth, 
April 25, 1570. Feuton, who posted a copy 
of it on the gate of the bishop of London's 
155 



BUL 

palace May 24, was taken and executed 
Aug. 8. By 13 Eliz. c. 2 (1570), bringing 
balls in, or putting them into execution, 
Avas made high treason, for which the penalty 
was death and forfeiture of property. The 
bull in Ccend Domini, excommunicating 
heretics and opponents of the papacy, was 
read in the pope's presence every Maundy 
Thursday, until the time of Clement XIV. 
According to the ancient mode of pro- 
nouncing the sentence of excommunication, 
the pope, after the reading of the bull, threw 
a lighted torch into the public j)lace. It was 
declared void by the council of Tours Sept. 
1510. Brief is the term apphed to papal 
acts sealed with wax. | 

BULL-BAIXIN& was a favourite amusement | 
amongst the Egyptians, the Greeks, the 
Eomaus, and other ancient nations, and was ! 
frequently practised in this country during 
the Middle Ages, and even to a comparatively j 
recent period. Fitzstephen, the monk of ; 
Canterbury, in his description of London in > 
the 12th century, speaks of buU-baiting as 
then common ; and Henzel, who visited 
England in lo9S, gives a description of the i 
sport. Evelvn mentions a visit he paid to i 
the bear-garden Jime 16, 1670, when one of 
the bulls tossed a dog into the lap of a lady i 
sitting iu the boxes : he calls it " a rude and 
dirty pastime." The following occurs in an 
advertisement dated 1719 : — "This is to give 
notice to all gentlemen, gamesters, and others, 
that on this present Monday is a match to be 
fought by two dogs at a bull, for a guinea, to 
be spent ; which goes fairest and farthest in 
wins aU. Likewise a green bull to be baited 
which was never baited before ; and a buU to 
be turned loose with fireworks all over him." 
A bill for its suppression was introduced 
into the House of Commons April 3, 1800. 
Mr. Windham opposed the measure, declaring ; 
that it had existed more than one thousand ' 
years, and that it was a manly amusement, j 
Mr. Canning contended that the amusement i 
was a most excellent one ; it inspired courage 
and produced a nobleness of sentiment and ! 
an elevation of mind. The bill was rejected 
by a small majority, and though a similar j 
attempt in 1802 failed, buH-baiting has since 
been declared illegal, and by the act against 
cruelty to animals (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 59, [ 
Sept. 9, 1835), persons keeping places for 
bull-baiting incur a penalty. The Stamford i 
Bull-running, which took place annuaUy on i 
the 13th of Jfovember, was in 1825 postponed 
tm the next day, because the 13th fell on a 
Sunday. BuU fights are said to have been 
introduced into Spain by the Moors, and 
they still form a favourite sport with the 
Tulgar in that country. Isabella, in the 
15th century, vainly endeavoured to abolish 
them. 

BuLWEE-Ci-ATTOir Teeatt, between Eng- 
land and the United States, relative to the 
establishment of a communication by ship 
canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 
was signed at Washington April 19, and ratifi- 
cations were exchanged there July 4, 1850. 
It consisted of nine articles. The contracting 
1£6 



BUR 

parties declared that they would not erect 
fortifications on the banks or in the vicinity 
of the proposed canal, and that they would 
not assume dominion over Nicaragua, Costa 
Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part of 
Central America. Opposite and contradictory 
constructions having been placed upon this 
treaty by England and the United States, 
another, caHed the Clarendon Dallas Treaty, 
was, after various negotiations, signed at 
London, Oct. 17, 1856, but objections having 
been raised to it on both sides of the Atlantic, 
it was ultimately rejected, and the President, 
in his message for the year 1857, recom- 
mended the abrogation of the Bulwer-Clayton 
Treaty as the best method of solving the 
difficulty. 

BuNDELCUiTD (Hindostan) .— This exten- 
sive province, consisting of thirty -three states, 
five of which are tributary, attained great 
power, under a native dynasty, in the 11th 
century. Their rule was, however, subverted 
by the Delhi princes in 1183, and for a long 
period the country remained in a very un- 
settled state. By the treaty of Bassein, 
Dec. 31, 1802, a portion of the province was 
ceded to the East-India Company. Owing 
to the refractory conduct of certain chiefs, 
military expeditions were sent into portions 
of Bimdelcimd, and in the treaty of Poonah, 
July 5, 1817, the articles of the treaty of 
Bassein were explained and amended; cer- 
tain provisions being added calculated to 
prevent the recurrence of such disastrous 
outbreaks. 

Bu>-kee's Hill (Battle). — The revolted 
.Americans having thrown up batteries and 
erected a formidable redoubt on Bunker's or 
Breed's HOI, an eminence that commanded 
the harbour of Charlestown, were attacked 
in this position by the Enghsh, June 17, 1775. 
The latter amounted to 2,000, whilst the 
batteries and redoubt were defended by 
5,000 men. In their advance the assailants 
suffered severely from sharpshooters, posted 
in the houses of Charlestown. In spite of 
every obstacle the English had almost 
reached the works, when a terrific fire was 
opened upon them. General Howe was for 
a few seconds left ahnost alone, several of 
the officers near having been either kUled or 
wounded. The troops, however, rallied from 
the confusion into which they had been 
thrown, and carried the works at the point 
of the bayonet. In this brilliant action 
226 officers and men were killed, and 828 
wounded. The American loss, according to 
their own representation, amounted to 450 
killed, wounded; and missing, but it is be- 
heved to have been much greater. 

BuEFOED (Battles). — ISear this town, iu 
Oxfordshire, Cathred, king of Wessex, de- 
feated Ethelbald, king of the Mercians, a.d. 
752. Fairfax defeated the Royalist army 
here in 1649. 

BuEFOED Club. — In 1722 Christopher 
Layer, a barrister, was convicted of high 
treason, for having compassed the death of 
the king, and was executed at Tyburn May 17, 
1723, after having been respited several times. 



BUR 

He was an agent of the Pretender, and in the I 
papers connected with the plot frequent 
mention appeared of Burford's Club. Being 
called upon to explain the meaning, Layer 
declared it to be an appellation made use of 
by the Pretender and his agents to denote 
a club of Tory lords and others, of which 
association Lord Orrery was declared to be 
chairman. Earl Cowper, one of the lords 
mentioned as being a member, made a decla- 
ration, March 20, 1722, to the effect that he 
had never heard of such a club, and that three 
out of the six commoners named as being 
members, he did not know even by sight. A 
committee of the House of Conmions, ap- 
pointed to examine Layer, declared in their 
report that " the matters asserted of Bur- 
ford's Club in Plunket's Letters, seem utterly 
inconsistent with the known characters of 
some of those persons." 

BUEGHEES, AlfTI-BUBGHEES, andBUEGHEE 

Secedees. — These terms are apphed in eccle- 
siastical history to the parties that grew out 
of the schism in the Scottish church, caused 
by the induction of a pastor to the parish of 
Kinross, in direct opposition to the wishes of 
the congregation. After much discussion, 
eight ministers protested against this proce- 
dure, for which they were deprived, and their 
parishes declared vacant in 1740. Their con- 

fregations adhered to them, and so powerful 
id they become, that, in 1745, they formed 
themselves into a synod, consisting of three 
presbyteries. An inquiry which they insti- 
tuted into the lawfulness of certain oaths, led 
to a further division amongst them, the sub- 
ject being the particular oath administered in 
royal bui'ghs when persons were admitted to 
the privileges of a burgess. The Burghers 
maintained that it was lawful to take the oath 
in question, whilst their opponents, the Anti- 
burghers, took a different view, and in 1746 
carried a vote condemning the oath. In 1747 
the Burghers mustered in great strength, 
whereupon the Anti-burghers withdrew, and 
formed a synod of their own. The rival 
persuasions were, after a long period of hos- 
tihty and opposition, reunited in 1820, under 
the name of the United Associate Synod of 
the Secession Church. 

BuEGOS ( Spain) . — The capital of the ancient 
province of Burgos was founded by Diego 
Porcelos, a.d. 884. The Cid was buried in this 
city in 1099. The bishopric of Oca or Auca 
was transferred to Burgos in 1077. It was 
made an archbishopric by Gregory XIII., 
Oct. 22, 1574. The cathedral was founded 
in 1221, and completed in 1567. Councils 
were held at Burgos in 1080, and in October, 
1136. In the 15th century Burgos was made 
a royal residence. Charles V. transferred 
the court to Madrid in the 16th century, and 
from that time Burgos gradually dechned. 
Wellington besieged it, and carried some of 
the works Sept. 19, 1812, but faUed in an 
attempt to carry it by storm Oct.- 18 in the 
same year. The French blew up the castle 
and retired, June 12, 1813. 

BuEGUNDiAN Ceoss. — This order of 
knighthood was instituted at Tunis, by the 



BUR 

emperor Charles V., on the feast of St. 
Mary Magdalen, July 22, 1535. 

BuEGUNBT (Kingdoms of).— The Bur- 
gundiones, a Vandal tribe, established them- 
selves in the southern portion of Gaul about 
A. p. 406 J and from them the country re- 
ceived its name. They succeeded in forming 
a kingdom, which, says Gibbon (ch. xxxviii.), 
"was defined by the course of two Gallic 
rivers, the Soane and the Rhine, extended 
from the forest of Vosges to the Alps and 
the sea of Marseilles." It was finally con- 
quered by the Franks in 532. A second 
kingdom of Burgundy was estabhshed by 
Rodolph I. in 887. It consisted of nearly 
the same territories as the first, under 
Rodolph II., in 933, and was ceded to the 
empire by the will of Rodolph III., who 
died in 1032. 

PIEST KINGDOM OF BTJEGUNDT. 
A.D. 
413. Gundicar, king of the Bta-gundians, receives 

a grant of land from Joviutis, and perma- 
nently settles in Gaid. 
435. The Btu-gimdians are defeated by Aetius, and 

the country is invaded by the Huns. 
491. Gondebaud murders his brother Chilperic, 

and seizes his kingdom. 
500. Gondebaud is defeated by Clovls I., king of 

the Franks. 
523. Sigismund, king of Burgundy, is msde 

prisoner, and put to death by the Franks. 
532. Clotaire and Childebert make war on Bur- 

giuidy. 
534. Clotaire and Childebert conquer Burgundy, 

and render it subject to the Franks. 

For second kingdom of Burgundy, see 
Aeles. 

SOVEEEIGNS op the EIEST KIlfGDOjr. 





A.D. 




A.D. 


Gundicar 


.... 413 


Gondebaud ... 


.... 491 


Gundeiic 


.... 436 


Sigismund . . . 


.... 516 


ChUperic I 


.... 466 


Gondemar . . . 


.... 523 



Bttegttitdt (Duchy), or BuEGTTifDT 
Peopee, was created into a duchy during 
the reign of Charles the Bald, and assigned 
to his son-in-law, Richard le Justicier, at the 
council of Quiercy, or Kiersy, June 14-16, 
877 A.D. It underwent several changes, and 
was ultimately incorporated with France. 



877. Burgundy is erected into a duchy by Louis 

the Stammerer. 
923. Eodolph, duke of Burgundy, is elected king 

of France, and resigns his duchy to Gisel- 

bert. 
938. Hugh the Great, count of Paris, and Hugh 

the Black, rule Burgundy between them. 
943. Hugh the Great sole duke uf Bureundy. 
956. Death of Hugh the Great, who is succeeded 

by his son Utho. 
987. Henry the Great is confirmed in his title of 

duke of Burgundy, with sovereign righti, 

by Hugh Capet. 
1002. Death of Henry, whose duchy is claimed by 

Eohei-t of France and two other compe- 
titors. 
1015. Henry II., son of King Eobert, becomes duke 

of Burgundy. 
1032. Henry, having become king of France the 

precedine year, makes his brother Eobert 

duke of Nornjaiidy. With him begins a long 

succession of dukes. 

157 



BUK 



1361. Death of PhUip I., duke of Burgundy, -with. 
whom tenainates the first succession of 
dukes. John, king of France, unites 
Burgundy to his own dominions. 

1363. John gives Burgundy to his son, Philip the 

Bold, with whom commences the second 
duchy. 

1364. John, king of France, erects Burgundy into 

a duchy, and bestows it upon his son 

Philip. 
1369. Marriage between Philip of Burgundy and 

Margaret of Flanders. 
1384. Philip inherits Flanders, Artois, Khetel, 

Nevers, and other territories. 
1407. John the Fearless causes the assassination of 

the duke of Orleans, and is compelled to 

seek safety tii flight. 
1416. Secret treaty between John the Fearless and 

Henry V. of England. 

1419. John the Fearless is assassinated at iMon- 

tereau, by the Orleanists. 

1420. Philip the Good enters into an alliance with 

Henry V., and sanctions the treaty of 

Troyes. 
1430. Acquisition of Brabant. 
1435. Philip of Burgundy withdraws from his 

alliance with the English, and enters into 

a league with France. 
1443. Acquisition of Luxemburg. 
1468. July 2. Marriage of Charles the Bold and 

Margaret, sister to Edward TV. of England. 
1472. Charles invades France, ravages Normandy, 

and adds Guelders to his dominions. 

1476. Charles invades Switzerland, where he is 

defeated. 

1477. Jan. 4. Death of Charles, at the battle of 

Nancy, fought against the Swiss. Louis XI. 
seizes part of the duchy. Mary, daughter 
of Charles, succeeds htm, and marries Maxi- 
milian of Austria the same year, Aug. 19. 

1479. Louis XI. of France seizes Burgundy, and 
annexes it to France. 

1482. Mar. 27. Death of Maiy of Burgundy, in 
consequence of a fall from her horse. 

1482. Dec. 23. Treaty of Arras, between Louis XI. 
and Maximilian of Austria, for the settle- 
ment of the dispute respecting Burgundy. 
Margaret of Austria affianced to the 
Dauphin. 

DUKES OF BUEGUNDT, 



A.D. 

Hugh II 1102 

Eudes II 1142 

Hugh III 1162 

Eudes in 1193 

Hugh rV. 1218 

Robert IL 1272 

Hugh V. 130.5 

Eudes rv. 1315 

Philip 1 1350 

PhiUp the Bold.... 1364 
John the Fearless 1404 
Philip the Good .. 1419 
Charles the Bold . . 1467 
Mary of Burgundy 1477 



A.D. 

Richard le Justiciei 877 

Rodolph 021 

Giselbert 923 

Hugh the Black) 
and Hugh the ). 938 

Great ) 

Otho 056 

Henry 1 965 

(Intewegnum and ) 
disputed succes- >1003 

sion) ) 

Hemyn 1015 

Robert 1 1032 

Hugh 1 1075 

Eudes 1 1078 



Btieiai, is the most ancient mode of 
disposing of the dead. Abraham buried 
his wife Sarah in the cave of Machpelah, 
B.C. 1859 (Gen. ixiii.). It was practised 
amongst ancient nations ; although burning 
of the dead was at one period common 
amongst the Greeks and Eomans. Burial 
in woollen material only was ordered by 
18 Chas. II. c. 4 (1666). This statute was 
repealed by 30 Chas. IL st. 1, c. 3 (1677), 
which enforced new regulations, and in- 
flicted a penalty of five pounds in every 
case where a person was not buried in stuff 
158 



BUR 

made from sheep's wool only. Eegisters of 
burials were ordered to be kept in every 
parish. Further regulations were made by 
32 Chas. II. c. 1 (1680). These acts were 
repealed by 54 Geo. III. c. 108 (July 23, 
1814) . A tax of four shilHngs on each per- 
son on burials, to last five years from May 1, 
1695, was imposed by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 6 
(1694). It was continued till Aug. 1, 1706, 
by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 20, s. 14 (1697). In 
addition to the four shillings, a regular scale 
was imposed on the different ranks between 
a duke and person possessing real property 
of £50 per annum, or personal property of 
£600. The burial of a duke was taxed at 
£50, that of the lowest iu the scale 10s. 

BiTEiAL Clubs, on the principle of friendly 
societies, were introduced into this country 
duriag the first half of the 19th century. 
It would appear that this is merely the 
revival of an ancient institution. Miller 
states (Anglo-Saxons, p. 363) : — "The Saxons 
had also gUds or clubs, in which the artizans, 
or such as seem to have consisted of the 
middle classes, subscribed for the burial of a 
member, and a fine was inflicted upon every 
brother who did not attend the funeral. 
Thus, above 1,000 years ago, were burial 
societies established in England." As some 
irregularities arose from the insurance of 
children, the legislature interfered for their 
regulation. 

Burking. — The high price paid by medical 
practitioners for subjects for dissection, 
induced a man named Burke to endeavour 
to supply bodies, by decoying persons into 
his house, and then murdering them by 
suffocation. He carried on this inhuman 
trade at Edinburgh, and secured many 
victims, until he was at length detected, 
and suffered the extreme penalty of the law, 
Jan. 28, 1829. Burke, from whom it was 
called burking, admitted having perpetrated 
fifteen murders of the kind. A woman 
named M'Dougal, who was charged with 
being his accomplice, was acquitted. This 
terrible crime was revived in London by 
Bishop and Williams, who were convicted of 
burking an Italian boy, and were executed 
Dec. 5, 1831. They admitted having mur- 
dered several persons in this manner. 

BuELiNGTON Aecade was built in 1819, 
by Samuel Ware, an architect. 

BuEHNGTOif Heights (Battle). — In a 
night attack upon the American camp near 
this place, June 6, 1813, an Enghsh force, 
consisting of 704 men, completely routed the 
Americans, 3,500 strong including cavalry. 
The action was continued during the night ; 
but the Americans were repulsed in every 
attempt to retrieve their disaster, and 
eventually took to flight, leaving 100 pri- 
soners and four guns in the hands of the 
victors. 

BuEMAH (Asia) . — This extensive kingdom, 
sometimes called Ava, from its capital, when 
first visited by the Portuguese in the 16th 
century, was divided into four states, — Arra- 
can, Ava, Pegu, and Siam. Very httle is 
known of its history previous to the estabhsh- 



BUE 

ment of intercourse with Europe. Buddhism 
is said to have been introduced amongst 
the inhabitants about a.d. 301. The seat of 
the govei-nment was removed from Panya to 
Ava in 1364. With the assistance of the 
Portuguese, the Burmese subdued the Pe- 
guans. Ealph Fitch, who travelled in India 
at the end of the 16th century, is the first 
Enghsh writer who notices Burmah. 



1687. English take possession of the island of 

Negrals, at the mouth of the Irawaddy. 
1709. Captain Hamilton visits Burmah. 
1740. The Peguans revolt. 

1752. Ava is captured by the Peguans, and the Bur- 

mese are completely subdued. 

1753. Alompra recovers Ava, and builds Rangoon. 

1754. The Peguans are defeated in another attempt 

upon Ava. The French assist the Peguans, 
and the English the Burmese, in this 
struggle. 

1755. Alompra is again victorious. 

1757. Alompra captures Pegu. The East-India 
Company obtain a site for a factory. 

1760. Alon I pra is taken Ul whilst besiegtag the capi- 
tal of Siam, withdi-aws his army, and dies 
on his way home. 

1766. Shembuan captures the Siamese capital. 

17t>7. Burmah invaded by a Chinese army of 50,000 
men. They are defeated, with great 
slaujihter. 

1771. The Siamese revolt, and regain their inde- 



1781. 
1783. 
1785. 



1810. 
1811. 
1819. 



Amarapora is made the capital. 

Arracan is annexed to Burmah. 

The Bui'mese fail in an attack upon the 
island of Junkseylon. 

The Burmese invade Siam, and are again 
repulsed. 

Peace concluded between Burmah and Siam. 
The provinces of Tenasserim, Mergui, and 
Tavoy ceded to Burmah. 

The Burmese make inroads upon the terri- 
tories of the East-India Company, in pur- 
suit of robbers. 

A satisfactory explanation is given, and -wax 
is averted. 

Salang conquered. 

Arracan is invaded by a Mugh force. 

The Biu-mese make fiu-ther inroads upon the 
tenritories of the East-India Company. 

Sept. 23. The Burmese attack and overpower 
a British guard on the island of Shaparee. 

March 5. The governor- general of India de- 
clares war. Rangoon is captured May 11. 
Cheduba, Negrais, Tavoy, Mergui, Mar- 
taban, the whole of Tenasserim, and Yeah 
surrender. 

Feb. 1. Assam conquered. March 8. General 
Cotton is defeated at Donabew. It is cap- 
tured April 2 ; and Arr;ican, after a series 
of actions, March 26, 27, 28, and 29. Prome 
entered April 25. An armistice for one 
month, signed Sept. 17, and afterwards 
extended to Nov. 2. The ai-mistice is 
bi-oken, and the Burmese army defeated, 
Dec. 1, 2, and 5. The Burmese send a flag 
of truce Dec. 26. 

Jan. 1. First conference held. Jan. 3. Treaty 
signed. It is not ratified, and hostilities 
are resumed on the 18th. Melloone cap- 
tured Jan. 19. The Bvirmese defeated at 
the battle of Pagahinallew, Feb. 9. Treaty 
of Yandaboo signed Feb. 24. 

Dec. 28. Rangoon is destroyed by fire. 

Complaints by EugUsh seamen of ill-treat- 
ment received from the governor of 
Rangoon. Reparation is demanded, and 
refused. 

Jan. 10. The batteries at Rangoon fire upon 
the Fox man-of-war. Martaban taken 
April 5 ; Rangoon, April 14 ; Bassein, 
Apiil 19; Prome, Oct. 10; and Pegu, 



BUR 



Nov. 21. Pegu is annexed to India, by 
proclamation. Dec. ao. 
1853. Several marauding chiefs are punished. The 
tei-mination of the Burmese war is officially 
proclaimed by the governor -general of 
India, June 30. 



BuENiWQ- Alite was a common punish- 
ment, amongst ancient nations, for various 
kinds of offences. The Anglo-Saxons used 
it in certain crimes, and it was the ordinary 
punishment for witchcraft during the Middle 
Ages. Blackstone says: — "In treasons of 
every kind, the punishment of women is the 
same, and difierent from that of men. For 
as the decency due to the sex forbids the 
exposing and pubhc manghng their bodies, 
the sentence is to be drawn to the gallows, 
and there to be burned alive." The Scan- 
dalous Chronicle contains an account of a 
woman, named Perrette Mauger, who was 
burnt ahve at Paris in 1460 for having com- 
mitted several robberies, and having har- 
boured thieves and housebreakers. They 
were generally strangled and their bodies 
afterwards burned. Katherine Hayes, who 
suffered for the murder of her husband, was, 
through the carelessness of the executioner, 
really burnt ahve at Tyburn, Nov. 3, 1726. 
The last woman executed in this manner was 
Christian Murphy, alias Bowman, March 18, 
1789, for coining. The law was altered by 
30 George III. c. 48 (1790), which provided 
that after June 5, 1790, women under this 
sentence were to be hanged. Death at the 
stake was long considered the only method 
of extirpating heresy, and as early as 304, 
Alban, the protomartyr of England, suffered 
in this manner. Lord Hale says : — " Before 
the time of Eichard II., that is, before any 
acts of parHament were made about heretics, 
it is without question, that in a convocation 
of the clergy or provincial synod, they might 
and frequently did here in England proceed 
to the sentencing of heretics." By 29 Chas. 
II. c. 9, s. 1 (1676) , the writ commonly called 
breve de hceretico comburendo, with all process 
and proceedings thereupon in order to the 
executing such writ, or following or depend- 
ing thereupon, and aU punishment by death, 
in pursuance of any ecclesiastical censures, 
was utterly taken away and abohshed. 

BuRNiJSTG Glasses.— Gibbon (ch. xl.) re- 
marks : — " A tradition has prevailed, that the 
Eoman fleet was reduced to ashes in the 
port of Syracuse by the burning-glasses of 
Archimedes ; and it is asserted that a similar 
expedientwas employed by Proclus to destroy 
the Gothic vessels in the harbour of Con- 
stantinople, and to protect his benefactor 
Anastasius against the bold enterprise of 
Vitahan. A machine was iixed on the walls 
of the city, consisting of a hexagon mirror of 
polished brass, with many smaller and mova- 
ble polygons to receive and reflect the rays of 
the meridian sun ; and a consuming flame was 
darted to the distance, perhaps, of 200 feet. 
The truth of these two extraordinary facts 
is invahdated by the silence of the most 
authentic historians; and the use of burning- 
159 



BUR 

glasses was never adopted in the attack or 
defence of places. Yet the admirable experi- 
ments of a French philosopher (Buffon) have 
demonstrated the possibility of such a mir- 
ror ; and, since it is possible, I am more 
disposed to attribute the art to the greatest 
mathematicians of antiquity, than to give 
the merit of the fiction to the idle fancy of a 
monk or a sophist." Leonhard Digges, in 
his " Pantometria," published in 1571, speaks 
of a burning-glass which he had constructed 
on the plan of Archimedes ; John Ifapier, 
the inventor of logarithms, who died in 1618, 
mentions them as a means of defence. Dr. 
Gregory sent one that he had constructed to 
Sir Isaac Newton in 1673. That eminent 
man's attention having been thus directed 
to the subject, he is said to have constructed 
one himself. Kircher investigated the sub- 
ject with much perseverance. Yilette con- 
structed several burning-mirrors of great 
magnitude, and experiments were tried in 
this country with one of them in June, 1718. 
Buffon made several successful experiments 
in 1747. Mr. Parker, in 1800, aud other 
men of science at later periods, have im- 
proved the construction of burning-mirrors. 

Btjese. — This title for a place of resort for 
financiers and commercial men, now gene- 
rally termed an exchange, was first apphed 
to the burse at Bruges, formed early in the 
16th century. Lewis Eoberts, in " The 
Merchants' Mappe of Commerce," pubhshed 
in 1638, says : — " This city (Bruges) hath an 
eminent market-place, with a pubUck house 
for the meeting of all merchants at noon 
and evening ; which house was called the 
Burse, of the houses of the extinct family 
Bursa, bearing three purses for their arms 
engraven upon their hoiises, from whence 
these meeting-places to this day are called 
hiirses in many countries, which in London 
we know by the name of the Eoyal Exchange, 
and of Britain's Burse." The burse at 
Antwerp was estabhshed in 1531 ; that at 
Amsterdam in 1608 ; at Paris in 1784. The 
first stone of Britain's Burse, or the first 
Eoyal Exchange iu England, was laid by 
Sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and the 
building was opened by Queen Ehzabeth 
Jan. 23, 1571. 

BuRTHfG- Alive. — This mode of punish- 
ment was occasionally resorted to by the 
Jews and other nations of antiquity. Hero- 
dotus mentions burying ahve as a Persian 
custom, and states that Xerxes buried ahve 
nine sons and nine daughters of the Edon- 
ians ; and that Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, 
in her old age ordered fourteen children, 
selected from the best Persian famUies, to be 
buried ahve, in order to show her gratitude 
to the god under the earth. In ancient 
Eome it was the punishment awarded to the 
vestal virgin who violated her vow; and, 
during the Middle Ages, the rehgious were for 
a similar offence subjected to the same penalty. 
Sir Walter Scott, in " Marmion," describes the 
manner in which it was carried out. The cul- 
prit was placed in a small niche, made in the 
massive wall of the convent, a slender meal 
160 



BUR 

of water and bread was deposited in it, and 
at the words Vade in Pace, the opening was 
closed. Skeletons have been discovered in 
an upright position in the ruins of abbeys in 
this coimtry, and it is probable that they are 
the remains of persons who had been for 
some oifence or other immured. It was at 
one time the punishment for a female thief. 

BuETiifGr- Place. — The Jews and other 
ancient nations buried their dead in fields, 
near the highways, and other places, without 
the walls of their cities and towns. Plutarch 
relates of Lycurgus, that, in order to do away 
with superstition and to accustom the youth 
of Sparta to such sights, he ordered the 
dead to be buried within the city, and per- 
mitted their monuments to be erected near 
the temples (b.c. 830 — 820). In ancient 
Rome, the bodies of her more illustrious 
men were allowed, as a favour, to be buried 
within the city. The Twelve Tables pro- 
hibited burial in the city. Hadrian and 
several emperors pubhshed edicts against 
the practice. Bingham shows that no bury- 
ing -places existed either in cities or in 
churches during the first three centuries of 
our sera. Graves in the pubhc roads, or 
vaults and catacombs in the fields, were used 
for this purpose. The Christian emperors 
prohibited the practice several centuries 
later. The origin of the change in the cus- 
tom appears to have arisen from the erection 
of churches over the graves of martyrs, or 
the removal of their rehcs into the churches, 
and this commenced in the 4th century. 
The next step was the burial of emperors 
and kings in the church porch, or some 
outer building of the church, which origir> 
ated in the 5th century ; and to this privilege 
the people were admitted in the beginning 
of the 6th century. The council of Braga, 
May 1, 563, allowed burial in the church- 
yard, but prohibited it within the walls. 
Hereditary burying-places were forbidden in 
the 9th century (council of Meaux, June 17, 
845) ; but this was afterwards allowed by a 
decree of Leo V., inserted in the decretals 
of Gregory IX. about 1230. From this later 
period it became customary for bodies to be 
buried in churches and in family sepulchres. 
{See Cemeteeies, Chuechtaeds, &c.) 

Btjet St. Edmunds (Suffolk).— This town 
received its name from Edmund, king of 
East Angha, who was crowned at Bury, on 
Christmas Day, a.d. 856. He was taken pri- 
soner by the Danes, and, refusing to renounce 
the Christian faith, suffered martyrdom, Mon- 
day, ISTov. 20, 870. According to the chroni- 
clers, his persecutors bound him to a tree, 
scourged him, shot at him with arrows, and 
beheaded him. On account of his heroic 
constancy, he was afterwards canonized, and 
a monastery dedicated to him was founded 
at Bury. Stephen Langton and the barons 
met here Nov. 20, 1214, and agreed upon the 
demands which form the basis of Magna 
Charta. Henry III. held a parhament at 
Bury in 1267 ; Edward I. held another here 
Nov. 3, 1296 ; and Henry VI. another Feb. 10, 
1447, and his example in this respect was on 



BUS 



one or two occasions followed by some of 
his successors. A large portion of the town 
was destroyed by fire in 1608. The grammar- 
school was founded in 1550. 

Bttsaco (Battle). — Massena and Ney were 
defeated at the convent of Busaco, near 
Coimbra, in Portugal, by Wellington, Sept. 
27, 1810. The French attacked the British 
and Portuguese with a superior force. 
Their loss was 4,500 men killed and wounded, 
whilst that of the allies was only 1,300. 
Wellington soon after retired to the famous 
lines of Torres Vedras. 

Bushel, supposed to take its name from 
an old EngHsh word buss, signifying a "box," 
was regulated by several enactments. By 
14 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 12 (1340), a standard 
bushel was ordered to be sent throughout 
the realm, according to a provision in 
9 Hen. III. st. 1, c. 25 (1225), which ordained 
that only one measure should be used 
throughout the kingdom. The bushel of 
wheat was to contain eight gallons by 
12 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1496) . By 22 Chas. II. 
c. 8, s. 1 (1670), the Winchester bushel, 
containing eight gallons, was ordered to 
be used in gauging corn or salt, and in 
8 & 9 Will. III. c. 22, s. 9 (1696-7), it was 
declared to be a round bushel, with a plain 
and even bottom, being 18^ inches wide 
throughout, and 8 inches deep. The heaped 
bushel was done away vrith by 4 & 5 Will. IV. 
0. 49 (Aug. 13, 1834), the prohibition taking 
effect from Jan. 1, 1835. AH former statutes 
were repealed, the Winchester bushel abo- 
lished, and a general measure established, 
from May 1, 1825, by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 
(June 17, 1824). 

Btjshire (Persia) was made the seat of a 
factory by the East-India Company in the 
17th century. During the Persian war it 
was captured by the British forces, Dec. 10, 
1856, and was occupied by them until the 
conclusion of peace, May 2, 1857. 

BusiEis (Egypt) . — Four places in ancient 
Egypt bore this name. One Busiris, in the 
Thebais, was utterly destroyed by order of 
Diocletian a.d. 296 j and at another Busiris, 
on the west bank of the Nile, Merwan II., 
the last cahph of the Ommiades, was slain, 
Feb. 10, 750. 

BuTCHESs. — There were three classes of 
butchers among the Eomans ; viz., the 
Suarii, who provided hogs ; the Pecuarii, or 
Boarii, who provided oxen, sheep, &c. ; and 
the Lanii, or Carnifices, who killed the 
animals. During the Middle Ages, a com- 
mon slaughter-house, in which the inhabitants 
had their beasts killed, was established in 
many towns. The butchers of Dunstable 
are said to have been the first to erect sheds 
in 1279. A clause in the ordinary of the 
butchers' company at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
dated 1621, ordered that any member who 
killed flesh in that town during the Lent 
season without the general consent of the 
fellowship, should incur a penalty of £5 for 
each ofience. Edward III., in a letter to the 
mayor and sheriffs, dated Feb. 25, 1361, 
ordered that no large beasts should be 
161 



BUT 

slaughtered nearer to London than Stratford 
on the one side, and Knightsbridge on the 
other ; and a similar injunction was made by 
Eichard II. in 1380. A statute for the regu- 
lation of the trade was passed in 1531. The 
butchers were incorporated under letters 
patent of James I., bearing date Sept. 16, 
1605. They were at that time an ancient 
fraternity. The blue dress is the uniform of 
a guild. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1532), 
butchers were required to seU by weight 
"called Haver-du-Pois." A penalty was 
fixed for infraction of thislawby25 Hen. VIII 
c. 1 (1533). By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1535), 
butchers were allowed from April, 1536, to 
April 12, 1540, to sell meat as they had done 
previous to the statute of 1532; and by 
33 Hen. VIII. c. 11 (1541), former regulations 
were repealed, and the privilege was con- 
tinued. 

Bute ADiiiifiSTEATion-. — Its advent to 
power was caused by the retirement of Mr. 
Pitt, Oct. 5, 1761, from the Newcastle and 
Pitt (Chatham) Ministry, though the new 
ministry was not formed tiU the following 
year. The earl of Bute, who had been tutor 
to George III., was made prime minister 
May 29, 1762. 

Treasury Earl of Bute. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Henley. 

President of the Council.. Earl GranvUle. 
Privy Seal Duke of Bedford. 

( Sir Erancia Dashwood, 
Chancellor of Exchequer< aftei-wards Lord Le 

( Despencer, 
Principal Secretaries of /Earl of Egremont and 

State \ Hon. Geo. Grenvllle. 

Admiralty Earl of Halifax. 

Ordnance f Viscount, afterwards Earl 

■ ( Ligonier. 
Board of Trade Lord Sandys. 

The Hon. George Grenville was replaced by 
the earl of Hahfax early in 1763, and the 
Hon. George Grenville took the Admiralty. 
Henry Fox, afterwards Lord HoUand, pay- 
master of the forces, was made leader in the 
Commons, vrith a seat in the cabinet. This 
administration was assailed by Junius and 
Wilkes, and the earl of Bute resigned Aprils, 
1763. His opponents called him "the favour- 
ite," and in some parts of the kingdom he 
was burnt under the eifigy of a jack-boot. 
{See Gkehtville Administration.) 

BuTTEB. — The word rendered butter in 
our translation of the Old Testament (Gen. 
xviii. 8 ; Job, xx. 17 ; and other passages) is 
supposed by the best bibhcal critics to sig- 
nify cream or sour thick milk. Herodotus, 
in his notice of the Scythians, describes a 
rude process of churning practised amongst 
them, and as his account is confirmed oy 
Hippocrates, who was almost contemporary 
with him, Beckmaim believes this to be the 
earliest mention of butter. It was probably 
introduced at a later period, though not 
generally, amongst the Greeks and Eomans, 
who derived their knowledge of it from the 
Scythians. The Eomans anointed the bodies 
of their children with butter; the Burgun- 
dians besmeared their hair -with it, and 
Clemens of Alexandria (192) speaks of it as 
u 



BUT 

having been used by the early Christians in 
lamps, instead of oil. The trade is regvilated 
by act of parUament. 

BuTTrN&TOif (Battle) . — Ethelred collected 
an army and surrounded the Danes in their 
fortifications at Buttington, on the banks of 
the Severn, a.d. 894. The Danes were so 
reduced by famine, having eaten their horses, 
that their leader. Hasting, was compelled to 
risk a saUy towards the east. This led to a 
battle, in which the Danes were routed with 
great slaughter. 

BuxAE (Battle). — Major, afterwards Sir 
Hector Mimro, with 7,072 men and 20 field- 
pieces, defeated the army of the confederated 
native princes of Hindostan, consisting of 
40,000 men and a powerful artillery, at this 
fortified town in Bahar, Oct. 23, 1764. The 
loss of the latter was severe, 6,000 men having 
been left on the field of battle. The victors 
captured 133 pieces of artillery. 

Bye, Sttepeise, or Suepeising Plot. — 
George Brooke, brother of Lord Cobham, 
who was engaged in the plot to place Ara- 
bella Stuart on the throne, this being termed 
the Main Plot, to distinguish it from the 
lesser scheme, the Bye Plot, had also con- 
spired with Sir Griffin Markham, Lord Grey 
of Wilton, and two Eoman Catholic priests, 
named Walton and Clarke, to seize James I., 
imprison him, compel him to change his 
ministers, and to grant liberty of conscience 
and the free exercise of reHgion. The exist- 
ence of the plot was made known to the 
government about midsummer, 1603, and 
in July the conspirators were apprehended. 
{See Maik Plot.) 

Btzant, or Bezantlne. — ^Wfiliam of Mal- 
mesbury (book iv. ch. 2) states that By- 
zantiimi, the original name of Constantinople, 
is stiU preserved in the imperial coin called 
a byzant. This coin was current in England 
from the 9th to the 14th centuries, and Cam- 
den, writing in the 16th, says "that a great 
piece of gold, valued at £15, which the king 
offered on high festivals, is yet called a Be- 
zantine, which was anciently a piece of gold 
coined by the emperors of Constantinople ; 
but afterwards there were two purposely 
made for the king and queen, with the resem- 
blance of the Trinity inscribed, — In honorem 
Sanctce Trinitatis ; and on the other side the 
picture of the Virgin Mary, — In honorem 
Sanctm Marim Virginis." The last were 
cast by order of James I., in 1603. The 
Turks, at the siege of Csssareia, in 1102, are 
said to have hidden byzants in their mouths. 
The Crusaders struck the captives in the 
neck, whereupon the coin was disgorged. 
One writer declares that the bodies of the 
slain were also piled up and burnt, for the 

Eurpose of obtaining the byzants which they 
ad swallowed. A similar coin was struck in 
other countries, and in the reign of Stephen, 
a white or silver byzant, of the value of two 
shillings, is supposed to have been current in 
England. 
BTZAifTiNE Empiee. {See Easteeit Em- 

PIEE.) 

Byzats^tine HiSTOEiAifS. — ^The Greek his- 
162 



CAA 

torians and writers, in whose works are 
recorded the principal transactions of the 
Byzantine or eastern empire, from a.d. 325 to 
1453, are known by this name. A collected 
edition of their works was pubHshed at 
Paris, 1645 — 1711 ; another, in twenty -three 
volumes foho, was pubhshed at Venice 
1722 — 1733 ; and a new edition at Bonn 
commenced in 1828. 

BTZAifTitTM: was founded B.C. 667, by the 
navigator Byzas, with followers from Argos 
and Megara, and received a considerable 
accession of numbers from Megara under 
Zeuxippus, B.C. 628. It was captured by the 
Persians B.C. 505, and retaken by the Greeks 
under Pausanias, B.C. 477, from which cir- 
cumstance he has been called its founder. 
Byzantium became subject to Athens B.C. 
470, threw off the yoke B.C. 440, but again 
submitted. Alcibiades took it B.C. 408, 
Lysander B.C. 405, and Philip of Macedon 
made an attempt B.C. 340, but was compelled 
to raise the siege B.C. 339. It was then allied 
with Eome, and eventually became a Eoman 
colony. In the ciril wars that ensued on the 
accession of Severus, Byzantium remained 
faithful to Niger, and after having sustained 
a siege of three years' duration, was reduced 
by famine a.d. 196. Severus ordered its walls 
to be demolished, and suppressed many of its 
privileges. Maximin took it after a siege of 
eleven days in 313, and in the civil war between 
ConstantineandLicinius, the former captured 
it in 323. Struck with what Gibbon terms 
"the incomparable position of Byzantium," 
Constantine determined to make it the seat 
of his government, and an imperial edict for 
the building of the new city was issued in 
324. The emperor, at the head of a proces- 
sion, marked out its boundaries, the capital 
was forthwith constructed, and inaugurated 
in May, 330. The rites of inauguration lasted 
forty days, and the city received the title 
of Second or New Eome, which soon gave 
place to that of Constantinople, derived from 
its founder. The Byzantine church is sup- 
posed to have been founded in the 1st cen- 
tury. {See Constantinople.) 



Caaba, or the Sacked Stone of Mecca, 
was guarded by the Koreish tribe ; and the 
term was applied to the temple in which it was 
kept. Gibbon (ch. 1.) says, that its genuine 
antiquity "ascends beyond the Christian 
sera ;" and he describes the rites which the 
idolaters, and after them the Mussulmans, 
practised. " At an awful distance they east 
away their garments : seven times with hasty 
steps they encircled the Caaba, and kissed 
the black stone : seven times they visited and 
adored the adjacent mountains : seven times 
they threw stones into the valley of Mina : 
and the pilgrimage was achieved, as at the 
present hour, by a sacrifice of sheep and 
camels, and the burial of their hair and nails 
in the consecrated ground." Mohammed 
destroyed the three hundred and sixty idols 



CAB 

of the Caaba, a.d. 630. The Carmathians de- 
spoiled the temple in 929 and bore away the 
black stone, which was, however, afterwards 
restored. 

Cab. — This term, an abbreviation of cab- 
riolet, is appUed to the conveyances intro- 
duced into London in 1820. {See Hackney 
Carriages.) 

Cabal. — Soon after the dismissal of the 
earl of Clarendon, Aug. 30, 1667, the forma- 
tion of the secret council called the Cabal 
commenced. It has been incorrectly stated 
that the name " Cabal" originated from the 
mitial letters of the names of the five mem- 
bers of this ministry. This is not the case, 
as the word Cabal had been employed at an 
earher time to denote a secret council, or what 
is now termed the cabinet. Its influence was 
directed principally to the direction of foreign 
affairs, and it was when fuUy formed, in 1670, 
composed of the following members : Sir 
Thomas, afterwards Lord Clifford, Lord, 
afterwards earl of Arlington, the duke of 
Buckingham, Lord Ashley, afterwards earl 
of Shaftesbury, and the earl of Lauderdale. 
Sir Wilham Coventry was associated with 
them. The passing of the Test Act, 
25 Chas. II. c. 2, early in 1673, spread dis- 
union in its ranks; and by the spring of 
1674 it was entirely dissolved. HaUam 
(Eng. ii. ch. xi.), whilst admitting that their 
counsels soon became " extremely pernicious 
and dishonourable," declares, " the first 
measures after the banishment of Clarendon, 
both in domestic and foreign poHey, were 
highly praiseworthy." 

Cabbage was introduced into England at 
an early period, and is noticed in documents 
of the 13th century. Henry says the better 
kind was known in the time of Edward IV. 
It is supposed that Evelyn, in assigning the 
introduction of the cabbage from Holland to 
the 16th century, alludes to some particular 
sort. The soldiers of Cromwell's army are 
said to have introduced the x^lant into Scot- 
land. 

Cabbalists.- — Jewish doctors, who study 
the Cabbala, described by Dr. Moore as a 
traditional doctrine or exposition of the Pen- 
tateuch, which Moses received from God on 
Mount Sinai. Prideaux considers Cabbahst 
to be the general name of aU those who pro- 
fess the study and knowledge of aU manner 
of traditions, which are of the interpretative 
part of the Hebrew Scriptures. HaUam de- 
clares (Lit. pt. 1, ch. 3) that the cabbala is 
the offspring of the Alexandrian Jews and 
not far from the beginning of the Christian 
aera. It was revived during the 11th and 
12th centuries. 

Cabinet Cou]srciL. — {See Administra- 
tions OF Great Britain.) 

Cabira (Battle). — Mithridates the Great 
was defeated near this city, in Pontus, by 
Lucullus, B.C. 71. The Koman general cap- 
tured the town itself and secured a large 
quantity of treasure. 

Cables, made of hemp, rush, papyrus, 
barks of trees, &c., have existed from time 
immemorial. Iron cables were first suggested 
163 



CAB 

in the narrative of M. Bougainville's voyage 
of discovery, which was published in 1771, 
but no attempt was made to adopt them till 
Mr. Slater obtained a patent for their manu- 
facture in 1808. The first vessel fitted with 
iron rigging was the Penelope, which made 
her trial trip in 1811, and satisfactorily proved 
the efficacy of the system, which was gene- 
rally adopted in the royal navy in 1812. 
Captain Brown invented the proving ma- 
chine, for testing chain-cables, in 1813. 

Cabochiens. — In 1412, John the Bold, 
duke of Burgundy, armed a chosen body of 
about 500 journeymen butchers or skinners, 
who took the name of Cabochiens, from 
John Caboehe, their leader. They main- 
tained the cause of Burgundy against the 
Armagnac faction, and, ruling Paris in the 
most despotic manner, kept the inhabitants 
in a state of constant terror. The citizens 
rose against them in 1418, and the Armag- 
nacs obtaiued the ascendant. 

Cabrita Point (Sea-fight).— Sir Thomas 
Dnkes engaged vrith a French squadron off 
Cabrita Point, March 10, 1705, when two out 
of the five ships of which the French squadron 
consisted were driven on shore and destroyed, 
and three captured. 

_ Cab Strike. — Displeased \rith the provi- 
sions of an act of parHament reducing the 
fare from 8d. to &d. per nule, London cab- 
men withdrew their vehicles after midnight 
on Tuesday, July 26, 1853. The strike lasted 
three days, during which time locomotion was 
entirely paralyzed. Arrangements haring 
however been made for bringing up veliicles 
from various provincial towns, the cab pro- 
prietors and drivers relented, and returned to 
their work on Saturday, the 30th of July. 

Cabul (Affghanistan) is said to have been 
founded by Pusheng. Baber acquired pos- 
session of it in 1504, and in 1647 his son 
Humayun expelled his brother Camran from 
the city. On the accession of Akbar, at the 
age of thirteen years, in 1556, Cabul was 
seized by Mirza Sohman ; but it was again 
added to the empire of the Mogul in 1581. 
An insurrection was quelled in 1611. K'adir 
Shah took Cabul in 1738, and in 1774 it was 
made the capital of Affghanistan by Timour 
Shah, who died there. May 20, 1793. In 1801 
a revolt of the Gluljies took place at Cabul ; 
but after severe struggles it was suppressed. 
May 11, 1802. In 1809 Shah Shujah was 
deposed and driven from the city by Futteh 
Khan, who was murdered in 1818, after which 
Cabul fell into the hands of Dost Mohammed. 
Shah Shujah was restored by the Enghsh, 
May 8, 1839. In 1841, Nov. 2, an insurrec- 
tion broke out at Cabul, and many English 
officers were massacred ; and on Jan. 6, 1842, 
the British commenced their disastrous re- 
treat from Cabul, leaving Lady Sale and 
others prisoners in the hands of the enemy. 
The force consisted of 4,500 men, only one 
of whom survived the massacre of the Boo- 
thank pass. On the 15th of September, 1842, 
Cabul was retaken by General" Pollock. Ge- 
neral Nott arrived vrith another force the 
following day. Operations for the destruc- 
M 2 



CAO 



CAD 



tion of the great bazaar at Cabul, the most 
celebrated building of Central Asia, in which 
Sir W. MclS'aghten's body had been exposed, 
were commenced Oct. 9, and the objects of 
the expedition having been fuUy aceom- 
pUahed, a portion of the EngHsh army 
evacuated Cabul October 11, and the whole 
force gradually withdrew from Aifghanistan. 

Cachao (Anam). — The capital of Tonquin, 
was nearly demohshed by an incendiary lire 
during the 17th century. Since 1820 the 
sovereign has resided in Cochin China, and 
Cachao has of course suffered in consequence. 

Cachas (Hindostan). — This province was 
invaded by the Burmese in 1774, but no con- 
quests were effected. The Brahminical re- 
ligion was introduced in 1780. In 1813 Eajah 
Govind Chunder became sovereign of Cachar. 
He was soon expelled, and in 1818 Choorjeet 

fained the ascendancy and maintained it for 
ve years, when Govind Chunder was re- 
stored. This prince, finding himself unable 
to protect his kingdom against Burmese 
invasion, sought the assistance of the British 
in 1824, and on his assassination in 1830, his 
territory was annexed to the possessions of 
the East-India Company. 

Cachet (Lettresde), or Sealed Letters, 
issued by the kings of France, and coun- 
tersigned by a secretary of state, on the 
authority of which persons were suddenly 
seized and imprisoned, were not frequently 
employed untU the time of Louis XIV. 
(1643—1715). Disraeli (Curiosities of Lit. 
iii. 196) says : " Father Joseph, the secret 
agent of Cardinal Richelieu, was the inventor 
of lettres de cachet, disguising that instru- 
ment of despotism by the amusing term of 
a sealed letter." During the reign of his 
successor, Louis XV. (1715 — 1774), they 
were openly sold by the mistress of one of 
that monarch's ministers. The practice 
afterwards led to great abuses. Michelet 
says that Saint Florentine alone gave away 
50,000; adding, "they were the object of a 
profitable traffic ; they were sold to fathers 
who wanted to get rid of their sons, and given 
to pretty women who were inconvenienced by 
their husbands." They were abolished at the 
Revolution. 

Caddee Leag-ue, originated in Switzer- 
land, and was occasioned by an alliance 
formed between the subjects of Hartmann, 
bishop of Coire, and the counts of Werdenberg, 
A.D. 1396. The peasantry of Upper Rhsetia as- 
sembled by night at Trons in 1400, and exacted 
from theu' feudal lords a recognition of their 
right to independence, justice, and security. 
A second league, formed at the same place in 
May, 1424, was attended by the nobles as weU 
as "the peasantry, and ah present pledged 
themselves to unite for the maintenance of 
justice and pubhc safety. Ovring to the pre- 
dominant colour of the costumes at this 
meeting, it is known as the Greif League, or 
League of the Orisons. A siinilar alliance, 
known as the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, 
was estabhshed in 1436, and in 1471 the three 
confederacies met at the village of Vazerol, 
and united for mutual defence and assistance. 
164 



Cadesia (Battle) .—The Saracens defeated 
the Persians on this plain, near Cufa, a.b . 636. 
Some authorities are, however, of opinion 
that this battle was fought early in 635. The 
battle lasted four days, and the different 
periods were distinguished by peculiar appel- 
lations. The first was called the day oisuecour, 
because a Syrian reinforcement reached the 
army ; the second the day of concussion, the 
third the day o{ embittered war, and the fourth 
o{ cormorants, or howling, or barking. The 
Saracens sacked Ctesiphon, and obtained the 
province of Irak, or Assyria. 

Cade's iNSumiECTioir. — Several risings 
took place in difterent parts of England in 
1450, caused by general dislike of the duke 
of Suffolk. The most formidable was excited 
in Kent during the month of May, by John 
Cade, an Irishsoldier of fortune, who assumed 
the name of Mortimer, called himself John 
Amend-all, and claimed relationship with the 
duke of York. He encamped on Blackheath 
June 1, defeated the royal army at Sevenoaks 
June 27, and slew its commander, Sir Humph- 
rey Stafford. Their demands were set forth 
in fifteen articles. Cade entered London 
July 1, beheaded Lord Say and Sele and 
others July 3, and was expelled by the citizens 
July 5. He was killed by John Iden, sheriff 
of Kent, July 11, and his head was exhibited 
on London Bridge. Several of his followers 
were executed. 

Cadiz (Spain). — The ancient Gadir, Latin 
form Gades, the seat of a Phoenician colony, 
several centuries before the Christian sera. 
It was made subject to Carthage B.C. 233. 
The inhabitants entered into an aUiance with 
RomeE.c. 212, and this was confirmed B.C. 78. 
Juhus Caesar conferred the civitas on aU its 
citizens B.C. 49, and it was made a municipium 
by Augustus. The Goths destroyed it on 
their invasion of Spain, 415 — 418, and it was 
ravaged by the Danes in the 9th century. 
The Moors held it for many years, until "it 
was wrested from them by Alonso the Wise 
in 1262. Sir Francis Drake burnt several 
ships VQ. its harbour April 19, 1587, and Lord 
Howard of Effingham and the earl of Essex 
captured Cadiz June 21, 1596. Two galleons, 
thirteen ships of war, and twenty -four 
merchantmen, were taken or burnt. The 
town was plundered and the fortifications 
were destroyed. An Enghsh expedition 
failed in an attack in 1625, and another 
Aug. 15, 1702. If elson bombarded it July 3 
and 5, 1797. Victor iavested it in 1810, and 
raised the siege Aug. 12, 1812. Insurrections 
broke out here July 7, 1819, and Jan. 1, 1820, 
and massacres ensued March 9 and 10 in the 
latter year. It was taken from the revolu- 
tionary Cortes by the French, under the 
diike d' Angouleme, Oct. 3, 1823, and held by 
them until 1828. It was made a bishopric in 
1264. It has two cathedrals, one biult iu 
1597, and the other commenced in 1720, and 
completed in 1840. Its academy of arts was 
founded in 1789. 

Cadmium. — This metal was discovered by 
M. Stromeyer in 1817. 

Cad SAND (Zealand). — ^Thia island was 



CAE 

captured, its Fleming garrison defeated, and 
the town sacked and burned by the earl of 
Derby, Nov. 10, 1337. It was overrun by 
the republican army in 1797, and part of the 
Walcheren expedition landed in Cadsand 
July 29, 1809. It was ceded to France by 
treaty, March, 1810, and was restored to 
Holland at the close of the war. 

Caen- (France), originally called Cathern 
or Cathorn, was an important city in the 
10th century. Henry I. captured it in 1105, 
Edward III. in 1346, and Henry V. Sept. 4, 
1417. The French recovered it" in 1449, and 
it has since remained in their possession. The 
church of the abbey of St. Etienne, now the 
cathedral, was founded by William I . , between 
1061 and -1070. The town was a favourite re- 
sidence of Wilham I. and his wife Matilda, 
both of whom were buried here. Louis XI. 
concluded a treaty at Caen with the duJre of 
Britanny, Dec. 22, 1465, and it was ratified 
on the following day. 

CAEELEOif (Monmouthshire), or Castle 
OF THE Legion-, — the Isca Silurum of 
the Komans, is supposed to have been the 
chief city of Wales when it formed a Roman 
province. St. Alban, Aaron, and Jiilius, the 
proto-martyrs of England, suffered here a.d. 
304. The seat of the archbishopric was re- 
moved from Caerleon to St. David's, a.d. 519. 

Caeemaethem" (Wales), — the ancient 
Maridunum, was made a Eoman station 
A.D. 70. 

Caeenaevon (Wales) . — Edward I. laid the 
foimdations of its castle in 1282, and it was 
not completed for ten years. Edward II. was 
born here, April 25, 1284. Edward I. granted 
the town a charter in 1284, being the first 
accorded to any town in Wales. The Welsh 
captured the castle, and put its garrison to 
the sword in 1294. It was taken and retaken 
during the civil wars. 

C^SAEEiA (Cappadocia), originally called 
Mazaca, was the residence of the kings of 
Cappadocia. It was taken by Tigranes, and by 
the Persians under Sapor, about a.d. 260, and 
again under Chosroes II. in 612. The gospel 
was preached here by St. Peter and St. Paul ; 
and it became the metropolitan see of 
Pontus. A council was held at Caesareia 
in 365. 

CiESAEEiA (Palestine) was founded by 
Herod the Great e.g. 10, and named in 
honour of Caesar Augustus. St. Paul ap- 
peared before Felix, and was imprisoned at 
Caesareia a.d. 58 (Acts, xxiii. 33 — 35). It 
was made a metropohtan see at an early 
period. CouncUs were held here in 334 and 
358. It must not^ however, be confounded 
with Caesareia Phihppi, another town in 
Palestine (Matt. xvi. 13) . 

Cjssars, JEtsl of.— {See Spaiit, ^ra of.) 

Caffa (Crimea). — Built on the site of the 
ancient Theodosia. The Genoese captured 
it in 1261. It was wrested from thei;i by the 
Venetians in 1296, but they recovered 'it in 
1299. The Turks took it in 1474. Caffa was 
made a free port in 1806. 

Caffeaeia ( South Africa) appears to 
have been quite unknown in 1718, as it is 



CAG 

not mentioned in Peter Kolben's " Descrip- 
tion of the Cape," pubhshed in that year. 
In 1797 Mr. Barrow explored part of Caf- 
fraria, and obtained the first authentic 
information as to the manners and customs 
of the CalFres. The interior was explored by 
Duncan in 1844, and by Ruxton in 1845. A 
part of CaiFraria was placed under the pro- 
tection of the English on the termination of 
the war in 1853. (See Caffee War.) 

Caffee Wae.— In 1817, the Caffres under 
Makanna, a pretended prophet, attacked 
Graham's Town, but were repelled and forced 
to purchase peace by a cession of territory. 
In 1834 they agaia invaded the Enghsh 
settlements under their chief Charlie, who 
carried slaughter and devastation wherever 
he appeared. Sir Peregrine Maitland ex- 
pelled them from the Tyumie district in 1846. 
In 1850 Sir Harry Smith was appointed 
governor of the Cape ; and in the same 
year, Dec. 24, the Cafires .rose in a general 
insurrection, and treacherously attacked a 
British force of 600 men in the Kriskamma 
defile. On the 29th they blockaded Sir 
Harry Smith in Fort Cox, and repelled 
Colonel Somerset, who came to his assistance. 
On the 21st of January, 1851, Fort Hare 
was unsuccessfully besieged by the Caifres, 
who lost more than 100 men. On the 31st of 
May the Hottentots rose in rebeUion, and 
joined the Caffre chiefs, who continued to 
harass the colonists. Colonel Fordyce and 
several other officers and men were kiUed in 
a battle fought on the Water-Kloof HiUs in 
November. The war continued with great 
violence. Sir George Cathcart succeeded 
Sir Harry Smith as governor ApiH 9, 1852. 
On the 20th of December the Caffi-es were 
defeated near the Berea mountain. They 
sued for peace Feb. 13, 1853. A meeting 
between the governor and the chiefs was 
arranged, and peace was fuHy restored 
March 9. 

Cagliabi (Sardinia) occupies the site of 
the ancient CaraHs, said to have been founded 
by the Carthaginians. It is the seat of an 
archbishopric. The Genoese were defeated 
at Caghari by the united Venetian and 
Catalan forces in 1352. The university was 
founded in 1626, and re-established in 1764. 
During the war of the Spanish succession, 
Caghari was bombarded and taken in 1708, 
and the inhabitants were compelled to declare 
in favour of Charles III. It was seized by 
the Spaniards ia 1717. The French bom- 
barded the town in 1793, but did not succeed 
in reducing it to subjection. The king of 
Sardinia resided at Caghari from 1798 to 
1814. 

Cagots. — This proscribed race, existing in 
the Pyrenees, are said by some to have 
descended from the fugitive Goths who 
survived the defeatofVouille a.d. 507. Others 
refer their origin to the Arabs who. fled to 
Gaseony on the defeat of Abd el Eahman, 
by Charles Martel, in 732. They are first 
mentioned in the year 1000, when they were 
under the absolute power of the nobility. In 
1288 they were forbidden to sell articles of 
165 



CAI 

food, and compelled to wear a peculiar 
costume, on the alleged ground of leprosy. 
From documents dated 1365 and 1385, it 
appears that the Cagots were then located 
in the province of Beam; but they after- 
wards appeared in I^avarre, Aragon, and 
other districts in the north of Spain. It 
was not till May 13, 1515, that the papal 
buU was pubhshed which estabhshed them 
iu the commonest rights of humanity; and 
even then the privileges obtained were limited 
to the Cagots of Navarre. They subsequently 
became obnoxious to the Inquisition, which 
continued to persecute them as late as 1755. 

CAi-ron^G-FOTJ (China), or Kaifong, the 
ancient capital, was invested by the Mongols 
about 1227, and yielded in 1232. It was 
besieged by rebels in 1642, when the embank- 
ments were destroyed, and 300,000 persons 
perished in the inundation. 

Cainites, or Cainiats^s. — A Gnostic sect 
that arose in the 2nd century. They pre- 
tended that Cain was produced by a superior 
virtue to that which produced Abel, who 
was thus easily overcome. They honoured 
all the worst characters mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, Judas among the number. Origen did 
not regard them as Christians. 

Caieo (Egypt), or Cahera, the "Victo- 
rious," called by the natives Musr, the 
capital of modem Egypt, was founded by 
the first of the Fatimite eaUphs a.i>. 969, and 
became the chief city of Egypt in 973. On 
the approach of the Crusaders in 1171 it was 
partially burnt by the inhabitants, who suc- 
ceeded in saving it from foreign occupation ; 
and a second attempt to surprise it, made 
by Louis IX. of France, was defeated in 
1249. In 1382 it passed under the rule of the 
Memlook kings of the Circassian or Borgite 
dynasty, during whose government a Tartar 
invasion, under Tamerlane, was successfully 
resisted in 1393 and 1394. In 1517 the Turks 
under Sultan Selini took Cairo, and sub- 
verted the dynasty of the Egyptian sultans. 
In 1754 it was nearly destroyed by an earth- 
quake ; and in July, 1781, the plague carried 
off many inhabitants. Cairo was taken 
July 21, 1798, by ISTapoleon Bonaparte, who 
held it tUl 1801, in which year the inhabitants 
threw off the French yoke, March 29, and tlie 
town was taken by the English and Turks 
June 27. Cairo was the scene of the massa- 
cre of the Mamelukes, by order of Mehemet 
Ali, in 1811. It was the seat of a Jacobite 
bishop, who possessed the rights of a metro- 
politan. Councils were held at Cairo in 1086 
and 1239. 

Cairtan (Tunis), or Kaiewajt, was 
foimded a.d. 670, by Akbah, the Saracenic 
conqiieror of Africa. A city of the same 
name had been built by his predecessor, but 
Akbah, not liking the site, determined upon 
erecting another. It was about 33 leagues 
from Carthage. 

Caiijs College (Cambridge) was founded 
n 1348, by Edmund G-onviUe, and named 
G onville HaU, after him. It was completed by 
W. Bateman, bishop of Norwich. Dr. John 
Caius rebuilt a portion of the college, erected 



CAL 

a chapel, and increased the endowments, in 
1557, and he changed the name from Gonville 
HaU to Caius College. 

Calabria (Italy) was anciently peopled by 
the Messapians, who possessed some of the 
arts of civilization, as early as B.C. 708. 
They origraaUy suffered much from the 
tyranny of the Tarentines, whom they de- 
feated with great slaughter B.C. 473 . Another 
battle was fought B.C. 338. The Eomana 
took possession of Calabria B.C. 286, and 
suppressed a rebellion in favour of Hannibal 
B.C. 213. The province subsequently formed 
part of the empire, until conquered by 
Odoacer, a.d. 476. On the defeat and death 
of Odoacer, in 493, it formed part of the 
Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric, tintil 
sold to Justinian by Theodatus, in 536. 
Alboin, king of the "Lombards, took it in 
570, and made it part of the duchy of Bene- 
ventum; and in 828 its richest towns wer* 
pillaged by the Saracens, who made a per- 
manent settlement at Bari in 842. In the 
11th century it was conquered by KoberJ 
Guiscard, the Norman, who was installed 
duke of Apulia and Calabria, together with 
aU the lands he could rescue from the in- 
fidels, in 1051. The emperor Manuel I., in 
1155, despatched Michael Palseologus to 
conquer Calabria; but the success gained 
was merely temporary, as William I. _ of 
Sicily expelled the invaders the following 
year. Calabria has since formed part of the 
kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was erected 
into a dukedom in 1597. 

Calais (France) was only a fishing -village 
until A.D. 997, when Baldwin IV., coimt of 
Flanders, unproved the harbour, and erected 
fortifications. Philippe, count of Boulogne, 
extended its defences in 1224, and built a 
castle in 1227. It suffered greatly during 
the wars between England and France. 
Edward III. invested it in September, 1346, 
and it surrendered Aug. 4, 1347. The French 
failed in an attempt to regain possession in 
1349. Wolsey was sent to mediate between 
the emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of 
France ; but the conferences, held in 
Aug. 1521, proved ineffectual. Henry VIII. 
landed here on his invasion of France, July 
14, 1544. The castle surrendered to the 
duke of Guise Jan. 6, and the town itself 
Jan. 7, 1558. By the treaty of Cateau- 
Cambresis (Api-il 2, 1559) Calais was to be 
restored to the English, if no act of hostility 
were committed in eight years. This en- 
gagement was not, however, fulfilled, and 
Calais passed out of the hands of the 
English, who had held it 210 years. Henry 
VIII. granted to Calais the privilege of 
representation in the English parhamentjj 
and this it continued to exercise during 
the reigns of Edward VI and Mary. The 
Spaniards took Calais April 24, 1596. Several- 
statutes relating to Calais will be found in 
our statute-book, under -the reigns of many 
of our Irings to the time of Edward VI. 

Calatatud (Spain) . — This town, near thd 
site of the ancient Bilbilis, was wrestecf 
from the Moors by Alfonso VII. in 1119. 



CAL 

Calatrava (Order of). — This order of 
knighthood was instituted by Saneho III. of 
Castile, a.d. 1158. His father having taken 
the town of Calatrava from the Moors in 
1147, intrusted its defence to the Templars. 
They resigned it to Saneho III. in 1158, when 
Eaymond, abbot of a Cistercian monastery, 
undertook to defend it, and the order was 
instituted. It was confirmed by Pope Alex- 
ander III. in 1164. The grandmastership 
was united to the crown by Ferdinand and 
Isabella in 1487. 

Calcium, the metallic basis of lime, was 
discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808. 

Calculating Machines. — The schwan- 
pan of the Chinese, and the Eoman abacus, 
were employed in early times for performing 
arithmetical operations. Pascal, born in 1623, 
and Leibnitz, in 1646, invented machines of 
this kind. Sir Samuel Morland also con- 
structed machines for performing some of 
the simpler operations of arithmetic about 
1670. Mr. Babbage's difference-engine was 
commenced in July, 1823, government hav- 
ing granted £1,500 to be employed in per- 
fecting the invention. Ovraig to misunder- 
standings with the draughtsman, the under- 
taking was suspended in 1833, at which time 
it had cost £17,000. This machine was 
removed to King's CoUege, London, in 1843. 

Calcutta (Hmdostan). — ^When the East- 
India Company removed their factory from 
the Hooghly in 1686, the site on which Cal- 
cutta now stands was occupied by one of the 
villages afterwards granted to them by Au- 
rungzebe. Fort William was erected in 1700, 
and Calcutta, now the chief city of Bengal, 
and the metropolis of the English dominions 
in India, was soon after commenced. 



A.D. 

1707. Calcutta made a separate presidency. 
1742. A ditch dug round a portiou of Calcutta. 
1752. Defences commenced. 

1756. June 20. Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowlah. 

Howell and 145 of his fellow-prisoners 
thrust into the Black-hole, and only 23 re- 
mained alive in the morning. 

1757. Jan. 1. Watson and Clive anchor in the 

Hooghly ; and plant the British standard 
on the walls of Calcutta, Jan. 2. 

1758. Meer JaflB.er grants the free teniu-e of Calcutta 

to the East-India Company. 

1773. July 1. Calcutta made the residence of the 
governor-general, and a supreme Court of 
Judicature is established. 

1793. High Court of Criminal Appeal established. 

1801. University founded. 

1804. Govermnent House erected. 

1813. Bishopric established at Calcutta. 

1820. Bishop's Coll- ge founded. 

18i!9. General Assembly's Institution for extending 
a knowledge of Christianity among the 
Native Youth, founded by the Scotch 
Church. Insolvent Court established. 

1833. The bishop of Calcutta made metropolitan. 
A high tide in the Hooghly commits great 
destruction. 

1836. The Martinidre, an Institution founded by 
General Claude Martin, for the education 
and maintenance of indigent native Chris- 
tian children, is opened. 

1855. Jan. 25. Industrial Exhibition opened. 

Caldieeo (Battles). — ^ITapoleon I. was 
defeated in a sanguinary engagement at this 



CAL 

strong position near Verona, Nov. 11, 1796, 
by Alvinzi, at the head of an Austrian army 
superior in point of numbers. Massena 
attacked the Austrians in this celebrated 
position Oct. 29 and 30, 1806, and after a 
gaUant struggle was repulsed. 
Caledonia. {See Scotland.) 
Caledonian Canal. — In 1773 James Watt 
showed the practicability of executing this 
work, which was commenced by Telford in 
September, 1803, and was opened Oct. 23, 
1822. In 1837 and 1838 the works sustained 
considerable injury, and as the expenditure 
far exceeded the revenue, the idea of aban- 
doning the whole undertaking was seriously 
entertained. An act was obtained in 184^ 
to permit the transfer of the canal to a joint- 
stock company ; but the project was not car- 
ried out. This canal, connecting the North 
Sea vrith the Atlantic Ocean, is navigable for 
ships of 500 or 600 tons burden. 

Calendae. — The Jews and some ancient 
nations divided the year into twelve lunar 
months, a thirteenth being added from time 
to time to accommodate it to the seasons. 
The year amongst the ancient Egyptians con- 
sisted of twelve months, each of which con- 
tained thirty days. At the end of the year 
five supplementary days were added. The 
Greeks for a considerable period made the 
year consist of twelve lunar months. Solon, 
B.C. 594, introduced a change respecting the 
length of the months, making them of twenty- 
nine and thirty days alternately. An inter- 
calary month was occasionally introduced to 
restore the balance. Eomulus is said to have 
divided the year into ten months, of which 
March was the first. This year consisted of 
304 days, and was the original Eoman calen- 
dar. Numa added two months, January at 
the commencement, and February at the end 
of the year, and caused an additional month, 
consisting of twenty -two and twenty -three 
days alternately, to be inserted every second 
year. The Decemvirs altered this arrange- 
ment B.C. 452, by placing February after 
January. Confusion having arisen in these 
calculations, Julius Caesar abolished the use of 
the intercalations B.C. 47. He adjusted the 
year according to the course of the sun, and 
assigned to the months the number of days 
which they now contain. He added an inter- 
calary day to February every four years. 
The new system, arranged by Sosigenes, an 
astronomer of Alexanctia, whom Caesar in- 
vited to Eome for the purpose, commenced 
January 1, B.C. 46, and was called the Julian 
or solar year. This arrangement was disturbed 
by the emperor Augustus. The consequence 
was, that the equinox, which, on the intro- 
duction of the Julian Calendar, feU on the 
25th of March, retrograded so much that in 
the year 1582 it feU upon the 11th. Gre- 
gory XIII. in that year effected another 
reformation, which is now generally adopted, 
and is called the Gregorian calendar. He 
ordered ten days to be deducted, making the 
5th of October, 1582, to reckon as the loth. 
In order to make the civil and the natural 
year of the same length, he ordered that 
167 



CAL 

every hundredtli year, excepting the fourth, 
commencing with 2000, should not be a leap- 
year. Thus whilst 1700, 1800, and 1900 are 
not leap-years, 1600 was ; and 2000 will be, but 
2100, 2200, and 2300 wiU be common years. 
(See New Style.) 

Calendae (Eevolutionary) .—The National 
Convention of France passed adecreeNov. 24, 
1793, for the estabUshment of the new calen- 
dar, according to the report presented by 
Fabre d'Eglantine, Oct. 6. The year was to 
consist of 365 days, divided into 12 months, 
each containing 30 days. Five complementary 
days, called sansculottides, were added, and 
a sixth complementary day was to be intro- 
duced every fourth year. The first year of 
the French republic, according to this ca- 
lendar, commenced at midnight, Sept. 22, 
1792. The Gregorian reckoning was restored 
from and after Jan. 1, 1806, by an imperial 
decree, dated Sept. 9, 1805. The following 
calculations are given by a writer in the 
"National Cyclopsedia." " Though every pe- 
riod of four years was a Franciade, and the 
last year of the Franciade was called Sextile 
(having six complementary days) , yet in fact 
An IV., An VIIL, &c., are not leap-years. 
The foUovring Ust wiU afford the necessary 
explanation : — 



"An I. begins Sept. 22, 1792. 


II. 


, 22, 1793. 


Sext. HI. 


, 22, 1794. 


IV. 


, 23, 179.5. 


V. 


, 22, 1796. 


VI. 


, 22, 1797. 


Sext. VII. 


, 22, 1798. 


VIII. 


, 23, 1799. 


IX. 


. 23, 1800. 


X. 


, 23, 180L 


Sext. XI. 


, 23, 1802. 


XII. 


, 24, 1803. 


XIII. 


, 23, 1804. 


XIV. 


, 23, 1805. 



" When the Gregorian year is not leap-year, 
the beginnings of the months are as follows, 
according as the Repubhcan year begins on 
Sept. 22, 23, or 2'1 :— 



1 VendSmiaire is Sept. 22, 



1 Brumaire 
1 Frimaire 
1 Niv6se 
1 PluviOse 
1 VeutSse 
1 Germiual 
1 Flor6al 
1 Pi-aii-ial 
1 Messidor 
1 Thermidor 
1 fructidor 



Oct. 22, 23. 24. 

„ Nov. 21, 22, 23. 

„ Dec. 21, 22, 23. 

„ Jan. 20, 21, 22. 

„ Feb. 19, 20, 21. 

„ Maich 21, 22, 23. 

„ Api-il 20, 21. 22. 

„ May 20, 21, 22. 

„ June 19, 20, 21. 

„ July 19, 20, 21. 

„ Aug. 18, 19, 20. 



" But when the Gregorian year is leap-year, 
the beginnings of the months are as follows, 
according as the Eepublican year begins on 
Sept. 22, 23, or 24 :— 

" 1 Vendfimiaire is Sept. 22, 23, 24 



1 Bmmaii-e 


„ Oct. 


22, 


23. 


24 


1 Frimaire 


„ Nov. 


21, 




23. 


1 2Slivo8e 


„ Deo, 


21, 


22. 


23. 


1 Pluviase 


„ Jan. 


20, 


21, 


22. 


1 VentSse 


„ Feb. 


19, 


20, 


21. 


1 Germinal 


„ March. 


20, 


21, 


22. 


1 Flor6al 


« April 


19, 


20, 


21. 


168 











CAL 

1 Prairial is May 19, 20, 21. 

1 Messidor „ June 18, 19, 20. 

1 Thermidor „ July 18, 19, 20. 

1 Fi-uctidor „ Aug. 17, IS, 19. 

" For instance, what is 14 Floreal, An 
XII. ? The Repubhcan year begins Sept. 
24, 1803, so Floreal falls in 1804, which 
is Gregorian leap-year. Look at the third 
table ; and, when the year begins Sept. 24, 
the 1st Floreal is April 21 ; consequently, 
the 14th is May 4, 1804." Brady (Clavis 
Calendaria, i. 38) quotes the following sum- 
mary of the revolutionary calendar : — 

" Autumn — ^wheezy, sneezy, freezy. 
Winter— slippy, drippy, nippy. 
Siiring— showery, flowery, bowery. 
Summer— hoppy, cioppy, poppy." 

Calends, in the Roman calendar, the 
first day of the month. Nicolas says the 
term in the Middle Ages was sometimes used 
for the first day of the preceding month, on 
which the calends of the ensuing month 
began to be reckoned. 

Calico, so called from Cahcut, a city of 
India, has been manufactured in Hindostan 
from time immemorial. The first importa- 
tion was made by the East-India Company 
in 1631, and the pi-inting was commenced in 
London in 1676. In 1768 this branch of in- 
dustry was introduced into Lancashire. In 
consequence of the hostihty of the Spital- 
fields silk-weavers, the importation of Indian 
cahcoes was prohibited in 1700, and in 1721 
it was made Olegal to wear any printed cahco 
whatever. In 1730, British cahco, partly 
made of hnen, was permitted under a heavy 
duty, and it was not till 1774 that cloth 
entirely of cotton was sanctioned. By 
1 Will. IV. c. 17 (March 15, 1831), all laws 
restricting cahco-printing were finally re- 
pealed, and the manufacture has since rapidly 
increased. 

Calicut (Hindostan) was the first port in 
India reached by Vasco de Gama, in 14Q8. 
The Portuguese attacked and burnt Cahcut 
in 1510. They were repulsed, but afterwards 
obtained permission to erect a factory in 
1513. The Enghsh East-India Company es- 
tabhshed their factory in 1616. Hyder AH 
seized the town in 1766, and compelled the 
inhabitants to remove to NeUaru, afterwards 
called Furruckabad. The Enghsh took 
Cahcut Feb. 12, 1782; Tippoo obtamed 
possession in 1789, and completely destroyed 
the town. The country was finally ceded to 
the British in 1792, and the people returned 
and rebuilt the town. 

CALiFOEiriA(N. America) was discoveredby 
Grixalva in 1534, and visited in 1537 by Cortes. 
Its coasts were explored by CabriUo in 1542 ; 
but no Exiropean settlement was formed till 
a subsequent period. It is now divided into 
Lower and Upper California; the former 
had been previously caUed Old and the latter 
New California. Sir Francis Drake landed 
near the site of the present San Francisco in 
June, 1579. In the account of the proceed- 
ings of the expedition in this part of America, 



CAL 

it is stated, "There is no part of earth here 
tojbe taken up, wherein there is not special 
likelihood of gold or silver." Capt. George [ 
Shelvocke, who visited CaUfornia in 1719, 
declared that gold dust was promiscuously and 
universally mingled with the common earth, 
and he brought away some of the earth for 
the purpose of making further investigations. 
This was, however, lost in China, and the 
actual discovery of the gold was reserved for 
the 19th century. 



A.D. 

1578. 



1829. 
1831. 



1840. 
1846. 



Sir Francis Drake takes possession, in be- 
half of Queen Elizabeth, of the northern 
part of California, calling it New 
Albion. 

The Spanish Jesnits establish the first 
E\u-opean settlements in California. 

The Spanish Jesuits are succeeded by the 
Franciscans. 

Revolution, by which California is separated 
from Spain. 

Eevolt among the Califomians and Indians at 
Monterey. 

Don Manuel Victoria becomes Governor, 
and occasions an insurrection by his 
tyranny. 

The Mexican government seizes all the mis- 
sionary stations of the Spanish priests, and 
declares them public property. 

Nov. Overtlu-ow of the Mexican dominion in 
California. 

All foreigners are expelled from California. 

California is occupied by the aa-my of the 
United States. 

Gold discovered on the Sacramento river in 
September. 

Upper California ceded to the United States 
by treaty, Feb. 2. 

California admitted into the Union as a 
sovereign state. 



Caligeapht. — ^Varro, who died B.C. 28, 
is commended by Cicero for the elegance 
with which he adorned his manuscripts, and 
Seneca, a.d. 65, speaks of books ornamented 
with figures. The great Charlemagne (800 — 
813) was a munificent patron of professors of 
cahgraphy, as was also the emperor Basil 
(867—886). About 1150, great progress 
began to be made in the art, and Charles V. 
of France (1364 — 1379) granted special pro- 
tection to caligraphic painting in France and 
Flanders. 

Calippic Peeiod. — Calippus of Cyzicus, 
said to have been a disciple of Plato, lived 
about B.C. 330. He discovered and corrected 
the error of the Metonic cycle, which was 
composed of 235 lunations, or periods from 
new moon to new moon, containing a few 
hours more than nineteen years. Calippus 
observed that a more correct period might 
be formed by taking four times the period 
of Meton, all but one day, or 27,759 
days, very nearly 76 years. The CaKppic 
cycle is therefore four Metonic cycles all 
but one day. The first dated from July, 
B.C. 330, and corresponded with the 
3rd year of the 112th Olympiad, and to 
A.u.c. 423. 

Calixtines. — In 1420 a schism broke out 
amongst the Hussites, and they separated 
into two factions, the Cahxtines and the 
Taborites. The former derived their name 



CAL 

from the circumstance that they insisted on 
the use of the cup {calyx, the Greek word) 
in the Eucharist. The difference between 
the Cahxtines and the Roman Catholics was 
very slight, and they were reconciled to the 
Pope in 1433. In 1458 they persecuted the 
original Hussites, whom they expelled from 

Bohemia in 1467. Also a Lutheran sect, 

the followers of George CaHxtus of Sleswick, 
who flourished 1586 — 1656, and endeavoured 
to unite the various branches of the Romish, 
Lutheran, and Reformed churches. He was 
assailed by Buscher in 1639, and other Lu- 
theran divines. 

Cali titga. — The Hindoo sera of the 
Deluge. Hales remarks, " Though the 
date of the Astronomical aera Cali yuga 
be invariably fixed to E. c. 3102, the 
Historical sera of that name fluctuates 
considerably. 

B.C. 

"The Bhagavat leckona it 1913 

The Vishnu, Purana 1905 

Other Puranas 1«70 

The followers of Jina 1078. " 

Caliao (Peru), the port of Lima, from 
which it is seven iniles distant, was founded 
during the reign of Phihp IV. (1621—1665). 
In 1746, the original town was destroyed by 
an earthquake and covered by the sea. It 
surrendered Sept. 22, 1821, during the Peru- 
vian war of independence. In the struggle 
between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, CaUao 
capitiilated, after a siege of two years' dura- 
tion, Jan. 23, 1826. Severe shocks of an 
earthquake were felt here ia the middle of 
Aprfl, 1860. 

Callikghue (Hindostan). — Mahmoud 
of Ghuznee failed in an attempt to capture 
this stronghold a.d. 1024; and Sher 
Shah, the Aff"ghan- leader, was unsuc- 
cessful in an attack in 1543. The EngHsh 
failed in an attempt to carry it by storm 
Feb. 2, 1812; but the fort surrendered on 
the 7th. 

CALLiNictrM: (Battle). — The Persians 
defeated Belisarius near this smaU town 
on the Persian frontier, Easter Sunday, 
April 20, 531 a.d. 

Calmae (Sweden). — The celebrated treaty 
known as the " Union of Calmar," by which 
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united 
into one kingdom, under Queen Margaret, 
was concluded here in June, 1397. The 
Union was finally dissolved by Gustavus 
Vasa, in 1523. A large portion of the 
town was destroyed by a fire, which 
broke out Oct. 18, 1765, and raged till 
the 21st. 

Calmucks. — This name was given to one 
of the three principal Tartar divisions by 
the Mohammedan Mongols. Expelled from 
China in 1672, they settled on the banks of 
the Volga. Repeatedly invited to return, 
the great transmigration of these hordes 
conmienced in Jan. 1771, when above 300,000 
set out for their original seat in China. By 
the end of May they crossed the Torgan, 
after a inarch in which they endured such 



CAL 

terrible hardships, that 250,000 of their 
number perished in its progress. In June 
they were compelled to resume their joiir- 
ney, by an army of Bashkirs ; and on the 
8th of September they arrived in China, 
where they were permitted to enjoy rest and 
prosperity after their adversities. 

Calomel (Chloride of Mercury) seems 
to have been prepared by the alchemists; 
but the original discoverer is unknown. 
Croillus, writing at the beginning of the 
17th century, speaks of its preparation as 
a great mystery. Beguin made the process 
public in 1608. 

Calvaet (Jerusalem), the place where 
Christ was crucified, Friday, April 5, a.d. 30. 
Clinton gives the year 29, Hales 31, and 
other authorities 38, as the date of the 
passion. In Hebrew, the place where the 
Saviour suffered is called Golgotha, the place 
of askuU (Matt, xxvii. 33 ; Mark, xv. 22 ; and 
John, xix. 17). In our version of St. Luke 
(xxiii. 33) it is called Calvary; and in the 
original, Cranion, of which the Latin trans- 
lation in the Tulgate is Calvaria. Hadrian 
placed statues of Jupiter and Venus on this 
mount, A.D. 131. {See Holt Places.) 

Calves' -HEAD Club. — In a tract entitled 
" The Whigs Unmasked : being the Secret 
History of the Calves' -head Club, during 
the Kise and Progress of that infamous 
Society since the Grand Eebellion, &c.," 
of which several editions were published at 
the commencement of the 18th century, 
Milton and other members of the Common- 
wealth are said to have instituted this club. 
This account of its origin is not, however, 
considered authentic. Some members of 
such an association met at a Frencli tavern 
in Suffolk Street, Jan. 30, 1735, and exhibited 
calves' heads, on which they were feasting, 
at the window. They drank to the memory 
of the army which dethroned the king, 
and of the men who cut off his head 
on the scaffold. This led to a riot, which 
was suppressed by the interference of the 
military. 

Calvi (Corsica) was taken by the English 
under Lord Hood in 1794, after a siege of 
fifty-one days. Nelson was engaged in this 
struggle, and received a wound which de- 
stroyed the sight of his right eye. The 
English retired in 1796. 

Calvinism. — This name is given to the 
peculiar doctrines taught by John Calvin, 
the reformer, born at Noyon, July 10, 1509. 
He quitted the Eoman Catholic Church, in 
which he held a cure, in 1532, and published 
his " Christian Institutes" in 1535, at Basel, 
where he had taken refuge on leaving Paris 
in 1534. He went to Geneva in 1-536, but hav- 
ing advocated some unpopular views, was ex- 
pelled in April, 1538. The edict of banishment 
was cancelled in May, 1541, and in September 
he returned to Geneva, where he exercised 
absolute authority. By his influence Michael 
Servetus was arrested and burnt at the 
stake, Oct. 27, 1553. The peculiar doctrines 
of the Calvinists, called the five points, are — 
1. particular election ; 2. particular redemp- 
170 



CAM 

tion ; 3. moral inability in a fallen staje ; 
4. irresistible grace; and, 5. final persever- 
ance. Calvinism spread through Prance, 
Holland, England, Scotland, and other parts 
of Europe. Calvin himself died at Geneva, 
May 27, 1564. Various divisions have broken 
out amongst his followers. On the subject 
of predestination they are divided into the 
Infra-lapsarians and the Supra - lapsarians ; 
the former contending that God permitted, 
and the latter that he decreed, the fall of 
man. 

CAMALDTrLEN-SIA>'S, Or CaMALDOLITES. — 

An order of religious persons founded at 
Camaldoli, or Campo-Malduli, a desert spot 
on the lofty heights of the Apennines, about 
30 miles from Florence, by Eomuald, an 
Itahan, a.d. 1023. They follow the rule of 
St. Benedict, and are divided into Cenobites 
and Eremites. One of their houses was 
estabhshed at Grosbois, near Paris, but they 
do not appear to have ever had an establish- 
ment in England. 

Camakina (Sicily). — Founded by a colony 
from SjT-acuse, B.C. 599. It revolted and 
was destroyed by the Syracusans B.C. 552. 
Hippocrates restored it about B.C. 495; but 
it was again destroyed by Gelon B.C. 485. 
The town was re-estabhshed soon after. It fell 
into the hands of the Carthaginians B.C. 406, 
and joined the Somans in the first Punic 
war. The Eoman fleet was destroyed off 
the coast, near Camarina, B.C. 255. Camarina 
afterwards declined, and no trace of it re- 
mains. 

Cambat (Hindostan), supposed to have 
been the capital of the Hindoo empire in 
Western India in the 5th century, was men- 
tioned by Marco Polo on his return to 
Europe in 1295. In 1780 the EngHsh took 
Cambay from the Mahrattas, to whom it 
was restored in 1783. Cambay has formed 
part of the British empire in India since 
1803. 

Cambodia (Asia). — Ifothing is known of 
this country beyond the Ganges till about 
1590 A.D., when the king of Cambodia 
implored the assistance of the governor of 
the Philippines against the king of Siam. 
Christianity was introduced by the Portu- 
guese Jesuits in 1624. The Siamese invaded 
the coimtry, in 1809, and made themselves 
masters of the capital; and in 1819, aU 
direct intercourse of foreigners with the 
Cochin Chinese portion of Cambodia was 
prohibited by the emperor of Anam. The 
final partition of the country between the 
emperor of Anam and the king of Siam took 
place in 1820. 

Cambeat (France), the ancient Camara- 
cum, was fortified by Charlemagne, and was 
long governed by bishops imder the rule of 
the empire. The English besieged the town 
in 1339 ; and in 1477 it fell into the possession 
of Louis XL, who restored it to Burgundy in 
1478. It was captured by Charles V. in 1544. 
The prince of Parma besieged Cambray in 
1580, but without success. In 1595 it was 
seized by the Spaniards. Louis XIV. re- 
united it to France in 1667. Daring the 



CAM 



CAM 



revolutionary riots of 1793, the cathedral was 
utterly destroyed. Cambray was twice be- 
sieged by the Austrians in 1793, being taken 
by them Sept. 10. The French were defeated 
here by the duke of York, AprU 24, 1794 ; 
and the EngHsh under Sir Charles Colville 
captured the town June 24, 1815. Cambray 
was made a bishopric in 390, an archbishopric 
in 1556, reduced to a bishopric in 1801, and 
reconstituted an archbishopric in 1841. It 
was in union with Arras until 1092, when a 
separation took place. Fenflon was made 
archbishop of Cambray in 1695. Councils 
were held herein 1064; Dec. 27, 1303; Oct. 1, 
1383; and in Aug. 1565. 

Cambbat (League), is supposed to have 
been determined upon at the meeting be- 
tween Louis XII. and Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella of Spain, at Savona, June 28 to July 3, 
1507. The celebrated convention was signed 
Dec. 10, 1508, between Louis XII. and the 
emperor Maximilian, the pope, Ferdinand, 
and other princes being invited to join. 
Ferdinand and Julius soon after ratified the 
treaty. Its objects were the humiliation of 
Venice, and the partition of her territories. 
The contracting parties advanced into Italy 
in order to carry out the project, and this 
proved the signal for a struggle, in which 
one member of the league was often arrayed 
against another, until peace was re-estab- 
lished in 1516. 

Cambkat (Peace of), known as the 
"Paix des Dames," because the negotiations 
were commenced by Margaret, duchess- 
dowager of Savoy, the emperor's aunt) and 
Louise, mother to Francis I., of France. 
The treaty of Madrid served as the basis for 
that of Cambray, signed Aug. 5, 1529. 
Eobertson says the chief articles were, that 
the emperor " should not, for the present, 
demand the restitution of Burgundy, reserv- 
ing, however, in fuU force, his rights and 
pretensions to that duchy; that Francis 
should pay 2,000,000 crowns as the ransom 
of his sons, and, before they were set at 
liberty, should restore such towns as he still 
held in the Milanese ; that he should resign 
his pretensions to the sovereignty of Flanders 
and of Artois ; that he should renounce all 
his pretensions to ISTaples, Milan, Genoa, and 
every other place beyond the Alps ; that he 
shomd immediately consummate the mar- 
riage concluded between him and the em- 
peror's sister Eleanora." 

CAMBEIAlf AsCHiEOLOGICAIi ASSOCIATION, 

for promoting the study and preservation of 
the antiquities of Wales, was established in 
1846. 

Cambric, originally manufactured at Cam- 
bray, in Flanders, whence its name, was 
introduced into England by the Dutch emi- 
grants in 1563. In 1745, the importation of 
foreign cambric was prohibited ; and in 1761 
the manufacture was estabhshed ^t Winchel- 
sea, and brought to such perfection that, in 
1785, the home-made article was considered 
equal to the French. Cambric was also 
manufactured at Dundalk, in Ireland. By 
7 G-eo. III. c. 43 (1767), the restrictions on 



the importation of cambric were reimposed ; 
but they were repealed 1)y the commercial 
treaty between England and France, signed 
at Versailles, Sept. 26, 1786. They were again 
enforced June 6, 1797. 

Cambridge, the Camboricum of the 
Eomans, and the Grantabricsir of the Saxons, 
is said to have been founded by a Spaniard 
named Cantaber, B.C. 375. In a.d. 871 and 
again in 1010, it was plundered and burnt by 
the Danes. William I. founded the castle in 
1070, and fortified the town against the 
attacks of the Saxons. In 1088 it was seized 
and plundered by the rebellious barons of 
Wilham II. Cambridge suff'ered much 
during the struggles of Eang John's reign, 
and in 1215 the barons took the castle, which, 
however, was soon recovered by the king. 
Cambridge also suffered from the "Barons' 
War," in the reign of Henry III., havingbeen 
plundered by the insurgents, who carried 
away such of the inhabitants as were able to 
pay heavy ransom, 1266. In 1381 the town 
lost its charters in consequence of an attack 
made by the populace on the university, and 
from that period nothing noteworthy appears 
in its history tiU 1642, when it was seized by 
Cromwell and made "the prime garrison and 
rendezvous of the associated counties." The 
FitzwiUiam Museum was founded ia 1816 ; the 
Cambridge Philosophical Society was esta- 
blished Tiov. 15, 1819, and chartered Aug. 3, 
1832. The railway from London was opened 
in July, 1845. 

Cambridge (University) by some authors 
is said to have been founded by Sigebert, 
king of East Angles, who began to reign a.d. 
636 ; and to have been restored by Edward 
the Elder in 915. The more probable account 
is that given by Ingulphus, who relates that 
Joffrid, abbot of Croyland, in 1109, sent 
Gislebert and three other monks to Cam- 
bridge every day, where, having hired a barn, 
they taught the sciences, and collected a great 
concourse of scholars. The number had 
increased so much in the second year after 
their arrival, that no house or church was 
large enough to hold them. For this reason 
they separated into classes, and met in dif- 
ferent places. The first mention of the 
university under the title of the chancellor 
and masters occurs in 1231, during the 
reign of Henry III., who granted several 
charters, and contribvited greatly to the 
welfare of the institution. In 1381, during 
Wat Tyler's riots, the town of Cambridge 
rose in arms against the university and 
burnt its charters, all which were afterwards 
restored by Eiehard II. Pope Martin V. 
gave it full ecclesiastical and spiritual juris- 
diction over its students, in 1430, and it was 
incorporated by Queen Ehzabeth in 1571 
(13 Ehz. c. 29) . In 1687, Feb. 9, the univer- 
sity refused to admit Francis, a Benedictine 
monk, in consequence of which the vice- 
chanceUor and senate rendered themselves 
obnoxious to James II. The present imi- 
versity statutes were confirmed by Queen 
Victoria, by an Order in Council, July 31, 
1858. There are seventeen colleges at Cam- 
171 



CAM 

bridge, which, with the date of their founda- 
tion, are as follows : — 



Name of College. 



St. Peter's College 

Clare College 

Pembroke College 

Gonville and 1 
Caius College J 



Corpus Christl "| 

College J 

King's College 

Queen's College . . 

St. Catherine's ") 

College J 

Jesus College . . . . 

Christ's College . . 



St. John's College 

Magdalene CoUege 

Trinity College . . 
Emmanuel Col- 1 

lege J 

Sidney Sussex "I 

Colleide / 

Downing College 



1257 
1326 
1347 



1350 
1352 



1473 
1496 



1511 

1519 

1546 
1584 



By whom Founded. 



Hugh de Balsham, bishop 
of Ely. 

Lady Elizabeth, sister of 
GUbe 1 1, earl of Clare. 

The widow of Aymer de 
Valence, earl of Pem- 
broke. 

imund Gonville. En- 
larged in 1557, by John 
Caius, M.D. 

Wil 1 iam Bateman, bishop 
of Norwich. 

Two "Gmlds" in Cam- 
bridge. 

King Henry VI. 

Margaret of Anjou. Ke- 
founded, 1465, by Eliza- 
beth Woodville. 

Eobert Wodelarke, D.D. 

John Alcock, bishop of 
Ely. 

Margaret, countess of 
Kiehmond. Originally 
established by Henry 
VI. , under the name of 
" God's House," in 1442. 

Margaret, countess of 
Richmond. 

Thomas, Baron Audley of 
Walden. 

Henry VIU. 

Sir Walter Mildmay. 

Lady Frances Sydney, 

countess of Sussex. 
Sir George Downing. 



Cambeidge (United States) was first 
settled in 1631, under the name of Newtown. 
Harvard University, the oldest institution of 
the kind in the United States, was founded 
jn 1638. The Synod of Cambridge met in 
1646, and was dissolved in 1648, after adopting 
the system of church discipline known as the 
" Cambridge Platform," which formed the 
rehgious constitution of the New England 
states. 

Cambuskeis-h-eth (Battle).— Wallace de- 
feated John de Warrenne, earl of Surrey, 
guardian of Scotland, at this place, near 
Stirling, Sept. 10, 1297. 

Camden- (Battles) .—The first was fought 
at the village of Camden, in South Carolina, 
Aug. 16, 1780, between the Americans under 
G-eneral Gates, and the British under Lord 
Cornwallis. The former were completely 
routed, with a loss of 1,000 killed and wounded 
and as many prisoners, the English having 
only 20 killed and about 200 wounded. The 
second battle, at the same place, was fought 
April 25, 1781. The Americans, commanded 
by General Greene, were defeated. Lord 
Kawdon, the Enghsh commander, evacuated 
Camden the 13th of May following. This is 



' At Cambridge, colleges aaid halls are synonymous. 
172 



CAM 

sometimes called the battle of Hobkirk's 
HiU. 

Camden Society, for the publication of 
documents illustrative of English history, 
was established in 1838. It takes its name 
from the celebrated WiUiam Camden, author 
of the " Britannia " and historian of Queen 
Ehzabeth. 

Camel. — This machine for raising ships, 
in order to enable them to pass over shallows, 
was invented about the year 1688, by a 
Dutchman named Meuvis Meiudertzoon 
Bakker, of Amsterdam. 

Camel (Battle). — Fought under the walls 
of Bassorah, A.D.656, by the caliph Ali, against 
the Arab chieftains Telha and Zobeir, who 
were accompanied by Ayesha, the widow of 
the Prophet. She rode upon a camel : hence 
the name given to the battle. The rebels 
were defeated, and Telha and Zobeir were 
slain. 

Cameieoed (Cornwall), the scene of the 
famous battle between King Arthur and his 
rebeUious nephew Mordred, in which both 
leaders were mortally wounded, a.d. 542. A 
second battle was fought there in 823, be- 
tween the Britons, and the Saxons under 
Egbert. Camelford was incorporated by one 
of the Cornish earls, and sent two members 
to the first parliament of Edward VI., in 
1547. At the passing of the Eeform Bill, in 
1832, the borough was disfranchised. 

Cameea Lucida. — Dr. Hook invented a 
camera lucida, for making the image of any 
object appear on the wall in a light room. 
The modem camera lucida was invented by 
Dr. WoUaston in 1807. 

Camera Obscuea was described by Bap- 
tista Porta in the Magia ISTatm-alis, of which 
the first edition was pubhshed at Naples in 
1558, and is said to have been invented by 
Eriar Bacon. 

Cameeino (Italy) was made a bishopric 
A.D. 252, by Pope Lucius I. In 1545 Paul III. 
received Camerino in exchauge for Parma 
and Piacenza. The statue of Sixtus V. was 
erected in 1587. The see was made archi- 
episcopalby Pius VI. in 1787, and Pius VII. 
added the see of Treja to this archbishopric 
in 1817. Napoleon I. united Camerino to 
the kingdom of Italy in 1807, but it was after- 
wards restored to the pope. 

CAMEEONiAifS. — The followers of Eichard 
Cameron, who entered Sanquhar, in Dumfries- 
shire, Jime 22, 1680, and made apubhe decla- 
ration that Charles II. had, by usurpation 
over civil and rehgious hberties, forfeited all 
right to the crown. They separated from 
the Presbyterians, refused the terms of 
accommodation proposed by Charles II., 
and demanded the rigorous observance of 
the Solemn League and Covenant received 
by the parliament Sept. 25, 1643. They are, 
on this account, frequently called Covenant- 
ers. Cameron was killed "in a skirmish with 
the Royal troops at Airdsusoss, in Kyle, 
July 20, 1680, and his followers were dis- 
persed. They pubhshed declarations against 
the test of 1681, on the 12th of January, 
1682; against the royal authority Oct. 28, 



I 



CAM 

1684, and May 28, 1685. On the 1st of Au- 
gust, 1743, the Cameronians formed them- 
selves into a presbytery called the Keformed 
Presbytery. A writer in "Notes and Que- 
ries" (2nd series, vol. v. p. 262) asserts that 
" the Cameronians stOl exist as a distinct 
sect, a small but tenacious body." 

Cameeonites. — Some French Calvinists, 
the followers of John Cameron, are thus 
designated. He was born at Glasgow in 
1580, and in 1600 went to France, where he 
held professorships at Sedan and Saumur. 
Mosheim says that this divine and his fol- 
lowers "devised a method of imiting the 
doetrmes of the Genevans respecting the 
divine decrees, as expounded at Dort, with 
the views of those who hold that the love 
of God embraces the whole human race." 
They were also caUed Hypothetical Univer- 



Camisaeds, so called from the camise or 
smock which they often wore over their 
other clothes, were French Protestants, who 
appeared in the Cevennes early in the 18th 
century. Their object was the maintenance 
of religious Hberty, which had been sacrificed 
by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
{q. v.). In 1703 their numbers had increased 
to 10,000. They maintained their ground for 
some time, gaining several victories, but 
were at length unable to resist the strong 
forces sent against them, and were ultimately 
suppressed in 1705. 

Camlet. — Marco Polo, whose boot of travels 
was circulated in 1298, speaks of camlet among 
the manufactured articles produeedin Thibet. 
This stuff is supposed to have been made en- 
tirely of camel's hair, and is a much coarser 
material than the modern camlet. A mixed 
stuff of wool andsilkwas used for govms inthis 
cotintry in the time of EHzabeth. During 
the Middle Ages the term camlet appears 
to have been applied to hair-cloth in general. 

Campagita (Italy),— Clement VII. erected 
this town of Naples into an episcopal see 
July 19, 1525, united it to Satriano, and made 
it subject to Salerno. 

Campagna di Koma. — This name is said 
to have been first applied during the Middle 
Ages, to the unhealthy plain in which Rome 
is situated. Pius VI. (1775—1799) drained a 
considerable portion of this plain. 

Campania (Italy) . — This province, in Cen- 
tral Italy, has been considered both in ancient 
and modern times as the richest plain in the 
world. The luxuriance and fertility of its 
soil, and the salubrity of its atmosphere, have 
been frequently celebrated in prose and verse. 
The first well-ascertained fact in its history 
is the settlement of the Greek colony of 
Ciunae, B.C. 1050. It afterwards fell under 
Etruscan rule. The Samnites captured 
Capua B.C. 423, and Campania was afterwards 
the theatre on which the Romans and the 
Samnites, and other nations, waged hostil- 
ities. A large portion of the province was 
conquered by the Romans B.C. 340. Pyrrhus 
passed through Campania B.C. 280; and some 
of the smaller towns declared in favour of 
Hannibal B.C. 216; but the Carthaginians 



CAM 

were driven out of Campania b.c. 212. This 
province became the favourite retreat of the 
wealthy Romans. The towns of Hereula- 
neum and Pompeii were overwhelmed by an 
eruptionof Vesuvius a. D. 79; but the pro- 
vince speedily recovered from the effects of 
this terrible calamity. Campania formed 
part of the kingdom of Naples, under the 
name of Terra di Lavoro, and is now included 
in the new kingdom of Italy. 

Campe (Treaty), between Henry VIII. 
of England and Francis I. of France, was 
concluded at this small place, between Axdi-es 
and Guignes, June 7, 1546. Henry was to 
retain Boulogiie until the debt of 2,000,000 
livres due to him should be paid, and a further 
claim of 500,000 livres was adjusted. The 
emperor was included by both parties in the 
treaty, and Henry agreed to include Scotland, 
on condition that the Scotch gave him no 
further cause to make war upon them. 

Campeacht Bat (Mexico) was dis- 
covered in 1517 by Cordova. The Spaniards 
founded the town of Campeachy in 1540. It 
was taken by the Enghshin 1659, who formed 
a settlement of logwood-cutters about the 
year 1667; it was again taken in 1678 by the 
pirate Louis Scott, and by the bucaneers in 
1685. 

CAMPEiif (Battle).— The hereditary Prince 
of Brunswick was repulsed in an attack upon 
the French at the convent of Campen, on the 
Lower Rhine, Oct. 15, 1760. 

Campeedown (Sea-fight) . — Fought off the 
Dutch coast, near the village of Camperdown, 
Oct. 11, 1797, between the Dutch and Enghsh 
fleets commanded by Admirals De Winter 
and Duncan, in which the latter gained a 
complete victory, taking or destroying eleven 
of the enemy's ships. For his valour and 
address in this engagement. Admiral Duncan 
was raised to the peerage by the title of 
Lord Duncan of Camperdown, on the 21st of 
October in the same year. 

Camphoe has been long known in the 
East, although the Greeks and Romans were 
unacquainted with it. The date of its intro- 
duction into Europe by the Arabians is not 
known. iEtius, who Mved at the end of the 
5th and the beginning of the 6th century, is 
the first author who names it, and it is also 
mentioned by Paracelsus (1493 — 1541). The 
results of the first correct experiments on 
the properties of camphor were pubhshed by 
Neumann in 1725. 

Campillo (Battle).— The French, under 
General Molitor, defeated the Spaniards 
under De BaUesteros, at CampiUo de Ai'enas, 
in SeviUe, July 28, 1823. 

Campo-Foemio (Treaty). — The prelimi- 
naries of this treaty between Austria and the 
French republic were signed at the castle of 
Eckenwald, near Leobeu, in Styria, April 18, 
1797, and the treaty itself was concluded at 
Campo-Formio, in Italy, Oct. 17, 1797. The 
emperor surrendered the Austrian Nether- 
lands, the Ionian Islands, extensive terri- 
tories in Italy, receiving Venice and some 
other places in return. He acknowledged 
the independence of the Cisalpine republic, 
173 



CAM 

and acquiesced in tlie incorporation with it 
of tlie duchies of Modena and Mantua, 
Massa, Carrara, Bergamo, Brescia, Bologna, 
Ferrara, and Eomagna. This treaty, most 
humiliating for Germany, consisted of 
twenty -five articles, to which fourteen secret 
articles were attached, invohdng further 
sacrifices on the part of the emperor. The 
twentieth article provided that a congress 
should assemble at Eadstadt vrithin one 
month after the conclusion of the treaty, or 
sooner if possible. It was to be composed 
solely of the plenipotentiaries of the Grerman 
empire and of the French repubhc, and its 
object was to conclude a pacification between 
these powers. 

Campo Malo (Battle) .—Fought, in 1036, 
between the bishop of Milan and his rebel- 
lious vassals, who were aided by numerous 
auxiliaries. It termiuated ia favour of the 
latter. 

Camtoka (Battle). — Constantine defeated 
the Goths and the Sarmatians, their aUies, 
at this place, in Italy, a.d. 322. 

Canaan (Asia) . — This portion of Palestrae 
was named after Canaan, one of the sons of 
Ham (Gen. x. 6, 15 — 19). Abram, at the 
command of God (Gen. xii.), went forth 
into the land of Canaan B.C. 1921, (_See 
Palestine.) 

Canada (North America). — This portion 
of the New World was visited by the Scandi- 
navians in the 12th and 13th centuries. John 
and Sebastian Cabot discovered Canada ia 
June, 1497 ; but no permanent settlement 
was formed here until the French arrived in 
the next century. According to a Castilian 
tradition, the Spaniards visited this country 
before the French, and finding neither gold 
nor riches of any description, exclaimed 
" Aca Nada! " — " Here is nothing," — ia the 
presence of the natives. Hence the name 
Canada. Another account is, that the 
Spaniards named the coimtry "El Capo di 
Nada," or " Cape Nothing." Charlevoix's 
derivation of the term is, however, generally 
received. He says that Canndda, signifying ia 
the Iroquois language a number of huts, or a 
village, was apphed by the inhabitants to the 
first settlements made by the French, and 
the entire proviace afterwards received this 
desiguation. The French called it New 
France. 



A.D. 

1497. June 24. John and Sebastian Cabot discover 
Canada. 

1500. The Portuguese mariner Cortereal visits 
Canada, and is said to have discovered the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1517. June 11. Sir Thomas Pert's expedition, -which 
is accompanied by Sebastian Cabot, enters 
Hudson's Bay, but does not explore it, 
owing to the timidity of the commander. 

1524. Francis T. despatches an expedition, under 
Verazzano, who takes possession of the 
N.E. coasts of N. America, which he calls 
New Fi'ance. 

1535. Jacques Cai-tier ascends the St. Lawrence as 
far as the present site of Montreal, and 
carries several of the natives, with their 
chief, to France. 

1540. The French erect the fort of Charlesboxu-g. 

1549. K'>berval sails for Canada, and is lost. 
174 



CAN 



1581. The French again trade to Canada. 

1591. A French fleet sails to Canada. 

1598. Hemy TV. of France commissions the mar- 
quis de la Eoche to conquer Canada ; but 
the undertaking proves a failure. 

1608. Julys (N.S. 13). Quebec fouuded by Champlain. 

1627. Richelieu intrusts the government of tLe 
colony to the " Company of a Hundred 
Associates." 

1629. Quebec taken by the EngUsh. 

1632. March 17. Quebec and all Canada restored to 
France by th^ treaty of St. Germains. 

1648-49. The colony suffers much from the incur- 
sions of the Iroquois Indians. 

1663. Louis XIV. erects Canada into a royal govern- 
ment, with the laws and usages of PVaiicK. 

1665. Canada is granted to the French West-India 
Company. 

1667. Peace is made with the Indians. 

1690. Sir William Phipps is despatched from New 
England to conquer Canada. He readies 
Quebec Oct. 16, and re-embai'ks, without 
effecting any conquests, Oct. 22. 

1711. The British American colonies send another 
fleet to conquer Canada, but it is wrecked 
at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 
Aug. 22. 

1713. April 11. The peace of Utrecht restores tran- 
quillity to Canada. 

1746. Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, projects 
the conquest of Canada, but ouly carries 
his arms into Nova Scotia. 

1755. The English again attack Canada. 

1759. Battle of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe, 

Sept. 13. The town sun-enders to the British 
Sept. 18. 

1760. Entti-e reduction of Canada by the British. 
1763. Feb. 10. Canada ceded to Great Britain by the 

treaty of Paris. 
1765. Canada submits to the Stamp Act. 

1774. Legislative council of twenty-three members 

appointed. 

1775. The American forces invade Canada, and land 

at St. John's, Sept. 10. General Montgomery 
takes St. John's, Nov. 3 ; Monti-eal, Nov 12 ; 
and, in company with Arnold, assaults 
Quebec Dec. 31. He is killed in the action, 
and the Americans surrender to General 
Carleton. 
1770. June 18. The Americans evacuate Canada. 

1791. March 4. Pitt proposes the Quebec Bill, by 

which Canada is divided into the Upper 
and Lower provinces, and receives a repre- 
sentative constitution (SI Geo. III. c. 31). 

1792. The first Hoxise of Assembly is opened by 

Lieutenant-Governor Clarke. 

1793. Canada is erected into a bishopric. 

1812. The Americans, under General Hull, invade 

Canada, but are compelled to surrender 
Aug. 15. A second army, under General 
WjwJsworth, also capitulates Oct. 14 ; and 
a third, under Van Rensselaer, Nov. 27. 

1813. The Americans take York (Toronto), April 27 ; 

Fort George, May 27 ; they repel the British 
at Sacket's Harbour, May 29 ; and are de- 
feated at Stony Creek, June 6. Indecisive 
battle of Williamsburg, Nov. 11. 

1814. The Americans gain the battle of Longwood 

March 4 ; take Fort Erie July 3 ; and gain 
the battle of Chippewa July 5. Inde- 
cisive battle of Bridgewater July 25. Peace 
signed at Ghent Dec. 24. 
1828. 87,000 Canadians petition the king against 
the manner in which the governors had 
applied the revenues. 

1836. Sept. 22. The Houses of Assembly refuse to 

vote supplies. 

1837. The " Sons of Liberty," under Papineau, rise 

in rebellion at Montreal. They are de- 
feated in an attempt to seize Toronto, 
Dec. 4 ; and again at St. Eustace, Dec. 14. 

1838. Jan. 15. Resignation of Sii- Fiancis Head. He 

is succeeded by Lord Durham, who arrives 
at Quebec May 29. 
1841. Feb. 10. Upper and Lower Canada united into 
one proviuce. 



AD. 

isa. 



1856. 

1858. 



CAN" 



The seat of government is transferred from 

Kingston to Torouto. 
April 25. Disturbances in Canada, owing to 

the KebelUon Losses Indemnity Bill. The 

insurgents burn the parliament house at 

Montreal. 
May 9. By 16 Vict. c. 21, the legislature is 

empowered to make provision concerning 

the lands known as Clergy Reserves, and 

their proceeds. 
Sept. Extensive immigration from the north 

of Scotland. 
March 12. An accident on the Hamilton 

Kailway. Seventy people killed. April 17. 

Quebec is made the seat of government. 
Ottawa made the capital. 
The Prince of Wales visits Canada. Aug. 18. 

He is received with great enthusiasm at 

Quebec. Sept. 20. He leaves for the United 

States. 



Canals. — Canals were made in Egypt as 
early as 1350 b.c. They existed in England 
previous to the Conquest, 1066; and the 
junction of the Trent and Witham was re- 
paired 1121. The Great Canal of China was 
commenced 1278. The canal of Languedoc 
was completed in 1680; and that from 
Amsterdam to Mewdiep in 1825. Locks 
were used in the ancient canals of Upper 
Egypt, and were introduced into England 
from Elanders in 1652. The following are 
some of the principal canals of Great Bri- 
tain : — 



A.l>. 

Aberdeenshire, opened June, 1805 

Arie and Calder Navigation April, 1778 

Bamsley June 8, 1799 

Birmingham 1774 

Bii-mingham and Fazeley July 12, 1790 

Birmingham and Liverpool Junction 1834 

Birmingham and Walsall June, 1799 

BirmiJigham and Wednesbury Nov. 1769 

Bradford 1774 

Bridgewater July 17, 1761 

Caledonian Oct. 1822 

Cardiff Feb. 1794 

Chester and Nantwich 1780 

Chesterfield 1776 

Coventry July, 1790 

Deame and Dove 1804 

Dee River Navigation April, 1737 

Derby 1794 

Exeter 172.5 

Forth and Clyde July 28, 1790 

Grand Junction 1805 

Hartlepool 1764 

Hereford and Gloucester 1796 

Homcastle Navigation 1802 

Kennet and Avon Dec. 28, 1810 

Leeds and Liverpool Oct. 1816 

Leicester Feb. 1794 

Leicestershire and Northamptonshire Union 1800 

Leominster Nov. 1796 

Newry (Ireland) 1761 

Norwich and Lowestoft Navigation . . Sept. 30, 1833 

Nottingham 1802 

Peak Forest May 1, 18J0 

Regent's 1820 

Stover 1794 

Swansea Oct. 1798 

Tavistock 1817 

Thames and Severn Nov. 19, 1789 

Trent and Mersey May, 1777 

Ulverstone ~. 1797 



CiJTANOiiE (Hindostan). — The Portuguese 
had a fort at this town as early as 1505. They 



CAN 

were expeUed by the Dutch, who in 1664 sold 
their privileges to the native princes. It 
afterwards formed part of the empire of 
Hyder Ali. The English were repulsed 
in an attack upon Cananore in 1768, but 
it was captured by General Abercrombie in 
1790. 

Canaea (Hindostan) . — This province was 
wrested from the Hindoos by Hyder Ah in 
1763. On the death of his son Tippoo, in 
1799, it came under the rule of the East-India 
Company, and has since formed part of the 
presidency of Bombay. It is (Hvided into 
North and South Canara. 

Caktaet Isles (N. Atlantic Ocean) are 
supposed to be the Hesperides, or Fortunate 
Islands of the ancients. Their discovery in 
modern times is attributed to the crew of a 
French vessel, who were driven to their 
shores by stress of weather about 1330-4. 
Some Spanish adventurers visited them about 
the year 1395, and plundered aU the populous 
districts, carrying off as captives the king 
and queen and about seventy of the inha- 
bitants. In 1400, the king of Castile granted 
the Canaries to John de Bethencourt, a 
Norman baron, who renewed his oath and 
homage for this estate to John II. in 1412. 
In 1483 the Spaniards commenced the con- 
quest of the Canaries, which have remained 
in their possession ever since. In 1494 most 
of the Guanches, the aboriginal inhabitants 
who had escaped slavery, war, and famine, 
were carried off by a terrible pestilence. In 
1822 the Canary Isles were formed into a 
Spanish province, with the right of represen- 
tation in the Cortes. Ximenes extended the 
Inquisition to the Canaries in 1516. An 
episcopal see was estabhshed in the Canaries 
in 1404. 

Candahae. — {See Kattdahae.) 

Candia (Mediterranean), the ancient 
Crete, became a Eoman province B.C. 67. 
The capital of the island, also called Candia, 
was taken by a band of Spanish Arabs a.d . 823, 
and recovered by the Greeks under Nice- 
phorus Phocas in 961. The Venetians pur- 
chased the island Aug. 12, 1204, and took 
possession in 1205. In consequence of the 
frequent insurrections of the Candiotes, the 
Venetians, in 1243, divided the island into 
three parts; the first for the republic, the 
second for the Church, and the third for the 
colonists. Notwithstanding this, the in- 
habitants remained so turbulent, that it was 
necessary to despatch a fleet to reduce them 
to subjection, which was done in 1364. In 
1571 the Turks made a short stay in Candia, 
but soon abandoned it to prosecute their 
conquests in other directions. They retvirned 
June 24, 1645, and after a siege of twenty-four 
years, gained possession of it in 1669. In 
1830 it was ceded to the Pasha of Egypt, and 
again restored to Turkey in 1840. An in- 
surrection among the Christians of Candia, 
that broke out in 1841, was suppressed by 
the Turkish government before the end of 
the year. 

Candle (Inch of) . — At an auction by inch 
of candle, persons continued to bid whilst a 
175 



CAJJf 

small piece of candle continued to burn, the 
article being knocked down to the person 
who made the last offer before it was extin- 
guished. In excommunication by inch of 
candle, the sentence was not passed upon 
the offender if he repented before the 
piece of candle burnt out. Shakespeare 
(2 Hen. IV. ii. 4) alludes to the old custom 
practised by the amorous gallant, who 
" drinks off candles' ends for m-p-dragons." 
Nares remarks, that " as a feat of gallantry, 
to swallow a candles -end formed a more 
formidable and disagreeable iiap-dragon than 
any other substance, and therefore afforded 
a stronger testimony of zeal for the lady to 
whose health it was drunk." 

CAifBLEMAS Dat. — A festival held on the 
2nd of February, to commemorate the puri- 
fication of the Virgin Mary. Bingham 
(b. XX. c. 8, s. 5) says, "This at first among 
the Greeks went by the name of Hypapante 
YTTaTravrff, which denotes the meeting of 
the Lord by Simeon in the temple, in com.- 
memoration of which occurrence it was first 
made a festival in the church ; some say in 
the time of Justin, the emperor ; others in 
the time of his successor Justinian, anno 
542." A proclamation against carrj-ing 
candles on Candlemas was issued by Edw. VI. 
in 1548. 

Candles. — Pliny, who died a.d. 79, speaks 
of the invention of rush-lights, and ApuJeius, 
who flourished in the 2nd century, mentions 
candles of wax and tallow. Alfred the Great 
used them to measure time, 871 — ^900. Tallow 
candles did not come into general use till 
about 1300, before which time torches and 
oil lamps were most frequently employed. 
The composite candle, which does not require 
snuffing, was introduced in 1840. An attempt 
to obviate the inconvenience of snuffing was 
made in 1799. The patents of Gwynne, in 
1840, of Wilson, in 1842, and of Tighlman, 
in 1854, have led to great improvements in 
the manufacture. A duty on candles was 
first imposed bv 8 Anne, c. 9, s. 1 (1709) ; it 
was repealed from Jan. 1, 1832, by 1 & 2 Will. 
IV. c. 19, passed in 1831. 

Cajtdle STICKS. — Some of the ancient 
utensils called by this name were lamps for 
burning oil. Moses was commanded to make 
a candelabrum with six branches, of ham- 
mered gold, for the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 
31 & 32), B.C. 1491. The golden candlestick, 
which had been replaced in Solomon's temple 
by ten golden candelabra, was restored after 
the Babylonish captivity. It was taken by 
the Eomans on the capture of Jerusalem 
A.D. 70, carried ruto Africa by the Vandals 
under Genseric a.d. 455, and taken from 
them A.D. 533, by Belisarius, who removed 
it to Constantinople. It was afterwards 
transferred to Jerusalem. 

Cah-iculae Tear. — The Egyptians and 
Ethiopians began their year from the rising 
of the Cauicula, or Sirius, the Dog-Star; 
whence the term. It consisted ordanarUy 
of 365 days, to which another was added 
every fourth year. It commenced Jidy 20, 
2785 B.C. 
176 



CAJS- 

Canx^ (Battle), between the Eomans 
under Varro, and the Carthaginians under 
Hannibal, in which the former suffered a 
total defeat, was fought Aug 2, b.c. 216. 
The Eoman infantry was cut to pieces ; 
only 3,000 out of 70,000 men escaped. 

Cawu-ing ADMiifisTEATiON. — The earl of 
Liverpool having been incapacitated from 
continuing at the head of affairs by a paralytic 
stroke, with which he was seized Feb. 17, 
1827, George IV. applied to Mr. Canning, 
then secretary of state for foreign affairs, 
and after protracted negotiations, he re- 
ceived formal instructions from the king to 
form a ministry, April 10. During the 11th 
and 12th, the duke of Wellington, Lord 
Westmoreland, Lord Eldon, Lord Bexley, 
Earl Bathurst, and Mr. Peel resigned. The 
king, however, persevered, and Mr. Canning 
kissed hands April 12. Other resignations 
followed. The new ministry was composed as 
foUows : — 



First Lord of the Trea- ) 

sury and Chancellor of >Rt. Hon. 6. Canning. 

the Exchequer ) 

Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhurst. 

Pi-esident of the Coimcil . . Earl of Harrowby. 

Privy Seal Duke of Portland. 

Home Secretary Bt. Hon. W. S. Bourne. 

Foreign Secretary Viscount Dudley. 

Colonial Secretary Viscount Groderich. 

Board of Control ilt. Hon. C. W. Wynn. 

Board of Trade Et. Hon. W. Huskisson. 

Chancellor of the Duchy \, -d^^i^-^ 

of Lancaster ^^""^ ^e±iey. 

Secretary at War Lord Palmerston. 

Without office Marquis of iiansdowne. 



Lord Carlisle was gazetted privy seal, July 16, 
1827, in place of the duke of Portland, who 
retained a seat in the cabinet ; and the mar- 
quis of Lansdowne home secretary in place 
of Et. Hon. W. S. Bourne, who became first 
commissioner of woods and forests, retaining 
his seat in the cabinet. A reconstruction of 
this ministry occurred after the death of the 
Et. Hon. G. Canniag, which took place Aug. 8, 
1827. {See Godeeich Administeation-.) 

CANifOir have been long known to the 
Chinese, whose books mention them as early 
as 618 B.C. Guns to throw stones of 12 lb. 
weight a distance of 300 paces were con- 
structed A.D. 757, and at the siege of Cai- 
fong-fou, LQ 1232, round stone shot were used 
to defend the town. No credible record of 
the employment of cannon in Europe exists 
previous to 1118, when they were used by 
the Moors at the siege of Saragossa, and also 
at the defence of Niebla in 1157, and in 1312 
they appear to have been used to throw shells 
into Baza. We also know that there was a 
cannon in the arsenal of Bamberg in 1323. 
The earliest document yet discovered relative 
to the employment of cannon for siege and 
defence, is among the ordinances ot' Flo- 
rence for 1326, where metal cannon are 
appointed to be made for the defence of the 
forts and lands of Florence, and for the 
injury of her enemies. The first French 
mention of cannon is dated July 2, 1338, and 
provides ammunition for the attack on South- 



ampton, and there are also documents of 
October and December, 1339, which prove 
that Cambray was defended with artillery 
during its siege by the Enghsh. Froissart 
speaks of cannon used by the inhabitants of 
Quesnoy against the duke of Normandy in 
1340. In September, 1346, a cannon with a 
square bore was fired at Bruges ; but as a 
man was killed in the experiment, it was not 
repeated. The employment of artillery by 
the English at Cressy, in 1346, is doubtful, 
but it was certainly used at the siege of 
Calais, in 1347. In 1366 the Venetians first 
used cannon at the siege of Chioggia. In 
1378 Kichard II. attacked St. Malo with 400 
cannon, which failed to make a breach, 
though fired night and day. The first authentic 
date of the use of field-guns is 1382, when 
they were employed by the men of Ghent 
against the inhabitants of Bruges. The 
Turks first used cannon in 1394, at the siege 
of Constantinople. The use of artUlery is 
mentioned at the siege of Bourges, Etampes, 
and Melun, in 1420; of Meaux, in 1422; 
Orleans, 1428; Zurich, 1444; and again at 
Constantinople, 1453. Mohammed II. estab- 
lished a foundry at Hadrianople in 1452, where 
a piece of brass ordnance of incredible mag- 
nitude was cast expressly for the siege of 
Constantinople. Gibbon says its bore mea- 
sured twelve palms, and that the stone bullet 
weighed 600 lb. ; according to another 
authority, the bullet was double that weight. 
This gun burst during the siege. Von Ham- 
mer declared that he had seen the great 
cannon of the Dardanelles, and that it fur- 
nished a hiding-place for a tailor who had 
run away from his creditors. Horse artillery 
was introduced by Charles VIII. of France, 
about the year 1489. The invention of brass 
cannon is attributed to John Owen, in 1535. 
Iron cannon were first cast in England in 
1547. 

Cawnoitgate Maeeiages. — In the middle 
of the 18th century, couples were married 
at public-houses in the Cannongate, Edin- 
burgh, by unauthorized persons. Hence 
the term by which such marriages were 
known. 

Canonization. — Mihnan (Lat. Chris- 
tianity, book xiv. ch. 2) remarks, " Canon- 
ization has been distributed into three 
periods. Down to the 10th century the 
saint was exalted by the popular voice, the 
suffrage of the people with the bishop. In 
the intermediate period the sanction of the 
pope was required, but the bishops retained 
their right of initiation. Alexander III. 
seized into the hands of the pope alone this 
great and abused prerogative." The first 
recorded canonization by the pope is that of 
Ulric, bishop of Augsburg, who received the 
titleofsaintfrom JohnXV.,A.D. 995. In 1176, 
during the supremacy of Alexander III., 
the privilege of adding to the calendar of 
saints was vested in the pope alone. 

Canon Law is a collection of ecclesiastical 

constitutions, decisions, and rules for the 

regvdation of the Eoman Cathohc Church. It 

consists principally of ordinances of provincial 

177 



CAN 

and general councils, the decretals, bulls, and 
epistles of the papacy. The earhest of these 
rules (canones) are the Apostohcal Canons 
(q.v.). Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman monk, 
compiled a " Codex Canonum," a.d. 520, and 
the canons of the four councils of Mee, Con- 
stantinople, Ej^hesus, and Chalcedon, received 
the sanctionof Justinian A.D. 545. The Codex 
Canonum, vnth the Capitularies of Charle- 
magne, and the decrees of the popes from 
Siricius, A.D. 398, toAnastatius IV., a.d. 1154, 
formed the chief part of the canon law down 
to the 12th century. In 1114 Ivo, bishop of 
Chartres, collected the decrees made by the 
popes and cardinals, and this work was com- 
pleted by Gratian, a Benedictine monk, and 
pubhshed in 1140. Raimundus, chaplain to 
Gregory IX., pubhshed in 1234 the decretals, 
which were rescripts or letters of the popes, 
in answer to questions on ecclesiastical mat- 
ters submitted to them. The work consisted 
of five books, to which Boniface VIII. added 
a sixth in 1298. Clement V. added what were 
called the Clementines inl308,and John XXII. 
the Extravagants in 1317. To these have since 
been added some decrees by later popes, and 
the whole form what is now known as the 
" Corpus Juris Canonici," or the great body 
of the canon law received by the Church of 
Eome. The primary object of this system 
vras to estabhsh the supremacy of ecclesias- 
tical authority. It was not received in Eng- 
land, though attempts at its introduction 
were made at various times. The legatine 
and provincial constitutions formed, however, 
a kind of national canon law, adapted to the 
Enghsh church. The former were made in 
national councils held in England by Otho, 
legate of Gregory IX., in 1220 ; andby Otho- 
bon, legate of Clement IV., in 1268. These 
were edited, with a gloss, by John of Athona, 
canon of Lincoln, about 1290. The provincial 
constitutions were made in convocation of 
the clergy of the province of Canterbury, 
commencing under Stephen Langton, in the 
reign of Henry III., and ending under Henry 
Chicheley, in the reign of Henry V. They 
were collected, and edited with a gloss, by 
WUham Lyndwood, official of the court of Can- 
terbury, and afterwards bishop of St. David's ; 
and were received by the province of York, in 
convocation, in 1463. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 
(1553), it was enacted that these canons 
should be reviewed by the king and certain 
commissioners to be appointed under the 
act, and that imtil such review was made, 
aU canons, constitutions, ordinances, and 
synods provincial, being then already made, 
and not repugnant to the law of the 
land or the kiiig's prerogative, should remain 
in force. This act, repealed by 1 Phil. & 
Mary, c. 8 (1553), was revived by 1 Ehz. 
c. 1, s. 10 (1559). By 27 Hen. VIIL c. 15 
(1535), power was given to the king to ap- 
point thirty-two commissioners under the 
act of 1533. Divers urgent matters inter- 
fered to prevent the exercise of the power, 
and by 35 Hen. VIIL c. 16 (1544), power was 
given to the king to nominate them during 
his life. A commission was duly appointed, 



CAN 

but tlie death of the Idng prevented the com- 
pletion of the work. In the reign of his 
successor, Craniner renewed his efforts to 
obtain a satisfactory settlement of the ques- 
tion. By 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 11 (1549), another 
commission was ordered, and eight persons 
were appointed to prepare the materials for 
the larger commission. They were engaged 
on the work in 1552, and concluded their 
labours during the year. Various matters 
interfered to delay the ratification and estab- 
lishnient of the new code of ecclesiastical laws, 
and after the death of Edward VI., it was 
almost entirely neglected. The manuscript 
containing this code of laws, with numerous 
notes and corrections in the handwriting of 
Cranmer, is preserved amongst the Harleian 
MSS. in the British Museum. From this 
draught Archbishop Parker probably pre- 
pared the code published in 1571, under the 
title of " Eeformatio Legimi Ecclesiasti- 
carum." It was repubhshed in 1640. The 
Eev. E. CardweU has published several edi- 
tions of this remarkable work. 

Canojt of Sceiptuee consists of those 
books which are in "the rule or canon, or 
catalogue of boots authorized to be read in 
the Church," and recognized as inspired, and 
therefore authentic. The Church of Rome 
admits into the canon several books which 
neither the Primitive Church nor the Church 
of England accepts as canonical. Cyril, 
bishop of Jerusalem in the 4th century, in 
spealnng of the canonical books, mentions 
aU those in the Enghsh Bible, except the 
book of Revelation. The council of Laodicea, 
A.B. 366, forbids any but the canonical books 
to be read in the Church, and gives the 
following Hst of them : — Genesis, Exodus, 
Leviticus, If umbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, 
Judges, Ruth, Esther, four books of Kings, 
two of ParaUpomena or Chronicles, two of 
Esdras, the book of 150 Psalms, Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Job, twelve Pro- 
phets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and 
epistles of Baruch, Ezekiel, Daniel, the 
four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, 
the seven CathoHc epistles; fourteen epis- 
tles of St. Paul. "Where none of the 
apocryphal books," says Bingham, "nor the 
Revelation, are mentioned; which is a plain 
evidence that none of them were read in the 
churches of that district." Ezra collected 
the books of the Old Testament about B.C. 
444; and Simon the Just, who died about 
B.C. 291, added the two books of the 
Chronicles, Ezra, ISTehemiah, Esther, and 
Malachi, and this closed the canon of the 
Old Testament. With respect to the canon 
of the New Testament, Townsend (The Holy 
Bible in Historical and Chronological Order, 
vol. ii. p. 439) remarks : — "As the canon of 
the Old Testament was completed by Simon 
the Just, the last of the great Sanhedrin, so 
it is probable the canon of the 'New Testa- 
ment was completed either by St. John, or 
that ' disciple who might be the survivor of 
the 120, the number of the Sanhedrin, who 
met at the day of Pentecost. It is not pro- 
bable that any of these outlived St. John, 
178 



who died nearly seventy years after the 
ascension of his Divine Master." 

OLD TESTAMENT. 



Book. 


Author. 


When 

composed. 


"^rt 


Genesis , 


Moses .... 

Joshua 

Samuel ■ . 

Unknown 
Ezi-a 

Unknown 

Ezra 

Nehemia,h 
Unknown 

Job 

D.-ivid and 

others .. 

Solomon . . 

IsaVah '.'.'.'. 
Jeremiah 

Ezeicier!; 
Daniel.... 

Hosea 

Joel 

Amos 

Obadiali .. 

Jonah 

Micah .... 
Nahum . . 
Habakkuk 
Zephaniah 

Zechariah 
Malachi .. 


Beforei451 
„ 1451 
„ 1451 
„ 1451 
» 1451 
.. 1443 
„ lOSO 
„ 1060 
,. 1060 

Before 444 
„ 444 

Before 444 

3i2 

Varioiis 

times. 

Before 976 

,. 976 

950-94d 

758 

627 
About 627 

595 

604 
784-740 
877-847 

790 

580 

825 

750 
713-711 
650-627 

627 

520 

520 

410 


50 


Exodus . . 


40 










Deuteronomy 

Joshua 


34 
S4 


Judges 


21 


Ruth 


4 


1 Samuel 


31 


2 Samuel 




1 ICings 


22 


2 Kiugs 


25 


1 Chronicles 

2 Chronicles ".... 

Ezra 


29 
36 
10 


Esther 


13 
IC 


Job 


42 


Psalms 1 


150 




31 


Ecclesiastes 

Song of Solomon 

Isaiah . 


12 

8 
66 




52 


Lamentations 

Ezekiel 


5 

48 


Daniel 


12 


Hosea 

Joel 


14 
3 




9 




1 


Jonah 


4 


Micah ... 


7 




3 


Habakkuk 


3 


Zephaniah 


3 


Haggai 


2 


Zechariah .. 


14 


Malachi ... 


4 







NEW 


TESTAMENT. 




Book. 


Author. 


When 
composed. 


Chap 

ters. 


Matthew 


Matthew.. 
Mark .... 
Liike .... 

John 

Luke 

^Paul 

James 

Peter .... 

Johk. .!!.'! 

ju£..:::: 

John 


A.D. 

37 or 38 

60-63 
63 or 64 
97 or 98 
63 or 64 
57 or 58 
56 or 57 

52 or 53 

61 
62 or 63 

62 

52 

52 

64 

65 

64 
62 or 63 
62 or 63 

61 

64 

65 
68 or 69 
Uncertain 

66 
96 or 97 


28 


Mark . . 




Luke 




John 




The Acts 




Epistle to the Romans 

1 Corinthians 

2 Coiinthians 

Galatians 








PhiHppians 

Colossians 

1 Thessalonians 

2 Thessalonians 












Pbilfimnn . 




Hebrews 




1 Peter 






1 John 




2 John... 

3 John 








Eevelation 


iSt 







Canons ( Apostolical ) . — These ancient 
canons are attributed by Baronius, Bellar- 
min, and other Eoman Catholic writers, to 
the apostles. Other authorities ascribe them 
to St. Clement, whilst some declare that they 
are the forgeries of some heretic in the 6th 
century. They are seventy-six or eighty-five 
in number, according to different modes of 
division. 

Canons (the Church of England). — In 
addition to the constitutions and canons 
formerly used in the Anghcan Church, and 
noticed in the article on Canon Law, a body 
of canons, 141 in number, was drawn up by 
Bancroft, bishop of London, accepted by 
Convocation in 1604, and assented to by the 
king. They were chiefly composed of the 
older canons, a few new ones being intro- 
duced. They never received the sanction of 
Parliament, and are considered by the courts 
of common law to be binding on the clergy 
only. In 1640 Convocation formed a new 
body of canons. The House of Commons 
voted them unlawful Dec. 16, and Archbishop 
Laud, as their author, was committed to the 
custody of the usher of the black rod, Dec. 18. 
Thirteen bishops were impeached for their 
share in drawing up these canons, Aug. 13, 
1641. 

Canons (Regular and Secular) . — ^Mosheim 
states that this new species of priests, at first 
called the Lord's Brethren, and afterwards 
canons, was instituted by Chrodegang, bishop 
of Metu, in the 8th century. They formed 
an intermediate class between monks and 
regulars, and although they followed the 
discipHne and mode of life of monks, took no 
vows upon them. Canonesses were added 
in the 9th century. By the 11th century they 
had, like the other orders, become corrupted, 
and several efforts were made to effect re- 
forms. Nicholas II. was, at the council of 
Rome, April 13, 1059, to a certain extent 
successful in this object; but some communi- 
ties would not proceed so far in this direction 
as others. Hence arose the distinction be- 
tween regular and secular canons, the former 
having all things in common, whilst the latter 
had nothing in common but their dwelling 
and table. The term canon is now applied 
to a prebendary of a cathedral. 

Canons (Scottish). — Tbe book of canons 
for the Church of Scotland, drawn up by the 
Scottish bishops, was confirmed by letters 
patent under the great seal, May 23, 1635. 
It was very unpopiilar in Scotland, and was 
withdrawn by Charles I. Sept. 9, 1638. 

Canosa (Italy), the ancient Canusium, 
in Apulia, which is said to have been founded 
by the Pelasgi, submitted to the Romans 
B.C. 318, whereupon the Canusians renounced 
their aUiance vsith the Samnites, and re- 
mained faithful to Rome for many years. 
Having revolted, their city was besieged and 
their territory ravaged B.C. 89. During the 
civil war, Sylla gained a battle here B.C. 83. 
The modern city occupies the site of the 
citadel of Canusium. At a very early period 
of the Christian asra, it became the seat of a 
bishopric which was united to the arch- 
179 



CAJS 

bishopric of Bari a.d. 845. It was besieged 
by the French July 2, 1502. After repulsing 
two assaults, the Spanish garrison capitu- 
lated on honourable terms. 

Canossa (Italy). — This fortress, near 
Reggio, in Modena, was the scene of Henry 
the Fourth's humiliation to Pope Gregory VII. 
A.D. 1077. The pope had summoned the em- 
peror to appear before him at Rome to 
answer some charges brought against him by 
his subjects. Henry, in an assembly held at 
Worms in 1076, declared that Gregory was 
no longer pope. Gregory was no sooner 
informed of tMs, than he called a council in 
the Lateran, excommunicated Henry, de- 
prived him of the kingdoms of Germany and 
Italy, and released ms subjects from their 
allegiance. The emperor at first, bent upon 
resistance, was frightened by some disaffec- 
tion that revealed itself at home, and he 
crossed the Alps to submit and seek absolu- 
tion. Gregory VII. was at the time in the 
castle of Canossa, with the Countess Matilda. 
Henry IV. arrived at its gates in the depth 
of a winter of unusual severity. Three suc- 
cessive days he remained in an outer court, 
without food, in a woollen shirt and with bare 
head and-naked feet, and only on the fourth 
would Gregory admit him to his presence. 
Absolution was then granted. Henry's 
friends, disgusted at this base humiliation, 
deserted him, and, goaded by the insolence of 
Gregory, he renounced his treaty. The pope 
stmxmoned a council at Rome, March 7, 1080, 
deposed Henry IV. and elected Rodolph of 
Swabia in his place. The emperor summoned 
a council at Brixen, June 23, 1080, deposed 
Gregory, and elected Guibert in his stead, 
under the title of Clement III. Success 
crowned Henry's efforts in the field ; he 
entered Rome in 1083, after a siege of three 
years' duration, and was crowned by the new 
pope. Gregory VII. took ref ge with Roger 
Guiscard, at Salerno, where he died. May 25, 
1085. 

Canteebttey (Kent), the Roman Duro- 
vernxim, is said by Geoffrey of Monmouth to 
have been founded by Hudibras, who reigned 
about 900 B.C. Undoubtedly it existed at 
the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, 
as it is mentioned in Antonine's Itinerary, 
written about a.d. 320. At the com- 
mencement of the Heptarchy, in 455, it 
ranked as the chief city of Kent, and con- 
tinued the residence of the king till Ethelbert 
gave up his palace to St. Augustine and with- 
drew to Reculver, 597. The foundation of 
the cathedral is referred to the same date. 
Augustine became first archbishop of Can- 
terbury in 602. In 754 the town was nearly 
destroyed by fire, and in 851 it was taken by 
the Danes. Between 940 and 960 Archbishop 
Odo restored the walls and roof of the 
cathedral, which was, however, much damaged 
by the Danes, who again sacked the town 
in 1 Oil, putting Elphege, the archbishop, to 
death, on Easter Eve, March 24. In 1067 the 
cathedral was burnt down., and the work of 
restoration was reserved for Archbishop 
Lanfranc (1070—1093) and his successors, by 
N 2 



CAI? 

whom the new edifice was finished in 1130. 
The murder of Becket, which occurred on 
Tuesday, Dec. 29, 1170, rendered the city a 
resort lor pilgrims. Canterbury was repre- 
sented in parliament iu 1265. The city 
remained unpaved tUl 1477. In 1561, Queen 
Ehzabeth permitted the Protestant refugees 
from the Low Countries to worship in the 
undercroft of the cathedral. Cromwell passed 
through the town in 1651, when the cathedral 
was used as a stable by his troops. The 
hospital was founded June 9, 1791. Thom's 
riots at Boughton, near Canterbury, occurred 
May 28 to 31, 1838, and were only suppressed 
at the sacrifice of several Uves. 

Cawtekbuey (See of), was founded by 
Ethelbert a.d. 602, when Augustine became 
the first archbishop. After a long contest 
with York, the primacy of the archbishops of 
Canterbury was established at a council held 
in England from Easter to Pentecost, in 1072. 
Lanfranc, at that time archbishop, laboured 
diligently in order to secure this result. The 
archbishop is primate of all England and 
metropoHtan. In the following fist, the date 
of the appointment of each archbishop is 
given. Augustine quitted Eome in 596, 
landed in England in 597, went to France, 
and was consecrated by the bishop of Aries, 
Sunday, 'No\. 17, 597 ; returned to England 
in 598, received the pallium from Eome in 
601, and fixed the see at Canterbury in 602. 

AECHBISHOPS OP CANTEEBUET. 



CAP 



A.D. 

Augustine 602 

Lawreuce 605 

Mellitus 619 

Justus 624 

Honoriua 631 

Deusdedit, or Adeo- 

datus . 655 

Tlieodore of Tarsus 668 

Berthtuald 693 

Taetwine 731 

Nothelm 735 

Cutlibert 741 

Breogwine 759 

Jaenberht 763 

Ethelherd 790 

Wulfi-ed 803 

FleogUd 829 

Ceolnoth 830 

Ethelred 870 

Plegemund 891 

Ethelm 923 

Wulfelm 928 

Odo 941 

Dunstan 959 

Ethelgar 988 

Sigeric, or Siric .... 990 

Elfric 995 

Elphege 1006 

Lyffing, or Aelfstan 1013 

Aethelnoth 1020 

Eiidsige 1038 

Robert 1050 

Stigand 1052 

LaTLfranc 1070 

Anselme 1093 

EadulfusdeTui-biue 1114 
William de Cur- 

bellio 1123 

Theobald 1139 

Thomas Becket 1162 

Eichard 1174 

Baldwin 1184 

180 



A.D. 

Eeginald Fitz-Joce- 

line 1191 

Hubert Walter 1 1 93 

Stephen Langton . . 1207 
Richard Weather- 

shead 1229 

Edmund de Abben- 

dor, or Abingdon 1233 
Boniface of Savoy 1245 
Kobert Kilwarby . . 1272 

John Peckham 1279 

Robert Winchelsey 1294 
Walter Reynolds .. 1314 
Simon de Mepham 1328 
John Stratford .... 1333 
John de Uttord, or 

Offord 1348 

Thomas Brad wardin 1349 

Simon Mip 1349 

Simon Langham . . 1366 
William Wittlesey 1369 
Simon Sudbury, 

alias Tybold .... 1375 
William Courtenay 1381 
Thomas Ai-undel . . 1397 
Roger Walden . . 1398 
Thomas Arundel 

(again) 1399 

Hem-y Chicheley . . 1414 
John Stafford .... 1443 

John Kemp 1452 

Thomas Bourchier 1454 

John Morton 1486 

Henry Deane, or 

Denny 1501 

Wniiam Wareham 1504 
Thomas Cranmer . . 1533 
Reginald P. .le .... 15-56 
Matthew Parker . . 1559 
Ednaund Grindal . . 1.576 
JohnWhitgift . .. 1.583 
Richard Bancroft . . 1604 





A.D. 




A.D. 


George Abbot 


. 1611 


Matthew Hutton.. 


1757 


William Laud . . . 


. 1633 


Thomas Seeker 


1758 


WUliam Juxon . 


. 1660 


Hon. Frederick 




Gilbert Sheldon . 


. 1663 


ComwaUis 


1768 


William Bancroft. 


. 1678 


John Moore 


1783 


John Tmotson . . . 


. 1691 


Charles Manners 






. 1695 


Sutton 


1805 


WUliam Wake . . . 


1716 


WiUiamHowley .. 


1828 


John Potter 


. 1737 


John Bird Sumner 


1848 


Thomas Herring . 


. 1747 







Caktojn- (China) is said by native histo- 
rians to have been founded about B.C. 200. 
Its importance as the seat of foreign trade 
dates from about a.d. 700, when it was 
appointed the residence of an imperial com- 
missioner of customs. In 1517 the Portuguese 
obtained permission to trade here, and in 
1634 the Enghsh made an inefiectual attempt 
to obtain the same privilege. The original 
city was destroyed in 1650, after a siege of 
eleven months. The East-India Company 
estabhshed a factory here in 1680. Canton 
was nearly destroyed by fire ISTov. 1, 1822, 
and in September, 1833, a flood did much 
damage to Ufe and property. The forts fired 
on two Enghsh ships of war, Sept. 7, 1834 ; 
but they were speedily silenced, and amicable 
relations re-estabhshed. In consequence of 
the opposition of the Chinese government to 
the opium trade. Commissioner Lin im- 
prisoned all the Enghsh in Canton, March 22, 
1839, and kept them in confinement till 
May 4. Sir Hugh Gough reduced the town to 
subjection May 30, 1841, after a siege of eight 
days, and it was ransomed for six million 
dollars. By the treaty of Nankin, signed 
Aug. 29, 1842, Canton was made one of the 
five ports open to British commerce. The 
factories, however, were burnt down soon 
afterwards, and the Enghsh suifered greatly 
until April 6, 1847, when, having threatened 
to bombard the town, they obtained the 
execution of four miirderers of their coun- 
trymen. The Arrow, a lorcha manned by 
Chinese but commanded by an Enghshman, 
was boarded by order of Commissioner Yeh, 
Oct. 8, 1856, and as compensation was refused, 
Sir M. Seymour seized the forts on the 24th, 
and bombarded the town on the 28th and 29th. 
An allied Enghsh and French force captured 
it Dec. 29, 1857, and on Jan. 5, 1858, the 
governor and Yeh were taken prisoners. 
Yeh was sent to Calcutta on the 8th. {See 
China.) 

Cap. — The ancient Greeks and Eomans 
usually left the head uncovered, and regarded 
the Phrygian cap as a mark of barbarism. 
The Eomans gave their slaves a cap when 
they made them free. Hence the origin of 
the cap as a symbol of hberty. According 
to Diodorus Siculus (b.c. 44), the aboriginal 
British used a conical cap, which was dis- 
continued during the Eoman supremacy, and 
resumed under the Saxons, who wore head- 
coveriags of felt, wool, and sldn. After the 
Norman conquest, skull-caps were intro- 
duced, and during the 14th century both 
sexes adopted head-dresses of most extra- 
ordinary forms. It is usual to refer the 
general use of caps to the year 1449, when 



CAP 

Charles VII. of France entered Eouen ; but 
the change was probably very gradual. The 
cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy ; 
and in the 16th and 17th centuries bank- 
rupts in France were compelled to wear a 
green cap. 

Cape Breton (N". America). — This island 
is supposed to have been discovered by Se- 
bastian Cabot in 1497. In 1632 it was ceded to 
France by the treaty of St. Germain ; but the 
French did not form a settlement until 1712, 
when they called it Isle Koy ale . Th ey fortified 
Louisbourg in 1720. In 1745 it was talc en by 
the Enghsh, but restored to France by the 
treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe, Oct. 18, 1748. The 
Enghsh again took it in 1758, and it was 
finally ceded to them by the fourth article of 
the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Sidney, 
the capital, was founded in 1823. It forms 
part of the colony of Nova Scotia. 

Cape-Coast Castle (Africa). — This settle- 
ment in Guinea was estabhshed by the Por- 
tuguese in 1610 ; taken by the Dutch in 1643, 
and by the Enghsh in 1661. In 1665 it was 
besieged, though unsuccessfully, by the 
Dutch imder De Euyter. It was finally 
ceded to the Enghsh by the treaty of Breda, 
July 10, 1667. 

Cape Comokin (Hindostan) is first men- 
tioned iu the Travels of Marco Polo, pubhshed 
in 1298, and called by him Komari. 

Cape Finisteeee (Sea-fight). — Lord 
Anson and Admiral Warren defeated and 
captured a French fleet and convoy, con- 
sistrag of tldrty-two sail, under Admiral 
La Jonquiere, off this cape. May 3, l74f 
(O.S.). 

Cape Hobn (S. America) is supposed to 
have been sighted by Sir Francis Drake in 
1578. It was first doubled by Le Maire and 
Schouten in 1616, and named after the birth- 
place of the last-mentioned. 

Cape op Good Hope (S. Africa) was dis- 
covered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1486, and 
first doubled by Yasco de Gama, Nov. 19, 
1497. The Enghsh took possession iu 1620, 
but neglected to plant a settlement, and it 
remained abandoned by Europeans tiU colo- 
nized by the Dutch in 1650. Diaz named it 
the Stormy Cape, which the king of Portugal 
changed to its present appellation. {See 
Cape Town.) 

Cape St. Vincent (Sea-fights). — Sir 
George Eooke, with twenty-three men-of-war 
and the Turkey fleet under convoy, was 
attacked near this promontory, in Spain, by 
a force of 160 vessels, under Admiral Tour- 
vflle, June 16, 1693. The French captured 
or destroyed twelve Enghsh and Dutch men- 
of-war, and above eighty of the merchant- 
men. Admiral Rodney gave chase to a 

Spanish fleet in these waters, Jan. 16, 1780, 
and succeeded in capturing one 80 and 

five 74 - gun ships, on the 17th. Sir 

John Jervis, with fifteen ships of the line 
and a few frigates, defeated a Spanish fleet 
of twenty-seven men-of-war, four of which 
he captured, besides sinking others, Feb. 14, 
1797. 

Capet (House of). — Hugh Capet, count 



CAP 

of Paris, seized the crown of France on the 
death of Louis V. a.d. 987, and founded the 
third dynasty of French monarchs. He was 
crowned at Noyon by the archbishop of 
Eheims, July 1, 987. Fourteen kings of this 
line reigned before 1328, when Philip VI. 
vested the power in the house of Valois. 

Cape Town (South Africa) was founded 
by the Dutch iu 1650, and remained in their 
possession tiU captured by the Enghsh under 
Admiral Elphinstone and General Clarke, 
Sept. 16, 1795. A Dutch squadron, sent to 
recapture it,was taken byElphinstone,Aug.l7, 
1796. At the peace of Amiens (March 25, 
1802), England restored it to the Dutch. It 
was again taken by Sir Home Popham and 
Sir David Baird, Jan. 10, 1806. It was finally 
ceded to England by the treaty signed at 
London Aug. 13, 1814. An attempt made by 
government in 1849 to convert the colony 
into a penal settlement was abandoned, owing 
to the opposition of the inhabitants. The 
constitution granted to the colony of Cape 
Tovm was ofticially proclaimed July 1, 1853. 
{See Capeib Wab.) 

Cape Vebde (Africa) was discovered by 
Dinis Fernandez, a Portuguese, iu 1446. It is 
beheved to have been the Pr. Arsinarium of 
the ancients. 

Cape Vebde Islands (North Atlantic 
Ocean) were known to the ancients as the 
Gorgades. Though the rediscovery is usually 
attributed to the Genoese navigator Antonio 
de Noh, sailing in the service of Portugal, in 
144i9, Nuno Tristan is supposed to have dis- 
covered some of them two or three years 
earher. Pope Clement VII. erected them 
into a bishopric in 1532. 

Capitol, the fortress of ancient Eome, 
was founded by Tarquinius Priscus B.C. 615, 
completed by Tarquinius Superbus B.C. 533, 
and was dedicated to Jupiter by the consul 
Horatius B.C. 507. It was destroyed by 
lightning B.C. 188, by fire B.C. 83, rebuilt by 
Sylla, and dedicated by Catullus, B.C. 69; 
again destroyed by fire Dec. 19, a.d. 69, and 
rebuilt by Domitian the same year; again 
burnt 80, and restored 82. During the sack 
of Eome by Genseric, iu June, 455, the Capi- 
tol was stripped of its gold ornaments and 
roof, and abandoned to decay. Petrarch 
was crowned here April 8, 1341, 

Gapitoline Games were instituted 
B.C. 387, to commemorate the preservation 
of the Capitol from the Gatils, and revived 
by the emperor Domitian, a.d. 86. 

Capitularies, a term derived from capi- 
tula, ' little chapters,' is apphed to all laws 
passed by the Prankish kings. Guizot enu- 
merates 60 of the first race, and 152 of the 
second. Of these, no less than 65 were 
passed during the reign of Charlemagne 
(768 — 814) . HaUam considers the last capi- 
tularies to be those of Carloman in 882, 
though two have been attributed to Charles 
the Simple, who died in 921. They have been 
pubhshed at Paris. 

Cappadocia (Asia Minor).— The early 
history of this ancient state is involved in 
obscurity. Pharnaces, who held it as a fief 
181 



CAP 

of the Persian empire, is said to have founded 
the kiagdom B.C. 744. 



Assassination of the Magi Smerdis by seven 
nobles, one of whom, Anaphas, is descended 
from Phamaces. 

Perdiccas, regent of Macedon, subdues Cap- 
padocia, puts to death King Aiiarathes I., 
and invests Enmenes vrith the govern- 
ment. 

Mithxidates III., king of Pontus, seizes Cap- 
padocia and Paphlagonia. 

Cappadocia becomes subordinate to the Se- 
leucidae. 

Seleucus Nieator is slain, and Cappadocia 
regains its independence. 

Ariarathes rV. main-ies Antiochis, daughter 
of Antiochus the Great. 

Ai-iarathes V., dethroned by Holophemes, 
is restored by the Romans. 

Ariarathes V. is slain with Crassns, in battle 
against Aristonicus of Mysia. Five of his 
sons are poisoned by their mother Lao<lice, 
but the youngest escapes, and succeeds to 
the crown. 

Ariarathes VI. is put to death by his brother- 
in-law Stithridates, king of Pontus. He is 
The last king of the original dynasty. 

The Romans appoint Ariobarzanes I. king of 
Cappadocia, but he is immediately expelled 
by Mithridates. 

Sylla restores Ariobarzanes I. 

Ariobarzanes I. is again expelled. 

Ariobarzanes I. is again restored. 

Mithridates again seizes Cappadocia, which 
he is compelled to evacuate by Pompey. 

Ariobarzanes IL assists Pompey against 
CiEsar, and is slain by Cassius. 

Mark Antony deposes and puts to death 
Ariarathes VII., and appoints Archelaus 
king in his stead. 

AugustTia confers new territories on Arche- 



Tiberius invites Archelaus to Rome, and 

detains him prisoner. 
Death of Archelaus at Rome, and reduction 

of Cappadocia into a Roman province. 
A famine prevails in Cappadocia. 
Is invaded by the Huns. 
Is conquered by the Saracens, 
Is re\mited to the Empire by Basil T. 
Is conquered by the beljuMan Turks, under 

Soliman. 
Is added to the Turkish empire. 



370. 
515. 
717. 
8/6. 
1074 

1360. 



KIlfGS OF CAPPADOCIA. 



B.C. 

Datames 

Ariamnes I 

Ariarathes J. (died 

B c. 322) 

Ariai-athes II 315 

Ariamups II 

Ariarathes III 

Ariarathes IV 220 



B.C. 



Ariarathes V. Philo- 

pator 162 

Ariarathes VT 130 

Ariobarzanes 1 93 

Ariobarzanes II 63 

Ariarathes VII 42 



Cappei. (Battle), between the Eoman 
Catholics in Switzerland, and the Znrichers, 
in which the latter were defeated, amd their 
leader, Ulric Zwingh, slain, was fought 
Oct. 11, 1531. 

Cappiako (Battle). — Castruccio of Lucca 
defeated and captured Kaymond of Cordova, 
the Florentine general, at this place, on Mon- 
day, Sept. 23, 1325. 

Capbi (Mediterranean), the ancient Ca- 
preae, a small island close to Naples, and 
celebrated in ancient history as the retreat 
182 



CAP 

chosen by Tiberius, a.d. 27. He spent the 
last ten years of his life here, and built twelve 
viUas in different parts of the island. It has 
two towns, one called Anacapri, 1,600 or 1,700 
feet above the level of the sea. The inhabit- 
ants commiinicate with those of the other 
town, called Capri, by a flight of 538 steps. 
Christianity was planted in Capri in the 
earliest times, and it was made a bishopric 
in 987. The island was wrested from Napo- 
leon by Sir Sidney Smith, May 12, 1806. Sir 
Hudson Lowe and the garrison capitulated 
to Murat in 1808. 

Caps and Hats. — On the assembling of 
the Swedish diet, May 30, 1738, the house 
divided into two hostile parties, the Hats 
who opposed, and the Caps who favoured the 
alliance with Russia. Owing to the ascend- 
ancy of the foi-mer faction, war was declared 
in Aug. 1741, and continued till the peace of 
Abo, Aug. 18, 1743. Both parties were sup- 
pressed by Gustavus III. on his accession, in 
1771. 

Capua (Naples) was taken from the 
Etruscans by the Samnites, B.C. 423. In 
B.C. 216, after the battle of Cannse, Hannibal 
made it his winter quarters. The Eomans 
regained the town in B.C. 211, and signahzed 
their victory by their cruel vengeance on the 
inhabitants, aU the senators and nobles being 
put to death, and the other citizens banished 
beyond the Tiber. By the Lex Julia Agraria, 
passed b.c. 59, Capua was made a Roman 
colony, and regained a portion of its ancient 
splendour. Genseric, king of the Vandals, 
took it A.D. 456, and reduced it to a very 
low condition ; but it was not destroyed till 
840, when it was captured and burnt by the 
Saracens. The modern town was built in 
the 9th century, at about twonules' distance 
from the original site, and was fortified in 
1231. It was for many years a repubhc, 
under the nominal sovereignty of the Eastern 
empire, and afterwards formed part of the 
kingdom of Sicily. Caesar Borgia captiired 
it, and put 5,000 of the inhabitants to the 
sword, in 1501. Capua was occupied by a 
French force Jan. 23, 1799, and on the 28th 
July, in the same year, it surrendered to the 
British. The French took possession of it in 
1806. It capitulated to the Sardinian forces 
Nov. 2, 1860. Capua was made a bishopric 
about A.D. 46, and was erected into an arch- 
bishopric in 968. 

CAPtrcHi^fs. — These friars, of a reformed 
order of St. Francis, were estabhshed by 
Matthew de Baschi, in 1525. In 1528 they 
obtained a bull from Clement VII., and the 
order was fully estabhshed in 1529. They 
derived their name from the cowl (caputiumj, 
but were at first called Friars Hermits- 
Minor. Paul III. confirmed the order in 
1536, and gave them the name of Capuchins 
of the order of Friars Minor. The right of 
preaching, taken from them in 1543, was re- 
stored in 1545. They were introduced into 
France in 1573, and into Spain in 1606, but had 
no houses in England. On the estabhshmentof 
peace between England and France, April 14,: 
1629, Louis Xin. arranged that ten Capu- 



CAE 

china of Paris should go and serve Henrietta 
Maria, queen of Great Britain, in the capa- 
city of confessors. Accordingly, twelve friars, 
of whom Father Leonard, of Paris, was 
the chief, left Calais Feb. 24, 1630, On the 
24th Sept. 1636, the queen laid the founda- 
tion-stone of a Eoman Cathohc chapel, to be 
presided over by the Capuchins, and Dec. 10, 
m the same year, mass was publicly cele- 
brated in presence of the queen and court. 
On the departure of the queen to Holland, 
in 1642, the Parliament imprisoned the 
Capuchins and closed the chapel. 

Cakabine, or Cakbine. — This fire-arm, a 
small musket, was used by Mght cavalry as 
early as the 16th century. A corps of cara- 
biniers was raised in France in 1560. 

Cababobo (Battle). — This strong position, 
in Venezuela, held by 4,000 Spaniards, was 
assailed by Bolivar's army, containing a force 
of English auxiliaries, June 24, 1821. The 
armies were nearly equal in numbers, and 
the latter gained a complete victory. 

Cakabuso (Mediterranean). — This pirate 
stronghold was attacked and destroyed by 
the English fleet Jan. 31, 1828. 

Caeacas (South America) was discovered 
by Columbus during his third voyage, in 
1498. The colony was afterwards sold by 
Charles V. to the Welsers, a company of 
German merchants, who ruled so tyrannically 
that they were dispossessed in 1550, when a 
governor was appointed. Santiago de Leon 
de Caracas, the chief town, built by Diego 
Losedainl567, possesses a university, founded 
in 1778, and is the seat of an archbishopric es- 
tablished in 1803. In 1810 the colony declared 
its independence, and took the name of 
Venezuela, which was formally acknowledged 
by the Spanish Cortes, July 5, 1811. A dis- 
astrous earthquake, which occurred Mar. 26, 
1812, laid the city in ruins and destroyed 
numbers of the inhabitants, which so excited 
the superstition of the survivors, that they 
soon afterwards surrendered to the royalists. 
Independence was re-established by Bolivar, 
Aug. 26, 1813 ; and on the 17th of Dec. 1819, 
New Grenada and Caracas were united into 
a single state, under the name of Colombia. 

Caeaites, or Eeadees, a Jewish sect that 
adhere closely to the text of the Scriptures, 
and are distinguished from the Eabbins by 
their rejection of traditions. They pretend 
to be descendants of the ten tribes led cap- 
tive by Shalmaneser, B.C. 721 ; whilst others 
trace their descent from Ezra, b.c. 458, 
though it is generally believed that they did 
not make their appearance tOl the 8th cen- 
tiu*y. The Caraites exist in Turkey, Poland, 
Syria, and some parts of the East. 

Caeataggio (Lombardy) was taken by 
the Venetians a.d. 1431. In 1448 Francis 
Sforza laid siege to it, and after a hotly- 
contested battle, effected its capture Sept. 14. 
The Venetians regained possession in 1499. 
After the battle of Agnadel, May 14, 1509, 
Caravaggio and other places surrendered to 
the French. 

Caeavan. — In countries in which neither 
facility nor security is afforded to the tra- 



CAR 

veller, a number of merchants or pilgrims 
form themselves into a company for mutual 
protection. This is more particularly the 
case in the East. The first caravan is thai; 
to which the merchants belonged to whom 
Joseph was sold by his brethren, about b.c. 
1728. It consisted of a company of Ishmeel- 
ites, coming from Gilead, " with" their camels 
bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going 
to carry it down to Egypt." (Gen. xxxvii. 25.) 

Caebeeet Hiiii. (Battle).— Lord Hume 
encountered Bothwell's army at this place, 
about six miles from Edinburgh, June 15, 
1567. BothweU took to flight without strik- 
ing a blow, and Mary was taken prisoner. 

Caebowaei, or " Chaecoal-Bukkees." — 
The name given to a secret political associa- 
tion, formed in Italy at the commencement 
of the present century. Its professed aim is 
the reorganization and reform of the govern- 
ment of Italy ; and members of aU classes 
are found in its ranks. In 1814 they formed 
a plan, subsequently abandoned, of creating 
a revolution in Naples. The scheme was not 
relinquished, but deferred, and, July 2, 1820, 
a constitution was proclaimed at Nola, Saler- 
no, and other places. Ferdinand granted 
concessions; the forces of the Carbonari 
entered Naples July 9, and the king of 
Naples swore to observe the new constitu- 
tion, July 13. The emperors of Austria and 
Russia, and the prince of Prussia, met at 
Troppau, in October, and by letters dated 
November 20, invited Ferdinand to meet 
them at Laybach, where measures were 
determined for an armed interference for 
the suppression of the revolution. The Aus- 
trians entered early in 1821. Naples capi- 
tulated March 20, and the revolutionary 
parliament was closed March 24. By an 
ordinance dated April 10, any person attend- 
ing the meetings of the Carbonari was to be 
punished capitally. The society continued 
to exist, and, spreading through France, 
caused insurrections at RocheUe, Colmar, 
Toulon, and Marseilles, in 1821 ; and their 
influences are supposed to have contributed 
to the revolution of 1848 in France and Ger- 
many. The numerous outbreaks that have 
occurred in the Italian peninsula since 1821 
may all be traced, directly or indirectly, to 
the machinations of the Carbonari. 

Caecano (Battle). — The emperor Frede- 
rick I. of Germany was defeated at this place 
by the republican forces of Milan and Bres- 
cia, Aug. 9, 1160. 

Caecassokne (France), the ancient Car- 
caso, was made a bishopric in the 6th century. 
It was captured and pillaged Aug. 15, 1209, 
during the Albigensian crusade, and the 
inhabitants were expelled. The Inquisition 
was estabhshed here in 1230. 

Caedife (Wales) . — The castle is supposed 
to have been commenced a.d. 1080 and com- 
pleted in 1110. Robert, eldest son of Wil- 
liam I., taken prisoner in 1106, is said to 
have remained in the castle until his death, 
Feb. 10, 1135, though the story is discre- 
dited by some writers. Its first charter was 
granted by Edward III., in 1338. The Gla- 
183 



CAR 

morganshire Canal was finished in 1798, and 
the Taff Railway in 1840. 

Caedigan' (Wales). — The name is said to 
be derived from " Caredigion," si^ifying 
the territory of Caredig, the first king. 
Little is known of its early history. It was 
assailed by Saxons, Danes, and Normans, 
and was, with the whole of Wales, annexed 
to England in 1283. Cardiganshire has re- 
turned one member to parhament since 
1536. The castle of Cardigan, the chief 
town, was foimded in 1160, and strengthened 
in 1240. A French expedition, 1,200 strong, 
landed in Cardigan Bay, Feb. 22, 1797. They 
surrendered without o&ering any resistance, 
Feb. 24, while two frigates that had accom- 
panied the expedition were captured on the 
way back to France. 

Caedik Ai . — This title, in early times, was 
apphed to any bishop, priest, or deacon, in 
office. It probably commenced with the 
cardinal priest or presbyter, and, though 
modest in its origin, has, as Gibbon remarks, 
"aspired to emulate the purple of kings." 
There were several cardinal presbyters in 
the same church, and they are not noticed 
before the time of Gregory the Great (590 — 
604) . The word cardinal was long of dubious 
import. Stephen TV. (768—772) is said to 
have elected seven bishops, to whom he gave 
the title of cardinal. Nicolas II., at a coun- 
cil at Rome, April 13, 1059, ordered that 
cardinals should elect the pope, though he 
did not exclude the clergy, &c.,froin a share 
in the election. The cardinals, however, 
struggled to obtain the sole power, and, 
after various altercations, Alexander III., 
at the third council of Lateran (the eleventh 
general council) , March 5 to 19, 1179, trans- 
ferred the election of a pope to the college of 
cardinals. From this time the cardinals have 
gradually attained the supremacy they now 
exercise as princes of the Church. The 
nimiber of cardinals having before varied 
considerably at different periods, was fixed 
by the buUof Sixtus V., in 1586, at seventy; 
six being bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen 
deacons. The red hat was first assumed at 
the thirteenth general council, held at Lyons, 
June 28 to July 17, 1245, by permission 
of Innocent IV. Boniface VIII. (1294^ 
1303) allowed them to wear the purple 
cloak, and Paul III. (1534—1549) allowed 
them to wear the red cap. Their style was 
altered from " Most Illustrious " to "Emi- 
nence" by Urban VIII., Jan. 10, 1630. 

Caedis (Peace) was concluded between 
Russia and Sweden in 1661. A truce for 
three years had been signed in 1658, and the 
treaty of peace of Cardis was a renewal of 
the treaty of Stolbova, in 1617. 

Caeds, originally derived from India, were 
introduced into Europe by the Saracens. 
They are noticed in Europe as early as 1275, 
and were known in England before 1464. 
Rodolph I. is said to have amused himself 
with playing cards, and mention of them 
occurs in German works between the years 
1286 and 1384. They were used in Italy in 
1299. The invention has long been erro- 
184 



CAR 

neously attributed to the French, who, in 
1392, are said to have tried this means of 
amusing Charles VI. in the intervals of his 
terrible malady. A duty was first placed 
upon them in this country, by 9 Anne, 
c 23, s. 39 (1710). Dr. Buchan explains 
the number of cards in a pack, &c., in 
the following manner : — " The whole nvun- 
ber of cards in a pack, fifty-two, is equal 
to the number of weeks into which the 
year is divided; and the number of cards 
in each suit, viz. thirteen, is equivalent to 
the niunber of weeks contained in each 
quarter of the civil year. The number of 
spots or pips upon one suit is 55, which, 

" Jfultiplied by 4, give 220 

Pips upon pictured cards 12 

Honours, couuted at ten each 120 

Number of cards in each suit 13 

Total 365 

The precise number of days contained in the 
solar year." 

Caeia (Asia Minor). — The Carians claimed 
to be the original inhabitants of the country. 
This view is, however, disputed. They are 
supposed to have been subject to Minos, 
king of Crete. The Dorians and the lonians 
formed colonies on their territory. The 
Carians contributed seventy ships to the 
great armada of Xerxes, B.C. 480. The 
country was ruled over by the Lydians, 
the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, 
who divided it, giving part to the king of 
Pergamus and the remainder to the Rho- 
dians, B.C. 190. The Romans added Caria 
to their province of Asia, B.C. 129. Caria 
was the sixth ecclesiastical province of Asia 
Minor. St. John the Evangelist is said to 
have converted its inhabitants to Chris- 
tianity. It now forms part of the Ottoman 
empire. 

Caeibbee IsLAifDS (Atlantic). — The Wind- 
ward and Leeward Islands, called also the 
Lesser AntOles, are known by this name. It 
is derived from the Caribs, an aboriginal 
tribe of America, distinguished from the 
other tribes by their atliletic stature and 
superior courage. {See West Iitdies.) 

Caeical (Hindostan). — This strong for- 
tress, held by the French, was invested 
April 2, 1760, and surrendered April 5. By 
the 14th article of the treaty of Versailles 
(Sept. 3, 1783), Carical was delivered up 
and guaranteed to France, in the possession 
of which country it stiU remains. 

CAEiG?fAU- (Italy). — This town was be- 
sieged by the French early in the spring of 
1544, and surrendered after the victory over 
the Spaniards, gained near Cerisoles, April 14, 
in the same year. 

Caeisbeoob: Castle (Isle of Wight). — A 
castle was built at Carisbrook, formerly the 
capital of the island, according to Dr. Stukely, 
by Carausius, about B.C. 290. This was re- 
built by Richard de Rivers, earl of Devon, 
in the reign of Henry I., and Elizabeth 
repaired it in 1598. The French, who had 
taken possession of the island, besieged it in 



CAR 

vain in 1377. Charles I. was imprisoned 
here, Nov. 14, 1647. He endeavoured to 
escape, Dec. 28, but was prevented, and 
remained in the castle tiU the end of 1648. 
Elizabeth, his daughter, died here Sept. 8, 
1650, in her 15th year. A tablet to her 
memory has been erected in Newport church 
by Queen Yictoria. 

CAEiiAVEKOCK (Scotland). — This castle, on 
the Nith, was captured by Edward I., be- 
tween the 6th and 12th of July, 1300. The 
siege forms the subject of a contemporary 
poem, of which Sir N. H. Nicolas published 
a translation in 1828. 

Caklisle (Cumberland) was destroyed 
by the Danes about 900 a.d. WiUiam II. re- 
stored it 1093, and founded its castle. Car- 
lisle suffered greatly during the border wars, 
was destroyed by m-e in 1292, and resisted a 
siege by Edbert Bruce ia 1315. A parha- 
ment was held here July 1, 1300. Rich- 
ard III. extended the castle, and Henry VIII, 
ordered the citadel to be built. The bishopric 
was founded April 11, 1132, and the first bishop 
was consecrated in August, 1133. Carlisle 
remained faithful to the cause of Charles I., 
was repeatedly assailed by the republican 
forces, and finally captured, after a long 
siege, July 2, 1645. The Pretender's forces 
obtained possession Nov. 15, 1745, the gar- 
rison having capitulated the day before. It 
was retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 
Dec. 30, in the same year. 

Caelisle Administeation. — The earl of 
Carlisle was appointed first lord of the Trea- 
sury, May 23, 1715, to supply the vacancy 
caused by the death of the earl of Halifax. 
The other members of the Halifax adminis- 
tration continued in office. The duke of 
Montrose gave np the seals of office Aug. 5 ; 
the earl of Sunderland was made lord 
privy seal Aug. 20, and the dukes of Argyle 
and Roxburgh were appointed members of 
the cabinet council, Aug. 31, 1715. It 
was dissolved in Oct. 1715. (See "Wal- 
pole's (First) Administeatiok.) 

Caelow (Ireland) . — The castle was found- 
ed by the English in the 12th century. Car- 
low was made a borough in 1208, and fortified 
in 1362. The Irish rebels were defeated near 
this town with great slaughter, May 24, 
1798. The railroad from Dublin was opened 
Aug. 10, 1846. 

Caelowitz (Treaty), concluded Jan. 26, 
1699, between Turkey, and Germany, Po- 
land, Russia, and Venice. The Turks, for 
the first time, sought to enter into diploma- 
tic relations with the European powers, and 
ambassadors from Austria, Poland, and 
Russia assembled at Constantinople to ratify 
this treaty. 

Caelsbad (Bohemia). — This town has 
been celebrated for its mineral springs 
from a very early period. The first spring, 
the Sprudel, was, according to , tradition, 
discovered by Charles IV., in 1370, during 
a hunting excursion. A congress of German 
powers was held at Carlsbad, Aug. 1, 1819, 
for the purpose of considering what mea- 
sures were necessary to prevent the spread 



CAR 

of revolutionary principles in Germany. It 
endeavoured to suppress secret societies and 
to estabhsh the censorship of the press. 

Caelseuhe (Germany), the capital of 
the grand-duchy of Baden, was founded by 
the margrave Charles WfiJiam, who made 
it his hunting-seat, in 1715. A new palace 
was commenced in 1751. A revolution oc- 
curred at Carlsruhe May 14, 1849. The 
town was occupied by the troops of the 
confederacy, June 23, when the insurrec- 
tion was suppressed. 

Caemathians. — ^A branch of the Shiite 
sect, founded by an Arabian preacher, who 
assumed the name of Carmath. He first 
appeared in Cafa about 890 a.d . Gibbon says 
(eh. lii.) that he "assumed the lofty and 
incomprehensible style of the Guide, the 
Director, the Demonstration, the Word, the 
Holy Ghost, the Camel, the Herald of the 
Messiah, who had conversed with him in a 
human shape, and the representative of 
Mohammed the son of Ali, of St. John the 
Baptist, and of the angel Gabriel." The 
Carmathians, after a sanguinary struggle, 
obtained the supremacy in the province of 
Bahrein, in 900. They conquered Syria and 
Mesopotamia in 902, pillaged Mecca in 929, 
and carried away the Caaba. The Car- 
mathians soon after separated into factions, 
and their power decUned. (See Assassins.) 

Caemel. Elnights of the order of Our 
Lady of Mount Carmel. — This order was 
founded in 1607, by Henry IV. of France. 
Paul V. confirmed it in July, 1608, when it 
was annexed to the order of St. Lazarus of 
Jerusalem. In 1645 this arrangement was 
confirmed by Pope Innocent X., and the 
order was named KnigMs of our Lady of 
Mount Carmel and of St. John of Jerusa- 
lem. The \miform of the order was settled 
in 1695. In 1779 the two orders were again 
separated, and St. Lazarus took the prece- 
dence in rank. Our Lady of Mount Carmel 
holding a secondary station, and being an- 
nexed to the pupils of the Ecole MOitaire. 
These orders may now be considered extinct, 
as they have not been conferred since the 
return of Louis XVIII. to the throne of 
France, July 8, 1815. 

Caemelites. — This religious order of St. 
Mary of Mount Carmel was founded in the 
12th century. The Carmelites themselves 
claim an unbroken succession from Elijah, 
and speak of the Virgin Mary as a Carmehte 
nun. About 1205, Albert, patriarch of 
Jerusalem, prescribed a rule for them, 
which was confirmed by Honorius III. in 
1226. They were driven from Syria by the 
Saracens in the 13th century, and became 
mendicant friars in 1247. They came to 
England in 1240, and had forty houses in 
this country. Gregory XIII. divided them 
into two branches in 1580, according to a 
reform projected by St. Theresa in 1540, 
the more rigid being called Barefooted Car- 
melites, because they went barefooted. 
During the latter half of the 17th century 
the antiquity of the order was disputed by 
the Jesuits : and the quarrel became so vio- 
185 



CAE 

lent, that Innocent III. put an end to it, 
Nov. 20, 1698. The Carmelite nuns, or Car- 
melitesses, were instituted in 1452. 

Caekatic (Hiadostan). — This province 
was conquered by the Mohammedans a.d. 
1-310. Nizam ul Mulk wrested it from the 
Mongol empire in 1717. Anwar ud Deen was 
made nabob of the Carnatic by Nizam ul 
Mulk, and his son, Mohammed Ali, was put 
in possession of part of his father's terri- 
tories by the British in 1754, after a hard 
struggle with opposing claimants, who were 
aided by the French. After various re- 
verses, it was again surrendered to Mohammed 
AM in 1763, and in 1783 it was wrested from 
Hyder and Tippoo Saib by the British, who 
obtained the whole province by treaty in 
1801. The last nabob died without issue in 
1855, and with him was extinguished one of 
the Hindoo Mohammedan dynasties. 

Carnival, or "FAEEWELii to Flesh," a 
festive season observed in Eoman Catholic 
countries. It commences on the day of the 
Epiphany (Twelfth-day), and terminates on 
Ash- Wednesday. It is an imitation of some 

Eortion of the pagan festival of the Saturna- 
a, and has existed from a remote period. 
Carolina (United States) is supposed to 
have been discovered by John Ponce de Leon 
in 1512, though some writers say that its 
coasts were explored by Sebastian Cabot 
in 1498. In 1564 the French built a foi-t 
here ; but they were expelled bythe Spaniards. 
The colony of Eoanoake was planted in this 
part of America by Ealeigh in 1584. The 
experiment having failed, another attempt 
was made in 1587, with no better results. In 
1630 Sir Eobert Heath, attorney-general of 
Charles I., obtained from that monarch a 
grant of the district of Carolana, which, 
though distinct from Carolina, included most 
of that province in its hmits. The first 
settlements were made in 1660, by emigrants 
who lied from Virginia to escape religious 
persecution ; and from them the colony re- 
ceived the name of Albemarle. By a charter 
of March 24, 1663, Charles II. conferred it 
upon Lord Clarendon and others, from 
whom it received the name " Carohna," about 
1675. Charlestown was founded in 1680. 
The original constitution of the colony, 
which had been prepared by John Locke, 
was abandoned in 1693. The culture of rice 
was introduced in 1695. The Church of 
England was estabhshed by law in 1704. In 
1719 the colonists threw off the proprietary 
government, and in May, 1729, the EngUsh 
parhament purchased the province of the 
lords proprietors for the sum of £17,500. 
In virtue of this arrangement, George II. 
immediately divided it into the two govern- 
ments of North and South Carolina. In 1738 
a dangerous insurrection of negroes was 
suppressed. The Cherokees held a confer- 
ence with the governor of South Carolina in 
1755, and ceded an immense territory to the 
British, which enabled the colonists to extend 
their settlements farther icdand. Disagree- 
ments resulted, however, and in 1760 the 
Cherokees commenced hostilities, and intro- 
186 



CAE 

duced aU the horrors of Indian warfare into 
the province. In 1769 both divisions of the 
colony declared their opposition to the 
English government in reference to the 
Stamp- Act question, and in 1771 about 1,500 
insurgents, called "regulators," took up 
arms, and were defeated at Almansee by 
Governor Tryon, May 16. In 1780, Sir Henry- 
Clinton led an expedition against South 
Carolina, and after taking Charlestown, May 
12, returned to New York early in June. 
South Carolina was admitted into the Union 
May 23, 1788, and North Carolina Nov. 27, 
1789. {See United States.) 

Caeoline Books. — These four books were 
written by order of Charlemagne against 
images, and to refute the decree on this 
subject of the second council of Nice, a.d. 787. 
They were read before the council at Frank- 
fort-on-the-Maine in 794, by order of Char- 
lemagne. Eoger Hoveden attributes the 
authorship to Alcuin. They were first pub- 
lished at Paris in 1549. 

Caeooe (Hindostan). — This fortress was 
taken by Lang, April 2, 1783 ; and by General 
Meadows in June, 1790. 

Caepets have been in use from the earliest 
times, and are frequently mentioned in the 
Bible. Plato the philosopher draws the 
distinction between the coverings placed 
round the couch and under it, whilst his 
name-sake, the comic poet, speaks of 
" purple - cushioned couches." Athenaeus 
states that the art of weaving embroidered 
cloths was in great perfection about this 
time. Sophron speaks of coverlets embroi- 
dered with figures of birds, as being of great 
value. Homer calls these cloths spread on 
the ground, white, neither dyed nor embroi- 
dered. Carpets were found in the ruins of 
Pompeii. Carpets were introduced into 
Spain from the East, and from Spain they 
passed into France and England. When 
Eleanor of Castile, wife of Prince Edward, 
afterward king, arrived in London, 1255, the 
rooms of her abode were covered with carpet. 
They were used generally in the palace dming 
the reign of Edward III. This is spoken of 
as a Spanish custom, and one that excited 
much ridicule among the English people. 
Bedroom carpets occur in 1301. Turkey 
carpets were advertised for sale in London in 
1660. The mamifacture of carpets was in- 
troduced into France by Colbert in 1664. 
A mani*factory was opened in England 
during the reign of Henry VIII. ; but this 
branch of industry was not permanently 
established until 1685, when artisans, driven 
from France by the revocation of the edict 
of Nantes, flocked to this country. Brussels 
carpets were introduced into Eidderminster 
from Tournay in 1745. 

Caepi (Battle). — Prince Eugene, at the 
head of the imperiaHsts, defeated Marshal 
Catinat and the French army at this place, 
in Italy, Aug. 1701. 

Cakpoceatians. — The followers of Carpo- 
crates, a native of Alexandria, who in the 
2nd century revived several Gnostic errors. 
He rejected the Old Testament and the gos- 



CAE 

pels of St. Matthew and St. Luke; denied the 
resurrection of the dead, and advocated the 
most licentious mode of life. Mosheim calls 
him "the worst of aU the Gnostics." 

CAEEHiE (Mesopotamia). — The modern 
Harran is supposed to be the Haran whence 
Abraham departed, B.C. 1921 (Gen. xii. 4), 
Crassus was defeated here by the I^rthians, 
B.C. 53, with the loss of the larger part of 
the Eoman army. CaracaUa was assassinated 
on a pilgrimage he had undertaken from 
Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon 
at Carrhse, March 8, 217 a.d. 

Cabeiages of various kinds were used by 
ancient nations. The horse litter preceded 
the introduction of carriages into this coun- 
try. The earliest carriages used by the ladies 
of England were called wMrlicotes. Long 
waggons, for the conveyance of passengers 
and goods, went between London and some 
large towns in 1605. They were, however, 
even at this time, but little used, the princi- 
pal traffic of the country being carried on by 
means of pack-horses. The long waggons, or 
machines, were followed by the waggon-coach, 
which was superseded by stage-coaches. The 
principal modern vehicles are noticed imder 
their ordinary names. (See Stage Cab- 
eiages.) 

Caeeickpeegits (Ireland).— John de 
Courcy planted a colony here a.b, 1182, and 
built a castle. The town was taken and burnt 
by ISTiall O'Neill in 1384. In 1497 a monastery 
of Franciscans was founded. The English 
suifered a defeat herein 1503, and in 1597 the 
governor, with many others, was slain by 
some Scottish troops under Sir James Mae- 
Donnell. WiUiam III. landed here June 14, 
1690. The French admiral Thurot took 
the town Feb. 28, 1760 ; but was very soon 
compelled to evacuate it ; and Paul Jones 
captured a British sloop of war in the bay, 
AprU 24, 1778. 

Cabbocium. — The invention of this vehi- 
cle is usually ascribed to Eribert, archbishop 
of Milan, about 1040 a.d. It was drawn by 
oxen, had a lofty pole, surmounted with a 

f olden banner, and decorated with a white 
anner. A crucifix was fixed in the middle 
of the pole. The carrocium, used at first 
in the civil wars of Milan, was adopted 
throughout Italy, and appeared in every 
army, guarded by a chosen band, to inspire 
courage in the combatants. 

Cabbonade. — This piece of carriage ord- 
nance, invented by General K. MelviUe, 
takes its name from the Carron ironworks, 
where it was first cast in 1779. A trial of a 
hundred-pounder carronade was made at the 
Leith battery, Oct. 6, 1781. The residt was 
satisfactory. They were first used in action 
by Lord Eodney, in his contest with De 
Grasse, April 12, 1782. Allen (" Battles of 
the British Navy ") remarks, under 1800, that 
" at the commencement of this century, ear- 
ronades were in general use in all classes of 
ships." 

Cabthage. — According to the legend 
followed by the poet Virgil in the Mneid, 
Carthage was founded by Dido, or Elissa, 



CAR 

daughter of a king of Tyre. Her brother 
Pygmalion, at that time king, murdered 
her husband for the sake of his treasures, 
with which Dido, accompanied by several 
noble Tyrians, managed to escape. Having 
touched at Cyprus, from which island her 
followers carried off eighty maidens to be 
their wives in their new home, they landed 
on the coast of Africa, near Utica, a Phoeni- 
cian city. From the natives they obtained 
for an annual tribute as much land as a 
bull's hide would encompass. Dido cut the 
bull's hide into small shreds, and thus ob- 
tained a large tract of territory. The new 
city, called Byrsa, was afterwards the citadel 
of Carthage. This event has been assigned 
to different periods, ranging from 140 to 65 
years before the foundation of Eome. There 
can be little doubt that Carthage was a 
colony of Tyre. It may, as some authorities 
suppose, have been at fij:st an emporium 
estabhshed by the merchants of Utica and 
of Tyre. At any rate, it speedily became 
important and concluded a commercial 
treaty with Eome B.C. 503, 



Dido foTinds Carthage. 

A commercial treaty is concluded with the 
EomaBS. 

Gelon defeats the Carthaginians, and slays 
their general, Hamilcar, at Himera, in 
Sicily. 

The Carthaginians again invade Sicily. 

They take Agrigentum, in Sicily, after a siege 
of about eight months. 

The Carthaginians are defeated in Sicily, and 
return to Carthage. 

The Carthaginians, under the younger Ha- 
milcar, return to Sicily, and, after many 
victories, lay siege to Sjrracuse, which they 
are compelled by a pestilence to abandon. 

Dionysius defeats the Caithnglnians in Sicily, 
and compels them to sue for peace. 

SicUy is again invaded by the Carthaginians, 
who efifect a landing in Italy. 

Second commercial treaty with the Eomans. 

Discovery and suppression of Hanno's con- 
spiracy to mastacre the senate and establish 
a despotism. 

Timoleon defeats the Carthaginians on the 
banks of the Crimesus, in Sicily. 

Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily, is defeated at 
Himera, and invades Carthage. 

Bevoluiionaiy conspii'acy of Bomilcar. 

Third commercial treaty with Rome. 

First Punic war. 

The Bomans.uiiderthe consul Duillius, defeat 
the Carthaginians in a sea-fight off Tyn- 
daris. 

Eegulus is defeated and made prisoner in 
Africa, by the Carthaginian leader Xan- 
tippus, the Spartan. 

Metellus defeats Hasdruhal, and the Cartliii- 
ginians send Kegulus to Rome to sue for 
peace. 

Kegulus urges his countrymen to prosecute 
their conquest of Carth.ige. and returns 
to his captors, by whom he is cruelly 
executed. Defeat of the Romans at Lily- 
boeum. 

Hamilcar Barcas becomes the Caithaginian 
leader. Birth of Hannibal. 

Lutatius defeats the Carthaginians, who are 
compelled to sue for peace, which ends the 
first Punic war. The mercenaiy troops 
rebel, but are defeated by Hamilcar. 

Hamilcar Barcas invades Spain, and subjects 
many of the native tribes to Carthage. 
187 



CAR 



229. Hamilcar falls in battle against the Vetrones. 

Hii son-in-law Hasdrubtl succeeds him, 

and fouuds New Carthage, now Carthagena. 
221. Assassination of Hasdrubal, who is succeeded 

by Hannibal. 
219. Hannibal is victorious in Spain. 
218. Hannibal invades Italy, and begins the second 

Punic war. He defeats the Eomans at 

Ticinus and Trebia. 
217. Hannibal wins the battle of Tbrasymene. 
216. Aug. 2. Hannibal defeats the Eomans at 

Canna. 
210. Publius Scipio takes New Caxthage. 

207. Defeat and death nf Hannibal's brother 

H,tsdrubal, near the Metaums. 

208. Scipio expels the Carthaginians from Spain. 
204. Scipio besieges Utica. 

203 Hannibal returns to Carthage. 

202. Battle of Zama. Scipio utterly defeats the 
Carthaginians, who lose 40,000 men, killed 
or made prisoners, the Roman loss being 
2,000 men. 

201. Peace puts an end to the second Punic war. 

174, Koman embassy at Carthage, to inguire into 
the conduct of Masinissa, king of Numidia. 

149. Third Punic war. 

146. July. Scipio Africanus destroys Carthage by 
order of the Roman senate. 

123-. Carthage rebuilt, and established as a Roman 

Qolony. 
46. Julius Cassax plans the restoration of Car- 
thage. 
19. Augustus sends thither 3,000 colonists. 

A.D. 

215. Is erected into a bishopric. 

439. Is taken by the Vandal Genseric. 

533. Is recaptured by Belisarius, by whom it is 

named Justiniana. 
698. Is taken and destroyed by the Saracens under 



Councils were held at Carthage in the following 
years :— 200, 217, 251, 2.52, 253, 254, 255, 256, 312, 330, 
348 or 349, 386, 390, 397, 398. 401, 403, 404. 405, 407, 
408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 416, 417, 418, 419, 425, 484, 525, 
and 535. 

Caethagewa (South America), the 
capital of a province of the same name, in 
New Granada, was founded by Pedro de 
Heredia, in 1532, and was taken by Sir 
Francis Drake in 1586. Admiral Temon 
attacked it March 9, 1741. After some 
temporary success, the siege was raised 
April 14. The town was again cannonaded 
on the 16th, but without any decisive result. 
A large portion of the town was destroyed 
by an earthquake, ISTov. 9, 1761. During 
the revolutionary war in South America, 
Carthagena was captured by the royahsts, 
after a siege of four months' duration, 
Dec. 6, 1815. It was retaken by the repub- 
licans Sept. 25, 1821. An episcopal see, under 
the metropohtan of Santa Fe, was estab- 
hshed here in 1537. 

CAETHAGEifA (Spain), the ancient Car- 
thago 2foTa, was founded by Hasdrubal, the 
son-in-law of Hamilcar Barcas, B.C. 229. It 
was celebrated for the rich silver-mines in 
the neighbourhood. Hannibal made it his 
winter quarters b.c. 218. Scipio Africanus 
took it B.C. 210. Christianity was intro- 
duced into this city duinng the 1st century. 
Among the signatures at the first council of 
Tarragona, a.d. 516, is that of Hector, 
bishop of Carthagena. The Yandals devas- 
tated the place in 428, and the Goths de- 
stroyed it in the 6th century ; after which 
188 



CAE 

the see was removed to Bigastro. It was, 
however, restored, and in 1291 the bishop 
obtained permission to transfer it to Murcia. 
The modern Carthagena was taken by Sir 
John Leake, June 13, 1706 (O.S.), but was 
retaken by the duke of Berwick, Nov. 18 
(N.S.), in the same year. The port was 
blockaded by an English fleet in 1758, and 
again in 1805. The French took possession 
of Carthagena in 1823. 

Caethtjsians. — This order of monks, a 
branch of the Benedictines, was instituted by 
Bruno of Cologne, canon ofEheims, a.d. 1080. 
Their first monastery was at Chartreux, or 
Chartreuse, in France, and from this their 
estabhshments in England were called Char- 
treuse or Charter-houses. The customs and 
usages of the order were committed to 
writing by Guigo in 1110, and were confirmed 
by Alexander III. about 1174. They were 
frequently altered, and a complete code was 
compiled in 1581, and this was approved by 
Innocent XI. in 1688. All houses of the order 
were placed under the control of the prior 
of the Grand Chartreuse in 1508. The Car- 
thusians came into England in 1180 or 1181, 
and their first house was at Witham, in 
Somersetshire. They had only nine houses 
in this country. The Charterhouse in 
London was one of their monasteries. It is 
the only order which has never required 
reform. There were nuns of this order. In 
1775 they had, however, but five houses in 
the world; viz. at Premol, near Grenoble, 
founded in 12-34; at Melan, in Savoy, in 
1288 ; at Salette, on the Ehone, in 1299 ; at 
Gosn^, in the diocese of Arras, in 1308 ; and 
at Bruges, in 1344. 

Caktooi^s are large drawings made in 
chalk or body-colour, preparatory to the 
completion of any important work in oil or 
fresco. The most celebrated are those of 
Eaphael, executed as designs for tapestry by 
order of Leo X., dxiring the two last vears 
of the painter's Hfe (1519-20). They were 
originally twenty-five in number ; but only 
seven now remain; of which the subjects are, 
" Christ's Charge to St. Peter," "The Mi- 
raculous Draught of Fishes," "Elymas 
struck blind," " The Heahng of the Cripple 
at the Beautiful Gate," "The Death of 
Ananias," " The Sacrifice at Lystra," and 
"Paul preaching at Athens." On the re- 
commendation of Eubens, Charles I. pur- 
chased them in Flanders in 1629. 

Cakts. — These carriages on two wheels 
were used for agricultural purposes in very 
early times, and appear to have been intro- 
duced into this island by the Eomans. Carts 
of war, a pecuhar kind of artillery, are de- 
scribed in an act of the parhament of Scot- 
land in 1456; and by another act, in 1471, 
the chieftains are ordered to provide them 
for use against the Enghsh. 

Caewak (Hindostan). — The Enghsh esta- 
bhshed a factory here a.d. 1663. It did not, 
however, prove prosperous. The fort of 
Carwar was taken by Carpenter in 1783, and 
was ceded to the East-India Company in 
1779. 



CAS 

Casein, or Caswebn (Persia), was founded 
by Shapoor Zoolaetaf, a.d. 154. Until the 
aecessioa of Shah Abbas, in 1582, it was the 
capital of the Sooffee dynasty, and it is stiU a 
town of considerable size and commerce. 

Cashel (Ireland) was erected into a 
bishopric at a very early period, but no 
certain record of the episcopal succession 
remains earher than a.d. 901. The cathedral is 
said to have been built in the 11th century. 
In 1152 the see was made archiepiscopal 
by Pope Eugenius III. ; and in 1172 the 
great synod of Cashel acknowledged the 
civil authority of the king of England and 
the ecclesiastical superiority of the Anglican 
church. In 1179 the city was destroyed by 
fire ; but it was soon rebuilt, and in 1223 was 
erected into a borough. The abbey was 
founded about 1260, by David MacCarweU. 
In 1498 the earl of Eoldare set fire to the 
cathedral, and ravaged the town, in conse- 
quence of a disagreement with the arch- 
bishop. Charles I. erected this borough into 
a city in 1640, and during the EebeUion the 
inhabitants espoused his cause imtil 1647, 
when the royalist garrison was expelled with 
great slaughter. Since the Eevolution in 
1688, Cashel has lost much of its importance. 
The cathedral was unroofed in 1752, and is 
now a ruin. By the Church Temporahties 
Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, s. 32 (Aug. 14, 
1833), the see was again made a bishopric, in 
connection with Waterford, Lismore, and 
Emly, and on the death of Archbishop Law- 
rence, in 1838, the proposed change was 
carried into efiect. 

Cashmeee (Asia). — This country, in the 
valley of the Himalaya, supposed to be the 
ancient Caspiria, in which the city of 
Caspatyrus, mentioned by Herodotus, was 
situated, feU under the Mohammedan rule 
in the 16th century. It was annexed to the 
Afighan empire in 1754. The Sikhs con- 
quered it in 1819, and ceded it to the East- 
India Company by the fifth article of the 
treaty of Lahore, concluded March 9, 1846. 
It was transferred to the Maharajah Grholab 
Singh, who was made an independent prince 
as a reward for his fideUty, by a treaty con- 
cluded at JSTeuritzur, March 16, 1846. Cash- 
mere is celebrated for its shawls, which are 
of beautiful texture, and have been sold in 
London at prices as high as from 400 to 500 
guineas each. They are made from the hair 
of the Thibet goat. The capital of the 
country, also called Cashmere, or Sirinagur, 
the ancient Caspatyrus, is said to have been 
founded by Pravaraseva, who reigned from 
A.D. 128 to 176. It stands on the river Jhelum. 

Casilixtjm (Italy). — This town, situated 
on the river Vulturnus, was occupied by 
Fabius B.C. 217, and held by the Eomans 
after their defeat at Cannae, until the garri- 
son was reduced by famine, B.C. 215. The 
Eomans regained possession B.C. 214. Narses 
defeated the Pranks and Alemanni-at Casili- 
num A.D. 554. The modern town of Capua 
is built upon its site. 

Cassako (Battles). — Prince Eugene, at 
the head of the imperialists, encoxmtered 



CAS 

the French, led by the duke of Vendome, at 
this town, on the Adda, Aug. 16, 1705. Both 
sides claimed the victory. Suwarrow, with 
an army composed of Eussian and Austrian 
troops, assailed the French in the neighbour- 
hood of Cassano, April 27, 28, and 29, 1799. 
The latter lost 2,000 killed and 3,000 pri- 
soners, with thirty guns; and Moreau at 
once withdrew from Lombardy. 

Cassatiob- (Court of) .—This tribunal, to 
revise the sentences of inferior courts, was 
established at Paris by the National Assembly 
iu 1790. The chamber in which it is held 
was redecorated by Peyxe in 1810. 

Cassel (Germany).— The capital of Hesse- 
Cassel, founded towards the end of the 9th 
century, was a place of httle importance 
until it became a refuge for the French Pro- 
testants, who commenced the Ober Neustadt, 
or JSTew Town, in 1688. In 1760 it was taken 
by the French ; was besieged by Count Lippe 
iu 1761 ; and by Prince Ferdinand, by whom it 
was taken, Nov. 1, 1762. The fortifications 
were destroyed in 1767. It was occupied by 
the French in 1806, and formed the capital 
of the kingdom of Westphalia, vmder Jerome 
Bonaparte. 

Cassiteeides.— These islands, famous for 
their tin-mines, are first mentioned by 
Herodotus (born b.c. 484), though he ad- 
mits that he could furnish no information 
respecting them. Aristotle (bom B.C. 384) 
and Polybius (bom B.C. 206) also allude to 
these islands. Strabo describes them as 
beiag inhabited by men in black cloaks, with 
turdcs reaching to their feet, carrying staves 
in their hands, and bearded like goats. This 
group is now generally believed to be the 
SciUy Isles. 

Castel Fidaedo.— Cialdini, the Sar- 
dinian general, defeated the papal army led 
by Lamoriciere, at this place, near Loretto, 
Sept. 18, 1860. Lamoriciere took refuge in 
Ancona. 

Casteila (Battle). — Suchet attacked the 
Enghsh and Spanish in this strong position, 
in the south of Spain, April 13, 1813. The 
allied army consisted of 17,000 men, while 
the French, who were completely defeated, 
only mustered about 15,000. 

Castelktaudaet (France) was deprived 
of its walls A.D. 1229, by the count of Tou- 
louse, and was taken and burnt by the Black 
Prince in 1355. In 1366 it was rebuilt. The 
battle of Castelnaudary, in which Marshal 
Schomberg defeated the duke of Mont- 
morency, was fought in 1632. 

Castelnuoto (Battles). — After the vic- 
tory of Areola, Napoleon defeated the rear- 
guard of the Austrian army, under General 
Davidovich, at Castelnuovo, and made 1,2<»0 
prisoners, Nov. 21, 1796. The French, under 
General Marmont, defeated the Eussians at 
the same place, Sept. 29, 1806. 

CASTiaiiioifE (Battle). — The French, 
under Augereau, defeated the Austrian gene- 
ral Wurmser, at this town, near Mantua, 
Awg. 5, 1796. A pageant, representing the 
battle of which Castiglione had been the 
theatre, took place here in 1805. Napoleon I. 
189 



CAS 

and the empress, seated on a lofty tlirone, 
witnessed the display. 

Castile (Spain). — The Christian inha- 
bitants of Spain, compelled to retire before 
the Saracen invaders" in the 8th century, took 
refuge in the mountains, where they main- 
tained their independence. Their descend- 
ants, gathering strength, advanced into the 
open country, and for the protection of the 
territory which they wrested from the Moors, 
constructed forts, called in Spanish cas- 
tillos. Prom this circumstance, the name 
Castile was applied to a portion of the coun- 
try rescued from the grasp of the invaders. 
Castile, governed at first by counts de- 

Eendent on Leon, was erected into a kingdom 
y Ferdinand, son of Sancho the Great, king 
of Navarre and Aragon, in 1035. 



Eodrigo, first anthen+ic count of Castile, 
(about). C< stile declared independent under 

Count Rodrigo Fruelaz. 
Alfonso II., siimamed the Chaste, becomes 

king of the Astuxias, Leon, and Castile. 
Ramiro II. abdicates in favour of his son. 
Death of Gonsalez, count of Castile. 
Don Sancho Garces rebels against his father, 

Don Gaicla Fernandez, count of Castile, 

who is defeated and taken prisoner by the 

Cordovans. 
Sancho the Great conquers Castile, and be- 
comes its king. 
Ferdinand, king of Castile, becomes king of 

Leon. 
Death of Ferdinand I., king of Castile, and 

consequent separation between Castile and 

Leon. 
Sancho II. of Castile is assassinated at Zamora, 

and Alfonso "VL of Leon reunites the 

kingdoms. 
Alfonso VIII., king of Castile and Leon, 

assumes the imnerial title. 
On the death of Alfonso VITI., the two 

kingdoms are again separated, Sancho IIL 

becoming king of Castile. 
The Cortes assemble at Burgos. 
Marriage of Alfonso III. of Castile with 

Eleanor, daughter of Henry IL of Eng- 



1026. 
1037. 



1135. 
1157. 

1169. 
1170. 

1230. 
1252. 
1256. 



1291. 

1303. 



1381. 
1386. 



Ferdinand in. of Castile seizes Leon, and 

reunites the two kingdoms. 
Death of Ferdinand Itl., who is canonized 

by element X. in 1671. 
Alfonso X., of Leon and Castile, is elected 

emperor of Geimaiiy, the honour being 

contested by Richard of Cornwall, brother 

of Henry III. of England. 
Death of Fernando de la Cerda, heir of Castile 
• an d Leon , which occasions disputes rtspect- 

ing the succession. 
Restoration of peace. 
The Pupe orders the suppression of the 

Castilian Templars. 
Alfonso XL confiscates the estates of John, 

lord of Biscay. 
Accession of Peter I., the Cruel. 
Peter I. is opposed by his brother Henry, who 

invades Castile, of which he is solemnly 

proclaimed king. 
Edward the Black Prince goes to the assistance 

of Peter. He penetrates into Castile, and 

utterly defeats Heni-y and his army at 

Logrono, April 2, 1367. 
Henry again invades the kingdom, and de- 
feats and puts to death Peter, at Montiel, 

Marcn 23. 
Jo>in I. repels the Portuguese fleet which 

was sent to invade Castile. 
July. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 

invades Castile, and Is proclaimed king at ! 

Santiago. I 

190 



CAS 



A.X>. 

1387. John of Gaunt foregoes his claim to the 

crown of Castile, on condition that 

John's son, Heniy, marries his daughter 

Catherine. 
1390. Oct. 9. Death of John I., in consequence of a 

fall from his horse. His infant son, 

Henry III., succeeds him. 
1407. Accession of John 11., luider the regency of 

his uncle Ferdinand. 
1439. Revolt of the Castilians, who demand the 

permanent expulsion of Don Alvaro de 

Luna from the court. 
1469. Oct. 19. Marriage of Isabella of Castile and 

Ferdinand of Aragon. 
1474. Ferdinand and Isabella proclaimed sovereigns 

of Castile. 
1479. Ferdinand becomes king of Aragon, which 

is thus united to Castile. 



SOTEEEIGNS OE CASTILE. 



Sancho I. the Great 1026 

Ferdinand 1 1035 

Sancho II 10t>5 

Alfonso 1 1072 

Urraca 1109 

Alfonso ir. 1126 

Sancho in. 1157 

Alfonso in. 1158 

Henry 1 1214 

Ferdinand ILL 1217 

Alfonso X 1252 



Sancho IV 1284 

Ferdinand rv 1295 

Alfonso XI 1312 

Peter the Cruel 13.50 

Henry II 1369 

John 1 1379 

Henry HI 1390 

John 11 1406 

Henry IV 1454 

Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella 1474 



Castillejos (Africa). — General Prim, at 
the head of the Spanish army, defeated the 
Moors at this place, Jan. 1, 1860. 

Castillon (France). — Charles VII., of 
France, defeated John Talbot, earl of Shrews- 
bury, near this town, in Guienne, July 7, 
1453. Talbot was slain in the battle, in 
which the French were greatly superior in 
point of numbers. Castillon surrendered to 
the French, July 16. The result was that 
Guienne passed out of the possession of the 
Enghsh. Admiral Penrose destroyed a flo- 
tilla at Castillon, April 6, 1814. 

Castle. — The ancient Greeks and Eomans 
erected castles very similar in appearance to 
ours ; and GUdas relates that the aboriginal 
British built very strong tail houses on the 
tops of hills, which were fortified for pur- 
poses of defence. Perhaps the oldest castle 
whose date is determined is the Eoman for- 
tress at Richborough, in Kent, which was 
commenced a.d. 43, and completed by Seve- 
rus, about the year 205. Anglo-Saxon 
castles consisted of a round or square tower- 
keep, ascended by a direct flight of steps 
in front; and such a one was erected at 
Bamborough, by Ida, king of N'orthumber- 
land, about 548, though they appear not to 
have become common till the reign of Al'red. 
The chief alteration introduced by the Kor- 
mans, was an enlargement and elaboration 
of the keep, which was built of prodigious 
strength and security. One of the most 
famous is that at Rochester, built by Bishop 
Gundulph, about 1088. 

Castlebae (Battle). — General Humbert, 
at the head of a French force of 1,150 men, 
defeated General Lake near this town, in 
Ireland, Aug. 27, 1798. The former, who 
had landed at KjUala Aug. 22, were after- 



CAT 

wards surrounded, and laid down their arms 
at Ballinamuck, Sept. 8. 

Catacombs, called cri/ptcB and arenaria, 
says Bingham, from their being digged pri- 
vately in the sand under ground, were the 
E laces used for Christian burial during the 
rst three centuries of our aera. The cata- 
combs in the Via Appia, near Home, extend 
for six miles under ground, and are sup- 
posed to have been quarries. The bodies 
of St. Peter and St. Paul are said to have 
been interred in these catacombs. They 
were, it is beheved, used as places of inter- 
ment by the pagans before they were thus 
employed by the Christians, who often as- 
sembled ia them for the celebration of 
divine worship. Catacombs are found in 
various countries. The catacombs of Egypt, 
explored by Belzoni in 1815-17, were found to 
contain vessels of various kinds, works of 
art, deeds, and other documents. Eomanelli 
discovered in a catacomb at Naples, inscrip- 
tions recording the ravages committed by 
the plague in that city a.d. 1020. The cata- 
combs at Paris are the quarries out of 
which materials were excavated for the 
bunding of the city. The victims of the 
massacres of September, 1792, were interred 
in these crypts, to which the remiains of 
human beings taken from the Paris ceme- 
teries, suppressed in 1784, had been removed. 
Several persons were lost in these labyrin- 
thine chambers, which, on account of their 
dangerous nature, are now closed to the 
pubhe. 

Catalogues op Bodes. — George Wilier, 
a bookseller at Augsburg, who frequented 
the fairs at Frankfort, first pubhshed a cata- 
logue of new books, with titles and size. 
There is a difference of opinion respecting 
the date of his first catalogue, some autho- 
rities placing it in 1554, and others in 1564. 
HaUam is in favour of the latter. The ear- 
hest known catalogue of EngUsh books for 
sale is one pubhshed by Andrew Maimsell, in 
1595. 

Catalowia (Spain). — This province, form- 
ing part of the Eoman Tarraconensis Pro- 
vincia, the new name given to Hispania 
Citerior by Augustus, was, on the decline of 
the Eoman power, invaded by the Goths and 
the Alani, about a.d. 410, and a settlement 
formed by them was called Goth-Alania. The 
Saracens conquered it a.d. 712, and it was 
wrested from them by Charlemagne in 788, 
and included in his Spanish march. Cata- 
lonia was annexed to Aragon by the mar- 
riage of Queen PetroniUa with Eaymond 
Eerenger, count of Barcelona, in 1137. 
Phihp III. of France invaded it in 1273. A 
general insurrection against the Aragon 
dynasty broke out in Catalonia in 1461, and 
the inhabitants, in 1466, elected Een^ the 
Good, of Anjou, king. He was, however, 
unable to accept the proffered crown, and 
an accommodation was made with the king 
of Aragon, who swore to respect the laws 
and constitution of Catalonia, Dec. 22, 1472. 
Both Aragon and Catalonia were united 
with Castile by the marriage of Ferdinand 



CAT 

and Isabella, Oct. 19, 1469. Ferdinand 
emancipated the serfs of Catalonia in 1486, 
and transferred his court to this province in 
October, 1492. The inhabitants of Catalonia 
rose against the French in 1808 ; but, after a 
desperate struggle, it was subjugated and 
annexed to France in 1812. The struggle 
was renewed, and, with the assistance of the 
Enghsh, the French were expelled in 1814. 

Catamaean. — During the invasion panic 
of 1804, some projector induced Lord Mel- 
ville to countenance a plan for the destruc- 
tion of the flotilla at Boulogne, by means of 
catamarans. They were copper vessels of 
an oblong form, containing a quantity of 
combustibles, and so constructed as to ex- 
plode in a given time by means of clockwork. 
They were to be towed and fastened under 
the bottoms of the enemy's gunboats, by a 
small raft, rowed by one man, who, being 
seated up to his chin in the water, would, it 
was hoped, escape detection in a dark night. 
Fire-ships were also to be employed. Lord 
Keith anchored at about a league and a half 
from Boulogne on the 2nd of October, for 
the purpose of carrying out the experiment. 
Operations commenced at a quarter after 
nine the same evening, and terminated at a 
quarter after four on the morning of Oct. 3. 
No damage was, however, done to the ene- 
my's fleet, and their loss was only twenty- 
five in killed and wounded. In fact the 
catamaran project proved a failure. 

Catania (Sicily), the ancient Catana, 
founded about b.c. 730, by a Greek colony. 
The original inhabitants were expelled by 
Hieron of Syracuse, B.C. 476, and a colony 
of Syracusans and Peloponnesians intro- 
duced, the name of the city being changed 
to .ffitna. The original inhabitants were 
restored B.C. 461. Dionysius of Syracuse 
captured it, and sold the people' to slavery, 
B.C. 403. It submitted to the Eomans 
B.C. 263, and having been captured by the 
Goths, was vrrested from them by Behsarius, 
A.D. 536. This city, situated close to Mount 
Mtrxa,, has frequently been partially de- 
stroyed both in ancient and modern times. 
Eichard I. held a conference with Tancred 
at this city, 1190. The earthquake of 1693 
committed the greatest havoc. Catania, 
however, rose from the ruins, and is con- 
sidered the finest city in Sicily. It was made 
a bishop's see at an early period, but re- 
mained vacant for nearly 200 years, from the 
close of the 9th century, about which time 
Catania was captured by the Saracens, from 
whom it was wrested by the Normans. The 
nave of the celebrated cathedral, constructed 
from the ruins of an ancient pagan temple, 
was completely destroyed by the earthquake 
of 1693. The university was founded in 
1445. During the Sicihan rebeUion, it was 
captured by the royal troops, April 2, 1849. 

Cataphetgians. — The followers of Mon- 
tanus, who founded his new church at 
Pepuza, a smaJl town of Phrygia, a.d. 171 or 
172. (See Montanists.) 

CATEAtr-CAMBEEsis (Peace). — The con- 
ferences for peace between England, France. 
191 



CAT 

and Spain, opened at Cambray in Oct. 1558 
were brouglifto a sudden close by the death, i 
of Queen Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. The com- 
missioners, however, met again first at 
Cercamp, and afterwards at Cateau-Cam- 
bresis, in Feb. 1559, and the peace known 
by this name was concluded between Eng- 
land, France, and Spain, April 2, 1559. The 
French called it the Unfortunate Peace. 
Two treaties were signed; the one between 
France and Spain, and the other between 
England and France. By the former, the 
contracting parties engaged to maintain the 
Eoman CathoUc worship inviolate, and the 
conquests made by each country during 
the previous eight years were restored. 
Henry II., of France, renounced aU claims 
to Genoa, Corsica, and Naples. His sister 
Margaret was given in marriage to the duke 
of Savoy, vrith a dowry of 300,000 crowns ; 
and his daughter EUzabeth, betrothed to the 
Infanta Don Carlos, was given to Philip II., 
of Spain, with a dowry of 400,000 crowns. 
By the treaty with England, Henry II. 
engaged to restore Calais within eight years, 
and to give security for the payment of 
500,000 crowns in case of failure ; the queen's 
title to Calais to remain unaifected by this 
payment. This was a general peace, to 
which all the principal powers of Europe 
acceded. 

Catechism. — Bingham (book x. ch. 1, s. 6) 
shows that the subjects of the ancient cate- 
chisms were as follows : — ^The doctrine of 
repentance and remission of sins ; the 
necessity of good works ; the nature and use 
of baptism ; the explanation of the several 
articles of the Creed ; the nature and immor- 
taUty of the soul ; and an account of the 
canonical books of Scripture. The Cate- 
chism of the Church of England was pub- 
lished in 1551 ; the Tridentine Catechism in 
1566; Noel's Catechism in 1570; and James I., 
at the Hampton Court conferences, recom- 
mended additions that were adopted in 1604 ; 
the Catechism of the orthodox Greek Church 
was published in 1642 ; the Shorter Catechism, 
prepared by the Assembly of Divines, in 1647 ; 
and the Longer in 1648. 

Caxhaeists, or Cathaei. — This word, 
signifying pure, was applied to several sects 
in the early Church. The Apotactici and 
the Montanists, and especially the followers 
of Novatus, who separated from the Church 
A.D. 251, were called Cathari. The appel- 
lation was subsequently assumed by the 
descendants of the Paulicians, who appeared 
during the 12th century. Mosheim repre- 
sents these Catharists as proceeding from 
Bulgaria, and spreading over Europe. He 
says they were divided into two principal 
parties, the one holding two first causes, and 
the other but one ; and of the last-mentioned 
hie makes the Albigensians a branch. There 
is much confusion in the accounts of these 
sects, and it is certain that the Albigenses of 
Languedoc were not Catharists. 

Cathay. {See China.) 

Cathedeal. — The name given to the epi- 
scopal church of every diocese, because it 
192 



CAT 

contains the cathedra, or bishop's seat, was not 
used, in its present sense, before the 10th 
century, and is confined to the Western 
Church. 

Catheeine (Knights of St. Catherine of 
Mount Sinai). — This order of knights was 
instituted a.d. 1063, for the protection 
of pUgriras to the shrine of Catherine, 
saint, virgin, and martyr, who suffered at 
Alexandria, under Maximin, a.d. 307, and 
whose relics are said to have been miracu- 
lously conveyed to Mount Sinai, where they 
are preserved in a monastery. Landon 
(Eccles. Diet.) remarks : " She is said to 
have been put upon an engine made of four 
wheels joined together and armed with 
spikes, which, when the wheels were moved, 
were intended to lacerate her body ; but at 
the instant at which the machine was put 
into motion, her bonds were miraculously 
broken, and she was released, only, how- 
ever, to be instantly beheaded. Hence the 
name of Catherine-wheel." 

Catheeine Hall (Cambridge). — Founded 
in 1473. 

Catheeine, St. (Nuns of). — The earliest 
record of this order, which was originally 
for monks only, occurs a.d. 1188, when it is 
mentioned as connected with the hospital of 
St. Opportune. The title was changed to 
St. Catherine in 1222, and nuns were ad- 
mitted about the year 1328. In 1558 the 
order became exclusively one of nuns, who 
received a new constitution and regulations 
from Eustace du BeUay, bishop of Paris, 
about 1564. 

CATHEEiifE, St. (Order of), for females 
only, was instituted by Peter the Great, of 
Eussia, or, as some say, by his wife Catherine, 
in 1714, in memory of hia escape from the 
Turks in 1711. 

Catilike's Conspieact was formed by 
Lucius Sergius Catihna, a Eoman patrician, 
born B.C. 108. He was elected praetor B.C. 
68, governor of Africa B.C. 66, and intended 
to offsr himself for the consulship B.C. 65 ; 
but the senate declared him inehgible, be- 
cause he was under an accusation for mis- 
conduct in his late African administration. 
Annoyed at this, he entered into a con- 
spiracy with P. Autronius and Cn. Piso 
to murder the new consuls on the day of 
their inauguration, the 1st of January. Piso 
was to be sent with an army to secure Spaia, 
and the other two conspirators intended to 
seize the consulship. Suspicion having been 
excited, the execution of the plan was post- 
poned until the 5th of February, when seve- 
ral senators were included in the list of 
proposed victims. Catiline gave the signal 
too soon, and the scheme miscarried, though 
its authors were not molested. Soon after, 
CatDine was brought to trial for alleged 
misconduct in Africa, and acquitted. In 
B.C. 63 he formed plans for a second revolu- 
tion on an extended scale. Cicero, who was 
consul, obtained some intimation of his pro- 
ceedings, and informed the senate of what he 
had learned. They made the usual provi- 
sion to avert the peril, and Catiline, who 



CAT 

was again a candidate for the consulship, 
was rejected. His agents took up arms in 
Etruria, and attempted to assassinate Cicero, 
who called a meeting of the senate in the 
temple of Jupiter Stator on the Palatine 
HiU, Nov. 8, B.C. 64, and denounced Cati- 
line, who in vain attempted to reply, and 
was compelled to quit Eome. CatUine left 
some of his associates behind, who, on a 
certain day, were to set fire to the city in 
several places, murder the magistrates and 
leading men, whilst Catiline was to be ready 
in the neighbourhood with an army to com- 
plete the massacre and put the finishing 
stroke to the revolution. By the vigilance 
of the authorities, the principal conspirators 
were arrested, Dec. 3, B.C. 64, and soon 
after strangled. CatQine's followers ra- 
pidly deserted him, and he was slam in a 
conflict with the army of the repubHc early 
in B.C. 63. Some critics question the accu- 
racy of the accoimt of this conspiracy given 
by Sallust and Cicero. 

Cat Island (Atlantic), St. Salvador, one of 
the Bahamas, is the first portion of the New 
World on which Columbus landed in 1492. 

Cato-Steeet Conspieact, so called from 
the place, near the Edgeware Eoad, where 
the conspirators assembled to arrange their 
plans, was formed by one Arthur Thistle- 
wood, who had imbibed revolutionary pro- 
jects during a residence in France just after 
the fall of Kobespierre. He had collected a 
few associates, and on Saturday, Feb. 19, 
1820, they finally resolved to murder the 
ministers separately in their own houses, to 
seize the Bank, and set fire to London in 
several places, on the following Wednesday. 
Fittding that a cabinet dinner was to be 
given at Lord Harrowby's, in Grosvenor 
Square, on the day they had fixed for carry- 
ing out the plot, they determined to obtain 
entrance by stratagem, and to murder the 
whole party. Information was given to 
government by one of the conspirators, 
and several of them were arrested in Cato 
Street, at eight on the Wednesday eveniog ; 
Thistlewood, the leader, escaped; taut he was 
taken on the following day in bed, ia a 
house near Finsbury Square. They were 
found guilty. Thistlewood and four of his 
feUow conspirators were executed. May 1, 
1820; five were transported for life, and one 
was pardoned. 

Cattaeo (Dahnatia) . — The ancient Catta- 
rus was a Roman colony. The modern 
town was probably founded in the 6th cen- 
tury. It suifered from earthquakes in 1563 
and 1667. Formerly the capital of a small 
state, it was ceded to France by the treaty 
of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805, and was to be 
given up in three weeks from that date. 
The Austrian garrison, however, surren- 
dered it to the Eussians, March 4, 1806, who 
held it till the next year, when they gave it 
up to France by the treaty of Tilsit. An 
EngUsh squadron captured Cattaro Jan. 5, 
1814, and it was ceded to Austria at the 
general peace of 1814-15. 

Catjdixe Foeks. — In the valley of Cau- 
193 



CAV 

dium, supposed to be the modem Arienzo, 
the Romans were completely surrounded by 
the Samnites, in the spring of b.c. 321. Half 
their number were cut to pieces on the spot, 
and the remainder capitulated to the Sam- 
nite general, C. Pontius. The treaty was, 
however, flagrantly violated by the Romans. 
The name of the pass into which the Roman 
army had been allured was Fv/rculcB Cau- 
dincB. According to Livy (b. ix. 2), it con- 
sisted of two narrow defiles, which opened 
into a plain, surrounded, excepting at these 
outlets, by mountains. The Romans ad- 
vanced through the first defile, and found 
the second blocked up to oppose further 
progress, and their vigilant enemy at once 
closed the one through which they had 
entered. Hence retreat was impossible. 

Cauliflowee was brought from the Le- 
vant to Italy about the end of the 16th cen- 
tury, and was introduced into Germany at 
the end of the 17th. Alpinus mentions 
that it was very plentiful in Egypt in 
1588. It was introduced into England in the 
17th century, and had become very plentiful 
towards its close. 

Cauesines, or the Pobe's Meechants, 
Italian usurers who came to England early 
in the 13th century. They practised the 
most flagrant extortion, and are denounced 
by Matthew Paris as " a horrible nuisance." 
Roger, bishop of London, expelled them from 
the city of London a.d. 1235. They obtained 
the protection of the Pope, and became 
numerous. To such a lieight did they carry 
their extortion, that, in 1251, many of them 
were prosecuted in the civil courts and 
punished. They managed, by the payment 
of a large siun of money, to obtain permis- 
sion to pursue their nefarious traflH.c, but 
were at length expelled. 

CAT7TIONAET TowNS. — In July, 1585, 
Queen EUzabeth accepted the protection of 
the Netherlands, repeatedly urged upon her 
by their inhabitants. She engaged to supply 
them with 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, 
for which they were to pay at the close of 
the struggle with Spain. As security for 
this repayment, Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, 
and Walcheren, were placed in Elizabeth's 
possession ; and these were called the Cau- 
tionary Towns. The Dutch only refunded a 
third of the sum due to England, but the 
Cautionary Towns were, notwithstanding, 
delivered to them June 14, 1616, the treaty 
for the purpose having been signed May 22. 

Cavaliees. — The apprentices of London 
published and circulated a petition against 
popery and prelates in 1641. Seditious cries 
having been raised, and the bishops assaulted 
on their way to Parhament, skirmishes 
between the malcontent apprentices and 
their followers, and many gentlemen who 
voluntarily offered their services to form the 
king's body-guard, were of almost daily 
occurrence. "And, from these contesta- 
tions," says Clarendon, " the two terms of 
roundhead and cavalier grew to be received 
in discourse, and were afterwards continued 
for the most succinct distiuction of affections 
Q 



CAV 

throughout the quarrel : they who were 
looked upon as servants to the king being 
then called cavaliers; and the other of the 
rabble contemned and despised, under the 
names of roundheads." 

CavaI/ET. — All ancient nations appear to 
have used horses in warfare. The Canaan- 
ites, whom Joshua defeated at the waters of 
Merom, are said to have assembled " with 
horses and chariots very many," B.C. 1445 
(Josh. xi. 4) . The Jews, however, possessed 
no cavalry tUl the time of David, who took 
from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, a thousand 
chariots. David houghed all the chariot 
horses except sufficient for a hundred 
chariots, B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. viii. 4). The 
conquests of Alexander the Great may be 
attributed to his numerous cavalry ; and this 
arm of warfare gained for Scipio the battle 
of Zama, B.C. 202. Edward III. divided the 
Enghsh cavalry into small bodies, commanded 
by constables, a.d. 1324. The word troop, as 
appHed to a body of horse-soldiers, first 
appears in an army list for 1557. The cavalry 
force of the United Kingdom for 1859-60 
amounted to 21,117 men. 

Cavak (Ireland). — Part of Cavan was 
formed into a county of Ulster in 1584, and 
the remainder was escheated to the crown in 
1610, in consequence of the rebellion of the 
O'EeiLLys. The chief town, Cavan, was 
burned in 1690. 

Cawn-poee (Hindostan), the chief town of 
a district of the same name, was founded in 
the 18th century. The district belonged to 
Oude ia 1777, and was ceded to the East- 
India Company in 1801. On the breaking 
out of the Sepoy revolt in 1857, the Eng- 
lish residents of Cawnpore were placed in 
the greatest perQ. Their efforts to obtain 
reinforcements failed, and the 2nd regi- 
ment of native cavalry revolted June 5. 
Their example was speedily followed by the 
native infantry. The English, their wives 
and children, with native servants, amounting 
to nearly 900 persons, were besieged within 
a narrow intrenchment, by the rebel soldiers 
commanded by Nana Sahib. They defended 
themselves heroically against overwhelming 
numbers. Death, however, rapidly thinned 
their ranks, and, June 24, N"ana Sahib sent 
a message to Sir Hugh Wheeler, offering 
to aUow the Enghsh to proceed unmolested 
to Allahabad, provided they gave up the 
public treasure, the guns, and ammunition. 
A contract to this effect was signed on the 
followiag day, and on the 27th, the remnant 
of the 900 besieged at Cawnpore, embarked 
in boats prepared to convey them to Allaha- 
bad. 'No sooner, however, had they quitted 
the shore, than the treacherous sepoys 
opened fire upon them, following them along 
the banks in order to insure their destruc- 
tion. The boats were sunk, many of the men 
killed, and the survivors, with the women 
and children, carried back to Cawnpore. 
Other prisoners, male and female, were 
brought in, and all who survived were bar- 
barously slaughtered on the 15th of July. 
Havelock defeated Nana Sahib near Cawn- 
194 



CEL 

pore, July 16, and entered the town on the 
following day, when the horrors that had 
been enacted there became known. The 
Gwalior rebels defeated General Windham 
near Cawnpore, November 27 and 28, 1857. 
Sir Cohn Campbell soon after reached the 
scene of action, and completely routed the 
rebels, 25,000 strong, at Cawnpore, Dec. 6. 

Cateni^e (South America) was settled by 
the French a.d. 1604, and again in 1635. In 
1654 the Enghsh supplanted them, and 
retained the colony tiU 1664. The Dutch 
seized it in 1676, but were compelled to 
restore it to the French in 1677. The British 
took Cayenne, Jan. 12, 1809, and reUnquished 
it to France at the peace of Paris, May 30, 
1814. During the revolution, many persons 
were transported to Cayenne. Many of the 
insurgents who fought at the barricades in 
Paris, June 22—26, 1848, were also sent 
there ; and numerous poHtical prisoners 
siace that time have been transported to this 
colony by the French government. 

Cazan, or Kazan (Eussia) . — Baton, a cele- 
brated khan of the Golden Horde, founded 
this town A.D. 1265. It was taken and com- 
pletely destroyed, its inhabitants having 
been cruelly massacred, by the Eussians 
about 1405. The town was rebuilt by another 
khan of the Golden Horde in 1445. The 
Eussians sent several expeditions against it, 
and committed great ravages. Ivan captured 
it Oct. 2, 1552, when the town was burnt, 
and the dominion of the khans overthrown. 

Cecetphal^ (Battle). — The Athenians 
defeated the Corinthian and Epidaurian 
forces in a sea-fight off this island, B.C. 458. 

Celebes (Indian Archipelago).— The Por- 
tuguese occupied this island in the 16th 
century, and were followed by the Enghsh 
and the Dutch. The latter entered into 
treaties with the native rulers, and formed 
permanent settlements. The English wrested 
Celebes from the Dutch in 1811, but restored 
it at the general peace, and the Dutch 
returned in 1816. The harbour of Macassar, 
on the west coast, was made a free port 
from Jan. 1, 1847, by a decree dated Oct. 7, 
1846. 

Celibacy. — Under the law of Moses, 
priests were allowed to marry, and the office 
was confirmed to the descendants of one 
particular fanuly. The vow of perpetual 
cehbacy, or abstinence from conjugal society, 
was not required of the clergy for the first 
three ages. " For the contrary is very evi- 
dent," says Bingham (Antiq. b. iv. c. 5, s. 5), 
"from innimierable examples of bishops and 
presbyters, who lived in a state of matrimony 
vrithout any prejudice to their ordination or 
fimction. It is generally agreed by ancient 
writers that most of the Apostles were 
married. Some say all of them, except 
St. Paul and St. John. Others say, St. Paul 
was married also, because he writes to his 
yoke-fellow, whom they interpret his wife." 
(Phn. iv. 3.) A life of cehbacy began to be 
extoUed in the 2nd century, and the with- 
drawal of ascetics and hermits to desert 
places, and the subsequent introduction of 



CEL 

monasteries, tended to bring it into repute. 
A proposal for compelling the clergy to 
abstain from aU conjugal society with their 
wives, was rejected by the Council of Nice 
A.D. 325. The Council of Gangra, about 379, 
anathematized Eustathius, the heretic, be- 
cause he taught men to separate from those 
presbyters that retained the wives to whom 
they had been married while they were 
laymen. Sericius, 385 — 398, was the first 
pope who ordered the clergy not to marry. 
It was not, however, until the time of 
Gregory VII., 1073—1085, that the system 
of the ceUbacy of the clergy was fuUy esta- 
blished. It met with much resistance, and 
the question was re-opened at the Coimcil of 
Trent, which, by the ninth canon of the 
twenty -fourth session, decreed that persons 
in holy orders, and regulars who had made a 
vow of chastity, were incapable of contract- 
ing marriage, and that such marriages are 
null and void (1545—1563) . Ansekn, in 1102, 
introduced the practice into the English 
church. Convocation, in 1547, passed a law 
allowing the English clergy to marry. 

Celt^, Celts, or Kelts. — Turner (Anglo- 
Saxons, vol. i. b. i. c. 2) says : " The tendency 
of the notices of the Kelts, by Herodotus, 
Aristotle, and Ephorus, is to show, that in 
their times, this people lived in the western 
parts of Europe, about Gaul and Spain. 
They are spoken of as being in the same 
places by later writers." About B.C. 600, 
they invaded Italy, and, at a subsequent 
period, attacked Eome itself. They invaded 
Greece about B.C. 280. The earliest inhabi- 
tants or settlers in Britain came from this 
stock. _ The origin and history of the Celtae 
have given rise to much controversy amongst 
learned men. 

Celtiberians. — The inhabitants of Celti- 
beria, an extensive inland division of ancient 
Spain, were known by this name. They are 
supposed to have arisen from a union of the 
aborigines, the Iberians, and their Celtic 
invaders. Various limits have been assigned 
to their country by ancient writers. Hannibal 
subdued the Celtiberians, and they after- 
wards passed under the Koman yoke. They 
revolted b.c. 181, and were subdued by 
Tiberius Gracchus, B.C. 179. Another 
struggle, which commenced B.C. 153, was 
waged with more or less fury until B.C. 133, 
when the Celtiberians were again reduced to 
subjection. Sertorius raised his standard 
against SyUa, B.C. 77. The Celtiberians at 
first gained several advantages, but the 
assassination of Sertorius, B c. 72, proved 
fatal to their cause. The Koman authority 
was completely re-established, and the Celti- 
berians, as an independent people, do not 
again appear in history. 

Cemeteet. — Ornamental burial - grounds 
existed in Turkey previous to their introduc- 
tion into Western Europe. The JS^ational 
Assembly, in 1790, prohibited burial in 
churches, and ordered that public cemeteries 
should be formed. The ground for the Pere 
la Chaise cemetery, at that time consisting 
of forty-two acres, was purchased by the 
195 



CEP 

municipality of Paris, in 1800, to form the 
first national cemetery. It was consecrated 
in 1804, and the first grave was opened 
May 21. It has been since increased in size, 
and at present consists of 112 acres, sur- 
rounded by a wall. The Metropolitan Inter- 
ments Act (13 & 14 Vict. c. 52, Aug. 5, 1850) 
laid down some salutary regulations respect- 
ing the London churchyards. This measure 
was amended by the Interment Act (14 & 15 
Vict. c. 89, Aug. 7, 1851) ; and in consequence 
of these salutary changes in the law, the 
practice of intramural interments is being 
gradually discontinued. BunhiU Eields was 
opened as a suburban burial-place in 1665. 

Censoes. — Two Eoman oificers of state, 
first appointed B.C. 443. The office was the 
highest in the commonwealth after the dic- 
tatorship, and had been exercised from an 
early period, first by the kings and afterwards 
by the consuls, until two patricians received 
the appointment, B.C. 443. The censors 
attended to numbering the people. Public 
morals and the finances of the state were 
also placed under their control. The office 
was filled by patricians tmtil B.C. 351, when 
C. Martins Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. 
In B.C. 131 two plebeians were appointed. 
The duration of office, fixed at five years, 
was reduced to a year and a half by the 
lex ^mUia, B.C. 433. The office having 
ceased under the emperors, was revived by 
Decius A.D. 251, Valerian, afterward em- 
peror, being unanimously appointed censor 
Oct. 27. Gibbon (ex.) remarks, "A censor 
may maintain, he can never restore, the 
morals of a state." 

Ce IT SITS. — God commanded Moses to 
number the Israelites (ISTumbers, i. and ii.), 
B.C. 1490. David was punished for having 
numbered Israel (2 Sam. xxiv. 1), b.c 1017. 
A census was taken at Athens B.C. 317, when 
the population was found to consist of 
127,660 citizens and 400,000 slaves. The 
term census originated at Eome. The first 
census took place there B.C. 566, when the 
city was found to contain 84,700 citizens. 
Alter B.C. 432, it was held in the Campus 
Martius. It was generally taken every five 
years at Eome. The first census of Great 
Britain was made in 1801 ; the act of Parlia- 
ment ordering a census to be taken every 
ten years, 41 Geo. III. c. 15, having passed 
Dec. 31, 1800. Ireland was not included in 
this return, and the census for that portion 
of the United Kingdom was first taken in 
1813. 

Centeal Ceiminal Cotjet. — This criminal 
tribunal, with authority to hear and deter- 
mine aU treasons, murders, felonies, and 
misdemeanors conmiitted in London or 
Middlesex, and some parts of the adjacent 
counties, and aU offences committed within 
the jurisdiction of the Admiralty of England, 
was estabhshed by 4 Will. IV. c. 36 (July 25, 
1834) . It meets at least twelve times in the 
course of the year. 

Cephalonia (Mediterranean). — The an- 
cient CephaUeiiia, the largest of the Ionian 
Islands, became subject to Eome b.c 187. 
O 2 



CEP 

On the division of the empire, it passed under 
the rule of the emperors of the East, and was 
taken by the Franks in the 13th century. 
The princes of Aehaia held it until 1224, 
when it came into the possession of the 
Venetians. The Turks took Cephalonia in 
1479, but it was retaken in 1489 by the Vene- 
tians, who held it imtil the overthrow of their 
repubhc in 1797. By the treaty of Campo 
Eormio it was ceded to Erance. {See 
loifiAN- IsLAifBS.) Cephalonia was a bishop- 
ric of the early church, and was united to the 
see of Zante in 1621. It was ravaged by an 
earthquake in 1767, and was captured by an 
Enghsh squadron in October, 1809. 

Cephisus (Greece). — On the banks of this 
river, in Attica, Walter of Brienne, duke of 
Athens, was defeated and slain by the Cata- 
lans, in March, 1311. The Greeks defeated 
the Turks with great slaughter whilst passing 
this river, July 5, 1823. 

Ceecamp (France).— At this abbey, near 
Cambray, the envoys from Spain, France, 
and England, assembled in the middle of 
October, 1558, for the purpose of negotiating 
a peace. The proceedings were suspended 
by the death of Queen Marj' of England, 
Nov. 17, and the congress afterwards re- 
assembled at another place. 

Cerdicsfoed (Battle).— At this place, 
supposed to be Charford, in Hants, Cerdic 
and Cynric defeated the Britons, a.d. 519, 
and began to reign in Wessex. 

Ceedicsohe (Battles). — The Saxons fre- 
quently landed at this port, supposed by 
some wi'iters to be Yarmouth, in the 5th 
and succeeding centuries. They defeated 
the Britons in great battles in the neigh- 
bourhood, A.D. 495 and a.xi. 514. 

Ceedonians, the followers of Cerdo or 
Cerdon, a Gnostic of Syria, who advocated 
the Persian doctrine of the two principles 
of good and evU. He abjured his errors at 
Eome, A.D. 140, but afterwards relapsed, and 
was expelled from the Church. TertuUian 
says that Marcion borrowed many of his 
errors from him. 

Ceeet (France). — The plenipotentiaries of 
France and Spain assembled at this town, in 
the Pyrenees, to settle the boundaries of their 
respective kingdoms in 1660. During the 
revolutionary war, the Spaniards seized the 
town, and resisted several attempts of the 
French to recover it (1793). Having been 
defeated in a battle fought here April 30, 
1794, the Spaniards abandoned the position. 

Ceeignola (Battle). — Gonsalvo de Cor- 
dova, at the head of the Spanish troops, 
defeated the Fi-ench under the duke of 
Nemours, at this town, in Italy, Friday, 
April 28, 1503. Each army consisted of 
about 6,000 men, and while the Spanish loss 
was small, 3,000 of the French were killed. 

Cerinthians. — This sect was founded by 
Cerinthus, a Jew, who hved at the close of 
the apostohc age. He studied at Alexandria, 
and afterwards taught in Palestine. Irenseus 
says that he appeared a.d. 88, and that St. 
John wrote his gospel to refute his errors, 
which were a strange mixture of Judaism 
196 



CEY 

and Gnosticism. He inculcated the greatest 
laxity in morals. The sect was not of long 
duration, though the doctrines were repro- 
duced in an altered form. 

Ceeisoles (Battle). — The imperialists, 
commanded by the marquis of Guasto, were 
defeated by the French, under the count 
d'Enghien, at this place, in Piedmont, 
April 14, 1544. The French captured tents, 
baggage, and artillery, and 10,000 of the 
imperiaUsts were killed. It is also called 
the battle of Ceremola. 

Ceeiitm. — This metal was discovered by 
Hisiager and Berzehus, in a Swedish mineral 
caUed carite, in 1803. It is named after the 
planet Ceres. 

Cetjta (Africa), the ancient Septem or 
Septa, was taken during the campaign of 
Behsarius in Africa, a.d. 534, and was after- 
wards fortified and adorned by Justinian. 
The Goths captured it in 618, and the Moors 
in the following century. John I. of Portu- 
gal wrested Ceuta from the Moors in 1415, 
and it passed under the Spanish rule in 1580. 
The Africans have frequently attempted to 
regain possession of this fortress. 

Ceutla (Battle). — ^During the expedition 
led by Cortes for the discovery of Mexico, 
he defeated the Indians in the plain of 
Ceutla, near Tabasco, on Lady -day, 
March 25, 1519. The town of Santa 
Maria de la Vitoria was founded on the 
spot where the battle took place. 

Ceteknes (Fi-ance). — In this mountain- 
range and the adjoining districts, the Re- 
formed doctrines first took root in France. 
They afterwards became the arena of reh- 
gious warfare. The Huguenots took refuge 
in those retreats in times of persecution, 
and heroically resisted many attempts at 
their extermination. {See Camisaeds.) 

Ceylon (Indian Ocean). — This island, the 
ancient Taprobane, was made known to the 
Greeks by the conquests of Alexander the 
Great, e.g. 325. Pliny relates that ambas- 
sadors from Ceylon visited Rome and did 
homage to the emperor, in the reign of Clau- 
dius (a.d. 41 — 54). Christianity was preached 
in India and a church founded at Ceylon. 
Marco Polo, who wrote in 1298, refers to it 
under its name of ZeUan. He says it pro- 
duces many precious and costly stones, and 
speaks of a ruby a span in length, and the 
thickness of a man's arm, brilliant beyond 
description, and without a single flaw. It 
was in the possession of the king, who, 
being oifered the value of a city for it by 
the great khan, rephed, that he would not 
sell it for aU the treasure in the universe, 
nor allow it to go out of his dominions, 
because it was a jewel that had been handed 
down to him by his predecessors. Cej^on is 
said to have been described by the Portu- 
guese Thome Lopez, in 1502, but its re-dis- 
covery by Europeans is usually ascribed to 
Lorenzo de Almeida, who was driven to the 
port of Galle by sti'ess of weather, in 15G6. 
In 1517 the Portuguese obtained permission 
to erect a fort or factory at Colombo, where 
they remained in peace till 1527, when the 



CHA 

mountaineers of Kandy began to resist their 
encroachments. The native princes, how- 
ever, were so overawed by the power of the 
Europeans, that they assisted in suppressing 
the rebels, and in 1541, Franciscan mission- 
aries were allowed to establish themselves in 
the island. In 1542 the sovereign of Cotta, 
with many of his court, embraced Chris- 
tianity. In 1550, the king of Kandy pro- 
fessed a desire for spiritual instruction, but 
treacherously attacked and routed the mis- 
sion sent for his benefit. In 1586 Colombo 
was besieged by Eajah Singha, who was 
compelled to retire the following year. 
Ealph Fitch, the first Englishman who 
visited Ceylon, landed in Colombo, March 5, 
1589. In 1592 the sovereignty of the whole 
island feU into the hands of Wimala Dhar- 
ma, who carried on war with the Portu- 
guese for many years. The lawful emperor 
of Ceylon died in May, 1597, and bequeathed 
his empire to the king of Portugal. The 
Dutch first visited Ceylon, May 30, 1602 ; in 
1609 they entered into a treaty with the 
native rulers ; and in 1612 they built a fort 
at Cottiar. War followed between the 
Dutch and Cingalese and the Portuguese, 
and in August, 1630, the latter were de- 
feated with great slaughter. The Portu- 
guese were again defeated in 1638, and a 
pyramid of their skulls was erected by the 
victorious Kandyans. In 1656 hostilities 
broke out between the native rulers and the 
Dutch ; but the latter preserved their foot- 
ing. Trade was restored and brought to 
great perfection in 1664. In 1763 friendly 
relations were estabhshed between the Bri- 
tish and Kandyans ; but the intercourse was 
broken oflF, from the indifference of the 
English government. Trincomalee was taken 
by the British Jan. 11, 1782 ; recaptured by 
the French Aug. 30, 1782 ; restored to 
the Dutch in 1783 ; and taken by the 
British, after a siege of three weeks, Aug. 26, 
1795. The whole island submittted Oct. 1. 
By a treaty signed at Colombo Feb. 15, 1796, 
the Dutch ceded aU their fortified stations 
in Ceylon to the British, who have since 
been rulers of the island. In 1802 war 
broke out between the king and the British 
governor, and a terrible massacre of the 
British took place at Kandy, June 24, 1803. 
No effort was made to resent this aggression 
until January, 1815, when war was declared, 
and in March the king was deposed, and 
his territories ceded to the English crown. 
Rebellion again broke out in 1817, and it 
was not till the end of 1818 that peace was 
restored. Sir Edward Barnes became go- 
vernor ia 1820, and under his jurisdiction a 
military road of stupendous magnitude was 
carried into the midland districts of the 
island. 

Ch^eokeia (Greece).— This town was 
situated on the river Cephissus, in Bceotia. 
There was another town at no great distance 
from it, named Coroneia, and battles fought 
in the neighbourhood of these places are 
sometimes mentioned under one and some- 
times under the other name. The Athenians 



CHA 

were defeated near Chseroneia B.C. 447, when 
their supremacy over Bceotia was destroyed. 
Philij) defeated the united Athenian and 
Boeotian forces near Chseroneia, Aug. 7, 
B.C. 338; and Sylla defeated the generals 
of Mithridates B.C. 86. 

Chain Bridge. — Suspension-bridges of 
five parallel chains, on which a light bamboo 
flooring is laid, have been long used in 
China, though they were not introduced into 
Europe till 1741, when one of very primitive 
construction was built across the Tees, in Eng- 
land. Mr. Finlay commenced the erection 
of a bridge of this kind in America in 1796, 
and took out a patent for their construction 
in 1801. Little progress was made, however, 
tin 1814, when Mr. Telford commenced his 
experiments on the tenacity of iron. Capt. 
Brown patented his invention of bar-chain 
bridges in 1817, and completed the first 
structure of the kind, across the Tweed, in 
July 1820. The act for erecting the Menai 
bridge was passed in July, 1819 ; and on the 
30th Jan. 1826, the bridge was opened. 

Chain Cable.— Caesar (Bell. Gal. ui. 13) 
relates, that when he was in Gaul, b.c. 57, 
the Veneti, who inhabited the coast of 
Britanny, used iron chains instead of ropes 
for their anchors. In 1771, M. BougaiaviDe 
suggested the idea of substituting iron for 
Hemp ; and, in 1808, Mr. Slater, a surgeon 
in the navy, took out a patent for a chain- 
cable. The chain cable was introduced into 
the royal navy in 1812. 

Chain-shot. — This invention, of two iron 
balls linked together by a chain eight or ten 
inches long, was made by John de Witt, in 
1666. 

Chalcedon (Bithynia) was founded by a 
colony from Megara, B.C. 684, directly 
opposite Byzantium. Darius captured it 
B.C. 505, and it came into the possession of 
the Eomans B.C. 74. It was plundered by 
the Goths a.d. 259. Chosroes II. captured it 
after a long siege in 616. Chalcedon was 
repeatedly ravaged by the barbarians, and 
the Turks employed the materials of the 
ancient city for their mosques and other 
edifices in Constantinople. It was made a 
bishopric in the 4th century. The fom-th 
general council assembled at Chalcedon 
Oct. 8, 451, and above 500 bishops were 
present. 

Chalcis (Greece), the capital of the 
island of Eubcea, was, according to tradition, 
founded before the Trojan war, and is men- 
tioned by Homer. It became the seat of an 
Ionic colony, and flourished greatly. The 
Athenians landed here and defeated the 
Chalcidians B.C. 506; and Chalcis feU imder 
their yoke. The people rebelled several 
times, and in B.C. 411 became independent; 
but they were again subdued by the Athe- 
nians. After various vicissitudes, it passed 
under the rule of Macedon, and was vmsuc- 
cessfuUy assailed by the Eomans e.c. 207. 
Maximus destroyed the ancient city B.C. 
146. (See Negkopont.) 

Chald^a (Asia) was, in its restricted 
sense, a province in the Babylonian empire, 
197 



CHA 

though its actual position and history can- 
not be ascertained. The term was often 
applied to the Babylonian dominion, which 
is called the Babylonian-Chaldsean, or the 
Chaldseo-Babylonian empire. {See Babx- 

LOJS-.) 

Chal&bave (Battle).— On this plain, in 
Oxfordshire, an encoimter occurred between 
the Eoyalists, commanded by Prince Eupert, 
and the Parhamentary forces, June 18, 1643. 
The latter were defeated, with a loss of 200 
prisoners. In this action Hampden received 
a wound which caused his death, June 24. 

Chai,o]!«^s-suk-Maeh'e (France), the an- 
cient Catelauni, where Aurelian defeated 
Tetricus, a.d. 272 or 273 ; Jovinus overcame 
the Alemauni a.d. 367; and Aetius and his 
allies defeated AttUa and the Huns a.d. 451. 
Chalons was made a bishopric at an early 
period. Its cathedral was founded a.d. 450, 
and having suffered greatly from fire, was 
rebuilt in 1672. This place must not be con- 
founded with Chalons-s\ir-Sa6ue, the ancient 
Cabilloniun, or CabaUinum, in the depart- 
ment of Saone-and-Loire, France. 

Chalus (France). — Eichard Cceur de Lion 
was woxmded by an arrow March 26, 1199, 
whilst reconnoitring this castle, which be- 
longed to the viscount of Limoges, who had 
refused to surrender some treasure which he 
had found. Eichard lingered twelve days, 
expiring April 8. 

Chamberlain-.— The office of lord great 
chamberlain, which has existed in England 
from a very early periocf, was granted to the 
family of De Vere during the reign of 
Henry I. (1100—1135). Owing to the ex- 
tinction of the family in 1625, it became the 
subject of htigation, but was ultimately con- 
firmed to Lord WOloughby d'Eresby, ia 
whose fanuly it still remains. Lord Cham- 
berlain of the Household is mentioned as 
early as 1208. In 1341 it was ordered that 
he should swear, on his appointment, to 
keep the laws of the land, and the great 
charter; and, in 1406, he was appointed a 
member of the Privy Council. 

Chambees oe Ageicultitee, for the pro- 
motion of agriculture, were formed in many 
parts of France in 1851. 

Chambees oe Commeece.— The first insti- 
tution of this kind was formed at Marseilles 
early in the 15th century, and after various 
changes it was established on a permanent 
footing in 1650. A chamber of commerce 
was opened at Dunkirk in 1700, and during 
the 18th century similar institutions were 
established in the principal commercial towns 
of France. They were suppressed in 1791, 
restored in 1802, andhave sincebeen extended 
and organized. A chamber of commerce 
was established at Glasgow in 1783, at Edin- 
burgh in 1785, at Manchester in 1820, and at 
Hull in 1837. They have since been intro- 
duced into several of our important commer- 
cial centres, 

Chambeet (Savoy), the chief town of the 

ancient duchy, came into the possession of 

the French in 1690, but was restored to the 

duke of Savoy by the treaty of Utrecht in 

198 



CHA 

1713. The French republicans took the town 
in September, 1792, and a Jacobin club, con- 
sisting of 1,200 members, was immediately 
formed. Chambery, with the whole of Savoy, 
was annexed to France Nov. 27, 1792. The 
Austrians took possession of Chambery in 
1814, but were soon after expeUed by the 
French. Chambery was restored to the 
house of Savoy in 1815. Sardinia ceded it to 
France by a treaty signed March 24, 1860, 
and a detachment of French troops entered 
the town March 28. 

Chamboed (France). — This Gothic castle, 
which gives the title of count to the last 
descendant of the elder branch of the Bour- 
bons, was founded by Francis I. in 1526, and 
completed by Louis XIV. It is in the depart- 
ment of Loire-and-Cher, and about twelve 
miles from Blois. The treaty between 
Henry II. of France, and Maurice, duke 
of Saxony, was ratified at Chambord Jan. 15, 
1552. 

Champagne (France) . — This old province, 
wrested from the Eomans about a.d. 486, was 
long ruled by its own counts, and was annexed 
tolfavarre in 1234. Philip IV., by his mar- 
riage, Aug. 16, 1284, with Jeanne, heiress of 
Navarre, Champagne, and Brie, united it to 
France, with which Mngdom it was formally 
incorporated in 1316. 

Champ AETY, or Champeety. — This was a 
bargain between the plaintiff or defendant in 
a suit with a third party, generally a lawyer, 
whereby the latter was to divide the land or 
matter sued for in case of success, and was 
to carry on the action at his own expense. 
Though prohibited in 1275, by 3 Edw. I. 
c. 25, it was still practised, as the acts 13 
Edw. I. c. 49 (1285), 28 Edw. I. c. 11 (1300), 
7 Eich. II. c. 15 (1383), and 32 Hen. VUI. 
c. 9 (1540), are all directed towards its sup- 
pression. 

Champ de Maes. — In this celebrated area, 
used by the garrison of Paris for military 
exercises, the Fete de la Federation was held 
on the anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, 
July 14, 1790. Deputies from the provinces 
and the Parisians assembled in great numbers. 
Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, performed a 
solemn mass. Louis XVI. and all the prin- 
cipal authorities took the oath of allegiance to 
the new constitution framed by the repub- 
licans. The leaders of the Jacobin, Cordeher, 
and other clubs, brought a petition to the 
Champ de Mars, calling upon the king to 
abdicate, July 14, 1791 ; and an eff'ort on their 
part to create an insurrection was suppressed 
July 17. Louis XVI. again went in proces- 
sion to the Champ de Mars to celebrate the 
taking of the Bastille, July 14, 1792. On the 
fete held in honour of the Supreme Being, 
June 7, 1794, the people marched in proces- 
sion to this spot. Napoleon I. distributed 
eagles to his army on the Champ de Mara 
the day after his coronation, Dec. 3, 1804. 
It has since been the scene of many grand 
commemorations and festivals, and here 
Napoleon III. distributed eagles to the 
army. May 10, 1852. 

Champion os the King. — ^Taylor, in "The 



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Glory of Eegality," terms this "the most] 
perfect, perhaps, and most striking relic of] 
feudalism that has come down to us from the 
ages of chivalry." The office of champion 
existed under the Iforman kings, and was 
originally held by the family of Marmion. 
It is supposed that they held the barony of 
Fontney, in Normandy, by the service of being 
hereditary champions to the dukes of that 
province, and that William I. granted the 
castle of Tamworth and the manor of Scri- 
velsby, in Lincolnshire, to Wilham of Mar- 
mion, one of his followers, on the same 
tenure. Philip, the last lord of Marmion, 
died without male issue in 1292, when the 
castle of Tamworth passed by his elder 
daughter and co-heir to the family of Fre- 
vile, and the manor of Scrivelsby, with a 
younger daughter, to Sir Thomas Ludlow, 
from whom they descended to the family of 
Dymoke. This led to a contest ; the cham- 
pionship, at the coronation of Richard II., 
July 16, 1377, was claimed by Sir John 
Dymoke, as possessor of Scrivelsby, and by 
Sir Baldwin de Frevile, as lord of Tamworth. 
It was then decided that the office was 
attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, and it 
continued in the family of Dymoke. The 
last appearance of the champion was at the 
coronation banquet of George IV., July 19, 
1821. Taylor says : " The duty of the 
champion is to ride into the hall where the 
feast of the coronation is held, during dinner, 
(before the second course is brought in), 
mounted on one of the king's coursers, and 
clad in one of the king's best suits of armour ; 
he is attended by the lord high constable and 
the earl marshal, and by the mouth of a 
herald is to proclaim a challenge to any who 
shall deny that the king is lawful sovereign ; 
which being done, the king drinks to him 
from a gold cup, which, with its cover, he 
receives as his fee, and also the horse, sad- 
dle, suit of armour, and furniture thereto 
belonging." This officer has been sometimes 
erroneously styled champion of England. 

Champlain- (United States). — The Eng- 
lish defeated an American squadron on this 
lake Oct. 11-13, 1776. The Americans escaped 
on the night of the 11th, but the Enghsh 
went in pursuit, and captured and destroyed 
most of the flotilla. The Americans, in 
much superior force, overpowered an Eng- 
lish squadron in these waters Sept. 11, 1814. 
The want of support from the land forces 
contributed to this result. 

Chanoei,.— This part of the church was 
separated from the rest of the building by 
rails of wood, curiously and artificially 
wrought in the form of net-work, called 
cancelli. Hence the origin of the term 
chancel. The thrones of the bishop and 
his presbyters were in early times fixed in 
this part of the church. In 1641 the Long 
Parhament resolved that the chancels should 
be levelled. 

Chancelloe op thb Excheqtteb. — John 
Mansell, appointed to reside at the receipt 
of the exchequer in 1234, is supposed to 
have been the first chancellor of the ex- 



CHA 

chequer. The equity jurisdiction formerly 
exercised by the court of Exchequer, was 
transferred to the court of Chancery by 
4 & 5 Vict. c. 52 (1841). The foUowing is 
a list of the chancellors of the Exchequer 
siuce the Eestoration : — 



Sept. 8. Six Robert Long. 

May 24. AntHony Lord Ashley, afterwards 

eai'l of Shaftesbiiry. 
Nov. 13. Sir John Duncomhe. 
Mar. 26. Lavrrence Hyde, afterwards Viscount 

Hyde and eail of Koohester. 
Nov. 21. Sir John Emiey. 
Apr. 8. Henry Booth, Lord Delamere. 
Mar. 18. Richard Haiupdeu. 
May 3. Sidney, Lord Godolphin. 
May 2. Charles Montague. 
Nov. 15. John Smith. 
Mar. 29. Henry Boyle, afterwards Lord 

Carleton. 
Feb. 11. John Smith. 
Aug. 10. Robert Harley, afterwards earl of 

Oxford. 
May 30. Robert Benson, afterwards Lord 

Bingley. 
Sir William Wyndham. 
Oct. 13. Sir Richard Onslow, afterwards Baron 

Onslow. 
Oct. 11. Robert Walpole, afterwards earl of 

Orford. 
April 15. James Stanhope, afterwards Earl 

Stanhope. 
Mar. 18. John Aislabie. 
Jan. Sir John Pratt. 
Apr. 3. Robert Walpole, afterwards earl of 

Orford. 
Feb. 17. Samuel Sandys, afterwards Baron 

Sandys. 
July 26. Henry Pelham. 
Mar. 9. Sir William Lee. 
April 6. Henry Bilsou Legge. 
Nov. 22. Sir George Lyitelton, afterwards 

Lord Lyttelton. 
Nov. 18. Heniy Bilson Legge (second time). 
Apr. 9. William Murray, afterwards Lord 



July 2. Henry Bilson Legge (third time). 

Mar. 22. William, Viscount Barrington. 

May 29. Sir Francis Dashwood, afterwards 
Lord le Despenser. 

Apr. 16. George Grenville. 

July 13. William DowdesweU. 

Aug. 2. Charles Townshend. 

Sept. 12. William Mun-ay, afterwards Lord 
Mansfield (second time). 

Dec. 1. Frederick, Lord North, afterwards 
earl of Guildlord. 

Mar. 27. Lord John Cavendish. 

July 13. William Pitt. 

Apr. 5. Lord John Cavendish (second time). 

Dec. 27. William Pitt (second time). 

Feb. 17. Henry Addington, afterwards Vis- 
count Sidmouth. 

May 12. William Pitt (thii-d time). 

Feb. 5. Lord Henry Petty, afterwards marquis 
of Lansdowne. 

April. Spencer Perceval. 

Jmie 9. Nicholas Vansittart, afterwards Lord 



Jan. 31. Frederick John Robinson, afterwards 
Viscount Goderich and earl of Ripon. 

April. George Canniug. 

Aug. 17. John Charles Herries. 

Jan. Henry Goulburn. 

Nov. 22. John Charles, Viscount Althorpe, 
afterwards Earl Spencer. 

Dec. 9. Sir Robert Peel. 

April. Tiiomas Spring Rice, afterwards Lord 
Monteagle. 

Aug. Francis Thornhill Baring. 

Sept. Henry Goulbum (Second time). 

July 16. Sir Charles Wood. 

199 



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1852. Mar. Benjamin Disraeli. 

1852. Dec. WUliam Ewart Gladstone. 

1855. Feb. 22. Sir George Cornewall Lewis. 

1858. Feb. Benjamin Disraeli (second time). 

1859. June. William Ewaxt Gladstone 

time). 



Chanceet (Court of). — The rise 
of the power of this, the highest court 
of judicature in the kingdom, is thus 
described by HaUam ( Eng. i. ch. vi. 
p. 344): "The equitable jurisdiction, as it 
is called, of the court of Chancery appears 
to have been derived from that extensive 
judicial power which, in early times, the 
king's ordinary council had exercised. The 
chancellor, as one of the highest officers of 
state, took a great share in the council's 
business ; and, when it was not sitting, he 
had a court of his own, with jurisdiction in 
many important matters, out of which 
process to compel appearance of parties 
might at any time emanate. It is not un- 
likely, therefore, that redress, in matters 
beyond the legal province of the chancellor, 
was occasionally given through the para- 
moimt authority of this court. We find the 
council and the chancery named together in 
many remonstrances of the Commons against 
this interference with private rights, from 
the time of Eichard II. to that of Henry VI. 
It was probably in the former reign that the 
chancellor began to establish systematically 
his peexihar restraining jurisdiction." The 
abolition of the court of Chancery was voted 
by Barebone's Parhament, in 1653. The 
court of Chancery was entirely remodelled 
and its practice amended by 15 & 16 Vict, 
ec. 86 & 87 (July 1, 1852) ; and 16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 98 (Aug. 20, 1853). The famous Berkeley 
suit, which lasted 190 years, commenced 
soon after the death of the fourth Baron 
Berkeley, in 1416, and terminated in 1609.. 
It arose out of the marriage of the fourth 
Baron Berkeley's only daughter and heiress, 
EHzabeth, with Eichard Beauchamp, earl of 
Warwick. The castle and heirship of Berke- 
ley was the object of the suit. 

Chandekna&oee (Hindostan) . — The 
French established a factory at this place on 
the Hooghley, above Calcutta, in 1676. They 
fortified it soon after, and it was for some 
years a formidable rival to Calcutta. Clive 
took it March 23, 1757, and it was restored 
to France, by the 11th article of the treaty 
of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The Enghsh cap- 
tured it again in Jvlj, 1778, and restored it 
to France at the end. of the war, by the 13th 
article of the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 
1783. It was taken again at the outbreak of 
war between France and England in 1793 ; 
rehnquished by the 3rd article of the treaty 
of Amiens, March 25, 1802 ; taken again on 
the renewal of the war in 1803, and restored j 
by the 8th article of the treaty of Paris, I 
May 30, 1814. | 

CHA3«rDos Clause. — This name was given [ 

to the 20th clause of the Eeform Bill ' 

(2 Will. IV. c. 45, June 7, 1832), which ' 

gave the right of voting to the occupiers of . 

200 



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lands or tenements of a rent of not less than 
£50 per annum. It had been moved as an 
amendment in committee of the Eeform 
BiU of 1831, by the marquis of Chandos, 
afterwards duke of Buckingham, and was 
carried against the government by a ma- 
jority of eighty-four. Ministers incorpo- 
rated it in their measure, and although 
that Eeform BUI was rejected by the House 
of Lords, the clause was introduced by 
mi n isters themselves in the biH of 1832, 
which passed into a law. 

Channel Islands (English Channel). — 
These islands are the only parts of the 
ancient duchy of ISTormandy that remain in 
our possession. They are situated within a 
few miles of the coast of France, and came 
into the possession of England as a portion of 
the duchy of Normandy, during the reign 
of Henry I. (See Aldeenet, Gueensey, 
Jeeset, and Saek.) 

Chanting is supposed to owe its origin to 
the want of power in the voice, for making 
itself heard in the large open buildings and 
amphitheatres of the ancients. It was first 
introduced into Christian worship between 
the years 347 and 356. St. Ambrose brought 
it from the Greeks to Milan, whence it 
passed to Eome, France, &c. 

Chantet. — HaUam (Eng. i. eh. ii. p. 94) 
remarks : — " There was a sort of endowed 
colleges or fraternities, called chantries, 
consisting of secular priests, whose duty was 
to say daily masses for the founders." The 
English chantries, amounting to 2,374 in 
number, were suppressed at the Eeformation 
by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (Dec. 15, 1545), and 
1 Edw. VI. e. 14 (1547). They generaUy 
consisted only of a httle chapel or altar 
placed in a church. Here the priests ofifered 
daily prayers for the soul of the founder, 
and for the souls of the deceased members 
of the family. 

Chap Books. — Tracts, or Httle books 
printed for chapmen, or pedlars, and sold by 
them about the country in the 16th and 17th 
centuries, formed the popular hterature of 
those times. The typography and paper 
were of an inferior kind. Ballads, songs, 
legends, biographies, tales of wonder, and 
theological tracts, are found amongst the 
subjects treated on in chap books. 

Chapel. — In olden times the French kings 
always took with them St. Martin's hood 
when they went forth to war, and the place 
where it was watched over by an attendant 
priest, was called capella. The word is a 
diminutive from capsa, which signifies a chest 
or cofifer, where the rehcs of saints were 
kept. Hence the origin of the apphcation of 
the word chapel to private oratories. Several 
kinds of chapels exist now, such as parochial 
chapels, chapels of ease, chapels of colleges, 
and private chapels. The places of worship 
used by dissenters generally bear this 
designation. Chapels were formerly built 
upon bridges, which the priests were bound 
to keep in repair from the benefactions 
received. There was a chapel on old London 
Bridge. 



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Chapel, Knights op the, or Poor 
Knights of Windsob, were first established 
by King Edward III. in 1348, and consisted 
of twenty-six veteran knights, "infirm in 
body, indigent, and decayed," The original 
constitiition of the order was altered by 
Edward IV. in 1482-83, after which it fell 
into a state of decline, from which it was 
raised by EHzabeth, who re-estabUshed it 
for thirteen poor knights, Aug. 30, 1559. 
This number was raised to eighteen in 1659. 
In Sept. 1833, Wilham IV. changed the title 
of the order to "Military Knights of Wind- 
sor," its present designation. 

Chaplain. — By 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13, 
§§ 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 24 (1529), the 
number of chaplains allotted to various 
dignitaries was as follows : — ^Archbishop, 8 ; 
baron, 3 ; baroness, 2 ; bishop, 6 ; chancellor, 
3 ; chief justice, 1 ; comptroller of the house- 
hold, 2; countess, 2; dean of the chapel 
royal, 2 ; duchess, 2; duke, 6; earl, 5; king's 
almoner, 2 ; king's secretary, 2 ; knight of 
the garter, 3 ; marchioness, 2 ; marquis, 5 ; 
master of the roUs, 2; treasurer, 2 j viscount, 
4; warden of the cinque porta, 1. 

Chapter. — The canons in the cathedral or 
conventual churches began to form what 
was called a chapter in the 8th century. 
This was a kind of coimcil for the bishop. 
Chapter-houses were built for these meet- 
ings, and were generally contiguous to the 
cathedral. 

Chaeade. — Disraeli, in the "Curiosities of 
Literature," says : — " The charade is of 
recent birth, and I cannot discover the 
origin of this species of logogriphes. It 
was not known in France so late as 1771 ; 
in the great Dictionnaire de Trevoux, the 
term appears only as the name of an Indian 
sect of a military character." A new spe- 
cies of charade, of a dramatic character, 
called the Acting Charade, has of late years 
become popular. The word charade is said 
to be taken from the name of the inventor. 

Chaeing Ceoss. — Edward I. erected a 
marble cross, adorned with divers figures, 
in memory of Queen Eleanor, at the village 
of Charing, a.d . 1291, and from this the name 
is derived. This cross was destroyed by 
the Long Parliament in 1641. The eques- 
trian statue of Charles I. was east in bronze 
by Le Seur in 1633, by order of Thomas 
Howard, earl of Arundel. The Long Parlia- 
ment ordered it to be broken up after the 
execution of the king. John Eiver, a bra- 
zier, purchased it, concealed it in his garden, 
in Holbom, and, at the Eestoration, pre- 
sented it to Charles II., who ordered ii 
to be erected upon a pedestal at Charing 
Cross, 

Chaeiots are frequently mentioned in 
Scripture, as well as in the works of the 
ancient poets and historians. The Greeks 
attributed the invention to Minerva ; Virgil 
to Erichthonius, a mythical king of Athens ; 
and Pliny states that four-wheeled carriages 
were invented by the Phrygians. {See Was 
Chaeiots.) 
Chabixable Bequests were placed under 



CHA 

the care of commissioners appointed to 
inquire into the misemployment of property 
bequeathed or otherwise devoted to chari- 
table purposes by the Statute of Charitable 
Uses, 43 Eliz. e. 4, s. 1 (1601). The Irish 
act, 4 Geo. III. c. 18 (1764), orders that a 
return of all such property bequeathed in 
Ireland be handed in to the bishop of the 
diocese or the archbishop of Armagh. This 
being foimd ineffectual to secure the proper 
application of such bequests, the Eoman 
Catholic Bequests Act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 97 
(Aug. 9, 1844), laid down more stringent 
regulations. The Charitable Trusts Act, 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 137 (Aug. 20, 1853), instituted 
a board empowered to inquire into the 
condition and management of charities, to 
examine accounts, to hear witnesses, and to 
report their proceedings annually to parha- 
ment. This act was amended by 18 & 19 
Viet. c. 124 (Aug. 14, 1855), and certain 
charities were temporarily exempted from 
its operation by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 76 (Aug. 25, 
1857). 

Chaeitable Institutions. — According to 
the report of the commissioners appointed 
to investigate this subject, the following are 
the oldest charitable institutions in England : 
St. Bartholomew, Guildford, founded a.d. 
1078; Cirencester, 1100; Eipon, 1109; St, 
Bartholomew, London, 1122 ; Northampton, 
1138 ; and St. Catherine, London, 1148. By 
the Charitable Trusts Act, 16 & 17Vict.c.l37, 
passed Aug. 20, 1853, a body of commis- 
sioners was appointed to inquire into aU 
charities in England and Wales. 

Chaeitt (Brothers of). — This order of 
hospitallers, chiefly laymen, was founded by 
St. John de Dieu, at Granada, in 1540, and 
obtained a second establishment at Madrid 
in 1553. Gregory XIII. confirmed the order 
in 1572, and Paul V. admitted some of them 
to take orders in 1609. They attend upon 
the sick poor, and were introduced into 
France in 1601. 

Chaeitt Schools. — The sixth general 
council, held at Constantinople a.d. 680-81, 
by one of its canons ordered charity schools 
to be estabhshed in connection with country 
churches; and further regulations were, 
from time to time, issued on the same subject. 
William Blake, a woollen draper of Covent 
Garden, about the year 1685, is said to have 
projected the first charity school in England, 
and to have purchased Dorchester House, 
Highgate, for that purpose. Franck, a Ger- 
man divine, laboured for the same object at 
Glaucha, in 1698. Another, which claims to 
be the first, was estabhshed in London in 
1693, and the movement was prosecuted with 
zeal in 1698. The trustees of the then 
existing schools formed themselves into a 
voluntary association in 1700. 

Chaeleeoi (Belgium). — A fortress was 
erected here a.d. 1666, by Eodrigo, Spanish 
governor of the Low Countries, who named 
it in honour of Charles II. of Spain. By the 
peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe (May 2, 1668), it 
was ceded to the French. The prince of 
Orange besieged it in 1672, but was obliged 
201 



CHA 

to raise the siege. Louis XIV. of France 
added the lower and middle town in 1676. 
In 1677 the prince of Orange again made an 
rmsuceessful effor*^ to take the town, which 
was restored to Spain by the treaty of 
Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678. In 1690 it was 
again taken by the French, and again restored 
to Spain by the peace of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 
1697. The French again captured it Aug, 2, 
1746, Nov. 12, 1792, and June 26, 1794. In 
1795 the walls were destroyed, but they 
were rebuilt in 1816, by order of the duke 
of WeUington. The railioad from Charleroi 
to Paris was completed in 1856. 

Chaeles the First, the second son of 
James I. of England and Anne of Denmark, 
was born at Dimifermline, Not. 19, 1600. 
He ascended the Enghsh throne March 27, 
1625, and married Henrietta Maria of France 
June 13, in the same year. They had three 
sons and four daughters ; the eldest ascended 
the throne as Charles II. (q.v.), and the 
third child and second son succeeded his 
brother as James II. (q.v.). Their eldest 
daughter, Mary, was born Nov. 4, 1631. 
She married Prince WiUiam of Nassau, and 
died Dec. 24, 1660. Their fourth child was 
Elizabeth, born Dec. 28, 1635, and died 
Sept. 8, 1650. Their fifth child, Anne, born 
in 1637, died young. Their sixth child, Henry, 
born July 8, 1640, died Sept. 13, 1660; 
and their seventh child, Henrietta Maria, 
bom June 16, 1644, married Philip, duke 
of Anjou, and died June 30, 1670. Charles 
the First was beheaded at Whitehall 
Jan. 30, 1649, and buried at Windsor 
Feb. 8. 

Charles the SECoifD, the eldest son of 
Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at 
St. James's, May 29, 1630. He succeeded to 
the throne, de jure, on the death of his 
father, Jan. 30, 1649, but did not become 
king de facto until May 29, 1660. He mar- 
ried Catherine of Portugal, May 20, 1662. 
Charles II., who left no legitimate issue, 
died Feb. 6, 16S5, and was buried at West- 
minster Feb. 14. 

CHARLESTOWif (United States). — This sea- 
port town in South Carolina was founded in 
1672, and called " Oyster-Point Town." In 
1706 it was attacked by the Spanish and 
French, who were repulsed and defeated. A 
■furious hurricane, in Aug. 1728, occasioned an 
inundation, which did considerable injury to 
the town, and a visitation of the yellow fever 
in the same year carried off multitudes of the 
inhabitants. In 1740 and 1778 great damage 
was caused by fires. The Enghshtook Charles- 
town May 11, 1780, and retained possession 
till Dec. 14, 1782, when it was evacuated. 
In 1783 it was made a city by the legislature 
of S. Carohna. In 1796 about a third of the 
city was destroyed by fire. A negro con- 
spiracy was discovered and suppressed here 
in June 1822. The college was founded in 
1785. 

Chabmoitth (Battles). — Egbert defeated 

the Danes at this place, in Dorsetshire, 

A.D. 833. The invaders had disembarked 

from thirty-five ships. His successor, Ethel- 

202 



CHA 

wulf, was defeated by the Danes at this place 
A.D. 840. 

Chaetee-House. — This is a corruption of 
Chartreuse, the name given to a house of 
Carthusian monks, established in London by 
Sir Walter Manny a.d. 1371. Before that 
time the site had been used as a burying- 
place for the poor. Its last prior was hanged 
and quartered for denying the king's supre- 
macy. May 3, 1535. After the suppression 
of the monasteries by Henry VIII., it was 
purchased by Mr. Thomas Sutton, whom 
Stow calls " the right Phoenix of charity in 
our times," from the earl of Suffolk, in 1611, 
to be converted into an hospital, " consist- 
ing of a master, governor, a preacher, a 
free school, with a master and usher, eighty 
poor people, and forty scholars." The be- 
nevolent founder died Dec. 12, 1611, before 
his work was completed; but he had pro- 
vided amply for the endowment, and the 
hospital was opened Oct. 3, 1614. An at- 
tempt having been made by one of Mr. 
Sutton's relatives to obtain possession of 
the property, the foundation was confirmed 
by 3 Charles I. c. 1 (1627). 

Chaetee-Paktt. — Agreements between 
merchants and seamen respecting their ships 
and cargoes, were regulated by the law of 
Rhodes as early as B.C. 916. The Scottish 
parliament passed several acts for their 
regulation in 1467, which were ratified in 
1487. 

Chaetees. — "Nearly all the nations," 
says Sir Harris Nicolas, "which estabHshed 
themselves upon the ruins of the Roman 
empire, gave to their charters the form of 
epistles, in imitation of the Romans." The 
most ancient Anglo-Saxon charters extant 
are of the 7th century. It is beheved that 
the earhest known is of the time of Ethel- 
bert, king of Kent, and was granted in full 
council, April 29, 619. The charters of the 
Anglo-Saxon monarchs were generally in 
Latin. Pubhe liberties were secured by the 
early charters. They were renewed and 
confirmed so frequently, that between the 
reign of Edward I. and Henry IV. Sir Ed- 
ward Coke reckons thu'ty-two. These were 
termed royal charters. A calendar of the 
Charter RoUs in the Tower, extending from 
1199 to 14S3, which contain grants of privi- 
leges to cities, corporations, guilds, rehgious 
houses, and individuals, has been published 
by the government. Charters were fre- 
quently forged. 

Chaetists. — The first demonstration, on 
a large scale, made by the pohtical agitators 
called Chartists, because they clamoured for 
what they termed the six points of the 
People's Charter, was held iu the open air 
at Birmingham, Aug. 6, 1838. The six 
points were, 1. Universal suffrage; 2. Vote 
by ballot ; 3. Paid representatives in parlia- 
ment ; 4. Equal electoral districts ; 5. Abo- 
Htion of the property quahfication for 
members of parhament ; and 6. Annual 
parHaments. Large bodies of the Chartists, 
armed, assembled at night in various parts 
of the country in the latter part of the year. 



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and a proclamation was issued declaring all 
such meetings illegal, Dec. 12. The agita- 
tion, however, continued, and an enormous 
petition, signed, it was said, by 1,200,000 
Chai'tists, was presented to parhament by 
Mr. Attwood, June 14, 1839. The Chartists 
attacked Newport Nov. 4, 1839, and were, 
after some resistance, dispersed by the 
troops, the leaders being taken and after- 
wards tried. Another petition, presented 
in 1843, was said to contain 3,500,000 signa- 
tures. In 1848 Chartist disturbances oc- 
curred in various parts of the kingdom, and 
a meeting was summoned by the Chartist 
leaders to take place on Kennington Com- 
mon April 10. They avowed their inten- 
tion of going in procession to the House of 
Commons with a petition, which, they 
boasted, contained above 5,000,000 signa- 
tures. Every preparation was made by the 
authorities to preserve the public peace, 
170,000 special constables were organized, 
and the duke of Wellington, as commander- 
in-chief, was at his post. When the Chartists 
assembled, their leaders were informed by 
the pohce that any attempt to pass the 
bridges in procession wotdd be resisted. The 
Chartists gave way, and consigned the peti- 
tion to tkree cabs for conveyance to the 
House of Commons. On examination, it 
appeared that, instead of 5,706,000, only 
1,975,490 names were appended to the mon- 
ster petition, and of these a large number 
had been fabricated. Prince Albert and the 
Queen figured amongst the names appended 
to the document. The name of the duke of 
Wellington was signed thirty, and that of 
Colonel Sib thorp twelve times. This ex- 
posure, coupled with the determination 
evinced by the public to repress agitation, 
proved fatal to the cause, and from that day 
Chartism rapidly declined. 

Chaetees (France), the ancient Autri- 
cum, was a towii of the Carnutes, from 
whom it received its modern name. The 
Normans ravaged it a.d. 852 and 872. EoUo 
received a check here in 912. Henry I. of 
England entertained Innocent II. at Char- 
tres Jan. 13, 1131. It afterwards fell into 
the power of the English, but was recovered 
by surprise in 1432, and was taken and re- 
taken several times during the civil wars in 
France. The cathedral was founded in 1020, 
and dedicated in 1260. The roof having 
been destroyed by fire in 1836, a metal one 
was erected in 1841. Louis XIII. bestowed 
the duchy on the duke of Orleans, in whose 
family the title still remains. 

Chaeteexise. — This monastry, called La 
Grande Chartreuse, was founded near Gre- 
noble, in France, by St. Brimo of Cologne, 
A.D. 1084. It was several times injured by 
fire, and the present building dates from 
about 1676. St. Bruno followed the rule of 
St. Benedict with certain modifications. It 
was called the order of the Chartreux, or 
the Carthusians, The monks were expelled 
during the Kevolution, but they returned in 
1826, and Chartreuse is still the chief monas- 
tery of the Carthusians. 



CHA 

Chatham.— Queen Elizabeth established 
a dockyard at Chatham in the 16th century, 
a little before the time of the invasion pro- 
jected by Spain. It was removed to its 
present site in 1622. The Dutch fleet 
entered the Medway and destroyed several 
ships June 12, 1667. The "Chest" for the 
rehef of wounded and superannuated sea- 
men, estabhshed at Chatham by Queen 
Ehzabeth, was removed to Greenwich by 
43 Geo. III. c. 119 (July 29, 1803). The 
school for engineers was established in 1812. 
Additional fortifications were ordered to be 
erected by parhament in 1860. 

Chatham (Fiest) Administeation. (See 
Newcastle and Pitt Administeatioit.) 

Chatham (Secos'ii) Administeation. — 
Wilham Pitt, the elder, created earl of 
Chatham July 30, 1766, presided over two 
administrations, the first formed in 1757, and 
called the Newcastle and Pitt (q. v.) Admin- 
istration; and the second, designated after 
his title, the Chatham Administration, formed 
July 30, 1766, on the dissolution of Lord 
Eockingham's first cabinet. Lord Chatham's 
ministry contained the following appoint- 
ments : — 

Treasury Duke of Grafton. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Camdeu. 

President of the Council .. Earl of Northington. 

^ . „ 1 /Earl of Chatham, First 

PnvySeal | Minister. 

Chancellor of Exchequer.. Hon. CnarlesTownshend. 

TEarl of Shelburn and 

Principal Secretaries of J Gen. Conway. The 

State 1 latter leader of the 

L House of Commons. 

Admiralty Sir Charles Saunders. 

Board of Trade Lord Hillsborough. 

Secretary at War Viscouiit Barrington. 

Ordnance Marquis oi Granby. 

Tj i. /~i 1 / Lord North and Thomas 

Paymasters General . . . . | Xownshend. 

Sir Edward (afterwards Lord) Hawke suc- 
ceeded Sir Charles Saunders at the Admiralty 
Dee. 13, and the Hon. Eobert (afterwards 
Lord) Nugent replaced Lord Hillsborough 
at the Board of Trade Dec. 16, 1766. The 
Hon. Charles Townshend, who died Sept. 4, 

1767, was succeeded by Lord Mansfield 
Sept. 12. The earl of Chatham's health 
rendered him incapable of taking any part in 
pubHc affairs ; and, towards the end of 1767, 
the whole power fell into the hands of the 
earl of Grafton, who in December made 
several changes in the cabinet. Lord Chat- 
ham finally resigned the privy seal Oct. 21, 

1768. {See Gbaetok Administeation.) 
Chatham Islands (South Pacific). — 

Lieutenant Broughton discovered these is- 
lands Nov. 29, 1791, and named them after 
H.M.S. Chatham, in which he sailed. The 
group consists of three large and several 
smaU islands. A whahng station was esta- 
bhshed at Oinga by Captain Eichard in 
1840. 

Chatillon-site-Seine (Congress). — Pro- 
posals of peace were made whilst the aUied 
armies were advancing upon Paris in 1814, 
and ChatUlon was fixed upon as the place for 
the congress, which opened Feb. 4. England 
203 



CHA 

sent tliree plenipotentiaries, Austria, Prussia, 
Eussia, and France eacti one to the conferen- 
ces. The allies demanded that France should 
be restricted to the limits she had attained 
before the Eevolution. Some temporary 
successes gained in the field induced I^Tapo- 
leon I., Feb. 17, to send instructions to 
Caulaincourt, the French plenipotentiary, to 
sien nothing without his orders. Early in 
March, Caulaincourt announced to the em- 

Eeror that the allies had deter min ed to 
reak up the conference if the fundamental 
principle of reducing France to its ancient 
limits was not accepted. Caulaincourt de- 
livered a counter -project Mar. 15, from which 
it became evident that IN'apoleon was not 
sincere in his desire for peace, and the 
congress broke up March 18. 

Chaumont (Treaty). — The insincerity dis- 
played by IS'apoleon I. during the negotia- 
tions at ChatiUon-sur-Seine, induced the 
great powers whose plenipotentiaries were 
engaged at that congress, to enter into more 
solemn obligations for the energetic prose- 
cution of the war, in case France should 
reject their proposals. With this view, 
treaties were signed by each of the four 
powers, England, Austria, Kussia, and Prus- 
sia, separately with the three others at 
Chauinont, March 1, 1814. The fotir treaties 
were of course, word for word, the same. 
Each treaty consisted of seventeen articles, 
and provided for the number of men to be 
maintained in the field by each power, and 
the amount of subsidies to be paid by Eng- 
land. By the second article, each contracting 
power engaged not to enter into separate 
negotiations, nor to conclude a separate 
peace, without the consent of the others. 
The treaty was to remain in force for twenty 
years, and not to be renewed before the 
expiration of that period. 

Chedtjba (Bay of Bengal). — This island 
was taken by the Burmese in the 17th cen- 
tury. The Enghsh captured it in May, 1824 ; 
and it was ceded to the East-India Company 
by the third article of the treaty of Yanda- 
boo, Feb. 24, 1826. 

Cheese was known to the Greeks and 
Eomans much earher than butter, according 
to Beckmann, who could find no notice of 
the latter substance in Aristotle, though 
he frequently mentions cheese. Athenaeus 
speaks of a celebrated Achaian cheese. The 
inhabitants of the island of Cynthus excelled 
in the preparation of this article of food, 
which was stamped upon their coins. In 
the Middle Ages it was made from deer's 
milk. The Artotyritse (from dproQ, bread, 
and Tvpbg, cheese) offered cheese with their 
bread in the Eucharist, in the 2nd century. 
They pretended that the first inhabitants of- 
the world oifered, as oblations, the fruits of 
the earth and of sheep. 

Chelsea (Middlesex). — Some authorities 
are of opinion that this is the place called 
Calcuith, at which a council was held July 27, 
816, when it was ordained that aU bishops 
should date their acts from the year of the 



CEDE 

Incarnation. It was designated Chelc-hethe 
in 1291. Sir Thomas More, who lived there, 
wrote Chelcith; and as late as 1692 it was 
called Chelchey. Stow describes it as "a 
tovm not large, but graced with good well- 
built houses." During the 16th and 17th 
centuries it was a favourite place of residence 
for noblemen and wealthy persons. Chelsea 
College, for the study of polemical divinity, 
was projected, in 1609 by Dr. Matthew 
Sutchffe, dean of Exeter, who endowed it, 
though not sufficiently. James I. granted 
it a charter in 1610, and gave it the name of 
the College of King James in Chelsea. In 
1616, James I. issued a declaration setting 
forth the reasons which induced him to erect 
the college. The scheme did not, however, 
succeed, and it was converted iato an hospital 
for invalid and decayed soldiers by Charles II. 
who laid the foundation-stone of the new 
building, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, 
in 1682. The good work, carried on by 
James II., was completed by William and 
Mary, in 1690, at a cost of £150,000. The 
Eoyal MHitary Asylum in connection with 
the" hospital was founded in 1801. 

Cheltenham (Grloucestershire). — Doctor 
Short discovered the medicinal properties of 
the water at this place in 1740; the first 
spring having been found in 1716. George III. 
visited Cheltenham in 1788, and a spring 
found on the estate where he resided is 
called the King's Well. A salt spring was 
discovered in 1803. Cheltenham was enfran- 
chised in 1832, and returns one member to 
ParUament. 

Chemical Society, of London, was insti- 
tuted Feb. 23, 1841. 

Chemistey. — Ample evidence may be 
found in the Old Testament to show that the 
ancient Egyptians possessed a knowledge of 
chemistry, and from them the Saracens, to 
whose industry the origin and improvement 
of the science are attributed by Gibbon, 
derived much information. Geber, who 
flourished in the 9th century, admits that 
he derived most of his knowledge on the 
subject from the early sages. (See Al- 
chemy). Little real progress was made 
for several centuries. " Chemistry," says 
HaUam, " as a science of principles, hypo- 
thetical, no doubt, and, in a great measure, 
unfounded, but cohering in a plausible 
system, and better than the reveries of the 
Paracelcists and Behmenists, was founded by 
Becker in Germany, by Boyle and his con- 
temporaries of the Eoyal Society in England." 
Becker published his ' ' Physica Subterranea" 
in 1669, andhe diedin London in 1685. Boyle's 
"Sceptical Chemist" appeared in 1661. Ernest 
Stahl, who died in 1734, originated the phlo- 
gistic theory of combustion, and Dr. Hales, 
1761, stands first as a pneumatic chemist. 
Dr. Priestley first obtained oxygen gas, 
Aug. 1, 1774, and Mr. Cavendish discovered 
the composition of water in 1784. Lavoisier, 
who died in 1794, threw considerable light on 
the theory of combustion, and proved the 
chemical identity of the diamond and common 
charcoal. 



CHE 

Chemistry, (Eoyal College of,) founded in 
London in July, 1845. 

Chepstow Castle (Monmouthshire) is 
said to have been founded in the 11th cen- 
tury and rebuilt in the 13th. It was taken 
by "the parhamentary forces Oct. 10, 1645, 
and surprised by the royalists early in 1648. 
CromweU, who failed in an attempt to re- 
take it by storm, ordered it to be besieged, 
and the small garrison, having exhausted all 
their provisions, surrendered May 25. The 
iron bridge over the Wye, which joins the 
Severn, two naUes below Chepstow, was built 
in 1816. 

Cheque. — The first cheque by an English 
king was the foUowiug, given by Edward I. 
to Bourunonio de Luk, or Luke, a Floren- 
tine merchant : — " Whereas, our beloved 
Eobert de Brus, earl of Carrick, is in pre- 
sent need of money, we request that you 
will cause to be advanced or lent to the said 
earl or his attorney, for his occasion, forty 
pounds, and we wiU cause them to be repaid 
to you. And when you have lent to him the 
aforesaid money, you shall take from him his 
letters patent testifying his receipt of the 
same. Witness our hand, Windsor, Sept. 10, 
1281." A stamp duty of one penny was 
placed upon aU drafts or cheques by 
21 Vict. c. 20 (May 21, 1858). 

Chekboueg (France), the ancient Chere- 
burgum, Carohwrgum, or CcBsaroburgus, re- 
ceived a visit from Harold, king of Den- 
mark, about the year 945. The castle is 
mentioned in an act of 1026, and its chapel 
and the town hospital were founded by 
WiUiani the Conqueror between 1060 and 
1064. On the conquest of Normandy by 
Philip Augustus in. 1203, Cherbourg fell 
under French domination, and in 1295 it was 
pillaged by the EngHsh. Charles the Bad, of 
Kavarre, obtained possession in 1355, and in 
1418 it was taken by the English under 
Henry V. after a three months' siege. 
Charles VII. retook it Aug. 19, 1450. 
Louis XIV. conceived the idea of erecting 
Cherbourg iato a naval fort and arsenal 
about 1687, and Vauban was appointed to 
superintend the improvements; but the 
project was abandoned, and the new and 
even the old defences demohshed in 1689. 
Some of these were restored in the begin- 
ning of the ISth century, and the town was 
of sufficient importance to receive an attack 
from the Enghsh, who effected an entry 
Aug. 6, 1758, and, after destroying the 
works and seizing all the stores, re-em- 
barked Aug. 15. In 1781 Louis XVI. re- 
sumed the attempts to establish a naval sta- 
tion here, and in 1784 M. Cessart commenced 
the breakwater, which is acknowledged to 
be one of the finest in the world. The out- 
break of the Eevolution of course suspended 
its progress, but it was resumed by Napo- 
leon in 1803, and inaugurated in 1813. Since 
then additions have been continually made. 
In 1828 the foundations were found to 
have shifted very considerably froin their 
original position. Louis Philippe restored 
them on a new principle in 1832 ; but even 



CHE 

now the dike is liable to serious injury frojn 
every violent tempest. The military strength 
of the place has been prodigiously increased 
by Louis Napoleon, who opened the railway 
and the Grand Basin of the Napoleon Docks 
Aug. 4 and 5, 1858, in presence of Queen 
Victoria, the EngUsh court, and many distin- 
guished visitors. 

Cheret. — "Lucullus, after the war with 
Mithridates," says Isaac Disraeh, "intro- 
duced cherries from Pontus into Italy 
(about B.C. 74) ; and the newly imported 
fruit was found so pleasing, that it was 
rapidly propagated." PHny states that the 
cherry-tree was introduced into Britain 
about 120 years afterwards, that is, a.d. 46. 
This race of cherry-trees, so called from 
Cerasus, now Keresoun, was lost in the 
Saxon period, and another stock brought 
from Flanders by the gardener of Henry 
VIII., and planted in Kent in 1540. Native 
cherries were, it is said, known in Norfolk 
in the 13th century. The Cornelian cherry 
was introduced into England from Austria 
in 1596; and the American Bird Cherry 
from America in 1629. 

Cheret Island (Arctic Sea) was disco- 
vered by the Dutch pilot Barentz, June 9, 
1596. It was at first called Bear Island, 
because the Dutch sailors killed a bear, the 
skin of which measured twelve feet in length. 
The Muscovy Company took formal posses- 
sion of the island in 1609. 

CHEESOif (Crimea), an ancient city near 
the site of which Sebastopol now stands, is 
supposed to have been built about the 5th 
century. It formed for many years a re- 
public, and joined the alliance against Pliar- 
naces I. about B.C. 184. The inhabitants 
assisted Constantiae I. against the Goths, 
who were defeated a.d. 334. Justinian II. 
was banished to this city in 695. He made 
his escape in 705, and having been restored 
to the imperial throne, sent an expedition 
against Cherson in 709, The youth of both 
sexes were reduced to servitude, seven of 
the principal citizens were roasted alive, 
twenty drowned in the sea, and forty-two 
taken in chains to receive sentence from 
the emperor. On the return voyage, the 
fleet was wrecked on the coast of Ana- 
toHa, when conquerors and captives perished. 
Justinian II. sent another expedition in 711. 
The people of Cherson prepared for resist- 
ance. The army sent against them revolted, 
elected Bardanes emperor, under, the name 
of Philippicus, returned to Constantinople, 
and put Justinian II. to death in Dee. 711. 
Theophilus reduced Cherson to subjection in 
831. Wolodomir of Eussia was converted to 
Christianity and baptized at this city in 988, 
and at the same time married to Anna, a 
Christian princess. The baptism of Wolodomir 
and his marriage were celebrated at the 
same time, and to the desire of obtaining a 
Eoman princess for his bride his conversion 
is attributed by Gibbon. Alexis I. of 
Trebizond annexed Cherson to his empire 
about 1210. 

CHEESoif, or Kheesoh- (Eussia). — The 
205 



CHE 

capital of a province of the same name was 
founded in 1778 and fortified in 1780. John 
Howard, the philanthropist, died in this 
city, Jan. 20, 1790, and the emperor Alex- 
ander erected a monument over his grave. 
Catherine II. of Russia made a triumphant 
entry into Cherson in 1787, passing under an 
arch bearing the inscription, "The Way to 
Byzantium." Joseph II. of Germany met 
her here, and entered into an alliance against 
Turkey. During the war with Eussia, an 
allied fleet appeared in the neighbourhood of 
Cherson in Oct. 1855; but no attack was 
made upon that city, which must not be 
confounded with the ancient city of the 
same name in the Crimea. 

Chesapeake. — This frigate, belonging to 
the United States, was captured by Captain 
Broke in the British frigate Shannon, June 1, 
1813. The action, which only lasted a 
quarter of an hour, was fought near Boston, 
in the presence of a large number of Ameri- 
cans who lined the shore. The strength of 
the rival frigates was as follows : — 

lous. Guns. Crew. 

U35 50 376 

1U66 49 330 



SbaruLon 



The former had 46 men tilled and 106 
woimded, and the latter 24 killed and 59 
wounded. 

Chesapeake Bat (IS'orth .America) was 
first explored by Capt. John Smith in 1607. 
He arrived ia the bay with colonists in April 
of that year. The squadron of three vessels 
was commanded by Capt. Newport, and 
carried 110 settlers. 

Chess. — The Chinese are said to have 
invented chess ; but Sir WilHam Jones ia of 
opinion that the game was invented by the 
Hindoos. He says: "We may be satisfied 
with the testimony of the Persians, who, 
though as much iucliued as other nations to 
appropriate the ingenious inventions of a 
foreign people, unanimously agree that the 
game was imported from the west of India 
in the 6th century of our sera. It seems to 
have been immemoriaUy known iu Hindostan 
by the name of chaturanga, i.e. the four 
angas, or members of an army; which are 
these, elephants, horses, chariots, andfoot- 
Boldiers ; and in this sense the word is fre- 
quently used by epic poets ia their descrip- 
tions of real armies." Gibbon states that it 
was introduced into Persia in the reign of 
Chosroes I. (531 — 579) . Tamerlane, who died 
in 1405, was fond of the game, which he is 
said to have improved. The Saracens intro- 
duced this game into Spain in the 8th century, 
and it gradually spread over Europe. The 
date of its introduction into England has not 
been clearly ascertained. It was known here 
in the 11th century, as Canute is represented 
as having played it in 1028. Caxton pub- 
lished " The Game at Chess" in 1474. 

Chestee was called Deva by the Eomans, 
who formed a colony here, and were not 
expelled imtU a.d. 476. The Britons called it 
Caerleon. It was taken by the Saxons ia 828 ; 
was destroyed by the Danes in 894, and 
206 



CHI 

rebuilt by Edelfleda in 904. The councQ of 
London advised the formation of a bisho- 
pric at Chester in 1078, but the see was not 
fully estabhshed until 1534. Richard II. made 
Chester a principaHty in 1389. Henry VII. 
separated it from Cheshire by letters patent 
dated April 6, 1506, and made it a county of 
itself. The coimty hospital was founded in 
1756, and opened in 1761. Some portion of 
the cathedral was finished in 1485, and the 
west end was commenced in 1508. The city 
was taken by the Parhamentary forces, after 
a long siege, in 1645. The jurisdiction of the 
countv palatine of Chester was abohshed by 
1 WUl. IT. c. 70, s. 14 (July 23, 1830). 

Chesteefield (Battle). — King Henry the 
Third's troops defeated the foi'ces of the 
rebellious barons at this place on Whitsun- 
eve, May 15, 1266. 

Chichestee (Sussex) was taken by Ella the 
SaxonA.D.480, and, having been destroyed by 
the South Saxons in 491, was rebuilt by Cissa, 
from whom the name is derived, in 538. The 
bishop's see was removed here from Selsey 
in 1015 or 1082. The cathedral, completed in 
1108, was burnt May 5, 1114, and rebuilt in 
1125. It was again destroyed by fire in 1187, 
and the rebuilding commenced in 1199. 
The present edifice was completed in the 
13th century. The Parhamentary forces 
captured the city in 1643, and the fortifica- 
tions were destroyed by order of the Long 
Parliament in 1648. The grammar-school 
was founded in 1497. The spire of the 
cathedral was blown down Feb. 21, 1861. 

Chieeasco (Treaty), by which the duke 
of Nemours obtained possession of his terri- 
tories in Mantua, was signed at Chierasco 
April 6, 1631. 

Chili (South America). — This coxmtry, 
the name of which is supposed to be derived 
from the Peruvian word Tchili, signifying 
"snow," was imder the rule of the Incaa 
when the Spaniards commenced the con- 
quest of Peru. Pizarro sent Almagro to 
subdue ChiU in 1536, but the marshal, as he 
was called, returned without having effected 
his object. Pedro de Valdivivia went by 
Pizarro's order in 1540. He overran the 
country, foimded the city of Santiago in 
1541, and remained there twelve years. The 
people maintained a struggle against the 
Spaniards for nearly two centuries, the 
war being terminated by a treaty in 1722. 
They rose against the Spaniards in 1772 and 
expelled them from a large part of the 
country. In 1810 the Chdenos threw off the 
Spanish yoke, and declared themselves inde- 
pendent Sept. 18. They were, however, 
subdued in 1814 ; but, the Spaniards being 
defeated at Chacabuco Feb. 12, 1817, and at 
Maipu April 5, 1818, the independence of 
ChiU was secured. It had been officially 
proclaimed at Santiago Feb. 12, 1818. Seve- 
ral struggles have occurred between the 
difierent factions of the repubUc since it 
became independent. The present constitu- 
tion was promulgated May 25, 1833. The 
independence of Chili was recognized by 
Mr. Canning in 1823. 



CHI 



CHiLLiAifw ALLAH (Battle). — Lord Gough, 
at the head of 22,000 men with 125 guns, 
encountered the Sikh army, 60,000 strong, at 
this village, near the river Chenab, Jan. 13, 
1849. The English remained masters of 
the field, though their loss was severe, 
amounting to 2,269 in killed and wounded. 
The Sikhs lost 3,000 killed and 4,000 
wounded. 

Chilteeit HtriTDEEDS. — The forests on 
the Chiltern Hills, in Buckinghamshire, were 
in olden times infested with banditti, and an 
oflB.cer called the steward of the Chiltern 
Himdreds was appointed to prevent their 
depredations, and protect the people in the 
neighbourhood. This oflSce, which no longer 
exists, now serves to enable a member of 
parhament, in certain cases, to vacate his 
seat. May ("Parliamentary Practice") 
thus explains the practice : — " It is a settled 

Erinciple of parhamentary law, that a mem- 
er, after he is duly chosen, cannot relin- 
quish his seat; and, in order to evade this 
restriction, a member who wishes to retire, 
accepts ofl&ce under the crown, which legally 
vacates his seat, and obUges the house to 
order a new writ. The offices usually se- 
lected for this purpose are those of steward 
or bailiff of her Majesty's three Chiltern 
Hundreds of Stoke, Desborough, and Bonen- 
ham, or of the manors of East Hendred, 
Northstead, or Hempholme, which, though 
sometimes refused, are given by the Treasury 
in ordinary cases to any member who apphes 
for them ; and are resigned again as soon as 
their purpose is effected." The legahty of 
the practice, which sprvmg up in 1750, is 
doubted, as the oifice is not one of those for 
which the occupant is required to vacate his 
seat. 

Chimket. — Beckmann contends that the 
Greeks and Komans were not acquainted 
with the use of chimneys. None are found 
at Herculaneum. They appear to have 
warmed their rooms by means of a large 
fire-pan, or portable stove, and this, filled 
with wood well ignited, or burning coals, was 
brought into the apartment. Hot air, con- 
veyed by means of pipes, seems also to have 
been employed. There were no chimneys 
in the 10th, 12th, and 13th centuries. Peo- 
ple in the Middle Ages made a fire in a hole 
or pit in the centre of the floor, and the 
smoke escaped through an opening in the 
roof. The first authentic account of chim- 
neys occurs in an inscription at Venice, 
relating that in the year 1347 many chim- 
neys were thrown down by an earthquake. 
The first chimneys at Home were erected by 
order of Francesco de Carraro in 1368. In 
a manuscript giving an account of man- 
ners and customs in England, written about 
the year 1678, it is stated that before the Ee- 
formation, "ordinary men's houses, as copy- 
holders and the like, had no chimneys, but 
flues like louver holes ; some of them were 
in being when I was a boy." Chimiaeys did 
not come into general use in France until 
the middle of the 17th century. A chimney- 
tax, or hearth-money, was levied by 13 & 14 



CHI 

Charles II. c. 10 (1662). It proved so ob- 
noxious, that it was abolished by 1 Will. & 
Mary, sess. 1, c. 10 (1689). 

Chimnex-Sweepers. — Chimneys were at 
first swept with a little brushwood fastened 
to a rope, but when the fiues were made 
narrower, boys began to be employed. The 
first chimney-sweepers were boys from 
Savoy and Piedmont. In consequence of 
the numerous accidents that happened to 
boys, a machine for sweeping chimneys was 
introduced into England towards the close 
of the 18th century, and a society formed 
for encouraging the sweeping of "chimneys 
vrithout the use of boys. By 3 & 4 Vict. 
c. 85 (Aug. 7, 1840), any person compelling 
or allowing a child or young person under 
the age of twenty-one years, to ascend or 
descend a chimney after July 1, 1842, was 
made liable to a penalty of not more than 
£10 or less than £5. 

China (Asia). — The annalists of this 
country, called the " Celestial Empire," 
trace its history to the remotest antiquity. 
E^musat, accepting their statements, ex- 
presses his behef that it goes back 
with certainty to the 22nd century before 
our sera, and that the date of its com- 
mencement, according to traditions wor- 
thy of credit, may be fixed even four cen- 
ttiries earher, namely, B.C. 2637. Gibbon 
(ch. xxvi.), who says the aera of the Chinese 
monarchy has been variously fixed from 
B.C. 2952 to B.C. 2132, adds that the histo- 
rical period does not ascend above the 
Greek Olympiads. This, however, is con- 
sidered much too early, and the best author- 
ities fix the commencement of the historical 
period at the beginning of the Han dynasty, 
B.C. 203. The northern and southern em- 
pires, the former ruled by the Great Khan, 
and the latter by the Chinese, from 
A.D. 1234 to A.D. 1279, were called Cathay 
and Magni. In the Middle Ages the name 
Cathay was sometimes apphed to the whole 
country. China is the most extensive 
empire in the world. Mr. S. Wells Williams 
("The Middle Kingdom") gives the foUowic^j 
estimates of the amount of population, at 
different periods, according to imdermen- 
tioned authorities : — 

Inhabitants. 

1711. Chinese Repository 28,605,716 

1736. Grosier, De Guignes 125,04(5,245 

1743. Ditto 157,343,975 

1753. Chinese Repository 103,050,060 

1760. Yih-tung-chi 143,125,225 

1760. De Guignes 203,916,477 

1761. Ditto 205,293,053 

1762. AUerstain, Grosier, De Guignes 198,214,553 

1790. Chinese Repository 155,249.897 

1792. Dr. Morrison 307,467,200 

1792. Macartney 333,000,000 

1812. Chinese Repository 362,467^83 

B.C. 

2700. First Chinese cycle. 

2357. Accession of the emperor Yao, who reigned 

a huudred years. 
2217. Commeiicemtnc of the Hia dynasty, according 

to Du Halde. 
2198. Commencement of the Hia dynasty, according 

to " L'Art de Verifier les Dales." 

207 



CHI 



651. Earliest date in Se-ma-tsetn's History of 

China. 
0.30. Birth of Confucius. 
246. All Chinese books ordered to be burnt. 
211. Completion of the Great WaU of China. 
202. Printing known in China. 
200. Jewish settlement in China. 
170. Invaded by the Tartars. 

24. Supposed Chinese embassy at Eome. 

15. The Taou-tse sect of philosophers attain great 
influence. 

A.D. 

65. The religious belief in Boodh, or Fo, intro- 
duced into China. 

94. The emperor Hoty sends an envoy to Arabia. 

166. Chinese historians report the aiTival at the 

Chinese court of an em.bassy from Anthon, 

who is supposed to be the emperor Anto- 

184. China is divided into three separate states. 
265. China is rtiuiited into one kingdom, under the 

Tsin iiynas^y. 
420. Seat of government established at Nankin. 
635. Christianity is preached by the Nestoiian 



84.5. 
851- 
12:i4. 



1317- 
1324. 



1420. 
1517. 



1537. 
1.543. 



1556. 
1.565. 



Expulsion of the Nestorian Christians. 

877. China it visited by Arab travellers. 

The MongoJs obtain possession of the northern 
half of China. 

First European mention of China made by 
friar John de I'lano Carpini, missionary 
to the Mongols. 

Knbuquis sent by St. Louis as missionary to 
the court of the Great Khan. 

Kublai Khan builds Pekin, and makes it his 
capital. 

Grand canal commenced. 

Kublai Khan obtains possession of the whole 
empii-e, and founds the Mongol or Yuen 
dynasty. 

Giovanni di Monte Corvino, papal legate at 
the court of the Grand Khan, dies at 
Pekin. 

Marco Polo arrives in Venice, after having 
resided seventeen years in China. 

Oderico de Pordenone travels in China. 

The Arab Xbn Batatu arrives in China, of 
which he publishes a correct description. 

Restoralion of a Chinese dynasty by Choo, 
who commences the Ming family of em- 
perors. 

Timour the Tartar sets out to invade China, 
but dies on the march. 

A Persian embassy ai-rives in China. 

Aug. 15. The Portuguese, under Andrade, 
aiTive at the island of Tamang, three mUes 
from the mainland, and reach Canton by 
the end of September. 

Jan. Thomas Pires, Portuguese ambassador 
at the court of China, falls into diserace, 
and is imprisoned at Canton. His coun- 
trymen are forbidden to enter the empire. 

The Portuguese obtain permission to erect 
sheds for commercial purposes at Macao. 

A Spanish colony is established at Manilla, and 
intercourse opened with Chinese mer- 
chants. 

Fi'iar Diego Bernardo conducts a religious 
mission into China. 

A Spanish fleet arrives at the island of 



i575. July 5. The Jesuit missionaries, Martin de 
Herrada and Gerontmo Marin, land at 
Gan-hai. 

1-576. June 21. Alvaro and other Augustine monks 
arrive at Canton. 

158L Martin Ignatius conducts a Franciscan mis- 
sion to China. 

1596. Queen Elizabeth despatches a fleet to China ; 
but it is wrecked on its voyage out. 

1600. The Jesuit Matteo Eicci obtains the emperor's 
permissirin to settle in Pekin. 

3624. The Dutch open a trade with China. 

3637. May 28. The British attempt to trade at 
Macao, but are prevented by the Por- 



208 



1662. 
1664. 
1689. 



1700. 
1719. 
1723. 
1727. 



1792. 
1793. 



OHI 



Li Kong deposes the last Ming sovereign, and 
establishes the Mantchoo Tartai- dynasty. 

The Dutch expelled from Formosa by Ko- 
shinga. 

The British again attempt to trade with 
China, but in vain. 

Trade opened with Eussia. 

In consequence of the exertions of the Jesuits, 
the emperor Kanghy issues a decree per- 
mitting Christianity. 

A Eiissian embassy arrives in China. 

The East-India Company open a factory at 
Canton. 

limpo, Amoy, and Canton opened to British 
commerce. 

Peter the Great despatches Ismaloff on an 
embassy to China. 

Christianity is prohibited by the emperor 
Yoong-t-chirig, who expels the Jesuits. 

Catherine I. of Eussia concludes a treaty with 
the emperor, and forms an ecclesiastical 
establishment and regular embassy at 
Pekin. 

European intercom-se restricted to Canton. 

Nov. 24. A Chinese killed by a loaded gvm 
accidentally fired as a salute. The gunner 
is seized, and straneled Jan. 8 next year. 

Sept. 26. Lord Macartney sets sail from 
Portsmouth. 

July. Lord Macartney arrives at Chusan. 
Sept. 14 He has an interview with the 
emperor at Zhehol. 

Mar. 17. He sets sail for England, where he 
lands Sept. 6, having accomplished no 
results of importance during his absence. 

An affray takes place between the crew of 
H. M. S. Providence and some Chinese, in 
which one of the latter is wounded. 

First American consul in China allowed to 
reside at Canton. 

Trade with England stopped for a time, in 
consequence of the death of a native in 
a skirmish with the crew of the ship 
Neptune. 

Oct. 20. Sir George Staunton compels the 
imperial viceroy to allow the EngUsh to 
correspond under seal and in Chinese with 
the government, and also to promise that 
British factories should not be entered 
by Chinese officers without previous per- 



1816. Feb. 10. Lord Amherst's embassy leaves 
England. Aug. 12. Reaches Tien-tsin, 
where his lordship refuses to perform the 
humiliating ko-tow, or prostration, before 
the emperor, and, consequently, returns 
without accomplishing the results of the 



1821. Dec. lo.ThecrewofH.M.S To^aze are attacked 

by the Chinese, who lose two men in the 
Bti-uggle, and attempt to put a stop to trade 
in consequence. 

1822. Feb. 23. Trade recommenced on its old 

footing. 

1834. April 22. Teimination of the East -India 

Company's monopoly in the trade with 
China. July 25. Ai-rival at Canton of 
Lord Napier, chief commissioner, to super- 
intend British trade with China. Sept. 5. 
Lord Napier sends for a guard of marines, 
in consequence of the injuries inflicted on 
his residence, &c. by the natives. Oct. 11. 
Death of Lord Napier at Macao. He is 
succeeded by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J F. 
Davis. Nov. 3. Imperial edict, prohibiting 
the opium trade. 

1835. Jan. 31. Tlie Chinese seize a boat and its 

crew belonging to the British merchant- 
ship Argyle. 

1837. Mar. 18. The emperor allows the residence of 

a British ponmiissi oner .at Canton. Nov. 29. 
Captain Elliot strikes the British flag at 
Canton, and retii'es to Macao. 

1838. Jan. Insurrection of the Meaou-tszesuppre.^ed 

by the imperial troops. July 12. Admiral 
Sir F. Maitland ai-rives at Tunkoo, Dec. 4. 



CHI 



CHI 



Disturbance and stoppage of trade in con- 
seciuence of persistence in the opium 
traffic. 
1838. Mar. 10. An-ival of Commissioner Liu at 
Canton. Mar. 18. He issuer an edict for 
the seizure of opium. Mar. 19. The British 
forbidden to leave Canton. Mar. 24. They 
are blockaded ia their factories. Mar. 27. 
Captain Elliot requii-es the surrender into 
his hands of all opium in the possession of 
British subjects, and promises that they 
shall receive its full value from govern- 
ment. April 8. Half the opium is given 
over to the Chinese. May 5. Passage from 
Canton open to all English merchants, 
except sixteen, who are detained as 
hostages. May 21. The remaining 20,283 
chests of opium are delivered up. May 24. 
CaiJtain Elliot and the British merchants 
leave Canton. June. The Chinese destroy 
the opium. July 7. A Chinaman is killed in 
a fray with British and American seamen. 
Aug. 17. The Chinese attack and murder 
the crew of the British schooner Black 
Joke. Aug. 26. British residents at Macao 
ordered to quit in twelve hours. Sept. 4. 
Sea fight between the British and Chinese in 
the Bay of Coalloon. No decisive result. 
Nmv. 3. War is commenced by the naval 
action at Chumphee. The Volage and 
Hyacinth disable twenty -nine war-junks, 
sinking three and blowing up one. Dec. 6. 
Edict of the emperor, prohibiting all inter- 
course with England. 

1840. Jan. 5. Imperial edict, declaring -the English 

oiitlawed. Jan. 14. Projected massacre of 
the English. Feb. 28. Attempt to bm-n the 
British fleet in Tongkoo Bay by means of 
lire-junks. May 22. The Hellas attacked 
by pirates. June 9. Another unsuccessful 
attempt to bum the British fleet at Cap- 
siugmoon. June 28. Canton blockaded by 
Sir Gordon Bremer. July 3. The Blonde, 
with a flag of tmce hoisted, is fired on by 
the Chinese at Amoy. July 5. Captm-e of 
Chusan by the British. Au^.6. Mr. Stantojj. 
is seized by the Chinese, a nd carried prisoner 
to Canton. Sept. 16. Seizure of Captain 
Anstruther, and wreck of the j^ite, the 
crew of which, with the captain's lady, 
are made prisoners, and treated with great 
cruelty. Oct. 17. Lin receives orders to 
hand over his seals of office to Commis- 
sioner Keshen. JS'ov. 6. Truce proclaimed. 
Nov. 10. Release of Mr. Stanton. Nov. 29. 
Admiral Hliot resigns the command of the 
fleet. 

1841. Jan. 6. Cessation of the negotiations, owing 

to the procrastination of the Chinese. 
Jan. 7. Two of the Bogue forts are taken 
by the British. Jan. 20. Hong-Kong is 
ceded to Great Britain ; and an indemnity 
of 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid to 
the English before 1846. Jan. 26. British 
flag hoisted at Hong-Kong. Jan. 27. Date 
of imperial edict disavowing the treaty 
made by Keshen. Feb. 22. Recommence- 
ment of hostilities. Feb. 2.5. Evacuation 
of Chusan. Feb. 26. Destmction of the 
Bogue forts by Sir Gordon Bremer. Feb. 26. 
Keshen is degraded by an imperial edict, 
and ordered to be conveyed to Pekin for 
trial. Mar. 1. The English fleet ascends 
the Pekiang to CaTiton. Mar. 2. Sir Hugh 
Gough assumes command of the forces. 
Mar. 3. Another truce. Mar. 12. The de- 
fences of Canton are seized by the British. 
Mar. 18. The forts and factories at Canton 
are seized by the British, and a Chinese flo- 
tilla is destroyed. Mar. 20. A triwe is agi-eed 
upon between Captain Elliot and the impe- 
rial commissioner Yang. Apiil 14. Ai-riva,l 
ofYihshan, the new imperial commissioner. 
May 21. The Chinese attempt to burn the 
English fleet at Canton with fire -rafts. 
May 24. The British, under Sir Le Fleming 



Senhouse, attack Canton, and gain the 
heights behind the city the next day. 
May 27. Captain Elliot abandons the attack, 
and a ransom of 6,000,000 dollars is paid to 
the British government. June 14. Death 
of Sir Le Fleming Senhoube. July 16. 
Imperial proclamation re-opening British 
trade. Aug. 10. Sir Henry Pottinger, the 
new British plenipotentiary, lands at 
Macao. Aug. 26. Amoy is taken by the 
British. Oct. 1. Recovery of Chusan 
island by the British. Oct. 9. Capture of 
the city of Chinhae. Oct. 13. Capture of 
Ningpo. Dec. 28. Capture of the district 
cities of Yuyao, Tsikee, and Punghwa. 

1842. Mar. 10. The Chinese make a futile attempt 

to recover Ningpo and Chinhae, with a 
force of 12,000 men. Mar. 13. Sir- Hugh 
Gough defeats a Chinese force of about 
8,000 men at Tse-kee. May 7. Evacuation 
of Ningpo by the British. May 18. Capture 
of the city of Chaijoo. June 16. CaptiU'e 
of Woosung, on the Yang - tze - kiang. 
June 19. Capture of Shang-hai. July 21. 
Storm and capture of Chin-keang-foo. 
Aug. 6. The English fleet takes its station 
before the walls of Nanking. Aug. 15. 
Arrival of Ke-ying, the imperial commis- 
sioner, with powers to treat for peace. 
Aug. 29. Signing of the treaty of Nanking 
(q.v.), whereby an end is put to the first 
Chinese war. Sept. 16. B-.U.^. Auckland 
leaves Nanking with the emperor's ratifi- 
cation of the treaty on board. Oct. 17. 
Dedication at Hong-Kong of the first Pro- 
testant ijlace of wo 1 ship in China. Dec. 7. 
Riots at Canton, and destruction of the 
European factories. 

1843. June 26. Hong-Kong is made the British seat of 

government in China, and placed under the 
governorship of Sir H. Pottinger. July 27. 
Canton is opened to the British, under the 
regulations of the treaty of Nanking. 
Oct. 8. Supplementary treaty of Homum- 
Chae. 

1844. May 7. AiTival at Hong-Kong of Mr. Davis, 

Sir H. Pottinger's successor as British 
governor-general in China. 
1846. April 4. Treaty of Bocca Tigris. July 8. Fracas 
at Canton between the natives and English 



1847. April 3. The English residents at Canton 
present a list of their grievances to Sir 
John Davis. Apinl 5. A British force, under 
General d'Aguilar, destroys the Bogue 
forts, threatens Canton, and compels the 
Chinese commissioner, Ke-ying, to accede 
to the demands of the governor. Dec. 5. 
The natives seize and murder six English 
residents. Sir John Davis after-wards ob- 
tains the execution of the criminals. 

1850. Oct. 3. First battle of the Tae-ping rebellion. 

Oct. 20. The great piratical fleet of Shapng- 
tsai is destroyed in the Bay of Tonquin, 
by H.M.S. Columbine and Fury, and the 
E.I.C. steam-sloop Phlegetlwn. Nov. 5. 
Commissioner Lin is despatched against 
the Tae-pings, but dies on the journey. 

1851. AprU 11. Defeat of the rebels at the Kew- 

heen-heu ferry. Nov. 30. Organization of 
the Tae-ping army. 

1852. May 19. The rebels raise the siege of Kwei- 

lin. Dec. 30. They extend their conquests 
to the Yang-tze-kiang. 

1853. Jan. 12. They take Woo-chang. Mar. 18. 

Amoy submits to the Tae-pings. Mar. 19. 
Capture of Nanking by the rebels. May 22. 
Kae-fung successfully resists a siege by the 
rebels. Sept. 7. They enter Shaug-hai. 
Nov. 1. Tae-ping army in a state of blockade 
at Tsing-hae. 

1854. June 26. The rebels take "Woo-chang. 

1856. Oct. 8. The Chinese board the Arrota lorcha, 
said to be a British vessel, and thus bring 
about a renewal of hostilities. Oct. 27. 
Six- M. Seymour opens fli-e on Canton. 



CHI 



CHI 



Nov. 12 and 13. Sir M. Seymonr captures 
all the Bogue forts and the Annunghoy 
lorts. Dec. 14. The foreign factories at 
Canton are burned by the natives. 

1857. Jan. 15. Attempt to poison the British resi- 

dents at Hong-Kong, by mixing arsenic 
with bread. May. Commodore JEUiot and 
Sir M. Seymour totally destroy the Chinese 
fleet of war-junks in the Canton waters. 
June 12. A British squadron sets fire to 
the suburbs of Canton, and retires to the 
lower part of the river. July. Lord Elgin, 
the British plenipotentiary, arrives at 
Hong-Kong. Oct. Baron Gros, the French 
plenipotentiary, anives at Canton. Dec. 28. 
Bombardment of Canton, which surren- 
ders to the French and English next day. 

1858. Jan. 5. The victors enter Canton, and capture 

Yeh, Peh-kwei, the governor, and Tseang- 
keun, the Tartar general. May 19. The 
allied squadrons force an entrance into the 
Peiho river, in spite of the fire of the 
Chinese forts. June 26. Signing of the 
treaty of Tien-tsin. Aug. 11. Capture and 
destruction of Fort Namtow. 

1859. May. The Hon. Mr. Bruce arrives at Hong- 

Kong, as her Majesty's minister at the 
court of Pekin. June 13. Commercial 
treaty with Russia. June 24. The forts 
on the Peiho treacherously ooen fire on 
Admiral Hope's squadron, which is com- 
pelled to retire to Shang-hai, after losing 
64 oflicers and men kiUed, and 252 
Wounded. 

1860. Expeditions fitted out by England and 

Fi-ance sail for China. Mar. 8. Ulti- 
matum sent by Mr. Bruce to the 
Chinese government. June 21. Lord 
Elgin and Baron Gros reach Hong-Kong. 
Aug. 21. Capture of the Taku forts at the 
mouth of the Peiho. Aug. 23. Tien-tsin 
occupied. Sept. 9. The expedition leaves 
Tien-tsin, and advances on Pekin. Sept. 18. 
Mr. Parkes, Mr. De Norman, and party, 
consisting of twenty-six, including Sikhs 
and Europeans, who had started for Tang- 
chow under a flag of truce, are treacher- 
ously made prisoners. Oct. 6. The emperor's 
summer palace is captured and sacked by 
the Fi'ench. Oct. 8. Mr. Parkes and other 
pi-isonei's restored. Oct. 12. The allies pre- 
pare to open fire on Pekin, when the 
Chinese government gi-ant all their de- 
mands. Oct. 24. Convention is signed at 
Pekin. Nov. 5. The allied forces evacuate 
Pekin. Nov. 14. Treaty between Russia 
and China. Dec. 27. The conclusion of 
peace is proclaimed in the city of London. 

LIST OF DTIfASTIES, 



1. Hia 

2. Chang 

3. Tcheou 

4. Tsin 


. 2198 
. 1766 
. 1110 
. 246 

A.D. 

. 221 
. 265 
. 420 
. 479 
. 602 
. 557 

THE 

A.D. 

. 1644 
. 1662 
. 1722 
. 1735 


12. Sony 

13. Tang 

14. Heou-Leang 

15. Heou-Tang .. 

16. Heou-Tsin .. 

17. Heou-Han .. 

18. Heou-Cheou 

19. Song 

20. Yuen 

21. Mtug 

22. Tsin 


. 590 

619 

. 907 






6. Heou-Han . . . 

7. Tsin 

8. Song 

9. Tsi 


. 947 
. 951 
. 960 
. 1280 
1368 


10. Leang 


1<U4 


11. Tchin 

EMPEBOES OF 

Shun-che 

Kang-hy 

Yooug-t-ching . . . 
Kien-long 


KEIGIflBra DYNASTY. 

A.D. 

Kea-Mng 1795 

Taoukwang 1820 

Hien-fung 1850 



China Apple. — This tree was introduced 
into England in 1780. 



China Bose was first successfully raised 
in England in tlie year 1789. 

China-waee. — The art of making porce- 
lain was known in China nearly two cen- 
turies before the Christian sera. For a long 
time the Chinese supphed Europe with this 
ware, and on this account it was caUed China. 
The ships of the East-India Company first 
imported it in 1631. 

Chingleput (Hindostan). — This town 
was taken by the French ia 1751. Clive 
retook it after a short siege Oct. 31, 1752. 
Hyder Ah besieged it in 1780, and was 
driven away by Sir E. Coote Jan. 18, 1781. 

Chin-hae (China). — This town was taken 
by the Enghsh army Oct. 9, 1841. It made 
a good defence. The victors captured 157 
guns. An attack made by the Chinese on 
the gates of the city, March 10, 1842, was 
repulsed. 

Chin-keang-foo (China). — This city was 
taken by the English after a gallant defence, 
July 21, 1842. The rebels took the city 
April 1, 1853, and evacuated it in 1857. 

Chinon (France). — Geoffrey of Anjou 
was imprisoned in the castle of Chinon by 
his brother Fulk, a.d. 1068, and remained 
there until 1096. Henry II. of England 
died at Chinon July 6, 1189. His son, Kling 
John, concluded a truce for five years vsith 
Philip II. of France at this place, Sept. 18, 
1214. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, 
appeared before Charles VII. in 1429 at this 
town where he was keeping his court, and 
announced her mission to raise the siege of 
Orleans and crown him king at Eheims. 

Chinsuea ( Hindostan) . — The Dutch, who 
formed a factory here in 1656, were soon 
after expelled by the native authorities. 
They returned in 1686. The English took it 
in 1795, and restored it to the Dutch in 
1814. By the 8th and 9th articles of a treaty 
concluded between Great Britain and the 
Netherlands, March 17, 1824, it was with 
other places ceded to England in exchange 
for some possessions in Sumatra. 

Chios (.^gean Sea). — This island was, 
according to tradition, peopled by the Pelas- 
gians. Its inhabitants joined the Ionic con- 
federation. The Persians invaded Chios 
and committed great devastation B.C. 493. 
The Chians revolted from the Athenians 
B.C. 412, and the latter ravaged the island. 
They again threw off the Athenian yoke 
B.C. 357. Philip captured Chios B.C. 201. 
The Chians remained in friendly aUiance 
with the Eomans for many years. Their 
island is supposed, however, to have been 
included in the Insularum Provincia, estab- 
hshed by Vespasian. The chief city, also 
called Chios, claims the honour of being the 
birthplace of Homer. Its modern name is 
Scio {q. v.). 

Chiozza, (Sea-Fight,) fought off Chiozza, 
between the Genoese and Venetian fleets, in 
May, 1379. The latter were defeated with 
great loss. The island and city of Chiozza 
fell into the hands of the Genoese. Their 
fleet was blockaded by the Venetians in the 
port of Chiozza, and the Genoese were com- 



CHI 

pelled to surrender in 1380, when tlie island 
was restored to Venice. 

Chippawa (Battles). — General Riall, at 
the head of 1,500 regular troops, besides 
militia and 300 Indians, sustained a defeat at 
this place from an American army 6,000 
strong, with a numerous train of artillery, 

July 5, 1814. General EiaU having been 

reinforced and supported by General Drum- 
mond, advanced against the Americans, who 
had estabMshed themselves at Chippawa. A 
severe action took place July 25, in which 
General EiaU was wounded. The Americans 
were, however, defeated, and abandoned 
their camp, throwing the baggage and pro- 
visions into the Eapids. The Americans had 
5,000 men engaged, and the EngHah 2,800, of 
all descriptions. Several hundred prisoners 
were taken, 

Chippenham (Wilts) was a place of 
importance in the time of the Anglo-Saxon 
kings, some of whom resided here. Ethel- 
wulf celebrated the marriage of his daughter 
Athelswitha with Burrhed, king of Mercia, in 
this town, A.D. 853. In 878 it was seized by the 
Danes, who, after having committed great 
ravages, were expelled by Alfred. In Dooms- 
day Book (1086), it is mentioned as forming 
part of the royal possessions both before and 
after the Conquest, but in the reign of 
Eichard II. it belonged to the Hungerford 
family. Chippenham sent two members to 
parhament in the reign of Edward I. Its 
charter, dated May 2, 1554, was abohshedby 
Charles II. in 1684. James II. restored the 
old privileges of the borough by another 
charter, granted March 13, 1685. Chippen- 
ham cloth won the first prize in the Great 
Exhibition of 1851, 

Chitore (Hindostan) . — This fortified town, 
seated on the summit of a precipice, was at 
one time the capital of Odeypoor. The Mo- 
hammedan emperor of Delhi seized it in 1303, 
and the Eajpoots recovered it in 1312. The 
king of Guzerat took it in 1533, and the em- 
peror Acbar in 1567. After having undergone 
various vicissitudes, it was, in 1790, restored 
to the ruler of Odeypoor. 

CHiTTAGONft (Hindostan) .---The revenues 
of Chittagong, with those of other districts, 
were ceded to the East-India Company by a 
treaty concluded with Mir Casim, Sept. 27, 
1760. It suffered from an earthquake 
AprU 2, 1762. 

Chittledeoog (Hindostan). — Hyder Ali 
failed in an attack upon this strong fortress 
in 1776, but obtained possession in 1779. 
In this fortress Tippoo Saib imprisoned 
General Matthews, made prisoner at the 
capitulation of Bednore, April 30, 1783. The 
troops stationed here seized the military 
treasure Aug. 6, 1809. 

Chittoor (Hindostan).— Hyder Ali took 
this place, in Arcot, in October, 1780, Sir 
E. Coote laid siege to it Nov. 8, 1781, and it 
capitulated on the 10th. It came, under 
British rule in 1802, and the native chiefs 
were expelled in 1804. 

Chivalry. — "It appears probable," says 
HaUam, " that the custom of receiving arms 
211 



CHO 

at the age of manhood with some solemnity 
was of immemorial antiquity among the 
nations that overthrew the Roman empire." 
And to this he traces the origin of chivalry, 
adding that "proofs, though rare and inci- 
dental, might be adduced to show that in the 
time of Charlemagne, and even earlier, the 
sons of monarchs at least did not assmne 
manly arms without a regular investiture. 
And in the 11th century it is evident that 
this was a general practice." The custom for 
feudal tenants to serve on horseback, 
equipped with the coat of mail, in the reign 
of Charlemagne, in his opinion gave birth to 
the institution. The connection of chivalry 
vnth the Crusades gave it a strong rehgiotis 
tinge, and to this, devotion to the female 
sex was added, so that the love of God and 
of the ladies constituted a single duty. Its 
chief virtues were loyalty, courtesy, and 
munificence. " The young man, the squire," 
says Gtiizot, "who aspired to the title of 
knight, was first divested of his clothes, and 
put into the bath, a symbol of purification. 
Upon coming out of the bath, they clothed 
him in a white tunic, a symbol of purity ; in 
a red robe, a symbol of the blood which he was 
bound to shed in the service of the faith ; in 
a saga, or close black coat, a symbol of the 
death which awaited him as well as aU men." 
St. Pelaye ascribes its decline, in the 15th 
and 16th centuries, to the profusion with 
which Charles VI. lavished the order, and its 
extension by Francis I. to lawyers and other 
civilians. HaUam is of opmion that the 
invention of gunpowder eventually overthrew 
chivalry. 

Chivalry, (Court of,) exiisted at a very 
early period, though no records of its history 
remain. Its jurisdiction extended over 
matters of honour and courtesy, and its 
severest penalty was degradation from 
knighthood, which it only decreed in three 
cases ; that of Sir Andrew Harclay in 1322 
being the first. In consequence of abuses, 
its authority was defined in 1389 by 13 Eich.II. 
Stat. 1, c. 2. 

Chlorine. — This elementary gaseous body 
Was discovered by Scheele in 1774. He called 
it " dephlogisticated muriatic acid." Sir 
Humphry Davy corrected some errors that 
prevailed respecting its nature in 1809, and 
gave it the name of chlorine on account of 
its greenish hue. Mr. F. Smith introduced 
an apparatus for making chlorine in 1847. 

Chloroform:. — This fluid, regarded as a 
compound of chlorine and formyle, whence 
the name, was discovered by Soubeirau in 
1832. Its true composition was ascertained 
by Dumas and Pehgot in 1835. The vapour 
of chloroform was first applied as an anaes- 
thetic agent by Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh, 
in 1847. It is considered the safest of aU 
anaesthetics, 

Chobham Camp.— An encampment on a 
smaU scale was formed at Chobham, in Sur- 
rey, June 14, 1853, for exercising the troops 
in mihtary evolutions. The Queen reviewed 
the troons June 14, and the camp broke up 
August 20. 



CHO 

Chocolate. — Prescott (Mexico, vol. i. b. 1, 
e. 5) speaking of the products of Mexico, 
remarks: — "Another celebrated plant was 
the cacao, the fruit of which furnished the 
chocolate, — from the Mexican ehocolatl, — 
HOW so common a beverage throughout 
Europe." When Cortes was at the capital, 
A.D. 1519, the emperor Monteziuna took no 
other beverage, fifty jars or pitchers being 
prepared for his daily consijmption. Two 
thousand pitchers were allowed for his 
household. It was brought from Mexico 
into Europe by the Spaniards, and was in 
use in France in 1661. Chocolate-houses 
were introduced into London in the middle 
of the 18th century. 

Choczim, or CHOTTiiT (Eussia). — This town, 
in Bessarabia, was taken from the Tvirks by 
the Eussians in 1739 ; but the former soon 
after regained possession. The Tiirks were 
defeated in a battle under the walls of Choc- 
zim, April 30, 1769, when the Eussians 
followed them into the town, and having set 
fire to it, retreated. The Eussians gained 
another victory near Choczim, July 13, 1769, 
and laid siege to the town, but were com- 
pelled to retire. They returned, and it feU 
into their hands in the autumn of the same 
year, but was restored to Turkey in 1774. 
The Austrians and Eussians captured it, after 
a gallant defence, Sept. 29, 1788. Though 
restored by the treaty of Jassy in 1792, it 
was finally ceded to Ei^ssia in 1812. 

Choleka. — This disease was prevalent in 
1669, but the most malignant form, known 
as Asiatic cholera, first made its appearance 
amongst some troops stationed at Ganjain, 
in Hindostan, in 1781, on which occasion 
several men were carried off in a few days. 
Occasional outbreaks afterwards occurred in 
other parts of India, and in 1817 the cholera 
appeared, in an epidemic form, spreading 
over different parts of Asia. It reached the 
Mauritius in 1819, visited the islands of the 
Indian archipelago, broke out at Canton in 
1820, at Pekin in 1821, at several places in the 
Persian Gulf in the same year, and reached 
Aleppo in 1822, where it spread along the 
shores of the Caspian Sea, and parts of 
Eussia. For a time its ravages ceased, but 
in 1829 it again broke out near the Caspian. 
It appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg, 
and other Eussian towns, in 1830, at Vienna, 
and towns in Germany, Hungary, Poland, 
Turkey, &c. iu 1831, and travelhng to Eng- 
land, burst forth at Sujiderland Oct. 26, 1831. 
It visited Edinburgh in Jan. 1832, London 
Feb. 14, Dubhn March 22, and gradually 
extended over the United Kingdom. France 
and America were devastated by this terrible 
scourge in the same year ; Spain and Por- 
tugal in 1834 ; and different parts of Italy in 
1835, 1836, and 1837. In the last-mentioned 
year it passed over to Algiers, and after an 
outbreak at Malta, disappeared. The second 
visitation broke out in Asia in 1845, and after 
visiting many places in Asia, and on the 
continent of Europe, reached England in 
October, 1848. This attack seems to have 
died out somewhere in America in 1849. 
212 



CHE 

The third visitation appeared in England for 
a short time in 1853, again burst forth in 
Sept. 1854, and after spreading over other 
parts of Europe, ceased in 1856. 

CHOTrsiTZ. — (See Czaslau.) 

Chotjans. — This name, given to bands 
who fought against the republicans in Bri- 
tanny and La Vendee, during the French 
revolution, is said to have been derived from 
their leaders, foui' brothers named Chouan, 
or from the watchword " chou, chou," 
which was their battle-cry. Lord Stanhope 
says, " The insurgents of Britanny were 
known by that name, a word of doubtful 
origin, and said to be corrupted from chat- 
liuant, the night-owl, to denote their secret 
signal in their nightly expeditions." The 
rebellion commenced in 1792, and in Oct. 
1793, they defeated the republican forces at 
Laval, in Britanny. In 1795 they sustained a 
serious defeat at Quiberon, but their cause 
was not finally mined tiU Nov. 9, 1799, when 
Napoleon Buonaparte substituted his des- 
jiotism for the government of the Directory. 
At the time of their greatest power the 
Chouans numbered 100,000 armed men, and 
if theu- efforts had been directed 1)y an able 
general, it is difficult to conjecture what 
effect they might have produced. 

Chkisji. — The oil consecrated by the 
bishop, and used in the Greek and Eoman 
Catholic churches in baptism, confirmation, 
ordination, and extreme unction. It was 
prepared on Holy Thursday. Taylor (Glory 
of Eegality, p. 347) remarks, " The distinc- 
tion between the oil and the chrism of our 
rituals may be explained by showing their 
respective uses in the ceremonies of the 
Christian Church. In the earlier ages three 
kinds of unction were employed in the 
offices of rehgion : 1st, that for sick persons; 
2nd, that for the cateehumeni, or persons 
not yet baptized or confirmed; and 3rd, 
that used in baptism, confirmation, or con- 
secration. The former of these were with oil 
consecrated for the two several purposes by 
the priest, but the latter -with an unguent 
of oil mingled vrith bahn, which was pre- 
pared at a particular season, and always 
consecrated by a bishop, by whom only it 
could be used, except in cases of necessity 
in the rite of baptism." Our sovereigns 
down to Elizabeth were anointed with this 
last-mentioned chrism at the coronation. 
Bingham (Antiq. xi. ch. i. s. 3) says, "And 
because the divine operations of the Holy 
Spirit in sanctifying grace are sometimes in 
Scripture called the unction or anointiyig of 
the Spirit, therefore baptism had also the 
name of cTirism or unction, from this noble 
effect attending it." 

Cheist (Order of). — On the abolition of 
the Templars by Clement V. in 1312, King 
Dionysius I. of Portugal preserved the order 
in his dominions, but changed its title in 
1317, to that of "The Knights of Christ." 
This arrangement was sanctioned by Pope 
John XXII. in 1319. The new order after- 
wards attained such power that King 
John III. was obliged to obtain an edict 



CHE 

from Pope Hadrian VI., by which the grand 
mastership of the order became vested in 
the kings of Portugal in 1522. 

Chkistatjdins, or Christodins. — This 
name was applied to the Protestants in 
France, to render them contemptible, be- 
cause, as their enemies pretended, they 
could only talk about Christ. 

Cheist Church (Oxford). — This college, 
called Cardinal College, was founded by 
Wolsey, who in 1524 obtained permission to 
convert the priory of St. Frideswide into a 
seminary. On Wolsey" s death it reverted to 
Henry VIII., who re-established it as King 
Henry's College Sept. 27, 1532. It received 
further endowments, was changed into a 
cathedral church, and called Christ Church, 
in 1546, the dean and canons being required 
to maintain the school. The library was 
annexed in 1716, and completed in 1761. A 
fire broke out in the haU, March 3, 1809, but 
it was fortunately extinguished, though the 
damage amounted to £12,000. 

Christiania (Norway), the capital, was 
founded by Christian IV. a.d. 1624, on the site 
of the ancient city of Opslo, destroyed by 
fire May 24 in that year. Charles XII, ad- 
vanced to Christiania in 1716, and laid siege 
to the castle, supposed to have been buHt 
about 1302 ; but he was compelled to retire. 
It is the seat of a bishop. The university 
was founded in 1811. A fire occurred at 
Christiania April 13, 1858, when the Ex- 
change, the Bank, other public buildings, 
and a large part of the city, were destroyed. 
Christiania received its name from its founder 
Christian IV. 

Christianity. — The religion professed by 
aU believers in Jesus Christ, being the fulfil- 
ment and completion of the Mosaic dispen- 
sation. The disciples of our Saviour were 
first called Christians at Antioch (Acts xi. 26), 
in the year 42 ; and the word occurs but 
twice more in the New Testament, namely, 
in the address of King Agrippa to Paul 
(Acts xxvi. 28), in the year 60, and in 
Peter' s(l Epist. iv, 16) exhortation, "If any 
man suffer as a Christian, let him not be 
ashamed." This epistle was written about 
the year 59. Though Christian was the 
name to which the primitive church adhered, 
its followers were known under various 
designations ; amongst which may be men- 
tioned. Believers, Brethren, Elect, Jesseans, 
Gnostics, N azarenes, Theophori, and Chi'es- 
tians. 

Christiansand (Sweden), foimded by 
Christian IV. in 1641. 

Christmas Box. — The practice of giving 
presents on Christmas Day arose out of the 
Pagan custom of the Paganaha, instituted by 
Servius TuUius B.C. 550. On these festivals, 
celebrated at the commencement of the year, 
an altar was erected in every village, when 
each person (man, woman, and child) was 
expected to contribute a coin. From this 
primitive mode of counting the population, 
new year's gifts, of which the English Christ- 
mas boxes are a modification, arose. Aubrey 
speaks of a pot, in which Eoman coins were 



CHR 

found, resembhng the earthen boxes for- 
merly used by our apprentices. 

Christmas Day.— The Nativity was not 
celebrated on the same day by aU the primi- 
tive churches. For two or three centuries 
the Eastern church kept the feast on the 
6th of January, whilst the Latin church 
observed it on the 2oth of December. The 
festival is believed to have ox-iginated in the 
2nd century. Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian 
monk, about the year 527, first fixed as an 
sera the birth of Christ, on the 2oth of De- 
cember, in the year of Eome 753, when 
Lentulus and Piso were consuls. This com- 
putation has been followed up to the present 
time, though the best authorities are agreed 
that this is neither the month nor the year 
in which the Saviour of mankind became 
incarnate. The date now generally received 
is that of April 5, B.C. 4. 

Christmas Island (Pacific Ocean) was 
discovered by Capt. Cook in his last voyage, 
Dec. 23, 1777. He landed on the 25th, and 
named the island after the day. 

Christopher's, St. (Atlantic). — This 
island, vulgarly called St. Kitts, and named 
by the natives " The Fertile Isle," was dis- 
covered by Christopher Columbus in 1493. 
The bucaneers settled upon it in 1623, and 
the French and Enghsh having quarrelled, 
occupied different portions. An Enghsh ex- 
pedition landed here June 21, 1690, and it 
capitulated July 14. It was again taken from 
the French July 15, 1702, and was ceded to 
England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. 
The French landed 8,000 men here Jan. 11, 
1782, during the American war, and the small 
garrison, only 600 strong, retired to a strong 
position, called Brimstone HiU. An English 
squadron sent for its rehef under Admiral 
Hood, engaged with the Count de Grasse's 
fleet Jan. 26, 1783. Brimstone HiU, closely 
besieged, capitulated Feb. 13. It was restored 
the next year. 

Christ's Colle&e (Cambridge). — 
This college was estabhshed by Margaret, 
countess of Eichmond, mother to Henry 
VII., in 1505. It was founded on the site 
of Henry the Sixth's College, called God's 
House, the name being changed to Christ's 
College. 

Christ's Hospital, or the Bltje- 
COAT School. — The site of the monas- 
tery of the Grey Friars was granted by 
Henry VIII. to the city of London, for 
reheving and succouring the poor. In 1552 
the city of London fitted up a part of 
the monastery for the reception of chil- 
dren, and 340 were received in Novem- 
ber. Their dress, at first russet cotton, was 
at Easter, 1553, changed to blue ; whence the 
present name of the school. The patent of 
foundation by Edward VI. bears date June 26, 
1553. Charles II. added the mathematical 
school in 1673. The branch estabhshment at 
Hertford was founded in 1683, and the wi-it- 
ing-school was endowed by Sir John Moore 
in 1694. Owing to the decay of great part 
of the original erection, it has been rebuilt. 
The new infii-mary was completed in 1822> 



fCHE 

and the first stone of the hall was laid by the 
duke of York in April, 1825. 

Christ's TnoEif.— The Zizypkus paliurus, 
supposed to be the same from which the 
crown of thorns was made, was brought to 
this country from Africa a.d. 1596. 

Chkomitjm. — This metal was discovered in 
1797, by N. L. Vauquehn, a distins;uished 
anatomical chemist, born in IS'ormandy. 

Chump ANEEE (Hindostan), was taken by 
Mahmoud, king of Guzerat, in 1483, after a 
siege of twelve years. The emperor Humayun 
seized it in 1534, and it subsequently formed 
part of the Mahratta territory. The British 
took it Sept. 17, 1802, and in 1803 it was 
annexed to Scinde. 

Chunae, or CHUifAE&HTTE (Hindostau), 
was held by the emperor Baber in 1529, and 
taken by the Affghan Shir Khan in 1530. 
Humayun, the successor of Baber, regained 
possession in 1538, after a siege of six months. 
In 1763 the town was taken by the British, 
to whom it was formally ceded in 1768. A 
treaty was concluded here between Warren 
Hastings and the nabob of Oude in 1781. 

Chupas (Battle). — During the civil wars 
amongst the Spanish conquerors of Peru, 
Yaca de Castro defeated Almagro's army after 
a hotly-contested battle in the plains of 
Chupas, Sept. 16, 1542. Ahnagro escaped to 
Cuzco, where he was immediately made pri- 
soner and executed. 

Chxtquisaca (South America), the 
capital of Bohvar, was founded by one of 
Pizarro's officers a.d. 1539. It was at first 
called the "YiUadela Plata," or " City of 
Silver," in allusion to the mines in the 
vicinity. Chuquisaca was made a bishopric 
in 1551, and erected into an archbishopric in 
1608. This city is sometimes called Sucre, 
from the general who secured the dehverance 
of the country by his victory at Ayacucho, 
Dec. 9, 1824. 

Chuech. — Bingham supports Mr. Mede's 
view that churches, or buildings for the per- 
formance of divine services, existed in the 
1st century. St. Paul (1 Cor. xi. 22) speaks 
of the church as a place set apart for sacred 
duties. Towards the end of the 2nd century 
Clemens Alexandrinus uses the word ecclesia 
for the place of assembly; and Eusebius, 
referring to the peace enjoyed by the Chris- 
tians from the persecution of Yalerian to 
that of Diocletian (253—303), declares that 
the Christians had increased so greatly in 
that half-century, that ' ' their ancient churches 
were not large enough to receive them, and 
therefore they erected from the foundations 
more ample and spacious ones in every city." 
St. Austin, moreover, founds the use and 
building of churches on 1 Tim. ii. 1, and 
declares that as soon as the Christian re- 
ligion was planted in the world, then churches 
were built. Churches existed in this island 
at a very early period of the Christian sera. 
Grildas speaks of the restoration of those 
destroyed during the Diocletian persecution. 
The emperor Constantine bmlt several new 
churches, and repaired and beautified others 
in the East. In 326 he laid the foundation of 
214 



CHU 

the temple called Sancta Sophia, which was 
completed by his son Constantius in 360. 
The first Enghsh churches were made of 
wood. During the 4th centui-y Bishop 
N^inias built a stone church in Galloway, and 
on account of its extreme rarity the place 
was called "WTiit church. 

Chuech of Engiand. — The early history 
of the Church in this island is given under 
Beitish Chuech. Many laws for the regula- 
tion of the Church were made by the Anglo- 
Saxon kings. Its right of sanctuary was 
rigidly enforced. Attempts at encroachment 
by Eome were frequently opposed, and the 
first article of Magna Charta (1215) provided 
that the Church of England should be free, 
and enjoy her whole rights and Mberties 
inviolable. This was confirmed by subsequent 
acts. The connection with the Church of 
Eome was entirely severed at the Reforma- 
tion. In 1530, the clergy in convocation 
acknowledged Henrv YIII. as supreme head 
of the Enghsh church; and by 25 Hen. YIII. 
o. 21 (1534), the Papal power in England was 
abrogated. The king was appointed supreme 
head of the Church by 26 Hen. YIII. c. 1 
(1534). The Articles were drawn up in 1551, 
and pubhshed in 1553. They were forty-two 
in number. They were revised and reduced 
to thirty-nine in 1562. At the Union in 1800, 
the Church of Ireland was vmited with that 
of England, under the title of the United 
Church of England and Ireland. 

Chuech of Noeth Ameeica. (See 
Ameeican Episcopal Chuech.) 

Chuech of Scotland. — The General 
Assembly, which met at Glasgow, abolished 
episcopacy and deposed the bishops Dec. 20, 
1638 ; from which time Presbyterianism has 
been adopted as the religion of that part of 
the United Kingdom. 

Chuech-eates have existed in England 
from time immemorial, though the earhest 
documentary record of their existence is 
found in the Year-books of the 44th 
Edward III. (1370). 

Chuechwaedens. — These officers are said 
to have been first appointed by an African 
council about a.d. 425. In England they were 
anciently called church reeves, were some- 
times appointed by the clergyman of the 
parish, and sometimes by the clergyman and 
the parish, according to custom. The 89th 
canon of 1603 directs, that "churchwardens 
shall be chosen yearly in Easter week by the 
joint consent of the minister and parish- 
ioners, if it may be ; and if they cannot 
agree, the minister shall choose one, and the 
parishioners another." From a communi- 
cation in JVotes and Queries, it appears that 
three churchwardens have been chosen an- 
nually at Attleborough, in Norfolk, since 
1617. 

Chuechtaed. — The practice of interring 
the dead in churchyards arose in the 6th 
century. The council of Braga, a.d. 563, 
allowed men to be buried in the churchyard, 
under the walls of the church, but pro- 
hibited burial within the church. The French, 
however, retained the ancient practice until 



CHU 

pei'mission was accorded for interment in 
churchyards by the council of Nantes in 660. 
In former times churchyards were privileged 
places, and property was often carried to 
them for safety, (See Bueial and Ceme- 

TEET.) 

Chfsan {China Sea). — The principal 
island of this group, called Chusan, was 
captured by the EngHsh July 5, 1840 ; and 
evacuated Feb. 25, 1841. Its chief city was 
again captured, and the island re-occupied, 
Oct. 1, 1841. By the treaty of Nankin, 
signed Aug. 29, 1842, the English were to 
hold this island until the indemnities had 
been paid, and certain ports opened. It was 
restored to the Chinese in 1846. 

CiBALis (Battle). — During the civil war 
between Constantine and Licinius, the latter 
was defeated near this city, in Pannonia, 
Oct. 8, 314 A.D. Licinius abandoned his camp 
and magazines, and retreated with great 
expedition. 

CiLiciA (Asia Minor) . — This country was 
originally inhabited by a Phoenician tribe. 
Syennesis, king of Cilicia, is said to have 
assisted in a mediation for peace between 
Croesus, the king of Lydia, and the Medes, 
B.C. 610. Cilicia was afterwards subject to 
Persia, and supphed 100 ships for the invasion 
of Greece, B.C. 480. The inhabitants indulged 
in piracy. The Komans sent several expe- 
ditions to suppress these malpractices, and 
the country was finally conquered by Pom- 
pey B.C. 66, and was made a Eoman pro- 
vince B.C. 64. It was overrun by the Saracens 
in the 7th century. They were expelled 
by Zimisces a.d. 964. It underwent various 
changes, and was finally conquered by Amu- 
rath I. in 1387. 

C 1MB EI. — This Celtic tribe, inhabiting 
Jutland, having joined with the Teutons, 
entered Ulyria, where they defeated Cn. 
Papirius Carbo, at the head of a consular 
army, B.C. 113. After this triumph they 
advanced into Gaul, b.c. 112, passed into , 
Spain, and, reappearing on the frontiers of 
Transalpine Gaul, defeated two Eoman 
armies b.c. 109 and 107. They inflicted 
a terrible defeat on another Eoman army, 
led by two consuls, b.c. 105, after which they 
vrithdrew into Spain. The Celtiberians 
drove them from this province B.C. 104; 
whereupon the Cimbri returned into Gaul. 
Marius collected a large army and went to 
oppose them. The Cimbri and Teutons sepa- 
rated into two bodies, the former taking the 
road through Helvetia, and the latter press- 
ing forward to assail the Eoman army. 
Their intention was to reunite their forces 
on the Lombard plains. The Teutons were 
attacked and overwhelmed by the Eomans, 
and 100,000 mien are said to have perished 
on that occasion, fi.c. 102. The Cimbri in 
the mean time had reached the vaUey of the 
Adige. Marius allured them intd an unfa- 
vourable position, in which they were de- 
feated and exterminated, B.C. 101. The 
women, having put their children to death, 
committed suicide. A distinct tribe was 
discovered, in the middle of the 18th cen- 



CIN 

tury, inhabiting the villages in the moun- 
tains near Verona and Vicenza, and speaking 
the Danish language. Some writers endea- 
voured to prove that these people were a 
remnant of the Cimbri defeated by Marius. 

CiMMEEii. — This nomadic race, inhabiting 
the Crimea and parts of the neighbouring 
country, having been expelled by the Scy- 
thians, passed along the shores of the Euxine, 
invaded Asia Minor, and pillaged Sardis, the 
capital of Lydia, b.c. 635. In this country they 
are said to have remained until about B.C. 617, 
when they were defeated and driven out of 
Asia Minor. Little authentic is known of 
this people. Homer refers to another peo- 
ple of the same name, fabled to have dwelt 
in a land of perpetual darkness. Hence the 
term " Cimmerian gloom." 

Cincinnati Oedee was established by 
the Americans during the revolutionary war, 
about the year 1783, and was for a time 
very popular. The French officers wore 
the decoration, but the order soon ceased. 

Cinnamon. — The Hebrews used this spice 
in their religious ceremonies B.C. 1496 
(Exod. XXX. 2'3). It is also mentioned in 
the Song of Solomon (iv. 14), and in 
Prov. vii. 17. Ceylon is the place at which 
the tree flourishes best, and from this 
island Europe has derived its principal sup- 
plies from the earUest times. The Society 
for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufac- 
tures, and Commerce, in 1773 awarded a 
gold medal to Dr. Young, for introducing 
the culture of the cinnamon-tree into St. Vin- 
cent's. A few plants found in a French ship 
bound from the Isle of France to Hispaniola, 
and captured by Eodney, were presented by 
him to the Jamaica planters in 1783, and thus 
the cultivation of the tree was introduced 
into that island. No sooner had the passage 
round the Cape of Good Hope been dis- 
covered than the Portuguese endeavoxired 
to get the cinn3,mon trade, which had before 
that period been monopolized by Arab mer- 
chants, into their hands. They established a 
factory at Ceylon, and concluded a treaty 
with the king of Kandy, who engaged to 
furnish them with 124,000 lb. annually, in 
return for their assistance against his enemies. 
The Dutch became the rivals of the Portu- 
guese, and in 1612 the king of Kandy engaged 
to deliver to them all the cinnamon he could 
collect. This led to a struggle, which was 
terminated in 1644 or 1645, by an agreement 
between the Dutch and the Portuguese to 
share the produce between them. War 
broke out again in 1652 ; the Dutch captured 
Colombo in 1656, and in 1663 the Portuguese 
were finally excluded from aU participation 
in the trade. Ceylon was captured by the 
EngHsh in February, 1796, when the trade 
passed from the control of the Dutch. 

Cinque Poets. — The commencement of 
this system of defence against invasion may 
be traced to the period of the Eoman occu- 
pation of England. Jeake states that the 
five ports, Hastings, Hythe, Sandwich, Dover, 
and Eomney, were enfranchised in the time 
of Edward the Confessor, although only three, 
215 



crN" 

Sandwich, Dover, and Eomney, are mentioned 
in Domesday Book. William I. erected the 
district of the Cinque Ports into a kind of 
palatine jurisdiction under a warden, in whom 
the military, naval, and civil authority was 
combined. Eichard I. admitted Eye and 
Winchelsea to the privileges of the Cinque 
Port?, by a charter dated March 27, 1191. 
The number was thus increased to seven prin- 
cipal ports, wMlst smaller places were attached 
to them as subordinate ports. They were 
required to furnish a fleet for the defence of 
the sea, and according to an ordinance of 
Henry III. in 1229, in the following propor- 
tions : — Dover and Hastings each 21 ships, 
carrying 21 men and one boy ; Winchelsea, 
10 ships ; and Hythe, Sandwich, and Eye, 5 
each. These vessels were to serve 15 days at 
the expense of the towns, but were paid for 
any service beyond that time. The Cinque 
Ports reeeived'their charter of confirmation 
from Edward I. , iu 1278, and all their liberties 
and free customs were secured to them by 
25 Edw. I. c. 9 (1297). The jurisdiction of the 
constable of Dover Castle was defined by 
28Edw. I. c. 7 (1300). 

CiNTEA (Convention). — The day after the 
battle of Vimiera, General KeUermann pro- 
posed an armistice, which was signed at 
Ciutra August 22, 1808. The convention, 
erroneously called the convention of Cintra, 
was finally concluded at Lisbon, Aug. 30, and 
consisted of twenty articles, to which three 
additional articles were appended. The 
French by this convention agreed to evacuate 
Portugal. Their soldiers were allowed to 
disembark with arms and baggage, and were 
not to be considered prisoners of war, the 
Enghsh government furnishing the necessary 
transports to convey them to their own 
country. They were, however, compelled to 
relinquish all their spoils. This agreement 
excited so much discontent in England, that 
a board of in quiry was summoned by a 
warrant dated Nov. 1, 1808. In the report 
issued Dec. 22, the Board declared that no 
further military proceeding was necessary on 
the subject, and on the 25th of December a 
majority of the Board voted approval of the 
armistice of Aug. 22, and of the convention 
of the 30th. 

CiPHEE. — The Spartan Scytale was in use 
at least as early as 400 b.c, and is supposed 
by some authors to be the earhest attempt at 
writing in cipher, ^neas Tacticus, who was 
contemporary with Aristotle, and flourished 
about 350 b.c, was one of the most eminent 
ancient masters of the art of writing in secret 
characters, having collected about twenty 
different modes, all which were unintelligible, 
except to those who knew the key. The 
first modern author who described this art 
was the Abbe Trithemius, whose "Polygra- 
phia" appeared A. D. 1499; since which period 
many writers have directed attention to the 
subject. 

CiECASSiA (Asia) was conquered by the 

Huns in the 5th century, by the Chhazars in 

the 11th century, and at the commencement 

of the 13th century feU under the Mongol 

216 



CIE 

emperor of Kaptchak. Timour invaded it in 
the 14th century, but was unable to efi"ect a 
permanent conquest. Its first intercourse 
with Eussia took place in 1555. It afterwards 
submitted to the khans of the Crimea, but, 
owing to their tjTanny , the Circassians revolted 
in 1708, and apphed for protection to the 
Ottoman Porte. At the peace of Belgrade 
in 1739, Circassia was declared independent, 
but it soon returned to its dependence on 
Turkey, which did not renounce all right to 
exercise authority over it till the peace of 
Koutchouk-Kainardji, in 1774. In 1783 Cir- 
cassia was claimed as part of the Eussian 
empire, but it was not finally incorporated 
therewith till the treaty of Hadrianople, in 
1830. The Circassians strenuously resisted 
Eussian domination under their leader 
Schamyl, who was captured Sept. 7, 1859. 

CiECLES OP Geemany. — Maximilian I. in 
1501 carried into execution the design of 
Wenceslaus, attempted by Albert II., of 
dividing Germany into circles. The empire, 
the electorates and the dominions of Austria 
excepted, was divided into six circles ; viz., 
Bavaria, Franconia, the Ehine, Saxony, 
Swabia, and Westphalia. In 1512 four more 
were added; viz., those of Austria, Burgundy, 
the Lower Ehine, including the three eccle- 
siastical electors and the elector Palatine, 
and Upper Saxony, including the electorates 
of Saxony and Brandenburg. " It was," 
says HaUam, "the business of the police 
of the circles to enforce the execution 
of sentences pronounced by the Imperial 
Chamber against refractory states of the em- 
pire." The circles were abolished by the 
Confederation of the Ehine, concluded at 
Paris, July 12, 1806, and each German prince 
resumed such of his titles as referred to his 
connection with the Gei-man empire, Aug. 1. 

CiECUiTS. — In a great council held at North- 
ampton Jan. 26, 1176, Henry II. divided 
England into six districts, to each of which 
he appointed three itinerant judges, who 
were to make their circuit round the kingdom 
once in seven years, for the purpose of trying 
causes. Various changes in the number of 
the circuits, &c., were afterwards made. 
England and Wales are now divided into 
eight circuits, to which the judges go twice 
a year. 

CiECTrLATiif& LiBEAET. — Jerome relates 
that PamphUius, presbyter of Csesareia, who 
died A.D. 309, collected 30,000 rehgious books, 
for the purpose of lending them ; and this is 
the first notice of a circulating library. In 
1342 the stationers of Paris were cornpelled 
to keep books to be lent on hire. This was 
intended for the benefit of poor students, 
before printing had been invented. Merry- 
weather (BibHomania in the Middle Ages) 
remarks : " The reader will be stu'prised at 
the idea of a circulating hbrary in the Middle 
Ages ; but there can be nodoubt of the fact 
that they were established at Paris, Toulouse, 
Vienna, and other places." Catalogues, with 
the charge for reading, were exhibited in their 
shops. A circulating library was established 
at Edinburgh in 1725, and in London in 1740. 



CIR 

There were, however, only four in the metro- 
polis in 1770 ; but since that period the number 
has rapidly increased. 

CiBCTJMCisiON. — The practice of this rite 
amongst the Hebrews was instituted by Abra- 
ham in accordance with the divine command, 
B.C. 1897 (Genesis, xvii. 10 — 14). It existed 
amongst other nations previous to that time. 
Rawhnson considers that it was practised by 
the Egyptians long before the birth of Abra- 
ham, or B.C. 1996. The custom prevailed 
amongst many nations, and has been found 
to exist in the islands of the Pacific. 

ClBCUMIfAVIG-ATION" OP THE GlOBE. — The 

first ship by which the circumnavigation of 
the world was accompHshed was the Vittoria, 
forming one of the expedition that sailed 
from San Lucar under Ferdinand Magel- 
haens, or Magellan, a Portuguese commander, 
Sept. 20, 1519. With three out of the five 
ships that formed the expedition, he passed 
through the straits which bear his name, 
connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, 
K"ov. 28, 1520. Magellan was killed in an 
encounter on the Philippine Islands in 1521. 
Sebastian del Cano, in the Vittoria, the only 
ship which returned to Europe, sailed round 
the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at San 
Lucar Sept. 6, 1522, having achieved for the 
first time the circumnavigation of the globe. 
The following are the most celebrated expe- 
ditions : — 



CIR 

Caius Flaminius, who was defeated by Han- 
nibal at Thrasymene, b.c. 217. 

CiBCUS Factions.— The race, at its first 
institution, was a contest between two cha- 
riots, distinguished ly ivhite and red colours. 
To these green and blue were aftel•^vard3 
added ; the four colours, according to some 
authorities, being intended to represent the 
four seasons. So excited did the people be- 
come in these contests, that the supporters 
of the different candidates degenerated into 
factions, and frequently provoked tumults 
that ended in sanguinary conflicts. Even 
princes shared in this folly, and Gibbon 
(ch. xl.) relates that Cahgula, Nero, ViteUius, 
Verus,Commodus,CaracaUa, and Eliagabalus, 
were enrolled in the blue or green factions of 
the circus. The system, with its abuses, 
was transferred to Constantinople, in which 
two factions, the greens and the blues, con- 
tended for supremacy. Justinian I. favoured 
the former, and during the celebration of the 
festival of the Ides of January, in the fifth year 
of his reign, a.d. 532, a quarrel arose between 
them. For five days the city was in their 
power, and the cathedral of St. Sophia, the 
baths of Zeuxippus, part of the palace, and 
many edifices, were destroyed by tire. Their 
watchword v^&sNika, " Vanquish," by which 
name the contest is sometimes designated. 
The outbreak was suppressed by Behsarius, 
when a terrible slaughter ensued, and though 



Navigator. 


Place of Depai'ture. 


Date of Departure. 


Date of Return. 


Magellan 

Sir Francis Drake 

Cavendish 


San Lucar 

Plymouth 

Ditto 

Goree 


Sept. 20 or 21, 1519 
Dec. 13, 1577 
July 21, 1586 
Sept. 13, 1598 
Aug. 8, 1614 
June 14. 1615 
April 29, 1623 
Sept. 11, 1703 
Sept. 1, 1708 
Feb. 13, 1719 
Aug. 21, 1721 
Sept. 18, 1740 
Sept. 15, 1763 
July 3, 1764 
Aug. 22, 1768 
Aug. 22, 1766 
Aug. 26, 17tj8 
July 13, 1772 
July 12, 1776 
^wg. 1790 
Aug. 11, 1822 
May 22, 1826 
Aug. 18, 1838 


Sept. 6, 
Sept. 26, 
Sept. 9, 
Aug. 26, 
July 1, 
July 1, 
July 9, 
July 

Oct. 14, 
July 30, 
July 28, 
June 15, 
March 16, 
May 7, 
May 20, 
March 20, 
June 12, 
July 30, 
Oct. 4, 
June 19, 
March 24, 

June 10, 


1522 

1580 

1588 

1601 

1617 

1617 

1626 

1706* 

1711 

1722 

1723 

1744 

1769 

1766 

1768 

1769 

1771 

1775 

1780t 

1792 

18:^5 

1830 

1842 


Van Noort 


Spilbergen 

Schouteu and Le Maire 


The Texel 

Ditto 


Goree 

Kinsale 

Cork 


Dampier 






Plymouth 

The Texel 

St. Helen's 

St. Malo 

Plymouth 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 




Anson 

Bougainville 

Byron 

Wallis 


Cook \ 






Duperrey 

Fitzroy 

Wilkes 


Plymouth 

Norfolk (U.S.) .... 





* Only part of Dami-ler's expedition returned in 1706, the remainder, with the commander, being 
detained in the East Indies, as prisoners, by the Dutch. 

t Cook was killed by the Sandwich Islanders, Feb. 14, 1779. He was succeeded in the command 
by Captain King. 

CiECUS, called by the Greeks Hippodrome, 
was devoted by the Romans to horse and 
chariot races. The most celebrated and the 
earhest was the Circus Maximus, said to have 
been built by Tarquinius Priscus, B.C. 605. 
There were several of these buildings in 
Rome. The Circus Flaminius was erected 
B.C. 220. The founder is supposed to be 



the circus was closed for several years, the 
fury of the factions again burst forth at its 
restoration. 

CiKENCESTEE (Gloucestershire) . — This an- 
cient city was a station of the Roinans, which 
they called Corinium. A fine mosaic pavement 
was found here in 1723, and many antiquities 
have been from time to time discovered. The 
217 



CIR 

Danes captured it a.d. 878, and Guthrum win- 
tered here in 879. Canute held a council at 
Cirencester in 1020. Henry I. founded its 
abbey in 1117. The inhabitants assailed and 
expelled the earls of Huntingdon, Kent, and 
Sahsbury, who had formed a plot to restore 
Eiehard II., Jan. 6, 1400, and were rewarded 
for this service by Henry IV. Prince Ru- 
pert captured the town in Feb. 1643, but it 
surrendered to the parliamentary army 
during the same year. The Grammar 
School was founded 'in 1750, and the Agri- 
cultural College in 1S46. 

CiEEHA (Greece). — This town of Phocis, 
the seaport of Delphi and Crissa, with the 
latter of which it is often confounded, was of 
ancient origin. Its inhabitants levied exor- 
bitant toUs on pilgrims passing through on | 
their way to the temple of Delphi, and com- 
mitted other outrages, on which account the 
Amphictyonic council declared war against 
them B.C. 595. This, the first sacred war, 
was carried on by a joint force of Athenians, 
Sicyonians, and Thessahans, and after a long 
siege Cirrha was taken and razed to the 
ground, B.C. 586. The assailants are said to 
have poisoned the spring which supphed the 
town with water. All the males were put to 
the sword, the women and children sold to 
slavery, and the Pythian Games were founded 
with the spoils. Crissa, said to have been 
the seat of a colony of Cretans, is mentioned 
by Homer. It had fallen into insignificance 
before the Sacred War. 

Cisalpine Eepublic was formed by the 
union of the Cispadane and Transpadane re- 
pubhcs, by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797. By 
the 8th article of the treaty of Campo-Pormio, 
Oct. 17, 1797, the emperor of Germany re- 
cognized this new state, which was therein 
stated to comprehend "Austrian Lombardy, 
the Bergamasque, the Bressau, the Cre- 
niasque, the city and fortress of Mantua, 
Peschiera, part of the Venetian states, the 
Modenois, the principality of Massa and 
Carara, and the three legations of Bologna, 
Perrara, and Eomagna." By a decree dated 
Oct. 10, 1797, Napoleon annexed the Valte- 
hne to this repubhc. Constitutions were 
made and abrogated in rapid succession, and 
the interference of Napoleon became intole- 
rable. Treaties of aUianee and commerce 
were concluded between France and this 
republic in 1798, by which the last vestige of 
independence was destroyed. Austria re- 
fused to recognize its envoy, sent to Vienna 
in 1798, and its fortunes dechned, owing to 
the reverses sustained by the French. It 
was, however, once more recognized by the 
emperor of Austria by the treaty of Lune- 
viUe, Feb. 9, 1801 ; its independence was 
guaranteed, and some alterations were made 
in its limits, and it received an addition in 
the duchy of Modena. Other changes were 
made in 1802, and on the 26th of January 
Napoleon nominated himself president, and 
changed its name to that of the ItaUan 
Eepubhc. It was merged in Napoleon's 
ItaJian kingdom in 1805. 

Cispadane Eepublic. — In 1796 Napoleon 
218 



CIV 

conceived the design of forming two republics 
from the Itahan territories wrested from 
Austria and other IraUan states. They 
were called the Cispadane and Transpadane 
repubhcs, and were both merged in 1797 in 
the Cisalpine Eepubhc (q. v.). 

Cisteecians. — This rehgious order was 
founded a.d. 1098, by Eobert, abbot of Mo- 
lesme, in Burgundy, and received its name 
from Citeaux, in which forest, near Dijon, 
the first convent was situated. They increased 
rapidly, although their rules were extremely 
severe, and became engaged in a quarrel with 
the Cluniacs or Cluniacensians, who accused 
the Cistercians of too great austerity, whilst 
the Cistercians taxed them with having aban- 
doned their regular disciphne. The Cistercians 
followed the rule of St. Benedict, and having 
been reformed early in the 12th century by 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, were afterwards 
called Bernardines. There were nuns of this 
order. {See Bebnaedines.) 

CiTATE (Battle) . — The Eussian troops oc- 
cupied a strong position at this village on 
the Danube in the winter of 1853-4. Several 
skirmishes between the Cossacks and the 
Turkish cavalry took place near Citate 
towards the end of December and the be- 
ginning of January. The Turks assailed 
the lines at Citate Jan. 6, and, after a despe- 
rate combat, expelled the Eussians. 

City. — In Kerr's "Blackstone" a city is 
described as " a town incorporated, which is 
or hath been the see of a bishop : and though 
the bishopric be dissolved, as at Westmin- 
ster, yet still it remains a city." The term 
is, however, appHed to many large towns 
that have not enjoyed this distinction. Al- 
fonso V. granted a charter to Leon a.d. 1020, 
and Berenger, count of Barcelona, in 1025, 
confirmed to the inhabitants of that city all 
the franchises they already possessed. Char- 
ters as old as 1110, though the precise date 
has not been ascertained, granted to French 
cities, are in existence. Lord Lyttleton 
states that in England many cities and 
towns were bodies corporate and communi- 
ties long before the alteration introduced 
into France by Louis le Gros. 

CiUDAD EoDEiGO (Spain). — This strongly- 
fortified town has sustained several memor- 
able sieges. Henry II. of Castile failed in 
an attempt to wrest it from the Portuguese 
in 1370. Lord Galway captured it May 26 
(O.S.), 1706. The French invested it June 1, 
1810, and their breaching batteries com- 
menced fire June 25. The Spanish garrison, 
after a gallant defence, surrendered July 11. 
Wellington invested it Jan. 8, 1812, and car- 
ried it by storm Jan. 19. 

Civil Law. (See Eoman Law.) 

Civil List. — AH the expenses of the Eng- 
hsh government, including military charges, 
were formerly comprehended in one list, and 
defrayed out of the royal revenue. At the 
Eestoration in 1660, a division took place 
between the nulitary expenses and those in- 
curred for ordinary purposes. The revenues 
employed for the last-mentioned were termed 
the hereditary or civil-hst revenues. The 



CIV 

civil-list revenues averaged, during the reigns 
of William III. and of Queen Anne, £680,000 
per annum. They were raised to £700,000 un- 
der George I. ; to £800,000 under George II. ; 
and in 1812 had reached the sum of £1,080,000. 
By the settlement of the civil list, made by 
1 Will. IV. c. 25 (April 22, 1831), a net 
yearly revenue of £510,000 was allotted to 
the king. Queen Victoria surrendered the 
hereditary revenues of the crown by 1 Vict. 
c. 2 (Dee. 23, 1837), receiving a clear yearly 
sum of £385,000 for the support of the royal 
household, and of the honour and dignity of 
the crown. The following is the distribution 
of the money according to the act : — 

1. For her Majesty's privy pm-se 60,000 

2. Salaries of her Majesty's household, 

and retired allowances 131,260 

3. Expenses of her Majesty's household 172,500 

4. Koyal bounty, alms, and special ser- 

vices 13,200 

5. Pensions to the extent of £1,200 per 

annum. 

6. Unappropriated moneys 8,040 

Total £385,000 



Civil Seevice. — This term is applied to 
the large body of men by whose labours the 
executive business of the country is carried 
on. In its widest sense the civil service has 
been said to consist of above 50,000 persons. 
There are about 17,000 civil servants, exclu- 
sive of 17,000 inferior revenue officers, post- 
men, &c., 15,000 artificers and labourers in 
the government dockyards, and 4,000 office- 
keepers and messengers. By an order in 
council, May 21, 1855, a civfl. service com- 
mission was appointed to examine candidates 
for this service. 

Civil Seevice Estimates. — The general 
expenditure of the state, exclusive of the 
sums required for the army and navy. For the 
financial year ending in March, 1861, these 
estimates were : — 

Public works and buildings £ 622,000 

Salaries and expense of public de- 
partments 1,414,000 

Law and justice 2,565,000 

Education, science, and art 1,306,000 

Colonial and consular services 484,000 

Superannuation and retired allow- 
ances and gratuities 254,000 

Miscellaneous and special 723,000 

Total £7,368,000 

CiviTA Castellana (Battle) .^Macdonald 
defeated the Neapolitans at this town, in 
Central Italy, Dec. 4, 1798. 

Civita Vecchia (Italy), or Old Town, is 
built on the site of the Centumcellae of the 
Eomans. Trajan constructed the port 
A.D. 103. It was captured by BeMsarius in 
539 ; taken by TotUa in 544, and recaptured 
by Narses in 552. The Saracens^ destroyed 
CentumceUse in 812, and the remnant of the 
inhabitants formed a settlement in the inte- 
rior ; from which circumstance the town was 
called Civita Vecchia, or Old Town, Cle- 
ment XII. made it a free port. An Eng- 



CLA 

lish fleet appeared off Civita Vecchia in 
1708, and threatened to destroy it on ac- 
count of the assistance rendered to the 
cause of the Pretender by Clement XI., and 
another threat of the same kind was made in 
1743. It capitulated to an EngUsh squadron 
Sept. 30, 1799. Captain Louis, of the Mino- 
taur, rowed up the Tiber in his barge, 
hoisted the EngKsh colours in the Eternal 
City, and was made provisional governor of 
Eome. The French expedition to Kome 
landed here May 25, 1849. 

Clans. — Chahners (Caledonia, vol. i. b. iv. 
c. 7) has the following observations respect- 
ing the Scottish clans: — "During GaeHc 
times, there existed, in every part of North 
Britain, clanship, from blood. Throughout 
the whole Scoto-Saxon period, as we have 
seen, there existed, from conquest and birth, 
universal villeynage, which disappeared dur- 
ing the 15th century. Amidst the anarchy 
of subsequent times, there arose various 
clans, which were divided, in the policy of 
those ages, into the clans of the borders and 
the clans of the highlands. From this state 
of society, and the want of employment, we 
may accoxmt for the facility with which great 
bodies of men could then be brought into 
action. In 1587, the chiefs of all those clans 
were obliged to give sureties for their quiet 
conduct, and were made answerable for their 
wrongs. The union of the two crowns dis- 
solved the clans, and established the quiet of 
the borders : several of the other clans 
remained to our own times, often disturbing 
domestic tranquillity, and sometimes defy- 
ing the mandates of law." The following 
list of the clans is given at the end of the 
statutes of the 11th parhament of James VI. 
(July 29, 1587) :— 

middle maeche. 

I Nicksonnes. 
1 Crosers. 



WEST MAECHB. 



Scottes of Eusdaill. 

Beatisonnes. 

Littles. 



Glendunninges. 
Irvinges. 



Carrutheres. 

Grahames. 

Johnstones. 



Moffettes. 
Latimers. 



HIE-LANDS AND ILES. 

Buchannannes. 

Mak-farlanes of the AiToquhalr. 

Mak-knabbes. 

Grahames of Monteith. 

Stewartes of Balquhidder 

Clan-Gregoire. 

Clan-Lauren. 

Campbelles of Lochtnel. 

Campbelles of Innerraw. 

Clan-Dowall of Lome. 

Stewartes of Lome, or of Appin. 

Clan-Mackeane Awricht. 

Stewartes of AthoUl and partes adjacent. 

Clanne-Donoquhy in Athoill and partes adjacent. 

Meinzies in Athoill and Apnadull. 

Clan-Mak -Thomas in Glensche. 

Fergussonnes. 

Spaldingea. 

Makintosches in AthoUl. 

219 



CLA 

Clan-CliaiQron. 

Clan-Kannald in Loch-Aber. 

Clan-Kaimald of Kiioydei-t, Moydert, and Glen- 

garrey. 
Clan-Lewid of the Lewis. 
Clan-Lewid of the Harrich. 
Clan-Neill. 
ClanKinnon. 
Clan-.Tea.ne. 
Clan-Chattane. 
Grantes. 
Fraseres. 
Clan-Keinzie. 
Clan-Avercis. 
Muni-oes. 
MuiTayes in Southerland. 

The act for abolishing heritable jurisdictions 
in Scotland (20 Geo. II. c. 43, 1747), put an 
end to the legal authority of the chiefs of clans. 

Claee Hall (Cambridge) . — University 
HaIl,foundedA.D. 1326, havingbeen destroyed 
by fire in 1342, was rebuilt and endowed in 
1347 by Ehzabeth de Burgh, one of the sis- 
ters and coheirs of Gilbert, earl of Clare. 
From this benefactress it received its new 
name. The present haU was built in 1638. 
The old chapel, built in 1535, was never con- 
secrated. The new chapel was commenced 
in 1763 and consecrated in 1769. 

CLAEEiiONT (Surrey) was built by Van- 
brugh in the reign of Queen Anne, and 
named after the earl of Clare, who became 
duke of Newcastle in 1715. It was sold 
in 1769 to Lord Chve, by whom the house 
was rebuilt and the grounds newly arranged. 
On the death of Chve, in 1774, the house and 
estate passed into the hands of Lord Galway, 
and subsequently of the earl of Tyrconnel, 
who sold them to Mr. EUis in 1807. By 
26 Geo. III. c. 25 (1816), the property was 
purchased by government as a residence for 
the Princess'Charlotte, who died here Xov. 6, 
1817. Louis Phihppe, king ofthePrench, lived 
at Claremont on his retirement to England, 
March 4, 1848 ; and here he died, Aug. 26, 
1850. 

Claeencieux (King-at-Arms) . — This 
name was given to a herald of the duke of 
Clarence during the reign of Edward III. 
(1327—1377), and was confirmed by Ed- 
ward rV., at whose funeral in 1483 Claren- 
cieux king-at-arms was present. 

Claeendon Constitutions. — A council 
was held at Clarendon, near Sahsbiu-y, 
Jan. 25, 1164, when these laws, defining the 
limits between the civil and ecclesiastical juris- 
diction, andregulating certain chiu'chmatters, 
were passed. Thomas Becket, archbishop 
of Canterbury, having refused to sign them, 
withdrew from the kingdom in disguise, and 
landed at Gravehnes ]!s ov. 3. He excommu- 
nicated many of the bishops, clergy, and 
influential laymen, who had subscribed to 
them, June 12, 1166 ; whereupon Henry II. 
banished 400 of the archbishop's supporters. 
The king and archbishop met at Fretville, in 
Touraine, July 22, 1170, and were reconciled. 
Soon after his return to Canterbury, Dec. 3, 
he excommunicated several nobles, and was 
assassinated before the altar of St. Benedict, 
in the cathedral, Dec. 29, 1170. These con- 
stitutions, most of which were annulled by 
220 



CLE 

the pope, are given in Eoger of Wendover's 
"Flowers of History," Lord Lyttleton'a 
" Life of Henry the Second," and other 
works. 

Claeendon-Dailas Tee ATT, intended to 
clear up difficulties that had arisen between 
England and the United States, respecting 
the interpretation of the Bulwer-Clayton 
Treaty of April 19, 1850, was signed in Lon- 
don Oct. 17, 1856. It Avas altered in the 
United States, and signed in the new form 
March 12, 1857. To one of the amendments 
the British government objected, and the 
treaty was never ratified. 

Claeendon Peess (Oxford). — The design 
of estabhshing a press for the use of Oxford 
university was formed in 1672, at which 
time the business was carried on at the 
Sheldonian Theatre. 0\\ing to the profits 
arising from the sale of Lord Clarendon's 
" History of the EebeUion," the university- 
was enabled, in 1711, to erect a special build- 
ing for the purpose, after the designs of Yan- 
brugh. In 1721 the statue of Lord Claren- 
don was placed over the south entrance. 
The present university printing-office was 
commenced by Eobertson in 1825, and com- 
pleted by BloVe in 1830, when the business 
was transferred thither from the Clarendon, 
which was converted into a museum, lecture- 
hall, &c. In Eeb. 1838, the new btdlding 
was damaged by fire to the amount of 
£2,000. 

Claee, St. (Order), or Clabisses. — This 
rehgious order was founded by St. Clare, 
with the aid of St. Francis of Assisi, a.d. 1212. 
The order was confirmed by a bull of Inno- 
cent IV. At first the nims followed the rule 
of St. Benedict ; this was, however, modified 
by St. Francis in 1324, and by Urban IV. 
in 1264. They were brought into England in 
1293, under a license from Edward I., but 
they had only four houses in this country. 
They were called Poor Clares. 

Clastidium (Battle). — MarceUus defeated 
the Gauls at this place, in Cisalpine Gaul, 
B.C. 222, whereupon they sued for peace. 
The modern town of Casteggio occupies its 
site. 

CLAITSENTBEE& (Transylvania), the capital 
of Transylvania, was founded a.d. 1178. The 
cathedral was founded in 1399, and the 
citadel erected in 1721. 

Clavichoed, or Claeichoed. — This musi- 
cal instrument is mentioned by Ottomarus 
Luscinus in 1536 ; but its invention is no doubt 
to be referred to a considerably earUer date. 
It was much used by nuns in convents. 

Clavijo (Battle). — Ramiro defeated the 
Moors at Clavijo a.d. 844. No less than 69,000 
of them are said to have perished in the con- 
flict and the retreat. 

Clementines. — These spurious writings, 
amongst which are two epistles to the Corin- 
thians, represented as the works of Clement, 
bishop of Eome in the 1st century, are 
supposed to have been concocted by one of 
the sect of the Ebionites. This father of the 
Church is generally beheved to be the Cle- 
ment mentioned by St. Paul (Phil. iv. 3). 



CLE 

He died a.d. 100. Some apostolic canons, 
constitutions, recognitions, &c., are included 

in the Clementines. The constitutions of 

Pope Clement V. (1305—1314) are also called 
Clementines. 

Clementiwes and Uebanists, — Gre- 
gory XI. returned to Rome, after a long 
residence at Avignon, in April, 1377, and thus 
terminated what is called the Babylonish 
Captivity of the popedom. He died March 27 
or 28, 1378. An outcry was immediately 
raised for the election of an Italian pope, and 
Bartholomew Prignani, archbishop of Bari, 
was chosen, April 9. He took the title of 
Urban VI. The French cardinals at Avignon 
declared the election void, August 9, and 
elected Robert of Geneva pope, who took 
the title of Clement VII., Sept. 16. Such 
was the commencement of the schism by 
which the Latin Church was agitated and 
divided for Ihirty-eight years. Each pope 
had his followers, and these were known by 
the names of Clementines and Urbanists. 

Clemets't's Inn. — This inn of Chancery is 
said by Dugdale, on the authority of an 
ancient record, to have been in existence 
long before 1479. The hall was bmlt in 
1715. 

Cleobtiet (Battle). — Leofgar, bishop of 
Hereford, having led an army against the 
Welsh king Griffith, was defeated and slain at 
this place, in Herefordshire, June 17, 1056 a.d. 
Several of his priests who had accompanied 
Mm to the field of battle fell at his side. The 
chroniclers do not agree respecting the name 
of the place at which the battle was fought. 
Roger of Hoveden says Glastonbury. 

Clepstdea, or Watee-Clock. — The Chal- 
dseans and the Egyptians are said to have 
made use of some ingenious invention of this 
kind in order to measure time. Vitruvius 
ascribes the invention to Ctesibius of Alex- 
andria, who lived about b.c. 245. P. C. Scipio 
!Nasica introduced them at Rome B.C. 157. 
There can be no doubt that they were 
used by the Greeks at an early period. 
They were known in India in the 12th cen- 
tury. Modern water-clocks were invented 
during the 17th century. They were intro- 
duced from Burgundy into Paris in 1693. 

Ceee&t. — Bingham (Antiq. h. i. ch. v. 
8. 8) says : " As to the reason of the name 
elerici and clerus, St. Jerom rightly observes, 
that it comes from the Greek K\fjpog, which 
signifies a lot; and thence he says, 'God's 
ministers were called elerici, either because 
they are the lot and portion of the Lord, or 
because the Lord is their lot, that is, their 
inheritance.' Others think some regard was 
had to the ancient custom of choosing per- 
sons into sacred offices by lot, both among 
Jews and Gentiles ; which is not improbable, 
though that custom never generally prevailed 
among Christians." The distinction between 
the clergy and the laity commenced at the 
foundation of the Christian church. The name 
clergy was at first given to the bishops, 
priests, and deacons, the only orders in the 
Chm-ch. In the 3rd century sub-deacons, 



CLE 

acoljrthists, readers, and other inferior or- 
ders, were appointed ; and these were also 
styled elerici. The clergy were afterwards 
divided into the regular and secular, the for- 
mer hving under some reUgious rule, such as 
abbots and monks, and the latter mingling 
with the people and having the care of souls, 
as bishops and priests. The term the clergy 
is now apphed in England to aU persons in 
holy orders belonging to the established 
church. A clergyman is exempted from 
serving on a jury, or as a baLliff, reeve, con- 
stable, &c. A clergyman is incapable of 
sitting in the House of Commons, or of being 
a councillor or alderman in a borough. He is 
free from arrest in a civil suit whilst engaged 
in divine sei-vice, or whilst going to or coming 
from the performance of this duty (9 Geo. IV. 
c. 31, s. 23, June 19, 1828). The mode of 
proceeding against the clergy for ecclesiasti- 
cal oifences is regulated by the Church Dis- 
cipline Act, 3 & 4 Vict. c. 86 (Aug. 7, 1840). 
At one time the clergy engrossed every 
branch of learning, and were remarkable for 
their proficiency in the study of the common 
law. The judges were selected from their 
ranks, and from the lower clergy the inferior 
offices were suppUed. Hence the term clerk. 

Clee&t (Sons of). — The festival of the 
Sons of the Clergy, celebrated every year at 
St. Paul's Cathedral, was instituted a.d. 1658. 
The society's charter of incorporation is 
dated July 1, 1678. It is not known whether 
the annual sermon was instituted at the 
origin of the feast. It has, however, been 
preached regularly since 1697. 

Cleek. {See Clesgy.) 

Cleekeitwell is called by Stow "Clarkes- 
Well, or Clarken-WeU." The same writer 
adds, the well "took name of the parish 
clarks in London, who (of old time) were 
accustomed there yearly to assemble, and to 
play some large history of Holy Scripture. 
For example of later time, to wit in the 
year 1390, the 14th of Richard the Second, 
I read, that the parish clarks of London, on 
the 18th of Jtdy, plaid interludes at Slrinners' 
Well, near unto Clarks' -Well, which play 
continued three days together, the king, 
queen, and nobles being present." Dugdale 
records the foundation of a nunnery here 
about 1100, and the erection of the priory of 
St. John of Jerusalem about 1110. In Fitz- 
Stephen's "Description of the most noble 
City of London" (1190), Clerkenwell is 
named as one of the spots where "the 
scholars, and youth of the city, do take the 
air abroad in the summer evenings." In 1563 
the locality was still unoccupied, except by 
the monasteries and St. John's Street an'd 
Cow Cross ; but the number of houses was 
much increased before 1598. The Bridewell 
was erected in 1615 ; Sadler's WeUs Theatre 
was built as a music-house in 1683 ; the Work- 
house was erected in 1790; the Middlesex 
House of Correction in 1794 ; and the IN'ew 
Prison, or House of Detention, was built on 
the site of the Bridewell in 1813, and rebuilt 
in 1844. 

CLEEMOifT Febeand (France), the 
221 



CLE 

ancient Augustonemetum, was sacked by 
the Vandals a.d. 408, and by an army under 
Honorius in 412. Thierry captured it in 507, 
and it became the capital of Auvergne. It 
was frequently besieged. The Normans 
took it in 853 and in 916, committing great 
ravages on each occasion. It was the seat of 
the bishopric of Auvergne, founded about 
250 ; but since 1160, the occupants of the see 
have taken the title of bishops of Clermont. 
Parts of the church of Notre Dame du Port 
were bmlt in 863, and the cathedral was 
foimded in 1248. In the Middle Ages, Cler- 
mont, called Clams Mons, or Claromonta- 
num, was the scene of two celebrated coun- 
cils. The first, which led to the first crusade, 
was summoned by Urban II., and lasted 
from the 18th to the 28th of Nov. 1095 ; and 
the second was held in 1130. 

Cleves (Germany) . — This district was ruled 
by cotmts from the 9th century until 1439, 
when Thierry VIII. was made duke by the 
e^nperor Sigismund. It passed into the 
possession of the house of Brandenburg in 
1609; the French seized it in 1794, imited 
part of it to Berg in 1806 ; but it was restored 
to Prussia in 1815. (See Ber&.) The town 
of Cleves is pleasantly situated about two 
miles from the Ehine. The cathedral was 
bunt in 1346, and the castle, built in 1439, 
was the birthplace of Anne of Cleves, mar- 
ried to Henry VIII. Jan. 6, 1540. The 
marriage was abrogated by act of parUa- 
ment July 24, in the same year. 

Clifford's Ink received its name from 
the De CHfford family, who granted it to 
students-at-law in the reign of Edward III., 
about the year 1344, when it was made an 
inn of Chancery. 

Clifton Mooe (Battle).— During there- 
treat of the Pretender, Charles Edward, 
from England, the Enghsh were repulsed in 
an attack upon the Scottish rear-guard, 
at Clifton Moor, Dec. 18, 1745. The former 
lost one hundred men in killed and wounded, 
and the latter only twelve. 

Clissau (Battle).— Charles XII. of Swe- 
den having invaded Poland, gained a com- 
plete victory over Augustus, lang of Poland, 
on this plain, between Warsaw and Cracow, 
July 20, 1702. Charles XII. in pursuit of 
the king of Poland, fell from his horse and 
broke ms coUar-bone. 
Cloaca Maxima. (See Sewfibs.) 
Clock. — Sun-dials and clepsydras, orwater- 
clocks, preceded clocks moved by wheels and 
weights. Beckmann assigns the invention of 
the last-mentioned to the 11th century. The 
first pubhc clock was erected at Padua. 
Others were put up at Westminster in 1288 ; 
at Canterbury in 1292 ; at Dover in 1348 (the 
oldest extant) ; at Bologna in 1356 ; and at 
Paris in 1364. Their general introduction mto 
England may be referred to 1368, in which 
year Edward III. invited three Dutch clock- 
makers from Delffc to settle in the country. 
The Strasburg clock was erected about 
1370. The duke of Burgundy took away the 
clock at Courtray, and removed it to Dijon 
in 1382. A public clock was set up at Spire 



CLO 

in 1395 ; and another at Nuremberg in 1462. 
Balance clocks were used by Walther for 
astronomical observations as early as 1484. 
A clock was erected at Venice in 1497. Port- 
able clocks are supposed to have been in- 
vented about 1525, in order to be used at sea 
in computing the longitude. The first Eng- 
hsh clock that measured time with accuracy 
is said to have been that at Hampton Court, 
which bears date 1540. Charles I. incor- 
porated the company of Clockmakers Aug. 22, 
1632. The invention of pendulum clocks is 
claimed for three persons, — Richard Harris 
in 1641 ; Vincenzio Galileo, who is said 
to have rendered his father's discovery of 
practical utility in 1649 ; and Huygens in 
1657. Repeating clocks were first con- 
structed by Barlow in 1676 ; the anchor 
escapement by Clement in 1680 ; and equation 
clocks, whose inventor is unknown, some 
time previous to 1699. Jewelled pallets and 
pivot-holes were introduced by De Baufre 
about 1704, and the compensation pendulum 
by Graham and Harrison in 1715. The 
electric clock was first exhibited to the 
Royal Society by Professor Wheatstone in 
1840, and was much improved by Messrs. 
Bain, Appold, and Shepherd, the last of 
whom supphed the clock at the Exhibition 
of 1851. Clocks were formerly subject to a 
duty of 25 per cent., which was reduced to 
10 per cent, in 1842, and stiU further dimi- 
nished in 1853. 

Cloghee (Ireland) was erected into a 
bishopric a.d. 493 hj St. Macartin, uwho 
founded a monastery, and died in 506. The 
cathedral was rebuilt in 1041 and again in 
1295. The first Protestant bishop of Clogher 
was MOer Magrath, whom Queen EHzabeth 
appointed Sept. 10, 1570. Charles I. erected 
this town into a borough, and it returned 
two members to the Irish parliament till its 
disfranchisement at the Union. On the death 
of the Right Hon. Lord R. P. Tottenham, 
bishop of Clogher, April 28, 1850, the see 
was united to Armagh by the Church Tem- 
poralities Act. 

Clonfeet (Ireland) , — St. Brendan found- 
ed a monastery here a.d. 558, and became the 
first bishop of the diocese. In 1601 the see 
was united to Ejbnacduagh, and in 1834 to 
the sees of KiUaloe and Kilfenora. 

Clonmel (Ireland) was incorported at a 
very early period, but did not receive its 
charter till 1608. The manufacture of wool- 
len goods, introduced in 1667, decHned at 
I the Revolution. The trial of Smith O'Brien 
j for high treason commenced here Sept. 28, 
and terminated Oct. 9, 1848. 

Clontabf (Battle) . — Brian Bom, king of 
j Ireland, with a force of 20,000 men, defeated 
; 21,000 Danes, under King Sitric, on the 
j plains of Clontarf, near Dubhn, on Good 
i Friday, April 23, 1014. 7,000 Irish, includ- 
ing Brian and his son Murrogh, feU in 
the action. The Danish loss amoimted to 
13,000. 

Closetings. — The name given to the pri- 
vate conferences to which James II. in 1687 
and 1688 summoned members of parhament 



CLO 

and Tarious public functionaries, for the pur- 
pose of winning: them over to his plan for the 
re-establishment of the Koman Catholic reli- 
gion and other arbitrary measures. 

CiiOSH, or Closstnge. — ^An old game of 
ninepins, prohibited by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3 
(1477-8) . The penalty for a person allowing 
this and several other games to be played 
in his house, was three years' imprisonment 
and a fine of £20, the players to be impri- 
soned two years and to forfeit £10. By 
33 Hen, VIII. c. 9 (1541-2), any person 
keeping a house or place for the practice of 
this and other games mentioned in the 
statute, was to forfeit £2 per diem, and 
those using or haunting the place, 6s. 8d. for 
every offence. 

Closteh-Seven" (Convention). — The duke 
of Cumberland, at the head of 38,000 Hano- 
verians, Hessians, and other Germans, being 
hardly pressed by the French army, at the 
intervention of the count de Lynar, the Danish 
ambassador at Hamburg, signed this con- 
vention Sept. 8, 1757. It consisted of five 
articles, to which three separate articles 
were annexed. The troops laid down their 
arms and were dispersed. George II., as 
elector of Hanover, disavowed the authority 
of his son, the duke of Cumberland, to sign 
it, and the latter resigned aU his commands. 
It led to innumerable difficulties and dis- 
putes. 

Cloth. — The manufacture of woollen 
cloth was practised in Tyre B.C. 588, but its 
invention may no doubt be referred to a stiU 
earher period. Plaids were made in Eng- 
land about A.D. 500. In 960 the business 
became considerable in Flanders ; whence it 
was introduced into England in 1111. The 
first exportation of British cloth occurred in 
1189, in which year the manufacture appears 
to have spread widely in England. Broad- 
cloth was made in 1197. In 1261 all Eng- 
lishmen were commanded to wear British 
cloth ; but, after the arrival of the Flemish 
weavers, in 1331, an exception was made in 
favour of their goods. The manufacture had 
obtained a firm footing in Yorkshire before 
1461, and on the passing of the act to confine 
the manufacture to towns, and Hmit the 
number of looms allowed to each weaver 
(2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 11, ss. 9 & 10), in 1555, 
this county was exempted from all restric- 
tions. Medley cloths were invented in 1614. 
In 1643 cloths were fuUy finished in England, 
although some kinds were still sent to 
HoUand to be dyed. The art was, however, 
completely introduced in 1667. In 1698 both 
houses of parliament petitioned William III. 
to diminish the Irish manufacture of woollen 
cloth and substitute that of hnen in its 
stead ; and measures were afterwards taken 
with this view. The Clothworkers' Company 
was incorporated April 28, 1482, and con- 
firmed by Henry VIII. in 1528.- It was 
re-incorporated and named Clothworkers by 
Elizabeth, whose charter was confirmed by 
Charles I. in 1634. 

Cloud, St. (France). — The name is said to 
be derived from St. Clodoald, a son of Clodo- 



CLU 

mir, who became a monk and founded a 
monastery at this place, about five miles 
from Paris, a. n. 551. The palace was 
built in 1572 by Jerome de Gondy, a rich 
financier. Henry III. was assassinated here 
in 1589. Louis XIV. purchased it in 1658, 
and presented it to the duke of Orleans, and 
it remained the seat of that family uutd 
1782, when Louis XVI. purchased it for 
Marie Antoinette. The council of the 
Ancients and that of the Five Hundred 
assembled at St. Cloud. The capitulation of 
Paris was signed at this palace in 1815. The 
palace and the park have been embellished 
and improved by successive sovereigns of 
France. 

Cloveshoo (Kent). — A celebrated council 
was held at this place, CHif, near Rochester, in 
Sept. 747 A.D. Twelve EngUsh prelates assem- 
bled, with the nobihty and clergy, under the 
sanction of Ethelbald, king of the Mercians. 
Thirty canons were passed, relating to the 
government and discipline of the Church. 
Councils were held here in 800; Oct. 12, 
803 ; in 822 : and in Aug. 824. 

Cloyne (Ireland) was erected into a 
bishopric by St. Colman, who died Nov. 24, 
604. In 1431 the see was united to Cork, 
but was separated in 1638. The celebrated 
Dr. Berkeley was bishop of Cloyne from 
1733 to 1753. On the death of Bishop Brink- 
ley, in 1835, this see was permanently united 
to those of Cork and Eoss, by 3 & 4 Will. IV. 
c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). 

Club (the Literary). — Dr. Johnson and 
Sir Joshua Reynolds formed a small circle oi 
friends, which was called "The Club." It 
was founded in 1764, and the original mem- 
bers were nine in number, Edmund Burke 
and Oliver Goldsmith being included in the 
list. They first met at supper, but in 1772 
they resolved to dine together once every 
fortnight during the session of parliament. 
The first meeting recorded in their books 
took place at the "Turk's Head," Gerard 
Street, April 7, 1775. At Garrick's funeral, 
in 1779, it took the title of the Literary 
Club. 

Clubmen. — During the Great Ee- 
bellion, bands of armed men, bearing this 
title, opposed the military oppression to 
which they were subjected by both armies. 
In 1645 they petitioned Prince Eupert 
against their grievances, but, not receiving 
the satisfaction they required, they harassed 
the royahst forces, and, in the words ox 
Clarendon, " did him (General Goring) 
more mischief than all the power of the 
rebels." 

Clubs. — Dr. Johnson defined a club to be 
"an assembly of good feUows, meeting under 
certain conditions." A club of this kind, 
under the name of " La Court de bone 
Compagnie," was established during the 
reign of Henry IV. Occleve was one of its 
members ; and Chaucer is supposed to have 
belonged it. Sir Walter Ealeigh established 
the celebrated club at the Mermaid, in 
Friday Street, about the beginning of the 
17th century. This was the scene of the 
223 



CLU 

wit-combats between Shakespeare and Ben 
Jonson, described by Beaumont : — 

" What things have we seen . 
Done at the Meimaid ! heard words that have 

been 
So nimble and so full of subtile flame, 
As if that every one from whom they came 
Had meant to put his whole wit in a jest." 

Ben Jonson founded another club in Fleet 
Street. The Civil Club was established in 
1669. These, however, were social clubs, 
and the political club did not come into 
existence until a later period. Lord Stan- 
hope, in commenting upon the formation of 
the Eockingham administration in 1765, 
says, " It was at this period and under such 
a condition of parties that rival clubs for 
pohtics were formed, and rose into great 
vogue and importance. Under Lord Bute 
the Ministerial Club, as it was at first termed, 
used to meet at the Cocoa Tree Tavern, 
from which it soon derived its name." 
Gribbon describes it in his journal for Nov. 
1762. The principal London clubs are : — 

Established. Built 

A.D. A.D. 

Alfred 1808 

Ai-my and Navy . . 1848 

Arthur's before 1756 

Athenaeum 1823 .. 1829 

Boodle's before 1772 

Brooks's 1764 .. 1778 

Carlton .. 1847 

City of London . . 1833 

Cocoa-tree before 1711 

Conservative . . 1845 

Ei-ectheum, now Parthenon 1836 

GaiTick 1831 

Guards .. 1848 

Literary Caiub 1764 

Military, Naval, and County) ,q,q 

Service / ■• ^^^^ 

Oriental 1824 .. 1828 

Oxford and Cambridge . . 1838 

Reform 1832 

Travellei-s' 1814 .. 1832 

Union .. 1822 

United Service . . 1826 

University . . 1826 

White's. — Established as a chocolate-house 1698, 

and as a private club, 1736. 
Whittingtou . . 1847 

Clxths (Toreign). — Political societies, 
estabhshed in Paris in 1782, were sup- 
pressed by the pohce in 1787. The Breton 
Club was formed at Versailles in 1789, and in 
1792 it changed its name to that of the Jaco- 
bins. The " Club des Peuillants," of which 
La Fayette was a member, was founded in 
1791 ; that of the Eeunion was commenced 
by the Grirondins, but suppressed Aug. 10, 
1792. AU these French clubs were abolished 
Sept. 4, 1797. An attempt was made to 
revive these institutions dxiring the revolu- 
tion of February, 1848, but they were totally 
prohibited in 1849. During the first revo- 
lution several female clubs were formed in 
Paris, and the number of members at one 
time amounted to 6,000. They led to such 
grave disorders that they were closed by the 
Convention. 

Cltjg-n-i, or CLTJGiry (France), celebrated 
224 



CNO 

for its Benedictine abbey, founded by Wil- 
liam I., count of Auvergne, a.d. 910. Louis 
LX. of France and Pope Innocent IV. held a 
conference here in 1245. The monastery 
was frequently assailed by the Huguenots, 
and was ahnost entirely destroyed during 
the revolution in 1789. (See Cluniacs.) 

Ci-UN-ii cs, or Cluniacensians. — Monks of 
the abbey of Clugny received this name. 
They were a branch of the Benedictines. 
Odo, abbot of Clugny, a.d. 927, reformed their 
rule, and the Cluniacs became renowned 
throughout Europe. William of Warrenne, 
made earl of Surrey by WiUiam II., intro- 
duced the Cluniacs into England, and gave 
them their first house, at Lewes, in Sussex, 
in 1078. They had forty -two priories and 
ceUs in this country, the last having been 
estabhshed at Sleveshohn, Norfolk, in 1222. 
Wolsey dissolved four of their establishments 
in 1525, and the rest were suppressed at the 
Eeformation. There were also nuns of this 
order. 

Cltjsiitm (Italy) . — One of the twelve cities 
of which the Etruscan confederation was 
composed. Its original name was Camars. 
Porsenna, who is represented, by tradition, as 
having besieged Kome B.C. 508, was ruler of 
Clusium. It was besieged by the Gauls 
B.C. 388, B.C. 295, and B.C. 225. It became 
the seat of a bishopric at an early period, 
and is known under the modern name of 
Chiusi. 

Cltde Cakal. — The act for making this 
important communication between the rivers 
Forth and Clyde was obtained in 1768, and 
the works were commenced by Sir Laurence 
Dundas, June 10 in the same year. Mr. 
Smeaton was the chief engineer, and under 
his direction the works were completed 
July 28, 1790. 

Cltst, St. Maet's, (Battle,) was fought 
between the Protestant forces under Lord 
Grey and the Eoman CathoUc peasantry of 
Devonshire, on the evening of Saturday, 
Aug. 3, 1549, when the latter were defeated. 
Miles Coverdale, who afterwards translated 
the Bible into Enghsh, preached a thanks- 

fiving sermon for the victory on the battle- 
eld. 

Cnidits (Asia Minor) . — This city, in Caria, 
was the metropohs of the Dorian confede- 
racy. It is celebrated for the victory gained 
by Conon over the Lacedaemonian fleet, 
commanded by Pisander, B.C. 394. The 
inhabitants carried on a flourishing trade 
with Egypt at an early period. Aphrodite 
was the great object of worship amongst the 
Cnidians. 

Cifosxis (Crete), also written Cnossus 
and Gnosus, was founded, according to 
tradition, by Minos, the mythical king of 
Crete. It was colonized by the Dorians, 
and, in alliance with the cities of Gortyna 
and Cidonia, ruled over the whole of the 
island. The Eomans captured it and planted 
a colony in it, b.c. 67. The celebrated 
labyrinth of Crete, in which the Minotaur 
was confined, is always represented as having 
been situated in this city. 



COA 

Coach. — The precise period at which 
coai;hes were introduced is not known ; but 
Italy, France, Spain, and Germany all claim 
the honour of the invention. Towards the 
end of the 13th century, the queen of Charles 
of Anjou entered ISTaples in a caretta, which 
appears to have borne some resemblance to 
our carriages, and to have been regarded 
with favour by the French ladies, as Philip 
the Fair prohibited the use of similar vehi- 
cles to citizens' wives in 1294. The emperor 
Frederick III. visited Frankfort in a covered 
carriage in 1474, and in 1509 the elector of 
Brandenburg possessed a coach gilt all over. 
The first carriage seen in England was 
introduced by the earl of Arundel in 1580, 
but they were not generally used tiU about 
1605. The first who drove six horses in his 
coach was the duke of Buckingham, in 1619; 
and his example was immediately emulated 
by the earl of jSTorthumberland, who set up 
a team of eight. Hackney coaches were first 
let for hire in London in 1625, in Paris in. 
1650, and at Edinburgh in 1673. Stage- 
coaches were introduced into England during 
the 17th century, but the earliest public 
notification of their establishment is dated 
April 26, 1658. One was started between 
London and Edinburgh before 17,54 ; and in 
1784 mail coaches were instituted. Mr. 
Josiah Child brought the first cabriolet 
from Paris in 1755, and Horace Walpole 
states that every man of fashion soon set up a 
similar conveyance. Cabs were introduced 
into London in 1820, and cabriolets were first 
let for hire in 1823. 

Coal is supposed to have been known to 
the Britons before the arrival of the Eomans, 
and to have been used in England a.d. 852. 
The earliest document in which its name 
occurs, is Bishop Pudsey's Boldon Book, 
dated 1180, in which we read of colliers es- 
tabhshed at Escomb and Bishopwearmouth. 
Newcastle coal is first mentioned in 1234, 
when Henry III. granted the inhabitants a 
charter to dig it ; and seaborne coal was sold 
in London before 1245, though at first only 
employed in the arts and manufactures. 
The Chinese used it in 1295. In consequence 
of a petition presented by Parliament to 
Edward I. in 1306, the use of coal in London 
and the suburbs was prohibited by procla- 
mation as a nuisance ; but, in 1321, the 
palace was warmed by its means. The 
exportation of coal from Newcastle com- 
menced in 1325, in which year several car- 
goes were conveyed to France. A tax of 
twopence per chaldron on all coals sold to 
persons not franchised in the port of New- 
castle was imposed in 1421, and made payable 
to the king; but the payment being very 
irregidar, siich large arrears were claimed by 
Queen Elizabeth, in 1599, that the town 
voluntarily agreed to pay a duty of one 
shilling per chaldron. Coal was first em- 
ployed in the manufacture of "glass and 
iron in 1624 ; and in 1638 its sale was made 
a monopoly by Charles I. The duty of 
Is. per chaldron was granted by Charles II. 
to the diike of Kichmond, in 1677 ; whence 
225 



COA 

it became known as the Richmond shilling. 
Its existence in Newfoundland was dis- 
covered in 1763, and mines were opened in 
Cape Breton in 1767. The production of 
tar from coal was discovered in 1779. The 
impost of the Richmond shilling was finally 
relinquished March 1, 1831 ; at which time the 
arrears, in consequence of which it was first 
claimed, were redeemed, with an overplus of 
£341,900. The following tables are given in 
Hunt's " Mineral Statistics for 1858.'" 

Froduce of the United Kingdom for 1858. 

Tons. 

Dmham and Northumberland 15,853,484 

Cumberland 920,137 

Yorkshire 8,302,150 

Derbyshii-e, Nottinghamshire, and") .^ta--,. 

Leicestershire / 4,710,7u0 

Warwickshire 356,500 

Staffordihire 6,680,780 

Lancashire 8,050,000 

Chesliiie 695,450 

Shropshire 749,360 

Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and 1 Ti„-c~n 

Devonshire / 1,12o,2j0 

North Wales 1,022,500 

South Wales 7,495,289 

Scotland 8,926,249 

Ii-eland 120,750 

Total 65,008,649 



Exports of Coal from the United Kingdom 
in 1858. 

Tons. 

France received 1,344,342 

Germany „ 679,2<>4 

N. America „ 363,628 

Prussia „ 363,499 

Denmark „ 344,667 

Russia „ 306,306 

S.America ,, 269,41.5 

E.Indies „ 2.58,807 

Mediterranean „ 258,534 

Spain „ 251,423 

Holland „ 245,552 

W. Indies „ 215,615 

Italy „ 208,419 

Tui-key „ 198,0al 

Africa „ 1{)6,(J53 

Sweden „ 142,093 

Other counti-ies „ 461,023 

Total 6,077,271 



CoAi, Exchange.— In 1807 the corporation 
of London possessed a coal exchange, w^hich 
was converted into a market in 1831. The 
fii-st stone of a new building was laid Dec. 14, 
1847. It was opened by Prince Albert 
Oct. 30, 1849. 

Coalition (North and Fox) Adminis- 
tration. — The vote of censure on the peace 
of Versailles, passed Feb. 21, 17S3, induced 
the earl of Shelburne and his colleagues to 
resign office. Mr. Pitt, then only twenty- 
three years of age, was requested by 
George III. to form a ministry; but he 
dechned, and a long int.erregnum ensued, 
which was brought to a close by a coahtion 
between Mr. Charles James Fox and Lord 
North, under the premiership of the duke ot 
Portland. The new ministry kissed hands 



April 2, 17 
stituted : — 



COA 

The cabinet was thus con- 



Treasury Duke of Portland. 

President of the Council. .Vi= count Stormont. 

Privy Seal Earl of Carlisle. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . .Lord John Cavendish. 

Home Secretary Lord ^'orth. 

Foreign Secretary Mr. Fox. 

Admiralty Viscount KeppeL 

The cabinet consisted of only seven persons. 
The gnreat seal vras placed in commission. 
Viscount Townshend was masterrgeneral of 
the ordnance ; Edmund Burke, paymaster- 
general ; Mr. Kichard Brinsley Sheridan, 
secretary to the treasury ; and Mr. Charles 
Townshend, treasurer of the navy. Mr. 
Fox's India Bill was rejected on its second 
reading, in the House of Lords, Dec. 17, 
1783 ; and on the 18th, George III. sent a 
messenger to Lord North and Mr. Fox, 
requesting them to dehver up the seals of 
their oifices, which was done on the 19th of 
December. {See Pitt (Fiest) Adminis- 

TEATION.) 

CoAST-GuAED. — This force, at first formed 
for the prevention of smugghng, but now 
organized for defensive purposes, was trans- 
ferred from the Customs department to the 
Admiralty by 19 & 20 Vict. e. 83 (July 29, 
1856). 

Coast Voitjnteees, or Waval Coast 
VoLUNTEEES.— By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 
(Aug. 15, 1853), the Admiralty were em- 
powered to raise a number, not exceeding 
10,000, of royal naval coast volunteers, by 
voluntary entry from among seafaring men 
and such others as may be deemed suitable. 
They were to be entered for a period of five 
years, and were to be exercised on board ship 
or on shore for a time not exceeding twenty- 
eight days in each year. By 19 & 20 Vict, 
c. 83, s. 10 (July 29, 1856), the officers of the 
coast-guard are to train and exercise the 
Eoyal Naval Coast Volunteers. 

Cobalt. — "The name Cobalt," says Bect- 
mann, "is given at present to that metal, 
and its ores, the oxides of which are largely 
employed in the manufactures of glass, porce- 
lain, and pottery, for the production of a blue 
colour." It was not known to the ancients. 
In 1754 the Society for the Encouragement of 
Arts and Sciences oifered a premium for the 
discovery of a cobalt-mine in the south of Eng- 
land. One was found at Gwennap, in C omwall, 
to the proprietor of which the premium was 
awarded in December of the same year. The 
word cobalt is said to be derived from the 
Tcohold, gobhn, a term appHed to it by the 
German miners, because, as they assert, 
more valuable metals are never found where 
it occurs. 

CoBi/EifTZ (Prussia), the Confluentes of 
the Romans, is a town of great antiquity. 
The church of St. Castor, consecrated a.d. 
836, is the spot 'where the grandsons of 
Charlemagne met when they divided the 
Western empire into Germany, France, and 
Italy, A.D . 84-3. At a council held here June 5, 
860, peace was concluded between Lothaire, 
226 



COC 

king of Lorraine, and the sons of Charles the 
Bald. Another council took place in 922, 
and a third in 1012. Edward III. of England 
had an interview here vrith the emperor 
Lewis of Bavaria in 1338. The palace, built 
by the elector of Treves in 1779, was used by 
the French as barracks during their occupa- 
tion of the town in 1792. The Russians 
occupied Coblentz in 1814. A wooden 
bridge was built over the Rhine in 1819. 
In the spring of 1830, the waters of the 
MoseUe thawed before those of the Rhine, 
and, being stopped by the ice, occasioned 
a destructive inundation. The millennial 
jubilee of the church of St. Castor, built 
A.D. 836, was celebrated with great solemnity 
in 1836. 

CoBTJEG (Germany). — Capital of Saxe- 
Coburg Gotha. The palace was built a.d. 
1549. "WaUenstein made an unsuccessful 
effort to besiege the castle during the 
Thirty Years' war (1632). The gymnasium 
was founded in 1604. 

CoccEiAis^s. — The followers of John 
Cocceius, of Bremen, bom A.D. 1603. He was 
professor of divinity at Levden, and taught 
that the whole of the Old Testament "was a 
kind of emblematic history of Christ, and of 
the Christian church ; that the prophecies 
of the ancient prophets, in their Uteral im- 
port, treated of Jesus Christ; and that 
whatever was to occur in the Christian 
church, down to the end of time, was all 
prefigured in the Old Testament, in some 
places more clearly, and in others less so." 
He beheved in a visible reign of Christ upon 
earth, after the conversion of the Jews. 

CocHEBEL (Battle).— Bertrand du Gues- 
clin defeated John, king of Navarre, at this 
place, near Evreux, Thursday, May 16, 1364. 
Although the forces of the king of Navarre 
were much inferior to those of the enemy in 
number, the struggle was maintained with 
great resolution. By this victory nearly the 
whole of Normandy was brought under sub- 
jection to Charles V. of France. 

Cochin (Hindostan) .—This native state was 
made tributary by Hyder a.d. 1776. Trea- 
ties were concluded by the East-India Com- 
pany with the rajah of Cochin in 1791 and 
May 6, 1809, by which, on the payment of 
an annual tribute, it was placed under British 
protection. The seaport town of Cochin was 
founded by Albuquerque in 1503, being the 
first Portuguese estabhshment. The Dutch 
captured it in 1663, but it was wrested from 
them by the Enghsh in 1796, and was, vrith 
its dependencies, ceded to England, in ex- 
change for the island of Banca, by the second 
and third articles of the convention between 
England and the United Netherlands, signed 
at London Aug. 13, 1814. 

CocHiif Chitsta (Asia) formed part 
of the Chinese empire till a few centuries 
after our sera. Its ancient history is very 
httle known. In 1774 the reigning family 
was expelled, and the land divided between 
three brothers, vrith whom "Warren Hastings 
in vain sought to establish commercial inter- 
course in 1778. The rightful heir returned 



coc 

in 1790, aiid recovered his possessions from 
the usurpers, and in 1797 he commenced the 
introduction of many European arts into his 
dominions, being assisted in his efforts by a 
French missionary. The East-India Com- 
pany again attempted to trade with the 
country in 1804 and 1822, but they were 
disappointed in both instances. Cochin 
China was invaded by a French and Spanish 
force in 1858, and the fort and bay of Turon 
were taken Sept. 1. In the spring and 
summer of 1859 other victories followed, and 
the French having captured all the forts on 
the Saigon, and driven back the native troops, 
a treaty of peace was signed July 30, and the 
French admiral withdrew his fleet. (^See 
Anam, Cambodia, and ToifQUiN-.) 

Cochineal was discovered by the Span- 
iards in Me3dco, a.d. 1518. The insect from 
which the dye is obtained was introduced 
into St. Domingo by Thierry, a French 
naturalist, in 1777, and into India in 1795. 
Only an inferior quaHty of dye is produced 
there. Prescott says that the rich crimson 
of the best kinds is the modern rival of the 
famed Tyrian purple. The excise duty on 
cochineal, reduced to a shilling the hundred- 
weight in 1842, was finally repealedby 8 & 9 
Vict. c. 90, passed in 1845. 

Cockade. — The ancient custom of wearing 
badges in the bonnet is generally considered 
to have given rise to the modern cockade. 
As worn by gentlemen's servants, it is sup- 
posed to have originated during the wars of 
the Eoses. In later times the black cockade 
was the Hanoverian badge, the white that of 
the Stuarts. 

Cock-Ceower (the King's).— This officer 
during Lent crowed the hour every night 
within the precincts of the palace. George II., 
then prince of Wales, was sitting down to 
supper on Ash-Wednesday, 1715 (the first 
Lent after the Hanoverian accession), when 
the occupant of the office entered the apart- 
ment, and performed his peculiar duty. 
The prince, mistaking it for an intended 
insult, was greatly incensed, and the custom 
was from that time discontinued. 

CocK-FiGHTiNG was established at Athens 
as a pubhc or solemn pastime by Themis- 
tocles, before B.C. 465. The Eomans received 
the custom from the Greeks, although they 
appear to have preferred quail-fighting. 
The date of its introduction into England is 
uncertain, but may probably be referred to 
the period of Roman supremacy. The ear- 
liest record on the subject occurs in a work 
of Fitz-Stephen's, who died a.d. 1191. He 
m.entions that it was the practice of school- 
boys to bring their cocks to the master on 
Shrove Tuesday, and devote the morning to 
an exhibition of their prowess. The sport 
was prohibited in France in 1260, and in 
England, by Edward III., in 1365 \ again by 
Henry VIII., by Elizabeth in 1569, and by 
Cromwell, March 31, 1654. It was pro- 
hibited in England by the Cruelty to Animals 
Act, 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 59 (Sept. 9, 1835). 
This act was extended to Ireland by 1 Vict. 
c. 66 (July 15, 1837) , It is common in Asia, 
227 



COC 

is a fashionable pastime with the ladies of 
Peru, and is carried to a great height in 
the island of Cej^lon. 

Cock-Lane Ghost.— This famous decep- 
tion, practised in a house in Cock Lane, 
West Smithfield, in the years 1760, 1761, and 
1762, created considerable sensation. The 
second and most notorious visitation com- 
menced in January, 1762. A chUd about eleven 
years of age was thrown into violent fits by 
seratchings and knockings heard in different 
parts of the room, and comatnunications were 
held with the supposed ghost who produced 
these noises. The case was taken up by several 
influential persons. The child was removed 
to the house of the Eev. Stephen Aldrich, 
rector of St. John's, ClerkenweU, and an 
investigation took place in the presence of 
several influential persons, on the night of 
Jan. 31. Measures had been taken to pre- 
vent any collusion, and the result was that 
the people assembled were unanimously of 
opinion, that " the child has some art of 
making, or counterfeiting, particular noises ; 
and that there is no agency of any higher 
catxse." The girl was moved from house to 
house, and was iiltimately detected in an 
attempt to play off a trick upon her auditors. 
Wilham Parsons, the officiating clerk of 
St. Sepulchre's, the father; Elizabeth, his 
wife; Mary Frazer, a girl who assisted in 
the deception ; a clergyman, and a tradesman, 
were tried at Guildhall, July 10, by a special 
jury, before Lord Mansfield, and convicted 
of a conspiracy against the life and character 
of Mr. K . Sentence having been de- 
ferred for seven or eight months, the clergy- 
man and the tradesman paid Mr. K 

between five and six hundred pounds, and 
were dismissed with a severe reprimand. 
The father was sentenced to stand in the 
pillory three times in one month, once at 
the end of Cock Lane, and after that to be 
imprisoned two years ; his wife to one year's 
imprisonment, and Mary Frazer to six 
months in Bridewell, with hard labour. 

Cockney. — The origin of this term, and 
its apphcation to a native of London, are 
involved in obscurity. In 1517, Henry VlII. 
made an order with reference to the feast of 
the King of the Cockneys, held on Childer- 
mas-day. 

Cocoa. — The properties of the kernel or 
seed of the cocoa-tree were known to the 
Spaniards and Portuguese before any other 
Europeans. In 1649 only one cocoa-tree 
existed in aU the Windward Isles, and that 
was grown as a curiosity in the garden of an 
Englishman. The tree was discovered in 
Martinique in 1655, and the cultivation was 
commenced in 1660. The use of the beve- 
age caUed cocoa did not become general till 
the end of the 17th century. 

Cocoa-Teee Club, the Tory chocolate- 
house of Queen Anne's reign, is mentioned 
by Addison in the first number of the "Spec- 
tator," Thursday, March 1, 1711. A club 
was subsequently formed here, which was 
caUed the '; Cocoa-tree Club" from the 
place of meeting. 

Q 2 



COD 

Code Napoleon. — The eonmiissioii for 
the formation of a new civil code was ap- 
pointed by Napoleon in 1800. The code was 
promulgated in 1804, as the " Code Civil des 
Franfais." It was afterwards greatly ex- 
tended. Napoleon introduced it into Italy 
in 1805, into Portugal in 1808, into the 
Papal States in 1809. It was afterwards 
adopted in other countries. 

Codes. — A coUeetion or system of laws, 
made by order of Theodosius II., was pro- 
mulgated in the Eastern empire a.d. 438, 
and in the AVestern empire by Yalen- 
tinian III. in the same year. This was 
called the Theodosian code. Justinian ap- 
pointed a commission in Feb., a.d. 528, to 
compile one code from those of Gregorianus, 
Hermogenianus, and Theodosius. It was 
promulgated Api'il 7, 529. The Institutes 
were completed Nov. 21, 533, and the Pan- 
dects, or Digest, Dec. 16, 533. A second 
edition of the code appeared Nov. 16, 534. 
This formed the celebrated Theodosian code. 
Other sj'stems of laws, framed in diiferent 
countries, are also called codes. {See Code 
Napoleon, &c.) 

_ Ccelestines, or Ccelestinians.— This reh- 
gious order was founded near Sulmona, in 
the Abruzzi, by Peter of Morone, afterwards 
Ccelestine V., in 1254; was approved by 
Urban IV. in 1264, and called the order of 
the Hermits of St. Damien, or Moreonites. 
Eaised to the pontificate in 1294, Peter of 
Morone favoured the new order, and they 
took the name of Ccelestines. They spread 
through Italy and France, and were sup- 
pressed in the latter country in 1778. 

Coffee was introduced into Arabia from 
Persia in the loth centmy, and brought to C on- 
stantinople in 1554. The Venetians were the 
first Europeans acquainted withits use. It was 
brought to Marseilles in 1644, to London in 
1652, and to Paris inl657 ; but until 1660its use 
was restricted to those who had travelled in 
the East. In 1690 the plant was reared at Am- 
sterdam ; it was planted at Surinam in 1718, 
at Cayenne in 1722, at Martinique in 1727, and 
before 1732 formed one of the staple produc- 
tions of Jamaica. Various acts encouraging 
the growth of British plantation coffee were 
passed in 1781, 1783, 1788, and 1796. Pro- 
sper Alpinus, the botanist, who spent several 
years in Egypt, and who died in 1617, is said 
to have been the first European author who 
mentioned coffee. By 12 Charles II. c. 24 
(1660), a duty of fourpence on every gallon 
of coffee made and sold was granted to the 
king. 

Coffee-houses were estabhshed at Con- 
stantinople A.D. 1554. One was opened at 
Oxford in 1650, at London in 1652, at Paris in 
1662, and at Marseilles in 1671. By a procla- 
mation of liing Charles IL, issued in Dec. 
1675, they were suppressed ; but were soon 
re-opened by request of the tea and coffee 
merchants. For many years the use of 
coffee and the coffee-houses was assailed, by 
various writers. 

Coffins are said to have been invented by 
the Egyptians, who made them of stone and 



COX 

of sycamore-wood. Joseph was embalmed 
and placed in a coffin (Gen. 1. 26) in that 
country B.C. 1635. Coffins were made of 
lead, of iron, and of wood, at a very early 
period. Bede states that the Saxons buried 
their dead in wood. 

Coggleshall, or Coggeshall (Essex). — 
King Stephen founded a Cistercian abbey in 
this place a.d. 1142, and some remains exist 
at this day. It was once celebrated for the 
manufacture of white baize, called " Coggles- 
hall whites." 

Cognac (League) , called the Holy League, 
because the pope was at the head of it, wag 
concluded between the pope, the Venetians, 
the duke of MUan, and Francis I. of France, 
May 22, 1526. The objects were to compel 
the emperor Charles V. to release the French 
king's sons, on the payment of a reasonable 
ransom, and to re-estabhsh Sforza in the 
possession of the MUanese. The king of 
England was made protector of the league ; 
a prineipahty in the kingdom of Naples, with 
an annual revenue of 30,000 ducats, was to 
be settled upon him, and lands to the value 
of 10,000 ducats given to Wolsey. Cognac 
was one of the cautionary towns granted to 
the Huguenots by the peace signed Aug. 11, 
1570. 

Coif. — Serjeants-at-law first adopted the 
coif as their badge during the reign of 
Henry III. (1216—1272). They used it to 
conceal their baldness, as there were then 
few lawyers who were not also priests, and, 
consequently, obliged to shave their heads. 
When it became inciunbent on judges to 
have passed through the degree of serjeant- 
at-law, they retained the coif in their higher 
dignity, as we learn from Sir John Fortes- 
cue's discourse Be Laudibus Legum Anglia, 
vrritten between the years \4^6\ and 1470. 
On the appointment of official legal costume 
by the decree of the Westminster judges, 
subscribed June 4, 1635, the coif became an 
established portion of judicial uniform. As 
a portion of female attire, coifs were intro- 
duced early in the 17th century. The use of 
the coif in the coronation has been discon- 
tinued since the reign of George II. 

Coimbatoee (Hindostan). — This state, 
annexed to Mysore a.d. 1746, was taken by 
the Enghsh in 1783, and was formally incor- 
porated with our possessions in India in 
1799. The town of Counbatore, captured by 
the Enghsh Nov. 26, 1783, was restored at 
the peace concluded iu 1784. It was retaken 
July 21, 1790. Tippoo invested it June 13, 
1791, and, having summoned it in vain, made 
a general assault, which was repulsed, 
Aug. 11. Having received i-einforcements, 
Tippoo compelled the garrison to surrender 
Nov. 3, 1791. 

CoTMBEA (Portugal), the Conimbrica of 
the Romans, was erected into a bishopric 
during the 6th century. It was taken from 
the Moors a.d. 872, recovered by them in 982, 
and finaUy reconquered bv Ferdinand the 
Great and the celebrated Cid in 1064. The 
monastery of Santa Cruz was founded 
June 28, 1131, On the elevation of Portugal 



COI 

into a kingdom in 1139, Coimbra became tbe 
capital ; and in 1308 the university was tem- 
porarily removed there from Lisbon by King 
Dionysius. The murder of Inez de Castro 
by Alfonso IV. took place Jan. 7, 1355. On 
the accession of John I., April 6, 1385, the 
seat of government was transferred to Lis- 
bon. The plague carried oflf many of the 
inhabitants in 1423. The university was 
finally transferred to Coimbra in 1537. The 
aqueduct was built in 1568. Coimbra suf- 
fered much from an earthquake in 1755, and 
was the scene of a victory gained by the 
Enghsh over the French in 1810. 

Coin. — The Parian chronicle attributes 
the invention of coin, or metal stamped for 
currency, to Pheidon of Argos. He is said 
to have coined silver money in the island of 
.ffigina, B.C. 895. Herodotus (i. 94) says the 
Lydians were the first who coined gold and 
silver money. The first known copxJer coins 
of Greece are about the date b.c. 490. Silver 
coinage commenced at Eome b.c. 266, and 
gold coinage B.C. 204. A metallic currency 
existed in Britain previous to the Koman 
occupation. Under the Komans, the coin of 
England resembled that of Eome ; but the 
Saxons introduced money of a totally diiferent 
character. Silver skeattse, coins worth about 
a twenty-fifth less than the penny afterwards 
used, have been discovered, which were struck 
probably before the conversion of Ethelbert, 
king of Kent, a.d. 597, as they are without the 
sign of the cross. The stycas, minute coins 
of copper, zinc, and silver, were coined by 
the kings of Northumberland about 670, and 
are remarkable for the excellence of their 
workmanship. Silver pennies, worth three 
of ours, were introduced about 725 or 794, 
and formed the principal English money till 
some time after the Norman conquest. Ed- 
ward the Confessor issued a few gold pennies, 
but no regular gold coinage took place till 
the time of Henry III. ; since which the 
history of Enghsh coinis much better defined. 
During the Anglo-Saxon and early Anglo- 
Norman periods, gold byzants had a legiti- 
mate circulation in England, and were indeed 
the chief commercial medium throughout 
Europe. Elizabeth withdrew the base coin- 
age of former sovereigns in 1560, and the 
fact is noticed in the inscription on her 
tomb. 



A.D. 

1-227. 
1247. 



1344. 
1465. 



1504. 
1551. 



Groats, or "grotes," ordered to be coined. 
Henry III. forbids the currency of the old 

money, and commands a new coinage. 
Fii'st gold coinage in England by Henry III. 

This piece was called a " gold x^enny," 

and passed current for twenty ordinary 

pence. 
Round pennies, halfpennies, and farthings 

ai-e coined by Edward I., who introduces 

niany improvements. 
First gold florins and nobles are coined by 

Edward III. 
New issue of gold nobles, called rials and 

angels, by Edward IV. 
Sovereigns ordered to be struck by 

Henry VII. 
ShUUngs coined by Henry VII. 
Crowns, half-crowns, and sixpences are coined 

by Edward VI. 



ItJOl. 

1663. 

1665. 

1670. 

1672. 
1699. 



1718. 

1797. 



1817. 
1849. 



COI 



Irish shillings are struck by Elizabeth. Their 
intrinsic value was nine pence, l)ut they 
were ordered to pass cui-rent for twelve 
pence. 

Milled money is first coined by Elizabeth. 

First copper coinage in England, by Elizabeth. 
This money was for use in Ireland. 

Guineas of twenty shillings are tii-st coined by 
Charles II. 

Copper halfpence and farthings are coined by 
Charles II. 

Gold coins of ten, forty, and one hundred 
shillings are ordered. 

Aug. 16. Copper cun-ency is established. 

Kefonnation of the silver coinage by Mr. 
(afterwards Sir Isaac) Newton. 

The value of the guinea is settled at twenty- 
one shillings. 

Quarter-guineas are coined by George I. 

Gold bcven-shilling pieces, and copper two- 
penny pieces, are coined by George III. 

July 1. The new sovereign of twenty shillings 
is first coined. 

Florins are coined. 



Coiif-CLippiifG. — This crime was of fre- 
quent occurrence in early times. The custom 
of cutting the silver penny into halves and 
quarters served to encourage it. Henry III. 
prohibited the circulation of chpped coin, by 
letters dated at Merton, Nov. 17, 1248, and 
in 1278, 280 Jews were hanged in London for 
coin-clipping. By 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 1 (1696), 
£1,200,000 was raised by a house-duty to 
defray the expense of withdrawing the chpped 
coin. Scarcely any of the coin in circulation 
was worth half the nominal value. 

CoiN^ijsTG. — The coining of money is the 
exclusive prerogative of the Crovra. The 
privilege was in early times occasionally 
granted to bishops and abbots. By the 
common law of England, and in many sta- 
tutes, the crime of counterfeiting the money 
of the realm was declared high treason. By 
27 Edw. I., de Falsa Monetd (1299), the im- 
portation of false money was made a capital 
crime. The counterfeiting of foreign coin 
current in England was declared high treason 
by 1 Mary, st. 2, c. 6 (1553), and as such 
rendered the offender subject to all the 
penalties used and ordained in that case. 
By 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 26, ss. 1 & 4 (1696-7), 
the mere possession of coiner's tools, as well 
as the colouring, gilding, &c., any coin resem- 
bling the current money, was made high 
treason. This was continued in 1702 by 
1 Anne, c. 3. All former acts, however, 
were repealed by 2 WiU. IV. c. 34 (May 23, 
1832), which made the manufacture, pur- 
chase, or importation of false money, and the 
wilful injury of good money, punishable by 
transportation, since altered to penal servi- 
tude; while those guilty of uttering such coin 
were liable to imprisonment. The provisions 
of this act were extended to the colonies by 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 48 (Aug. 4, 1853) . Attempts 
having been made to use coin for advertising 
purposes, by stamping names upon it, this was 
made a misdemeanour by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 102 
(Aug. 20, 1853). The process of coining was, 
in early times, accomphshed by hammering 
bullets of metal fiat, and placing them between 
two dies ; these were struck with heavy mal- 
lets until the impression was obtained. The 



COL 

French made an improvement upon this pro- 
cess about the middle of the 16th century, 
by the apphcation of the screw, ^utoine 
Brucher invented the eoinin^-press in 1553, 
and milled money was coined by Ehzabeth 
in 1562, though it was not general in England 
until 1662. Boulton invented his coining- 
machine in 1788, and the greater part of the 
coinage of the reahn was carried on at his 
works at Soho, Birmingham, till the Mint 
was established in 1810. During the Middle 
Ages the right of coining was considered the 
best guarantee of independence. The citizens 
of Lucca, in the 13th century, by way 
of asserting their independence of Pisa, 
went and coined money at the gates of that 
city. 

CoLAPOOR (Hindostan). — This Mahratta 
state was founded by Sumbajee, the grandson 
of Sevajee, who overran the country a.d. 1670. 
At the commencement of the centiiry, pirates 
from several of its ports infested the seas, 
and by treaty concluded Oct. 1, and ratified 
Nov. 13, 1812, the seaboard was ceded to the 
East-India Company. The rajah was assas- 
siuated in 1821, and such confusion prevailed, 
that the state was for some time occupied by 
Enghsh troops. 

C o L B E E G (Pomerania) . — The Eussians 
having besieged this place for 29 days, retired 
Oct. 31, 1758. They retm-ned in 1760, with a 
fleet of 27 ships and an army of 15,000 men. 
General Werner came to the assistance of 
the garrison, who held out bravely, Sept. 18, 
and in a few days dispersed both fleet and 
army. The Russians returned in 1761, and 
Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg, at the head 
of the army sent for its rehel, cut his way 
through the Eussians Nov. 14, and the place, 
long defended with wonderful heroism, sur- 
rendered Dec. 16. 

CoLCHESTEK (Esscx), the Camalodunum 
of the Romans, and the Caer CoHn of the 
Britons, is said to have been the birthplace 
of the emperor Constantine, a.d. 265, and to 
have sent a bishop to the council of Aries 
314. Neither of these stories is supported 
by trustworthy evidence. It was seized by 
the Danes in 838, and was not finally retaken 
till 921, when Edward the Elder expelled the 
foreigners and rebuilt the fortifications. 
Eichard I. granted the first charter, Dec. 6, 
1189. The castle was besieged and the town 
plundered by King John's barons in 1215. 
The plague prevailed here in 1348 and 1360. 
Henry VI. visited the town Aug. 5, 1445, 
and Catherine of Aragon in 1516. The 
Dutch and Flemish exiles settled here in 1571, 
and established the manufacture of various 
woollen goods. Colchester was besieged and 
taken by the ParUamentarians during the 
civil war, the defence lasting from June 13 
to Aug. 27, 1648, Between Aug. 1665 and 
Dec. 1666, the plague carried ofi" 4,731 of the 
inhabitants. Colchester was deprived of its | 
charter in June, 1684, but recovered it in ; 
1693. The theatre was built in 1812 ; and the j 
Essex and Colchester Hospital in 1820. j 

Colchis (Asia) . — This country, celebrated 
in mythical history, is said by Herodotus to 
230 



COL 

have been peopled by the renmant of the 
army led by Sesostris into Scythia. Xeno- 
phon attacked and defeated the Colchians 
during his celebrated retreat, B.C. 401. Col- 
chis, long subject to Persia, became indepen- 
dent before the time of Alexander the Great 
(B.C. 336—323) . It was subjected by Mithri- 
dates, of Pontus, from whom it was wrested 
by Pompey, B.C. 65; but the Eomans did not 
reduce the country into the form of a pro- 
vince. Gibbon remarks (ch. xhi.) that " the 
riches of Colchis shine only through the 
darkness of conjecture or tradition ; and its 
genuine history presents an uniform scene of 
rudeness and poverty." In early times the 
Colchians were noted for their manufacture 
of hnen and knowledge of navigation. It is 
the scene of the exploits of the fabled Argo- 
nautic expedition, the first attempt of the 
Greeks at distant navigation, said to have 
been undertaken B.C. 1260. Its original 
name was ^a, and it comprised the modern 
Mingreha, and part of the neighbouring 
country. 

CoLDisTGHAM (Berwickshire). — This place 
is celebrated for a nunnery, founded as early 
as the 7th century. In 679 it was destroyed 
by hghtning, and in 870 seized by the Danes. 
The nuns cut off their noses and lips, in order 
to disfigure themselves ; which so infuriated 
their brutal captors, that the whole sisterhood 
was burnt in the monastery. Eling Edgar 
founded a Benedictine priory on the same site 
in 1098. 

Coldstream Guards. — This regiment was 
enrolled in the town of Coldstream, Berwick- 
shire, by General Monk, Jan. 1, 1660, and 
on the disbanding of the army in January, 
1661, was retained by Charles II. in las 
special service. 

CoLEEAiNE (Ireland) was originally the 
seat of a bishop's see, founded by St. Cabreus 
about A.D. 540. In 1171 it was plundered 
by the king of Down, and again in 1213 by 
Thomas MacUchtry, who used the stones of 
the abbey as materials for a castle which he 
erected here. A monastery for Dominican 
friars was founded about 1244. James I. 
granted Coleraine and the surroimding dis- 
tricts to a company of London merchants, 
known as the " Governor and Assistants of 
the New Plantation in Ulster," in 1613, and 
in 1614 the town was incorporated by the 
same monarch. 

Coliseum. — This celebrated amphitheatre 
at Rome was commenced by the emperor 
Vespasian a.d. 75, and completed by Titus 
A.D. 80. It received the name of Cohsetun 
on account of its magnitude. Gibbon (ch. xii.) 
thus describes the magnificent edifice : — " It 
was a building of an elhptic figure, five hun- 
dred and sixty-four feet in length, and 
four himdred and sixty-seven in breadth, 
founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with 
four successive orders of architecture, to the 
height of one hundred and forty feet. The 
outside of the edifice was encrusted with 
marble and decorated with statues. The 
slopes of the vast concave, which formed 
the inside, were iLUed and surrounded with 



COL 

sixty or eighty rows of seats, of marble like- 
wise, covered with cushions, and capable of 
receiving with ease above fourscore thousand 
spectators." A bull-feast was celebrated in 
the Cohseum, Sept. 3, 1332. Eugenius IV. 
surrounded it with a wall, and it was conse- 
crated by Benedict XIV. 

CoLLAE. — The use of collars of gold and 
jewellery is of the greatest antiquity. They 
were worn by the ancient Babylonians, 
Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Komans, 
Manlius Torquatus, who was consul at Kome 
B.C. 287, received his surname from a collar 
he took from a Gaul whom he slew in fight. 
Collars were afterwards used as part of the 
insignia of the various orders of knighthood. 
The collar of SS. is said to have been 
adopted in honour of the two martyrs Sim- 
plicius and Faustinus, who were thrown into 
the Tiber with stones and chains round their 
necks, by order of Diocletian ; but this and 
other explanations of its origin do not rest 
upon good authority. This subject has been 
discussed in the second volume of the first 
series of "Notes and Queries" BouteU 
gives the following explanation : — " Next 
to the Garter itself, the most celebrated 
knightly decoration of this class is the Collar 
of SS. introduced by King Henry IV., 
apparently as a memorial of the success 
with which his aspiring ambition had been 
crowned : this letter S, repeated either in 
Mnks of gold, or in gold embroidery, worked 
upon a fillet of blue, is the initial of the 
word ' Souveraine,' Henry's motto, which 
he bore while earl of Derby." It was ori- 
ginally the hvery of John of Gaunt, adopted 
by Henry IV. as part of the royal hvery in 
1399. Previous to the battle of Agincourt, 
Oct. 25, 1415, Henry V. permitted all the 
untitled members of his retinue to wear this 
collar ; thereby conferring upon them the 
privileges of nobfiity. The collar of the 
order of the Garter was assigned by 
Henry VII. some time between the years 
1496 and 1502. 

Collects were introduced by Pope Gela- 
sius between a.d . 492 and 496. The collects for 
the day of the Church service appeared in 
the first prayer-book of Edward VI., in 1548. 
Many are very ancient, some being the com- 
position of St. Jerome, and even of Gelasius 
himself. 

CoLLEGiAifTS, or CoLLEGiANS. — This sect 
was formed in Holland a.d. 1619. They were 
thus named because they called their assem- 
blies, or sacred conventions, held twice a 
year at Eheinsburg, near Leyden, colleges. 
Three brothers, John-James, Hadrian, and 
Gisbert Koddeus, were its authors. Mosheim 
describes them as " a very large society of 
persons of every sect and rank, who assume 
the name of Christians, but entertain differ- 
ent views of Christ; and which is kept 
together neither by rulers and teachers, nor 
by ecclesiastical laws, nor by a formula of 
faith, nor, lastly, by any set of rites, but 
solely by the desire of improvement in scrip- 
tural knowledge and piety." In 1686 the 
Collegians spht into two opposing sects, but 



COL 

the breach was healed early in the 18th cen- 
tury. 

CoLLiEEY. — The earliest mention of col- 
lieries occurs in a charter of Henry III. 
(dated 1239), granting to the burgesses of 
Newcastle permission to dig for coal. In 
1330 they were regarded as valuable pro- 
perty. The employment of females in col- 
lieries was regulated by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99 
(Aug. 10, 1842), which ordered that no new 
female workers should be engaged at all ; 
that in three months after it was passsed, 
no female under eighteen should be so 
employed; and that after March 1, 1843, 
female service in mines should be totally 
abolished. 

CoLLODiow. — The iodized collodion now 
so largely employed for photographic pur- 
poses, was discovered by Mr. Scott Archer, 
who published an account of its preparation 
and properties in the " Chemist" for March, 
1851. 

CoLLTKiDiANS. — Arabian heretics, who 
"invested the Virgin Mary with the name 
and honours of a goddess." Epiphanius 
says they were all females, and that they 
sacrificed to the Virgin Mary. They arose 
towards the close of the 4th century, and 
received their name from the collyrides, or 
Uttle cakes, which they offered to the Virgin 
Mary. They came from Thrace and parts 
of Scythia. 

CoLMAE (France), near the site of the 
ancient Argentaria, was raised to the rank 
of a town A.D. 1220. It was made a free impe- 
rial city in the 13th century, and was fortified 
in 1552. The Swedes captured it in 1632, 
and Louis XIV. took it and destroyed its 
fortifications in 1673. It was ceded to France 
in 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick. The plague 
committed great ravages in 1541. Its cathe- 
dral was founded in 1363. 

CoLOGifE (Prussia), the Colonia Agrip- 
pina of the Romans, received its name from 
the empress Agrippina, who estabhshed a 
colony here about a.d. 50. It was erected 
into an archbishopric before 314. 

A.D. 

508. Clovis is declared king of the Franks at 

Cologne. 
700. The church and nunnery of Santa Maria in 

Capitolio are founded. 
715. Chai-les Martel susUiins a defeat near Cologne. 
782. Charlemagne holds a council here. 
870. Sept. 26. A council is held on discipline. 
873. Sept. 26. A council is summoned. 
887. April 1. A council held against robbers of 

churches. 
957. Cologne is declared an imperial town. 
980. Archbishop Bruno fouiids the church of 
St. Pantaleon. 
1057. A council for the reformation of the clergy. 
10o6. St. Gereou's Kirche is founded. 
1110. A council is held. 
1115. The emperor Henry V. is excommunicated at 

a Council held here. 
1119. The excommunication of Henry V. is published 

at a council. 
1164. The relics of the three kings ai'e removed to 

Cologne. 
1185. The outer walls are buUt. 
118(5. A coun.-.U is held. 
1187. Another councU. 

1259. All ships trading to the neighbourhood are 
compelled to unload here. 

231 



COL 



COL 



1261. March 12. A council is held. 

1266. Another councU. 

1270. The cathedi-al is commenced. 

1281. March 9. A council on discipline. 

1307. Feb. 22. A council against the Beghards. 

1310. The year is ordered hy council to commence at 

Cologne at Christmas, instead of at Baster, 

according to their custom. 
1322. Oct. 31. Another council is held. 
1388. The university is founded. 
1390. Sept. 16. Theancient statutes of the province 

are renewed at a council. 

1424. April 22. A council is held on discipline. 

1425. Persecution and expulsion of the Jews. 
14.32. March 3. A council on discipline. 

1536. A council on the duties of ecclesiastics, &c. 

1571. The town-hall is built. 

1577. Birth of Kubens at Cologne. 

1618. Expiilsion of the Protestants 

1636. Church of the Jesuits is founded. 

1642. Mai-y de Medicis dies at Cologne. 

1655. Sept. Prince Charles, afterwards Charles II. 
of England, ai-rives at Cologne, and re- 
mams in this city above two years. 

1787. The Protestants are allowed to erect a place of 
worship and a school. 

1795. Cologne is seized by the French. 

1801. It is made the capital of the French depart- 
ment of La Roer. 

1814. It is restored to Prussia. 

1815. The fortifications are restored. 

1837. Tne navigation of the Rhine is opened, which 
enables Cologne to caiTy on a direct foreign 
trade. 

1841. Sept. 1. The raUroad to Aix-la-Chapelle Is 
opened. 

1848. Sept. The newly-finished parts of the cathedral 
are thro%vn open to the public. 

1855. A pei-manent bridge over the Rhine, for rail- 
way and common traffic, is commenced. 

Colombia (South America). — The ancient 
vice-royalty of IS'ew Granada and Quito, and 
the state of Venezuela, having thrown oflF 
the Spanish yoke, lormed themselves into a 
republic under the name of Colombia, in 
1819. 



1820. 
1821. 



1824. 
1825. 



July 13. The Congress express willingne-ss to 
enter into negotiations with Spain, if their 
republic is acknowledged independent. 

Jiine 24. The republican troops, under General 
Bolivar, defeat the royalists at Carabobo. 
Bee. Spain loses aU power in the new 
republic. 

Nov. 13. Battle of Maracaibo, in which the 
republicans are defeated by the royalists, 
under General Morales. 

March 8. Treaty of alUance between Colombia 
and Buenos Ayres. Nov. 6. The Colombians 
tate Puerto CabeUo. 

Feb. 10. Bolivar is elected dictator by the 
Congress of Peru. June 30. Alliance between 
Colombia and Mexico. 

Jan. 1. Great Britain recognizes the inde- 
pendence of Colombia. March 15. A treaty 
of alliance is concluded with Guatemala. 
May 28. Ti-eaty of friendship and com- 
merce with the United States. Nov. 7. 
Treaty of friendship and commerce with 
Great Britain. 

Aug. 19. The Congress at lima declares 
Bolivar president for life. Sept. 1. Bolivar 
appoints Santa-Cruz his deputy during his 
absence in Peru. Nov. 14. Bolivar returns 
to Bogota. Nov. 23. He accepts the dic- 
tatorship. 
, April 18. Insurrection of Colombian troops. 
April 23. The Congress of Ocana declares 
Ignacio Marques president. Sept. 25. San- 
tander excites a revolt against Bolivar, who 
escapes assassination, and quells the in- 
surrection. 



1829. Venezuela constitutes itself a separate re- 

public. 

1830. Jan. 20. Bolivar tenders his resignation of 

the presidentship, and retires to Cdxthagena 
shortly afterwards. Venezuela again joins 
New Granada. Dec. 17. Death of Bolivar. 

1831. Nov. 17. Venezuela, New Granada, and 

Colombia, again become separate states. 
{See Venezttela.) 

Colombo (Ceylon) was founded by the 
Portuguese a.d. 1-517, and fortified by them in 
1520. Eajah Singha laid siege to it in Aug. 
1586, but was forced to withdraw the follow- 
ing year. The Dutch wrested it from the 
Portuguese in 1656, and retained possession 
tiU Feb. 14, 1796, when it was taken by the 
Enghsh. 

CoLoirr. — The formation of colonies is 
among the earliest events of which any his- 
torical record exists. The Phoenicians and 
the Carians planted several colonies in the 
Mediterranean, and the Greeks followed 
their example. The Eomans began to 
establish colonies during the monarchical 
period. In modem times, the Venetians, the 
Portuguese, the Spanish, the French, the 
Enghsh, and the Dutch, have been dis- 
tinguished by their attempts to form colo- 
nies. In this respect England has distanced 
all competitors, having succeeded in estab- 
lishing the most extensive colonial empire of 
ancient or modern times. The following is 
a list of the British colonies with the date of 
their settlement, capture, &c. : — 



African Forts— Settled in 1618 

Anguilla „ 1666 

Antigua „ 1632 

Ascension Island — Granted by Spain 1827 

Australia, South— Settled 18:U 

West „ 1829 

Bahamas „ 1630 

Barbadoes „ ... 1614 

Ceded by the emperor Shah 

Allum June 20, 1765 

Berbice— Capitulated Sept. 1803 

Bei-mudas- Settled 1609 

Bombav— Ceded by Portugal June, 1661 

British" Colombia— Settled 18-58 

British Guiana— Capitulated Sept. 1803 

Canada, Lower „ Sept. 18, 1759 

„ tipper ,, Sept. 8,1760 

Cape Breton Island— Taken from the French 1745 
Cape Coast Castle— Ceded by the Dutch .... 1661 
Cape of Good Hope— Capitulated . . Jan. 10, 1806 

Ceylon- CapitiUated Sept. 17, 1795 

Demerara „ Sept. 1803 

Dominica — Ceded by France 1763 

Essequibo — Capitulated Sept. 1803 

Falkland Islands— Settled 1833 

Fernando Po— Taken possession of 1815 

Gambia— Settled 1618 

Gibraltar— Capitulated Aug. 4, 1704 

Gold Coast— Settled 1618 

Gozo— Capitulated Sept. 1800 

Granada — Ceded by France 1763 

Heligoland— Capitulated 1807 

Honduras— Treaty 1670 

Hongkong „ 1842 

Ionian Isles — Placed under British protection 1814 

Jamaica — Capitulated 1655 

Labuan— Settled 1847 

Madras „ 1639 

Malacca — Received from the Dutch in ex- 
change for Sumatra April 9, 1825 

Malta— Capitulated Sept. 1(?00 

Mauritius „ Deo.3,1810 



COL 



Hon tserrat— Settled 1(532 

Natal— Taken from the l>utch 1842 

Nevis „ „ \ms 

New Brunswick — Ceded by France 1713 

Newfoundland— Settled before 1548 

New South Wales— Settled 1787 

New Zealand „ 1815 

Nova Scotia— Ceded by Fran'e Oct. 7, 1748 

Port PhUlip— First sale of crowii lands m . . 1835 
Prince Edward's Island — Taken from the 

French 1758 

Prince of Wales Island — Purchased by the 

East-India Company 1786 

Sierra Leone — Settled 1787 

Singapore— Treaty Feb. 26, 1819 

St. Helena— Taken from the Dutch 1673 

St. Christophei-'s, or Kitt's— Settled 1623 

St. Lucia— Capitulated June 22, 1803 

St. Vincent— Ceded by France 1763 

Swan River— Settled 1829 

Tobago — Ceded by France 1763 

Tortola— Settled 1666 

Trinidad— Capitulated Feb 18,1797 

Vancouver — Settled 1848 

Van Diemen's Land— Settled 1803 

Victoria (Hongkong) „ 1842 

Victoria (Port Phillip)— Erected into a separate 

colony 1851 

Virgin Islands 

Colophon' (Asia Minor) . — An Ionian city, 
founded, according to tradition, by Andrse- 
mon. It was a flourishing city as late as 
B.C. 66. Strabo says that the Colophonians 
were celebrated for the excellence of their 
cavalry. It was, in fact, considered invin- 
cible, and gave rise to the proverb, " He has 
put the Colophon to it," or given the finishing 
stroke, used to show that a matter had been 
brought to a certain tei-mination. Old works, 
before the introduction of a title-page, had 
title, date, &c., printed at the end; and this, 
as the last thing printed, was termed a colo- 
phon. 

CoiossiANS, (Epistle to the,) was addressed 
by St. Paul to the Christians of Colossse, in 
Phrygia, in June a.d. 60. 

Colossus of Ehodes, a brazen statue of 
Apollo, commenced by Chares B.C. 290, and 
completed B.C. 280. The statement that one 
foot rested on each side of the harbour of 
Ehodes, and that ships passed under it in 
full sail, does not rest on good authority. It 
was 105 feet in heigbt, and was ascended by 
a winding staircase. An earthquake threw 
it down B.C. 224, and it was never re-erected. 
The remains were sold to a Jewish merchant 
of Edessa, a.d. 672, and 900 camels were 
loaded with the brass. It was one of the 
seven wonders of the world. 

CoLTJMBiNiA. — This metal was discovered 
by Mr. HatcheU in a ferruginous mineral 
from North America, a.d. 1801. Eckeberg, 
who afterwards found it in a Swedish mine- 
ral, gave it the name of Tantalum. 

Columbus (United States), the chief 
town of Ohio, was founded a.d. 1812. The 
old State-house was destroyed by fire in 
1852. 

Combs were made by the Greeks and 
Eomans, and during the Middle Ages, of 
boxwood, ivory, and other materials. They 
often occur in early barrows, British, Eo- 
man, and Saxon; and were buried with both 
J)agans and Christians. Some were foimd at 



COM 

Pompeii like the modern smaU-tooth combs. 
In the 13th century combs were sometimes 
made of gold and set with jewels. 

Comedy was introduced at Athens by 
Susarion and Dolon, b.c. 562. Thespis, the 
"father of comedy," performed on a wag- 
gon B.C. 535. A decree for its prohibition 
was passed b.c. 44fl, but was evaded, as per- 
formances are recorded to have taken place 
B.C. 439 and B.C. 437. Aristophanes, the 
chief poet of the old comedy, exhibited his 
first production B.C. 427. The middle comedy 
commenced B.C. 375, and was supported by 
thirty-five poets, none of whom are of great 
repute. The new comedy, which began 
about B.C. 335, owes its chief celebrity to 
the productions of Menander, who began 
his theatrical career B.C. 321. The principal 
Latin comedy writers are Plautus, who died 
B.C. 184, and Terence, B.C. 159. Some differ- 
ence of opinion prevails respecting the origin 
of Enghsh comedy. Hallam (Lit. vol. ii. 
pt. ii. ch. 6) speaks of " Ealph Eoister 
Bolster, written by Udal in the reign of 
Henry VIII. , as the earliest English comedy 
in a proper sense, so far as our negative 
evidence warrants such a position." This 
comedy, probably written before 1540, was 
first printed in 1565. Hallam beUeves it to 
be "the earliest lively picture of London 
manners among the gallants and citizens, 
who furnished so much for the stage down 
to the civil wars." For a long time " Gam- 
mar Gurton's Needle," supposed to have 
been written by John Still, afterwards 
bishop of Bath and WeUs, was considered 
the first English comedy. It was repre- 
sented at Christ's College, Cambridge, about 
the year 1565, and the earliest edition is that 
of 1575. " Misogonus," vmtten by Thomas 
Eychardes, another comedy, is known to 
have been written before 1560. In France, 
Jodelle's comedy of "La Eencontre" was 
I represented before Henry II. in 1552 ; and 
: his comedy of "L'Abb^ Eugene" was pub- 
lished about the same time. Hallam terms 
the " Le Menteur" of CorneiUe "the first 
French comedy written in polite language, 
without low wit or indecency." The comedies 
of Larivey were published in 1579; and 
Moliere began to write in 1653. Spanish 
comedy commenced in the latter portion of 
the 16th century, and was chiefly supported 
by Lope de Vega, who flourished in 1600, 
and by Calderon, who pubMshed twelve 
comedies in 1635. Ariosto wrote the first 
regular Italian comedies in 1495, and Ma- 
chiaveUi composed his "Mandragola" before 
1520. Flaminio Scala first published the 
outhne of a series of extemporaneous come- 
dies in 1611, and they afterwards became 
the most popular branch of the Italian 
drama. The German theatre is not very 
rich in comic authors. Hans Sachs, whose 
works appeared in 1578, perhaps supplied its 
earliest comedies. 

Comets. — Humboldt (Cosmos, vol. i. p. 84) 
remarks, that " Kepler, with his usual anima- 
tion of expression, said that there were more 
comets in the regions of space than fishes 
233 



COM 

in the depths of ocean. As yet, however, 
there are scarcely one hundred and fifty 
whose paths have been calculated, if we may 
assume at six or seven hundred the number 
of comets whose appearance and passage 
through known constellations have been 
ascertained by more or less precise observa- 
tions." The Chinese observations, which 
go back 500 years before the Christian 
aera, are of great value. Mr. John Rus- 
sell Hind has pubHshed a history of 
cornet^ ; and to his work we are indebted 
for much of the information given in the fol- 
lowing list : — 



370. A comet mentioned by Aristotle. 

by PiBgig. 
136. Mentioned by Justin, and 

China. 



178. Observed by the Chinese. 

389. Mentioned by contemporary historians as of 

extraordinary briUiaucy and size, and as a 

cause of much teiTor. 
682. Recorded in the Chronicle of Idatius. 
615. July. Observed in China. First mention of 

coruscations in the taU of a comet. 
891. May. Observed in Europe and China. 
989. Observed in China ; and supposed to have 

been Bailey's Comet. 
1066. Obsei-ved in Europe, and considered ominous, 

as it ocoui-red in the year of the Norman 

conquest. 
1264 CalcToIated by Piagr6, and supposed to be 

identical with that of 1-556. 
1337. Fine comet, described by Nicephoras Gre- 

goras and in the Chinese annals. 
1402. A very splendid comet visible in Europe and 

Asia. 
1456. Bailey's Corned, observed in Europe and 

China. 
1472. A very splendid comet, with a prodigiously 

long tail, observed in Europe and China. 
1577. Parallax of this comet ascertained by Tycho 

Brahe. 
1618. Nov. Discovered by Kepler. Gassendi, and 

others, and observed by Hanlot. 
1680. Nov. 14. Discovered by Godfrey Kirch, at 

Cobui-g. This comet directed Newton's 

attention to cometaiy astronomy. 
1682. Bailey's Comet, discovered by him to be 

identical with that of 1456 and succeeding 

years, and to be periodical in its return. 

This was the first demonstration of the 

periodicity of comets. 
1707. Nov. 25. Discovered by Manfredi and Stan- 
car i, at Bologna. 
1744. The finest comet of the 18th century. It was 

observed by almost every astronomer of 

the age. 
1772. Biela'.< Comet. 
1786 Jan. 17. Enck^s Comet, discovered by 

Mechain. 
1811. March 26. The Grand Com,et, discovered by 

Flaugergues, at Viviers. 
1815. March 6. Olbers' Comet, discovered by 

Olbers, nt Bremen. 
1819. JEncke's Voynet, discovered by Pons. During 

this appearance its periodicity was detected 

by Encke. 
1823. Dec. Discovered in various parts of Europe. 

This comet had two tails, one tvirned from 

the sun, and the other towards it. 

1825. July 15. The Great Comet of 1825, discovered 

by Pons. Calculated by HansenJ* 

1826. Feb. 27. Biela's Comet, discovered by Biela, 

at Josephstadt. During this appearance 
its recurrence at shoi-t periods was ascer- 
tained. 
1843. Feb. 28. The Great Comet of 1843, discovered 
in America, Italy, and at the Cape. 
234 



COM 



1844 Nov. 22. Faye's Comet, discovered by Faye, 

at Paris, and ascertained to be periodical. 
1851. June 27. jy A nest's Comet, discovered by 

D'Anest, at Leipsic, and ascertained to be 

periodical. 
1858. June 2. Donati's Coijie^, discovered by Donati, 

at Florence. It was seen in Great Britain 

in September and October. 
1861. June 30. A brilliant comet is first visible in 

England. 

Comfits. — During the reign of Henry III. 

of France (1574 — 1589) an abundant use of 
comfits was one of the flagrant foDies of 
fashion. Disraeh (Curiosities, i. 221) says, 
" AH the world, the grave and the gay, car- 
ried in their pockets a comfit-hox, as we do 
snuff-boxes. They used them even on the 
most solemn occasions ; when the duke of 
Guise was shot at Blois, he was found with 
his comfit-box in his hand." 

CoJiMEECE. — The Phcenicians, who were 
the most ancient nation of traders on the 
earth, are called the inventors of commerce 
and navigation. Their ships traded with 
Greece as early as b.c. 1800, and they 
foimded many colonies as centres of trade 
B.C. 1450. The chief commercial nations of 
the Middle Ages were the Venetians, whose 
importance commenced about a.d. 722 ; the 
Pisans, who reached the culminating point 
of their prosperity about 1063; and the 
Genoese, who rose to great power and afflu- 
ence in 1064. The Hanseatic league, a con- 
federacy of towns for the protection of trade, 
became influential about the year 1140. In 
1252 Flanders attained a high position from 
the success of its merchants, and the Floren- 
tine republic was one of the chief com- 
mercial powers in 1298. The commercial 
importance of England was considerably 
improved by Edward I., who granted a 
charter in behalf of foreign merchants 
in 1302. From this charter it appears 
that the British then had intercourse with 
Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, Flan- 
ders, Lombardy, Florence, and other less 
considerable powers. France was so poor 
in 1360, that a leather currency was adopted, 
and long afterwards commerce was in a very 
languishing state. Jacques Coner, how- 
ever, who held some financial office under 
Charles VII., was said to be the wealthiest 
merchant in the world in 1449. The dis- 
covery of America by Columbus in 1492, and 
the other results of the marine enterprise of 
the 16th century, developed new fields for 
commercial activity. 

Common Council (London). — This arose 

out of the folk-mote, a general mote, or 

meeting of the people, an institution of 

Anglo-Saxon origin. It was held at a much 

earher date than 1208, the year mentioned 

by many authorities as the first in which a 

folk-mote was summoned. There were 

three principal folk-motes in the year ; one 

at the feast of St. Michael, to know who was 

j to be sheriff; the second at Christmas, to 

j arrange the wards ; and the third at the 

i feast of St. John (June 24), to protect the 

{ city from fire, by reason of the great 



COM 

drought. Each citizen neglecting to attend 
was fined forty shillings, a large sum in 
those days. Stow relates that in the time of 
Edward II. the citizens claimed the east 
part of St. Paul's churchyard to be the 
place of assembly of their folk-motes ; and 
that "the great steeple, there situate, was 
to that use, their common bell ; which being 
there rung, all the inhabitants of the city 
might hear, and come together." The same 
author refers to a solemn meeting or com- 
mon council held on the 11th of October, 
1190, in St. Paul's churchyard, and adds, 
*'it is likely in that place where the folk- 
mote used to assemble." The meetings in 
the open air were discontinued, and in 1347 
each ward was instructed to send delegates 
according to its extent. The common coun- 
cil now meets in the Guildhall every Thurs- 
day, and the annual elections occur on 
St. Thomas's day (Dec. 21). 

Common Law. — Concerning the unwritten 
law of England, Dugdale observes (Origines, 
c. 3), "The common law is, out of question, 
no less ancient than the beginning of dif- 
ferences betwixt man and man, after the 
first peopMng of this land." It has been 
bequeathed us by the Britons, Romans, 
Saxons, and Danes, and was digested into a 
code by Edward the Confessor, who began 
to reign in 1044. This code was confirmed 
by William the Conqueror about 1070 ; and 
the statute of Merton, enacted in 1235-36, 
declared the intention of the nobles not to 
change laws which had been so long used 
and approved. 

CoMMOiir Pleas (England). — Originally the 
trial of common causes was referred to the 
aula regia, or court of exchequer, which 
followed the king in aU his progresses ; but 
the 11th chapter of Magna Charta, June 15, 
1215, ordered that they should be tried in a 
court always held at one place. Westminster 
Hall was the place fixed upon, and a chief- 
justice of the Common Pleas was forthwith 
appointed, with power to hear and decide aU 
civil cases between subject and subject. 
Originally no barrister below the rant of 
Serjeant could plead in this coiirt, although 
all were permitted to move or show cause 
against a rule for a new trial ; but the act 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 54 (Aug. 18, 1846), allowed 
the privilege to all barristers practising in 
the superior courts at Westminster. The 
following is a hst of the chief-justices of the 
Common Pleas : — 



1272. 

1274. 
1278. 
1290. 
1301. 



1327. 
1329. 
1331. 
1335. 
1341. 
1377. 



Gilbert de Preston (in office before tiiis yeai', 

but appointment unknown). 
Roger de Seyton. 
Thomas de Weyland. 
John de Metingham. 
Sept. 19. Ralph de Hengham. 
March 15. William de Berelord. 
July 18. Hervey de Staunton. 
Feb. 4. William de Herle. 
Sept. 3. John de Stonore. 
March 2 William de Herle (again). 
July 7 John de Stonore (again). 
Jan. 8. Roger Hillary. 
June 26. Robert de Bealkuap. 



COM 



A.D. 

1388. June 30. Robert de Charleton. 
1396. Jan. 15. William Thiniing. 
1413. June 26. Richard Norton. 
1423. May 5. William Babiugton. 
1436. Feb. 9. John Juyn. 
1439. Jan. 20. John Cotesmore. 
1439. Oct. 14. Richard Newton. 
1449. June 16. John Frisot. 
14tjl. May 11. Sir Robert Danby, 
1471. May 29. Thomas Brian. 
1500. Oct. 20. Thomas Wood. 
1502. Sept. 30. Thomas Frowyk. 
1506. Oct. Robert Read. 
1519. Jan. 27. John Ernie. 
1.521. April 13. Robert Brudenell. 
1531. June. Robert Norwich.. 
1535. April. John Baldwin. 
1545. Nov. 6. Edward Montague. 

1553. Sept. 5. Richard Morgan. 

1554. Oct. 8. Sir Robert Brook. 

1558. Oct. 5. Anthony Browne. 

1559. Jan. 22. Sir James Dyer. 
1582. May 2. Edmund Anderson. 

1605. Aug. 26. Sir Francis Gawdy. 

1606. June 30. Sir Edward Coke. 
1613. Nov. 26. Sh- Heni-y Hobart. 
1626. Nov. 28. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
1631. Oct. 26. Sir Robert Heath. 
1634. Oct. 14. Sir John Fhich. 

1640. Jan. 27. Sir Edward Lyttelton. 

1641. Jan. 26. Sir John Banks. 
1648. Oct. 12. Oliver St. John. 

1660. June 1 (O.S.). Sir Orlando Bridgeman. 
1668. May 20 (O.S.). Sir John Vaughan. 
1675. Jan. 23, Sir Francis North. 
1683. Jan. 22. Sir Francis Peniberton. 
1683. Oct. 1. Sir Thomas Jones. 

1686. April 21. Sir Henry Bediugfield. 

1687. April 16. Sir Robert Wright. 
1687. April 21. Sir Edward Herbert. 
1689. May 6. Sir Henry Pollexfen. 
1692. AprU 30. Sir George Treby. 
1701. July 5. Sir Thomas Trevor. 
1714. Oct. 26. Sir- Peter King. 

1725 June 1. Sir Robert Eyre. 

1736. Jan. 31. Sir Thomas Rieve. 

1737. Jan. 29. Sir John Willes. 
1762. Jan. 23. Sir Charles Pratt. 

1766. Aug. Sir John Eardley WUmot. 

1771. Jan. 25. Sir William De Grey (afterwards 
Lord Walsingham). 

1780. June 9. Alexander Wedderbum (afterwards 
Lord Loughborough). 

1793. Feb. 11. Sir James Eyre. 

1799. July. Lord Eldon. 

1801. May 30. Richard Pepper Arden (afterwards 
Baron Alverley). 

1804. May 8. Sir- James Mansfield. 

1813. Nov. 29. Sir Vicary Gibbs 

1818. Nov. 5. Sir Robert Dallas. 

1824. Jan. 8. Sir Robei-t Giflbrd. 

1824. April 28. Sir WUliam Draper Best (after- 
wards Lord Wyuford). 

1829. June. Sir Nicholas Conyngham Tindal. 

1846. July 11. Sir Thomas Wnde (afterwards Lord 
Truro). 

1850. July 16. Sir John Jervis. 

1856. Nov. Sir Alexander Cockbum, 

1859. June. Su- WUliam Erie. 

Common Pleas (Ireland) .—The following 
is a hst of the chief -justices of the court of 
Common Pleas in Ireland, from the year 
1532. The constitution of this court is 
similar to that of the court of Common 
Pleas in England. 



1532. Aug. 22. Richard Delahyde. 
1534. Oct. 17. Thomas Luttrell. 
1554. July 7. John Bathe. 
1559. Sept. 3. Robert DiUon. 

Nicholas Nugent. 



235 



COM 



1581. June 28. Bobert Dillon. 
1593. Oct . 10, Sir William Weston. 
15!)4. March 15. Sir Robert Dillon (again). 
1597. Nov. 15. Sir Nicholas Walshe. 
1610. Nov. 28. Sir Dominick SarsfieliL 
1634. Apiil 24. Sir Gerard Lowther. 

1660. Jan. 19. James Donelan. 
1665. Jan. 27. Sir Edward Smith. 
1669. March 17. Sii- Robert Booth. 
1679. May 3. John Keating. 
1690. Jan. 22. Rieh.<ird Pyne. 
1695. June 7. Sir John Hely 
1701. May 16. Sir Richard Cox. 
1703. Feb. 1. Robert Doyne. 
1714. Oct. 14. John Forster. 
1720. Dec. 5. Sir Richard Levinge. 
1724. Nov. 9. Thomas Wyndham. 

1726. Feb. 10. WUliam Whitshed. 

1727. Nov. 24. James Reynolds. 
1740. May 30. Henry Singleton. 
17.53. Feb. 19. WUliam Yorke. 
1761. May 21. Richard Aston. 
1765. March 19. Richard Clayton. 
1770. July 4. Marcus Patterson. 

1787. May 10. Hugh Carleton (afterwards Lord 

Carleton). 
ISOO. Dec. 20. Jwhn Toler (afterwards Lord Nor- 

buiy). 
1827. June 18. Lord Phinkett. 
1830. Dec. 23. John Dnherty. 
1850. Oct. 22. James Henry Monaghan. 

Common Peatee. — The first proposition 
to revise and correct the Eoman CathoUc 
church services was made in 1542, when it 
was ordered that the names and titles of the 
popes and of Thomas Becket shoidd be 
rigorously expunged. The Litany was pub- 
lished in its present form June 11, 1544, and 
commanded to be used in chui-ches by 
Henry VIII., and the Order of Communion 
was substituted for the Mass, April 1, 1548. 
The book of Common Prayer was completed 
and presented to the king the same year, 
and the Act of Uniformity (2 & 3 Edw. VI. 
c. 10, s. 1), passed Jan. 15, 1.549, ordered 
that all pubhc service should be celebrated 
according to the ritual there prescribed. 

A.D. 

1.549. June 9 (Whitsunday). First Prayer -Book 
used. 

1550. Feb. Enslish Ordinal is published. 

1-5.51. Pi-ayer-Book revised. 

1552. Nov. Second Prayer-Book is published and 
used. 

1.558. Dec. Two editions of the Litany are pub- 
lished. 

1-559. June 24 Queen Elizabeth's revised Prayer- 
Book is published, and ordered to be 
used. 

1560. Haddon's Latin translation of the Prayer- 
Book. 

1571. The Thirty -nine Articles are adopted, and a 
con-ect Latin version of the Prayer-Book 
is published. 

1.578. Puritan Prayer-Book published. 

1604. James the First's Prayer-Book is published. 

1637. Cliarles the First's Prayer-Book for Scotland 
is published. 

1661. Prayer-Book revised. 

1662. Charles the Second's Prayer-Bookis published, 
1689. Attempted revision of the Prayer-Book. 

Commons. {See House of Commons.) 

Commonwealth. {See Inteeeegnum.) 

Communion. — The ancient church was 

exceedingly strict in the administration of 

the Eucharist, and during the 3rd century 



COM 

denied the privilege of communication to a 
converted sinner who twice relapsed into 
error. Communion in two kinds was en- 
joined by Leo the Great a.d. 445, in order 
to discover Manicheans, who objected to take 
wine. The council of Agda in 506 enacted 
that clergy not communicating at Easter, 
WliitsunTicle, and Christmas, should no longer 
be regarded as Cathohcs, and the fourth 
general Lateran council, held Xov. 11, 1215, 
ordered all the faithful of both sexes to con- 
fess and communicate at Easter. Communion 
in one kind only was instituted by Pope Ur- 
ban II. at the commencement of the Crusades 
in 1096, but it was not rendered imperative 
till 1414, when the council of Constance for- 
bade the clergy to administer wine to lay 
communicants, under pain of excommuni- 
cation. The Eomish church has ever since 
administered the communion in one kind. 
The commimion service of the Church of 
England was adopted in 1552. 

Communists. — The followers of Eobert 
Owen, Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Prudhon,are 
distinguished from other Socialists, of which 
they form a branch, by this name. Com- 
munism was first promulgated by Robert 
Owen in " A Few View of Society, or Essays 
on the Principle of the Formation of the 
Human Character, and the Application of 
the Principle to Practice," published inlSlS, 
He attempted to form a communist society 
in 1825, but this failed ; and " Harmony 
HaU," estabhshed in Hampshire in 1843, did 
not prove more successful. Similar attempts 
made on the continent have also failed. 

CoMO (Italy), the Comum of the Romans, 
who planted a colony here B.C. 288. It was 
erected into a bishopric by St. FeHx, a.d. 379. 
In 1127 it was besieged and burnt by the 
Milanese, who did not finally annex it to 
their territories till 1335. The cathedral was 
commenced in 1396. 

CoMOEN, or KoMOEN (Hungary), a town 
of great antiquity, was taken and burnt by 
Sohman a.d. 1543. It was soon rebuilt ; but 
the Turks returned in 1594, and again cap- 
tured it. The Imperialists obtained possession 
in 1597, and in 1598 it again fell under Turkish 
power. Comorn was erected into a royal 
town in 1751. The fortress was rebuilt in 
1805. During the Hungarian revolution, the 
Austrians were defeated in a battle near this 
place, July 11, 1849. The town was given 
up to the Austrians Oct. 1, 1849. 

Companies. — Trade guilds are mentioned 
in Judica Civitatis LondonicB, compiled by 
King Athelstan, and other Anglo-Saxon 
laws ; and they therefore existed as early as 
A.D. 939. The company of Steelyard Mer- 
chants settled in England before 967, and the 
original foundation of the Saddlers' company 
is referred to about the same period. Henry I., 
who reigned between the years 1100 and 1135, 
granted a charter to the weavers, and is sup- 
posed to have established the first Anglo- 
Norman guild. In the reign of Henry II, 
trade guilds were common institutions, and 
their formation was encouraged by that king 
and his successors John and Henry III. 



THE CHIEF 



COM 



COMPANIES 
OUKABLE. 



STYLED HON- 



Incorpo- 
rated. 

A.D. 

Clothworkei-s 1482 

Drapers 1439 

Fishmongers (salt) 
1433, (stock) 1509, 

united 1536 

Goldsmiths l:m 

Grocers 1346 



Haberdashers 1407 

Ironmongers 1463 

Mercers 1394 

Merchant Tailors 1466 

Salters 1530 

Skinners 1327 

Vintners 1365 



Apothecaries 1617 

Armourers and Bra- 
ziers . . by Heuiy VI. 

Bakers 1307 

Barbers 1461 

Basket-makers . . 
Blacksmiths .... 1578 
Bowstring-makers 

Bowyers 1620 

Brewers 1438 

Butchers 1605 

Card-makers .... 1629 

Carmen 1668 

Carpenters 1477 

Clock-makers 1632 

Coach and harness- 
makers 1677 

Comb-makers 1636 

Cooks 1472 

Coopers 1501 

Cordwainers .... 1410 

Curriers 1905 

Cutlers 1417 

Distillers 1638 

Dyers 1471 

Embroiderers 1562 

Fan-makers 1709 

Farriers 1670 

Felt-makers 1604 

Fishermen 

Fletchers 1487 

Founders 1614 

Framework knit- 
ters 1663 

Fruiterers 1605 

Gardeners 1616 

Girdlers 1449 

Glass- sellers 1664 

Glaziers 1637 

Glovers 1638 

Gold and silver 

wire-drawers . . 1623 
Gun-makers 1638 



Hatband-makers 1664 

Homers 1638 

luu-holders 1514 

Joiners 1569 

Leather-sellers . . 1383 

Lorimers 1712 

Masons 1411 

Musicians 1604 

Needle-makers . . 1656 
Paper-stainers. . . . 1582 
Parish clerks .... 1233 
Patten-makers .. 1670 

Paviors 

Pewterers 1473 

Pin -makers 1636 

Plasterers 1501 

Plumbers 1612 

Porters 

Poulterers... 1504 

Saddlers 1272 

Scriveners 1616 

Shipwrights 1605 

Silkmen . . by Charles I. 
Silk-throwsters . . 1630 

Soap-makers 1638 

Spectacle-makers 1629 
Starch -makers.. .. 1622 

Stationers 1556 

Surgeons 1745 

Tallow-chandlers 1463 
Tilers and brick- 
layers 1508 

Tin-plate workers 1670 
Tobacco-pipe mak- 
ers 1663 

Turners 1604 

Upholders 

Watermen 1556 

Wax-chandlers .. 1484 
Weavers .... Henry I. 
Wheelwi-ights . . . . 1670 
Woodmongers .... 1605 
Woolmen 



Compass. — The Chinese are said to have 
used this instrument as early as e.g. 1040, 
though their written records of the proper- 
ties of the loadstone only date from a.d. 125. 
The period at which it was introduced into 
Europe is very uncertain ; for although very 
obvious allusion to its use seems made in a 
French poem written by Guyot de Provins 
about 1190, it remained generally tmknown, 
or at least unemployed, till a much later 
date. Some authorities insist that Marco 
Polo brought the instriunent from China in 
1260, while others claim the honour of its 
invention for Flavio Gioja, a seaman of 
Amalphi, near Naples. There is no doubt that 
the latter did in 1303 commence the manu- 
facture of compasses, which were employed 
by the Mediterranean voyagers, and that the 
general use of the invention began in his time. 
The declination of the magnetic needle was 
discovered by Columbus in l-i92, and the 



CON 

variation of the dechnation by Mr. GeUi- 
brand in 1625. 

CoMPiEGNE (France) .—This ancient town 
was formerly fortified. Ecclesiastical coun- 
cils were held here June 22, 756; 823; Oct. 1, 
833 ; 871 ; May 1 and Dec. 8, 877 ; 1085 ; 
Nov. 4, 1198; Aug. 5, 1235; May 19,1270; 
April 9, 1278 ; Jan. 4, 1303 ; and Sept. 8, 1329. 
It was rebuilt by Charles the Bald in 876, 
taken from the Burgundians by Charles VI. 
in 1415, and besieged by the EngHsh, who 
took Joan of Arc prisoner here, May 26, 
1430. 

CoMPiiiTTEN-siAN- BiBLE. — This polyglot 
Bible was printed a.d. 1514 and 1515, at the 
Spanish town Alcala, from the Latin name 
of which, Complutum, it derives its name. 
It was projected by Cardinal Ximenes, who 
spent 52,000 ducats in forwarding its pre- 
paration; but Leo X. delayed its pubhcation 
till 1522, and then only permitted an issue of 
600 copies, lest the diffusion of scriptural 
truth should weaken his supremacy. 

Compostella (Order of). — This order 
originated in consequence of the obstruc- 
tions offered by the Moors to pilgrims 
journeying to the shrine of St. James at 
Compostella. It received the papal sanc- 
tion July 5, 1175, and continued under the 
government of an independent grand master 
tiU 1493, when the administration was seized 
by Ferdinand and Isabella, and permanently 
vested in the crown of Spain. — A similar 
order for ladies was founded in 1312, to 
afford food and shelter to pilgrims. The 
ladies of this order were originally at liberty 
to marry and quit the institution; but in 
1480 they were compelled to adopt the con- 
ventual laws of poverty, chastity, and obe- 
dience. 

CoMPEEHENSiON' ScHEME. — TMs mcasure 
for the enlargement of the basis of the 
Church of England, by making certain alter- 
ations in the hturgy, in order to admit 
dissenters, passed through the House of 
Lords A.D. 1689. The Commons presented an 
address to the king, requesting htm to sum- 
mon a convocation, and, this having been 
done, discussions arose, which ended in the 
abandonment of the plan. An attempt to 
pass a similar scheme in Scotland in 1678 
also failed. 

CoNCEPCiox (South America). — The 
capital of a province of the same name, in 
Chih, was built a.d. 1763. It was destroyed by 
an earthquake Feb. 20, 1835. 

Conception' Bat (Newfoundland) was 
first settled by about forty colonists in 1640. 

Concert. — This entertainment originated 
in Italy, and the earliest on record is that of 
the Filarmonici, which was estabhshed at 
Vicenza as early as 1565. The Academy of 
Ancient Music, founded in 1710, introduced 
concerts into England. The Concert Spiri- 
tuel was estabhshed at Paris in 172-5. Some 
of the following were of short dui-ation : — 



1738. Eoyal Society of Musicians. 
1741. Madrigal Society. 
1763. Bach's councerts. 



237 



GO'S 



1776. Concert of Ancient Music. 
1785. CecUlan Society. 
1791. Salomon's concerts. 

1791. Choral Society. 

1792. Harrison and Knyrett's concert. 
1813. PhUharmonic Society, 

1823. British concerts. 

1832. Sacred Harmonic Society. 

1833. Vocal Society. 
1837. Purcell Club. 

1839. Society of Female Musicians. 
1843. The Round, Catch, and Canon Club. 
1845. Musical Union. 



Co^rcHoiOGT. — Pliny dmded shell-coYered 
animals into soft, crustacean, and testaceous ; 
but no correct system for their classification 
was known till Dr. John Daniel Major, of 
Kiel, published his tables of Ostracology a.d. 
1674. Martin Lister announced another 
arrangement in 1678, and pubhshed his 
great work in 1685; and Phihp Bonanni 
pubhshed his system in 1684. George E. 
Emnphius in 1711, and Nicholas Languis in 
1722 , contributed to bring the science to its 
present state of accuracy. 

CoKCi/AVE. — The assembly of the cardi- 
nals, by which, when a Tacancy occurred in 
the papal see, a new pope was elected, was 
instituted by Gregoiy X. at the council of 
Lyons, the 14th general council, a.d. 1274. It 
received its name from a gloomy apartment 
in the Vatican, called the Conclave, in which 
the cardinals were shut up to nominate the 
new pope, on the tenth day after the death of 
the former occupant of the see. Lfthe elec- 
tion was not made in three days, the cardinals 
were only allowed a single dish at dinner and 
at supper, and after the eighth day received 
only a small allowance of bread, vrater, and 
wine. John XXI. suspended the operations 
of the conclave, and after the death of 
Nicholas TV. an interval of two years and 
three months elapsed before a successor was 
elected in the person of Peter Morone, 
who took the title of CcBlestine Y., July 5, 
1294. It was, however, re-established. Gre- 
gory XV. in 1621, and Urban VIII. in 1625, 
issued buUs for the regulation of the con- 
clave. 

Con-coed (Battle). — The first struggle 
between the revolted Americans and the 
English troops occurred near this tovm, in 
Massachusetts, April 19, 1775. The latter, 
after having destroyed three guns and all 
the mihtary stores, withdrew to Lexington. 
This is sometimes called the battle of Lexr 
ington. 

CoxcOKDAifCE. — The first concordance, or 
verbal index to the Bible, was drawn up by 
Antony of Padua, who flourished from 1195 
to 1231. It was entitled Concordantice Mo- 
rales, and was the basis of the more import- 
ant concordance of Cardinal Hugo de Santo 
Caro, who died in 1262. Mordecai Nathan's 
Hebrew Concordance appeared at Venice 
in 1523. Calasio pubhshed an improved 
edition at Eome in 1621. Buxtorf s Con- 
cordance was pubhshed in 1632, and the 
abridgment by Pavius in 1677. Thomas 
Gybson's " Concordance to the English New 



CON 

Testament" appeared before the year 1540, 
and Marbeck's, who was organist to the 
royal chapel at Windsor, Concordance to 
the whole Bible in 1550. Several books of 
the kind followed ; but these were surpassed 
by Cruden's celebrated work, of which the 
first edition appeared in 1737. Ayscough 
pubhshed a concordance to Shakespeare in 
1790 ; Twiss another in 1805 ; and Mrs. Cow- 
den Clark the " Complete Concordance to 
Shakespeare" in 1847. A concordance to 
Milton appeared at Madras in 1856 and 1857. 
CoNCOKDAT. — This term is generally ap- 
phed to a treaty or agreement between the 
pope and any foreign sovereign for the regu- 
lation, in the dominions of the latter, of 
matters relating to the Eoman Cathohc reli- 
gion. The foUowing are the most celebrated 
concordats mentioned in history : — 

Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry V. concluded 
one at Worms in 1122. 

Nicholas V. and the emperor Frederick III. con- 
cluded one at Vienna in 1448. It was settled 
at Aschaflfenburg, and is sometimes called the 
Concordat of Aschaffenburg. 

Leo X. and Francis I. of France concluded one 
ill 1.516. 

Clement VII. and the emperor Charles V. con- 
cluded one at Barcelona in 1529. 

Benedict XIV. and Ferdinand VI. of Spain con- 
cluded one in 1753. 

Pius VII. and Napoleon I. concluded one July 15, 
1801. 

Pius VII. and Napoleon I. concluded another at 
Fontainebleau, Jan. 25, 1813. 

Pius VII. and Louis XVIII. concluded one at Paris, 
Nov. 22, 1817. 

Pius IX. and Francis-Joseph of Austria concluded 
one at at Vienna, Aug. 18, 1855. 

CoKDOTTiEEi. — Though the word signifies 
chiefs or leaders, it was apphed to the mer- 
cenaries, or soldiers of fortune, who, during 
the Italian wars in the 13th and 14th cen- 
turies, took service under any prince or 
government that chose to engage them. 
They consisted exclusively of heavy -armed 
cavalry, and for a long period the wars of 
Italy were left entirely to them. Prescott 
remarks (Ferdinand and Isabella, pt. ii. 
ch. i.), "The common interests of the con- 
dottieri being paramount to every obhgation 
towards the state which they served, they 
easily came to an understanding with one 
another to spare their troops as much as 
possible ; untH at length battles were fought 
with httle more personal hazard than woiUd 
be incurred ia an ordinary tourney." Ma- 
chiavelli refers to two battles at Anghiari 
and Castracaro, of which the shortest in 
duration lasted four hours, at the former of 
which not a single soldier was kUled, and at 
the latter only one, who was crushed be- 
neath the weight of his own armour. 

CoxDuiTS, or cisterns, of stone or lead, 
were formerly used for the conveyance of 
water. The great conduit in West Cheap 
was commenced A.D. 1285, the Little Conduit 
in 1442, the conduit at Holbom Cross 
in 1498. This was repaired in 1577 by Mr. 
WiUiam Lamb, and named after him. 
This conduit was taken down in 1746. The 



CON 

conduit at Bishopsgate was made about 
1513, at London Wall about 1528, at Aldgate 
about 1535, and at Lothbury in 1546. On 
festive occasions the conduits were often 
made to flow with wine. 

CONFEDEEATION' OF THE EhINE. — On the 

overthrow of the old German empire, Napo- 
leon induced several rulers of German states 
to separate themselves from the Germanic 
body and to enter into a confederation of 
which he was named protector. The act 
of this confederation was signed at Paris 
July 12, 1806, and ratified at Munich on the 
25th. It consisted of forty articles. The 
contracting parties were Napoleon I., the 
kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, the arch- 
bishop of Eatisbon, the elector of Baden, 
the duke of Berg, the landgrave of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau-Weilburg 
and Nassau-Usingen, of Hohenzollern-Hec- 
hingen and Hohenzollern - Siegmaringen, 
Salm-Salm, and Salm-Kyrburg, Isenburg- 
Birchstein and Lichtenstein, the duke of 
Aremburg, and the count of Leyen. In 
accordance with the 3rd article of the act of 
the confederation, these princes declared 
their entire separation from the German 
empire, at the diet of Eatisbon, Aug. 1. 
By the 38th article the contingents fixed for 
the several states were as foUows : — 

Men. 

France 200,000 

Bavaria 30,000 

Wiu-temberg 12,000 

Baden 3,000 

Berg 5,000 

Darmstadt 4,000 

Nassau, Hohenzollern, and others . . 4,000 

Total 258,000 



The grand -duke of Wurzburg joined the 
league Sept. 30, 1806; the king of Saxony 
Dec. 11, 1806; the king of Westphalia and 
other German princes joined in the next and 
following years. The emperor of Eussia 
recognized it by the 15th article of the 
treaty signed at Tilsit July 7, 1807, and the 
king of Prussia by the 4th article of the 
treaty signed at the same place July 9, 1807. 
Eussia and Prussia issued a proclamation 
for its dissolution Feb. 23, 1813, and in 1815 
it was replaced by the Germanic Confedera- 
tion. 
CoNFESsioNAi,. {See Aubiculab Cok- 

TESSION-.) 

CoNFiEMATiOK, or imposition of hands, 
is a ceremony that dates from the apostolic 
age (Acts, viii. 17 and xix. 5 & 6). In the 
primitive church "this was always," says 
Bingham (Ecc. Antiq. xii. ch. i. sec. i.), 
" administered together with baptism, if the 
bishop, who was the ordinary minister of it, 
were present at the action. But if he were 
absent, as it usually happened to be in 
churches at a distance from the mother- 
church, or when persons were baptized in 
haste upon a sick-bed, then confirmation 
was deferred till the bishop could have a 
convenient opportunity to visit them." It 



CON 

is one of the seven sacraments of the Eoman 
Catholic Church. 

CoNFLANs, (Treaty,) was concluded be- 
tween Louis XI. and the count of C'harolois 
on the part of the chiefs of the League of 
the " Public Good," Oct. 5, 1465; Normandy 
was ceded to the duke of Berri. It w as con- 
firmed by the treaty of Peronne, Oct. 14, 
1468. Louis XL having induced the estates 
assembled at Tours, in the spring of 1470, to 
release him from the engagements of these 
treaties, they were again confirmed by the 
treaty of Crotoy, Oct. 3, 1472. 

Conge d'Eliee, or leave to elect, the 
king's writ or Hcense to a dean and chapter 
to elect a bishop, when a vacancy had oc- 
curred in a see, was first estabhshed by King 
John A.D. 1215. This was confirmed by Magna 
Chartain 1215. By 25 Hen. VII. c. 20 (1533), 
the ancient right of nomination was restored 
to the crown. 

Congo (Africa). — The name is applied to 
an extensive tract of country, portions of 
which were visited by Diego Cam a.d. 1484 
and 1489, Euy de Souza in 1490, Battel in 
1607, Gattina and Piacenza in 1666, Sorrento 
in 1682, Daffer in 1686, Barbot in 1688, and 
many enterprising missionaries and travel- 
lers. It is the seat of several European 
settlements described under their designa- 
tions. {See Zaiee.) 

CojfGEEGATION OF THE LOED. — During 

the regency of Mary Stuart an attempt was 
made to restore the Eoman Cathohc rehgion 
in Scotland by the aid of French mercena- 
ries. The reformers took up arms in 1557, 
and demanded aid from England, styling 
themselves " the Congregation of the Lord." 
Their leaders assumed the title of Lords of 
the Congregation. Their bond of union, 
sometimes called the First Covenant, was 
signed at Edinburgh Dec. 3, 1557. 

CoNGEESS.^The following are the princi- 
pal diplomatic meetings for the arrangement 
of business between various powers : — 



B.O. 

432. Congress of Lace- 
dsemon. 

A.B. 

897. Congress at Pavia. 
1644. AtMunster. 
1663. „ Aix-la-Chapelle 
1676-78. At Nimeguen. 
i697. At Ryswick. 
1722. „ Cambray. 
1728. „ Soissoiis. 
1790. Jan. 7. At Brussels. 



A.D. 

1793. At Antwerp. 
1797-99. At Radstadt. 

1813. At Prague. 

1814. „ Chatillon. 
1814-15. At Vienna. 
1818. At Aix-la-Chapelle 
1820. „ Carlsbad. 

1820. „ Troppau. 

1821. „ Laybach. 

1822. „ Verona. 
1856. Feb. 25. At Paris 



Co-N-GEEVE Eoce:ets, so called from 
Sir William Congreve, Bart., born May 20, 
1772, who invented these destructive engines 
of warfare in 1804. They were first em- 
ployed in the attack upon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 

1806, and, having been found eifective, were 
used at the siege of Copenhagen, Sept. 2—5, 

1807, and at other places. They proved so 
effective at the battle of Leipsic, in Oct. 
1813, that the emperor of Eussia bestowed 
the order of St. Anne of the second class on 
their inventor. They have, however, been, 

239 



CON 



CON 

early as 1517, by an act of the Common 
Council. It was dated Feb. 1, and ordered 
that two aldermen and four discreet com- 
missioners should be appointed to sit on 
Wednesdays and Saturdays to determine 
cases in which the debt or damage did not 
exceed forty shillings. The power of the 
court was confirmed by 2 James I. c. 14 
(1604), which ordered all inhabitants of the 
city of London, who had debts owing them 
not exceeding forty shiUings, to sue for their 
recovery in the Court of Eequests at Guild- 
hall. This statute was enforced by 3 James I. 
c. 15 (1605), which enacted that aU creditors 
living in London who sued for the recovery 
of such debts in any other court, should not 
only lose the suit, but pay all the expenses. 
These courts were afterwards introduced 
in other parts of the Idngdom. They were, 
however, sujDerseded by 9 & 10 Yict. c. 95 
(Aug. 28, 1846), which estabhshed the 
coimty courts for the recovery of small 
debts. 

CoxscEiPTiow. — This mode of obtaining 
recruits was practised by the Eomans, and 
introduced into France in the 8th century. 
General Jourdan proposed in the council of 
the Five Hundred the law of the conscription, 
which was approved and adopted Sept. 5, 
1798. Evei-y Frenchman from the age of 
20 to 45 was hable to serve. Alison 
gives the following table of the levies made 
in France during the revolutionary war, 
compiled from Capefigueand the Moniteicr : — 

A D. Meu. 

1793 300,000 

1793 1,200,000 

1798 200,000 

1799 200,000 

1801 30,000 

1805. Jan. 17 . . . 60,000 

1805. Sept. 24 80 000 

18(^. Dec. 4 80.000 

1807. AprU 7 80,000 

1808. Jan. 21 80,0n0 

1808. Sept. 10 160,000 

1809. April 18 30,000 

1809. AprU 18 10.000 

18(19. Oct. 5 36,000 

1810. Dec. 13 120,000 

1810. Dee.l3 40,000 

1811. Dec. 20 120,000 

1812. March 13 100,000 

1812. Sept. 1 137,000 

1813. Jan. 11 2.50,000 

1813. April3 180,000 

1813. Ang. 24 30,000 

1813. Oct.9 280,000 

1813. Nov. 15 300,000 

Total 4,103,000 



to a certain extent, superseded by more 
recent inventions. 

CoNi, or CuNEO (Italy). — The French 
besieged this strong town, but Without suc- 
cess, A.D. 1691. The French and Spaniards, 
who besieged it in 1744, were ultimately 
compelled to withdraw. It was surrendered 
to Bonaparte April 29, 1796. The French 
surprised it Dec. 5, 1798, and they surren- 
dered it to the Austrians Dec. 4, 1799. It 
was ceded to France by the convention of 
Alessandria in 1800. The Austrians con- 
cluded a treaty with Piedmont, July 26, 1S21, 
by which Coni and other places were to be 
occupied by their troops until Sept. 1822. 
Coni was made the seat of a bishopric in 
1817. 

Cowic Sections were first investigated 
by Aristseus, the mathematician, by whom 
they were made known to EucHd, who 
hved B.C. 323^ — 283. Apollonius of Perga col- 
lected all that previous mathematicians had 
written on the subject, and wrote his work, 
in eight books, B.C. 250. He first named the 
three sections jDarabola, ellipse, and hyper- 
bola. Galileo, who died Jan. 8, 1644, dis- 
covered the parabola to be the natural 
direction of a projectile flying in unresisting 
space ; and Kepler in 1609 identified the 
ellipse as the curve of the planetary orbits. 

Co>fJEVERAM (Hindostan). — This town 
was taken from the French by Chve in Dec. 
1751. The English having retired, it fell into 
the hands of the French, from whom it was 
again vsrested April IS, 1759. The French 
surprised it Jan. 12, 1760. Hyder defeated 
the East-India Company's army near this 
place Sept. 10, 1780. 

CoNNAUGHT (Ireland). — The division of 
Ireland into the pro^•inces of Ulster, Mun- 
ster, Connaught, and Leinster, was made by 
Pope Eugenius II. a.d. 1152. Until 1590 
Connaught constituted a kind of independ- 
ent kingdom ; but in that year it was divided 
into counties and rendered directly subject 
to the English crown. Clare county was 
separated from Connaught in 1602. 

CoNsrECTicxTT (United States). — Two 
settlements, formed in Connecticut in 1633 
and 1638, were united by a charter granted 
by Charles II. in 1665. This state adopted 
the constitution of the United States Jan. 9, 
1788. 

CoNsroE (Ireland). — This bishopric was 
founded about a.d. 500, by Aengus Mac 
Nisse, a pupil of St. Patrick, who erected a 
church, of which he became bishop, and 
where he was buried in 514. This see was 
united to Down in 1442. On the death of 
James Saurin, last bishop of Dromore, 
April 9, 1842, his see was united to Down 
and Connor by the Church Temporalities 
Act. 

CoiJ-SAKBKUCK (Battle). — The duke of 
Lorraine defeated the French, under Mar- 
shal Crequi, at this place, near Treves, in 
1675. 

Cos-sciEXCE (Coui'ts of). — Courts of con- 
science, or of requests, for the recovery of 
small debts, were established in London as 
240 



The standard of height was gradually lowered 
and the age reduced, in order to supply the 
necessaiy number of conscripts. In 1813 
boys Httle above 17 years of age were com- 
pelled to serve, and the height'required was 
little above five feet. A new law was pro- 
mulgated March 21, 1832. A similar system 
prevails in Kussia, Prussia, and other con- 
tinental states. 

CoifSECRATioiN-. — The first-born of man 
and beast were ordered to be consecrated to 



CON 

God B.C. 1491 (Exod. xiii. 2, 12, 15). The 
family of Aaron and the tribe of Levi 
(Num. i. 49, and iii. 12 & 13) were set apart 
B.C. 1490. The Hebrews consecrated both 
cattle and fields to the Lord (Lev. xxvii. 
28 & 29) ; Solomon dedicated the temple 
B.C. 1004 (1 Kings, viii.) ; and Nehemiah 
(xii. 27, &c.) describes the ceremonies prac- 
tised at the dedication of the walls of Je- 
rusalem B.C. 445. On the introduction of 
Christianity, churches were consecrated. 
Bingham (bk. viii. ch. ix. sec. 1) says, — 
" Anciently, when churches were finished and 
adorned, it was then usual to proceed to a 
dedication or consecration of them." This 
ceremony, which signified the devoting, or 
setting them apart peculiarly for divine ser- 
vice, consisted during the first three cen- 
turies only of particular prayers and thanks- 
giving to God. In the 4th century churches 
were consecrated with great solemnity. 
The church built by Constantine over the 
Saviour's sepulchre at Jerusalem was con- 
secrated in a full synod of aU the bishops of 
the East, a.d. 335. The council of Antioeh, 
Aug. A.D. 341, was summoned on purpose to 
decficate the famous church in that city 
commenced by Constantine. A canon 
passed at a British council in 450, ordered 
that " a presbyter, though he builds a 
church, shall not offer the oblation in it, 
before he brings his bishop to consecrate it, 
because this was regiilar and decent ;" and 
the first council of Braga, in Portugal, 
May 1, 563, makes it deprivation for any 
presbyter to consecrate an altar or a church, 
declaringthat the olden canons forbade it also. 
The distinct consecration of altars is first 
mentioned at the council of Agda, Sept. 11, 
506. The water in baptism was consecrated 
in the early Church. 

CojTSEBVATiVE Cltjb. — TMs club was 
founded in 1840. The house, situated on the 
west side of St. James' Street, was built 
from the designs of G. Bassevi and Sydney 
Smirke, between the years 1843-45, and was 
opened Feb. 19, 1845. The expense of the 
erection and furniture amounted to dE73,211. 

CoifSEEVATiTES, — TMs term was fii'st 
applied to a political party about the year 
1830. By some authorities its origin is 
attributed to John Wilson Croker, who in 
an article on internal policy, published in 
the Quarterly Seview (vol. xlii. No. 83, 
p. 276) for Jan. 1830, declared, — " We 
despise and abominate the details of parti- 
san warfare ; but we are now, as we always 
have been, decidedly and conscientiously 
attached to what is called the Tory, and 
which might with more propriety be called 
the Conservative party." 

Conservators, Wardens, or Keepers 
OF THE Peace, were appointed by the com- 
mon law of England. The power of trying 
felonies was given them by 34 Edw, III, c. 1 
(1360) , when they received the title of Justices 
of the Peace (q.v.) 

CoNSiSTOBT Court, which has jurisdiction 
in aU ecclesiastical causes arising within the 
diocese, was separated from the hundred 
241 



CON 

court by William the First's charter for the 
separation of the ecclesiastical from the civil 
courts, A.D. 1085. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12 
(1533), an appeal to the archbishop of the 
province from the Consistory Court was 
established. 

Consolidated Fund.— Three capital 
funds, the Aggregate Fund, the General 
Fund, and the South-Sea Fund, constituting 
the revenue of the country, were united in 
1786, under the title of the ConsoKdated 
Fund. By 56 Geo. III. c. 98 (1816), the 
Consolidated Fund, or revenue of Great 
Britain, was combined with that of Ireland, 
forming "the Consolidated Fund of the 
United Kingdom," pledged for the repay- 
ment of the interest of the consohdated 
national debt of the United Kingdom. 

Conspiracy. (See Plot.) 

Constable. — The statute of Winchester 
(13 Edw. I. St. 2, c. 6), passed Oct. 8, 1285, 
enacts that two constables shall be chosen 
in every hundred or franchise. This is the 
first authentic record of the appointment in 
this country of high constables. Inferior 
officers, called petty constables, subordinate 
to the high constable of the hundred, were 
first appointed in the reign of Edward III. 
Justices of the peace are empowered, in 
cases of necessity, to swear in householders 
as special constables, by 1 & 2 Will. IV. 
c. 41, passed Oct. 15, 1831, and by 5 & 6 
Will. IV. c. 43, passed Aug. 31, 1835. (See 
Lord Hian Constable.) 

Constance (Council of ) . — The seventeenth 
general council held its first sitting Nov. 16, 
1414. Nicolas says, " In the second session, 
2nd of March, 1415, the pope solemnly pub- 
lished his act of cession ; in the third session, 
on the 26th of the same month, the council 
was declared to be lawful : the fourth session 
was held on the 30th of March ; in the fifth, 
held on the 6th of April, all persons were 
enjoined to obey the decrees of the council. 
On the 29th of May, Pope John XXIII. was 
deposed. Gregory XII. abdicated 4th of 
July. The errors of Wycliffe were con- 
demned in the seventh session, 2nd of May, 
1415 : in the fifteenth session, held 6th of 
July, 1415, John Huss was condemned to be 
burnt : in the forty -first session, held 11th ot 
November, 1417, Otho Colonna was elected 
pope, under the name of Martin V. The 
council ended 22nd of April, 1418." It 
established the authority of a general coun- 
cil above that of a pope, and terminated the 
great schism that had divided the Latin 
Church for nearly forty years. 

Constance (Germany). — Peace was con- 
cluded at this town a.d. 1183, between the 
emperor Frederick and twenty -four Lombard 
cities ; by which the freedom of the latter 
was secured. By another treaty signed here 
in 1474, the contest between Austria and the 
Swiss was brought to a close. Charles V. 
issued the ban of the empire against Con- 
stance, Oct. 15, 1548 ; and Ferdinand I. of 
Austria annexed it to his dominions in the 
following year. It was transferred to Baden 
by the 8th article of the treaty of Presburg, 



CON 

Dec. 26, 1805. In addition to the fifteenth 
general council (q.v.), from 1414-18, coun- 
cils were held here in 1005, in 1043, in 1094, 
and in 1153. Its bishopric, transferred from 
Windich about a.d. 570, was suppressed in 
1802. 

Cos-STANTiNA (Africa), the ancient Cirta, 
was the residence of the kings of the Massylii, 
and the chief city of ISTumidia. The Romans, 
in the time of Juhus Caesar, sent out a colony 
to this place. The French captured it 
Oct. 13, 1837 ; and it is now the capital of the 
province of Constantina, in their colony of 
Algiers. 

Constantinople, (^ra of,) was adopted 
in Constantinople before the middle of the 
7th century, and commences with the crea- 
tion of the world, B.C. 5508, according to 
this calculation. It is still used by the Greek 
Church, and the Russians followed it until 
the time of Peter the Great. The civil 
year commenced September 1, and the 
ecclesiastical March 21, and sometimes 
Aprill. 

Constantinople (Turkey), the ancient 
Byzantium, named Constantinople after its 
founder, Constantine the Great, who fixed the 
seat of the empire here a.d. 324. The new 
city, called Second or New Rome, was 
dedicated May 11, 330. Gibbon (ch. xvii.) 
says, " As often as the birthday of the 
city returned, the statue of Constantine, 
framed by his order, of gilt wood, and 
bearing in its right hand a small image of 
the genius of the place, was erected in a 
triumphal car. The guards, carrying white 
tapers, and clothed in their richest apparel, 
accompanied the solemn procession as it 
moved through the Hippodrome. When it 
was opposite to the throne of the reigning 
emperor, he rose from his seat, and with 
grateful reverence adored the memory of 
his predecessor." The rites of inauguration 
lasted forty days. The Turks call the city 
Istambul or Stambul. 



365. Constantinople is seized by Procopius. 

378. It is threatened by the Goths. 

381. Nectarius becomes the first patriarch. 

395. It is again besieged by the Goths, vmder Alaric. 

413. Theodosius the Younger snrroTinds it with 

walls. 
441. It is attacked by the Huns. 
447. The walls are destroyed by an earthquake. 
465. A fire consumes nearly half the city. 
507. Anastasius builds the long wall. 
532. Jan. Great part of the city is destroyed 
during the Nika sedition, which is queUed 
by Belisarius. 
537. Dedication of St. Sophia's. 
559. Belisarius saves Constantinople from the 

Bulgarians. 
616. It is threatened by Chosroes IT. 
626. Heraclius compels the Persians and the Avars 

to raise the siege. 
668. Arrival of the Saracens, who lay siege to the 

city. 
67-5. The Saracens raise the siege. 
695. Revolution at Constantinople, and dethrone- 
ment of Justinian II. 
716. It is again besieged by the Saracens. 
718. The Saracens raise the siege. 
865. It is unsuccessfully attacked by the 
904. Second attack of the Kussians. 
242 



CON 



941. Third attempted capture by the Kussians. 

1203. July 18. It is taken by the Latins, during 

the fourth crusade. 

1204. April 9. It is again taken by the Latins, 

and abandoned to pillage. 
1261. July 25. It is recovered by the Greeks under 

Michael Palseologvis, who restores the 

walls. 
1422. June 10. It is besieged by the Tui-ks, under 

Amurath II. Aug. 24. The siege is raised. 
1453. April 6. It is besieged by Mohammed IL 

May 29. Mohammed II. effects its capture. 
1590. An English embassy arrives at Constan- 
tinople. 
1705. Revolt of the Janissaries suppressed. 
1729. A calamitous fire does considerable injury. 
1756. A fire consumes 8,000 houses and 200 

mosques. 
1778. Sept. 4. The city is again devastated by fire. 
1782. It is visited by plague and fire. 
1808. Nov. 14 and 15. Revolt of the Janissaries, 

who massacre the regular troops. 

1821. Massacre of the Chi-istians. 

1822. March 25. Second massacre of the Christians. 
1826. June 14 and 15. InsuiTection of the Janis- 
saries, who are nearly all put to death. 

1854. March 12. Signing of the tripartite treaty 
between England, France, and Turkey. 

1857. Dec. 5. Signing of the final act settling the 

Asiatic boundaries between Russia and 
Turkey. 

1858. Conference between the representatives of 

Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, 
Russia, and Turkey, relative to the Mon- 
tenegrin territory. 



PEINCIPAL COUNCILS HELD AT 
CONSTANXINOPLB. 



By the Eusebians in favour of Arius. 

By the Arians. 

By the Arians. 

May to June 30. Second general council, by 
Theodosius and Damasius, against heretics. 

To reconcile ditferences in the churches. 

For the reunion of schismatics. 

Sept. 29. To settle a dispute respecting the 
Arabian bishopric of Bostra. 

In favour of St. John Chrysostom. 

To depose St. John Chrysostom. 

Feb. 28. To ordain Sisinnius. 

Nov. 8-22. By which Butychus was con- 
demned. 

April 13. To confirm Eutychus's condem- 
nation. 

Aug. Against Futychus and Nestor. 

Against the Simoniacs. 

To depose Peter the Fuller and others. 

To coufiina the Council of Chalcedon. 

or 496. To excommunicate and depose the 
patriarch Euphemius. 

Against the CouncU of Chalcedon. 

July 20. In favour of certain exiles. 

Feb. 25. To appoint Epiphanius patriarch. 

To siispend Stephen, bishop of Larissa. 

Between the Catholics and Severians. 

To condemn certain heretic bishoiw. 

Against Origen. 

To depose Theodore of Csesareia. 

May 4 to Jun e 2. Fifth general council, against 
Origen and the three chapters. 

Wbich tried and acquitted Gregory of 
Antioch. 

In favour of the Monothelites. 

To confii-m the edict of Heraclius in favotir 
of the Monothelites. 
-1. Nov. 7 to Sept. 16. Sixth general council, 
against the Monothelites. 

To consider matters of discipline. 

By the Monothelites, .igainst the council 
of 680-1. 

Against the Monothelites, in favour of the 
council of 680-1. 



CON 



730. Jan. 7. To depose St. German. 

754. Feb. 10 to Aug. 8. Against image-worship. 

786. Aug. 1. Dissolved, iu consequence of violent 

opposition. 
806. To regulate the consecration of au ai-chi- 

mandrite. 
809. Jan. Which declared the marriage of the 

emperor Constantine valid. 
812. Nov. 1. To consider a proposed peace between 

the Bulgarians and the emperor Michael. 

814. By Nicephorus, against the Iconoclasts. 

815. By the Iconoclasts, who depose Nicephorus. 
821. Wherein the Catholics refuse to confer with 

the Iconoclasts. 
829. Against the use of images. 
842. Feb. 19. Against the Icuuoclasts. 
847. To depose the bishop of Syracuse. 
858. To reinstate Ignatius in the patriarchy. 
861. May 25. Which again deposed Ignatius, and 

decreed in favour of images. 
867. Nov. 23. Which deposed Photius. 
869. Oct. 5 to Feb. 28. Eighth general council, which 

anathematized the heretics. 
879. Nov. to March 13. Concerning Photius, the 

Nicene Creed, and the general councils. 
906. Jan. The patriarch Nicolas is deposed. 
911. May. Whereby Nicolas is restored. 
920. July. To heal schism. 
931. Sept. 2. To receive the abdication of the 

patriarch Tryphon. 
963. To confirm the marriage of the emperor 

Nicephorus Phocas. 
1027. To consider donations to monasteries. 
1029. Against the patriarch of Aatioch. 
1054. June. Wherein the papal legates were anathe- 
matized. 

1066. Against incestuous marriages. 

1067. Against breach of promise of marriage. 
1110. Against the heresy of the Bogomiles. 

1140. May. To condemn the books of Constantine 
Chiysomele. 

1143. Aug. 20. Against the ordination of two 

bishops. Oct. 1. Against Niphon, a monk. 

1144. Feb. 2. Against Niphon. 

1147. Feb. 26. To depose the patriarch Comas. 
1157. Jan. 26. On the celebration of divine sei-vice. 
1166. April 11. Concerning marriage, discipline, 

and certain doctrinal points. 
1170. To reject a proposal to reunite the two 

churches. 
1186. On the irregular election of certain bishops. 
1222. On the differences between the Greek and 

Latin bishops of Cyprus. 
1275. May 26. To elect John Veccus patriarch. 
1277. April. To make a creed like that of Rome. 

July 16. To excommunicate those unwilling 

to reunite the two churches. 
1280. May 3. On doctrinal matters. 
1283. Jan. To condemn Veccus. Easter. To con- 
demn the promoters of the proposed 

union. 
1285. On doctrinal points. 
1297. To consider Athanasius's anathema of the 

emperor. 
1299. To consider the marriage of Alexis, nephew 

of the emperor. 
1341. June 11. On doctrinal points. 
1345. Against the Palamites. 
1347. To depose the patriarch John of Apri. 
1450. Against the reunion of the churches. 

CoNSTELLATioifs, or groups of stars, are 
mentioned in the book of Job, written, 
according to the best authorities, by Moses, 
B.C. 1520. Aroturus, Orion, and Pleiades, 
are noticed Job, ix. 9, and again, with 
the addition of Mazzaroth, ch.~ xxxviii. 31 
&32. 

Consuls. — On the expulsion of the kings, 

B.C. 509, two consuls were appointed, as the 

chief magistrates of the Roman republic. 

Their tenure of office was for one year only. 

2A3 



CON 

Decemvirs were appointed B.C. 451, three 
military tribunes B.C. 444, and a dictator 
obtained the chief authority b.c. 391. Al- 
though the direction of affairs was occasion- 
ally vested either in decemvirs, military 
tribunes, or a dictator, the consulship was 
the office generally adopted. After the 
appointment of an emperor, b.c. 31, it be- 
came a nominal dignity, and continued as 
such, with certain interruptions, until a.d. 
642. Milan proclaimed itself a republic, 
and elected two consuls in 1107, and other 
Itahan cities immediately followed its 
example. The consulate was estabHshed in 
France by the influence of Bonaparte, 
Nov. 10, 1799. The new constitution was 
proclaimed Dec. 24, when three consiils were 
appointed, the chief authority being vested 
in one of them, called the First Consul. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le- 
brun, were the consuls named, and Aug. 4, 
1802, the former was made first consul for 
life. The Consulate Avas, however, superseded 
by the Empire, May 18, 1804. 

Consuls, as the representatives of the 
commercial interests of England in foreign 
countries, were first officially appointed by 
Eichard III. in 1485, when Laurentio Strozzi, 
of Florence, was by patent of the king made 
consul and president of the English merchants 
in Italy. 

CoNTEACTOES. — By 22 Geo. III. c. 45, s. 1 
(1782), government contractors are dis- 
quahfied from holding a seat in the House 
of Commons. A similar biU had passed the 
Commons in 1780, but was rejected by the 
Lords. The law was extended to Ireland by 
41 Geo. III. c. 52, s. 4 (1801). 

Conventicles. — This term, derived from 
the Latin conventieuhim, an assembly, was, 
in the early period of Christianity, applied to 
a church. It was afterwards used to describe 
the meetings of heretics, and is, in this 
country, applied to the meeting-places of 
dissenters from the Established Church. 
By 35 Eliz. c. 1 (1593), persons attending 
any assembUes, conventicles, or meetings, 
under colour or pretence of any exercise of 
religion, were to be imprisoned until they 
conformed. If they did not do so in three 
months, they were to abjure the realm, and 
if they refused to do so, or returned after 
abjuration, they were to be hanged. It was 
enacted by the Conventicle Act (16 Chas. II 
c. 4), passed in 1664, that wherever five 
persons above those of the same household 
assembled in religious congregation, every 
one of them was liable to three months' im- 
prisonment, or a fine of five pounds for the 
first ofience : the penalty was doubled for a 
second, and increased to transportation for 
seven years, or a fine of £100, for the third. 
This act was only temporary, and a second 
Conventicle Act, in which the penalties were 
modified (22 Chas. II. c. 1), was passed in 
1670. It was repealed by the Toleration 
Act (1 Wm. & Mary, c. 18), passed May 24, 
1689. 

Convention Parliaments.— This term is 
applied to two parliaments, called in times of 



great emergency, without the usual authority 
of the Idng's wi-it. The first convention par- 
liament, summoned hj order of General 
Monk, met AprU 25, 1660, and having com- 
pleted the work of the Eestoration, was dis- 
solved by Charles II., Dec. 29 in the same 
year. The second, convened by William III., 
then Prince of Orange, met Tuesday, Jan. 22, 
1689 (O.S.), and established "William and 
Mary on the throne of England. A bill to 
convert the convention into a parliament 
passed through both branches of the legis- 
lature, and received the royal assent Feb. 23, 
1689. It was dissolved by William III. 
Feb. 6, 1690. 

CoifVEifTiON'S. (See Treaties.) 
Convents. (See Abbeys, &c.) 
Convicts. (See Teanspoetation.) 
Convocation, or a general assembly of 
the clergy of the kingdom, was summoned by 
the king's authority, for the purpose of assess- 
ing themselves in levies of taxes. The clergy 
assembled for this purpose in Anglo-Saxon 
times; but the first attempt to establish a 
convocation of this character by royal 
authority, was made by Edward I. in 1294 ; 
on Sept. 21 of which year Convocation met at 
Westminster by his order. The Convocation 
is divided into an Upper and a Lower House. 
Eichard III., on the petition of both houses 
of Convocation, reUeved them from the ju- 
risdiction of the secular courts, bv charter 
dated Feb. 23, 1484. It was deprived of the 
power of performing any act whatever with- 
out the king's license by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 
(1534) . This act was repealed by 1 & 2 Phil. 
& Mary, c. 8 (1554), and re-enacted by 
1 EHz. c. 1 (1.559). By 16 & 17 Charles II. 
c. 1 (1665), the clergy, as well as the laity, 
were bound by the act, which was for the 
raising of a tax, and were discharged from 
the payment of subsidies levied in convo- 
cation. Its business was confined to the 
granting of subsidies, except in 1603 and 
1640, and ceased to sit for business in 1717, 
untU revived for a formal sitting at the 
commencement of each session in 1854. 

Convolvulus. — The Canary convolvulus 
was introduced into England a.d. 1690, and 
the many-flowered convolvulus in 1779. 
They were both brought from the Canary 
Isles. 

CONVUIiSIONISTS, or CONVULSIONAEIES. — 

This sect of the Jansenists arose in 1730, 
and were so called, because they threw them- 
selves upon the ground and went into con- 
vulsions. An order for the imprisonment of 
these fanatics was issued in 1733. The dan- 
cers of the 14th century, and the jumpers of 
the 19th, indulged in similar extravagances. 
CoNWAT (Caernarvonshire), Conwt, or 
Abeeconwt. — One of the Welsh princes, 
founded a Cistercian monastery at Conway 
A.D. 1185. Edward I. built a castle at this an- 
cient town in 1283, and was besieged here by 
the Welsh in 1290. Eichard II. fled to this 
place in 1399. It was taken by the Parha- 
mentary army in 1646. The suspension- 
bridge, commenced by Telford in 1822, was 
completed by him in 1826. 
2U 



COP 

CooKEET. — When Abraham entertained 
the three angels, he took a calf, had it 
dressed, and, with butter and milk, set it 
before his guests, B.C. 1897 (Gen. xviii. 6-8). 
Disraeh ( Curiosities of Literature, vol. ii. 
p. 246) remarks : "The numerous descrip- 
tions of ancient cookery which Athenseus 
has preserved, indicate an unrivalled dex- 
terity and refinement : and the ancients, 
indeed, appear to have raised the cuhnary 
art into a science, and dignified cooks into 
professors." Fitzstephen, the monk of 
Canterbury, who wrote during the reign of 
Henry II. and died in 1191, in his description 
of London says -. " There is in London upon 
the river's bank, a pubhc place of cookery, 
among the wines to be sold in the ships, and 
in the vrine cellars. There every day, ye 
may call for any dish of meat, roast, fried, 
or sodden. Fish both small and great ; or- 
dinary flesh for the poorer sort, and more 
dainty for the rich, as venison and fowl." 
And after some further remarks, adds : 
"This is the public cookery, and very con- 
venient for the state of a city, and belongs 
to it. Hence it is, we read in Plato's 
Gorgias, that next to the physician's art 
is the trade of cooks, the image and flattery 
of a fourth part of a city." The cooks having 
formed an ancient brotherhood, were in- 
corporated July 11, 1472, confirmed by 
Elizabeth, and again by James I., May 19, 
1615. "This is the Poke of Cokery" was 
printed in London in 1500. 

CooPEE. — The art of the cooper is of 
great antiquity. The company of Coopers 
was incorporated a.d. 1501. 

C00E& (Hindostan), under the govern- 
ment of independent princes a.d. 1583, pre- 
served its freedom till 1779, when Hyder 
seized Beer Eajtndra, the heir, and excluded 
him from the succession. In 1787, however, 
he escaped from his prison, and recovered 
his hereditary possessions. He died in 
1808, and bequeathed his dominions to his 
infant daughter, from whom they were 
wrested by Linga in 1810. In 1832 hostflities 
broke out between the rajah and the 
British government, in consequence of 
the protection aiforded by the latter to 
some pohtical fugitives, and an army was des- 
patched under Colonel Lindsay, which en- 
tered Mercarah, the capital, April 6. The 
rajah was deposed April 10, 1834. He was 
dispossessed of all his territories, which were 
permanently annexed to the British empire 
in India. 

Copenhagen (Denmark). — Absolon, bish- 
op of Eoeskilde, and afterwards archbishop 
of Lund, erected a castle here a.d. 1168. In 
1254, Bishop Erlandsen of Eoeskilde granted 
certain rights to the town that had grovra 
up beneath the protection of the castle, and 
these were extended by King Eric in 1284. 
In 1443 Copenhagen was made the capital 
of Denmark. It has sufiered greatly from 
conflagrations, and was almost completely 
destroyed in 1795. Nelson captured the city 
April 2, 1801 ; and it surrendered, after three 
days' bombardment, Sept. 5, 1807. The 



COP 

Danish Royal Society was founded in 1742, 
and the Academy of Arts in 1754. The 
Casino was built in 1846. 

CoPEENiCAN System. — Hallam (Lit. Hist. 
pt. i. ch. ix.) says, "It appears to have 
been about 1507 that, after meditating on 
various schemes besides the Ptolemaic, 
Copernicus began to adopt and confirm : 
in writing, that of Pythagoras, as alone ca- 
pable of explaining the planetary motions I 
with that simplicity which gives a presump- ] 
tion of truth in the works of Nature." It 
was completed in 1530, and published at 
Nuremberg in 1543. Pope Paul V. con- 
demned it in 1616, but Pius VII. in 1818 re- 
pealed the prohibitory edicts against Gahleo 
and the Copernican system. Nicolas Coper- 
nicus was born at Thorn, Peb. 19, 1473, and 
died May 2, 1543. 

Copper. — This metal was known in the 
earliest times, and is frequently noticed in 
the Bible. Thus, the fetters with which Sam- 
son was bound (b.c. 1117) were in reality of 
this material (Judges, xvi. 21). Ezekiel (xxvii. 
13, B.C. 588) speaks of Tyre as trading in 
vessels of brass or copper, and Ezra (viii. 27, 
B.C. 458) speaks of 'Hwo vessels of fine 
copper, precious as gold," which formed 
part of the treasure of the temple. The 
origin of the art of smelting and working 
copper was attributed by the Egyptians to 
Osiris. Cadmus conveyed it to Greece 
B.C. 1313. Cyprus and Ehodes were cele- 
brated as early manufactories of copper. It 
subsequently became one of the most im- 
portant metals known to the ancients. 
Copper-mines were worked in England 
A.D. 1189. They are first mentioned in 
Sweden in 1396, and in 1399 one was dis- 
covered in Shropshire. A mine of pure 
copper was discovered in Cumberland in 
1561 ; but the art of working the metal made 
little progress till 1689, when it was carried 
on with success in Cornwall. It afterwards 
increased to a prodigious degree, and in 
1721 employed 30,000 people. Copper was 
first used to sheathe ships in 1758, and the 
demand for it so much increased that its 
exportation was prohibited in 1780 by 
20 Geo. III. c. 59, s. 1. In 1783 aU the 
ships of the royal navy were ordered to be 
sheathed. The Burra-Burra mines of South 
AustraHa, discovered about 1843, are per- 
haps the richest copper-mines in the world. 

Copper Monet. — The Eomans used cop- 
per as a circulating medium prior to the 
reign of Numa, B.C. 715, but it was notcoined, 
being measured by weight. The square "as" 
of copper was struck some time before Ser- 
vius TuUius, B.C. 578, and the circular "as" 
about B.C. 385. The first Greek copper 
money was that of JEropus, king of Mace- 
donia, struck B.C. 397. Copper never became 
a chief mediimi with the Greek?. Cimobe- 
line, king of Britain, is known to have 
coined copper about a.d. 40, as pieces still 
remain beariog his mark. It was made and 
circulated in Ireland in 1339, in France 
about 1580, and in Scotland before 1603. 
Copper tokens were coined in England in 



COR 

1609, and patented in 1625 ; but the first 
real coinage was by Charles II., who failed 
in an attempt to establish a co|)per currency 
in 1665, but succeeded in 1672. In 17'^3 
George I. granted a patent to Mr. "Wood to 
coin copper halfpence and farthings for Ire- 
land ; but the measure was very unpopular, 
and was so vehemently opposed by Dean 
Svnft, who published his Drapier letters in 
consequence, that it had to be abandoned. 
The English copper coinage was so defective 
in 1792, that a large ntunber of tradesmen's 
tokens were issued ; but these were super- 
seded in 1797 by the coinage of 5U0 tons of 
copper pence, struck by Mr. Boulton, at 
Soho. A new bronze coinage was issued in 
1860 to supply the deficiency of copper 
money. 

Copper-Plate. (/See Engraving.) 

Copyright in Books was estabhshed by 
8 Anne, c. 19 (1709). Erom AprH 10, 1710, 
it was vested in the author for fourteen 
years. At the expiration of that term it was 
renewed for another fourteen years, if the 
author was then hving. The act was ex- 
tended to the whole of the United Kingdom 
by 41 Geo. III. c. 107 (July 2, 1801). By 
54 Geo. III. c. 156 (July 29, 1814), the copy- 
right was to last for twenty-eight years 
certain, and for the remainder of the 
author's fife if he outHved that term. By 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 45, passed July 1, 1842, the 
copyright was extended for the duration of 
the author's fife and seven years from the 
day of his death. In case the seven years 
expired before the book had been published 
forty -two years, the copyright was to endure 
until that period had elapsed. The copy- 
right of works pubhshed after the death of 
the author was also fixed at forty -two 
years. The privilege was extended to aU 
British colonies. 

Copyright in Designs for manufactures 
was fixed at three years by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, 
passed Aug. 10, 1842. It repealed all for- 
mer acts on the subject, and came into 
operation Sept. 1, 1842, and was extended to 
designs not ornamental, but having refer- 
ence to some purpose of utihty, by 6 & 7 Vict, 
c. 65, passed Aug. 22, 1843. The Board of 
Trade received authority to extend the copy- 
right in ornamental designs for an addi- 
tional term not exceeding three years, by 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 104, passed Aug. 14, 1850. 

CoRBACH, (Battle,) fought between the 
French army and the allied Enghsh and 
Germans at this place, in WestphaUa, July 10, 
1760. The former were victorious. The 
allied army was saved from a total ruin by a 
charge of British dragoons. 

CoRBiSDALE (Battle) . — The marquis of 
Montrose was defeated at this place, in Caith- 
ness, by the Covenanters, Saturday, April 27, 
1650. The marquis, captured a few days after 
the battle, was put to death with " every 
circumstance of ignominy and cruelty," 
May 21. 

CoRCYRA. {See Corfu.) 

Cordeliers.— This minor order of Fran- 
ciscan or Grey Friars was founded by St. 
245 



COR 

Francis d'Assisi in 1223, and was sanctioned 
by Pope Honorius III. in a buU published 
Oct. 30 the same year. 

CoEDELiEES C£uB. — This society of repub- 
licans, formed at Paris in December 1790, re- 
ceived this name because their meetings were 
held in a chapel which had been built by the 
monastic order of the Cordehers. Danton 
was the first president, and amongst the 
more celebrated members, were Marat, 
CamiHe Desmoulins, Fabre d'Eglantine, 
Eobert, and Hebert. The Cordehers de- 
manded the abohtion of royalty in 1791. A 
most powerful body, assembled at this club, 
took part in the insurrection of Aug. 10, 1792. 
They clamoured for the death of the king in 
1793, and, in conjunction with the Jacobins, 
conspired for the overthrow of the G-iron- 
dists in the same year. It was dissolved in 
1794. 

Coed OVA (South America), the capital 
of a province of the same name, a member 
of the Argentine Confederation, was founded 
by Jerome Cabrera a.d. 1573. 

CoEDOVA (Spain), the Corduba of the Eo- 
mans, was founded by M. Claudius Mar- 
cellus, who wintered here B.C. 132. It was 
nearly destroyed by Caesar, iu consequence 
of its fidelity to Pompey, and when rebuilt, 
was peopled by the pauper gentry of Eome. 
Its erection into a bishopric occurred a.d. 
264, and it fell under the Gothic sway in 
572. The Moors seized it in 711, and made 
it the capital of their empire in Spain in 756. 
The great mosque was begun by Abderahman 
in 786. A fire which raged here for three 
days in 917, laid waste much of the city, but 
it was soon rebuilt more magnificently than 
ever. Sohman took the town in 1012, after 
a siege of about three years. In 1091 it fell 
into the hands of the Almoravides, who 
retained it till its capture by the Almohades 
in 1148. St. Ferdinand, king of Castile, 
took it June 30, 1235, and it has ever 
since been under Christian domination, 
although the Moors made a powerful effort 
to retake it in 1365. The French under 
General Dupont seized Cordova June 7, 
1808, when the city was abandoned to pihage 
for three days, and the populace crueUy 
massacred. The town was again plundered 
in 1836 by the CarHsts under Gomez, who 
took possession Oct. 1, and carried off booty 
to the amoimt of £200,000. 

CoEDWAiSTEES. — Theuame by which shoe- 
makers were for some time called in this 
country. Stow says the term cordwaiuer 
or cobbler was not then a name of contempt 
for a man of less skill in that mystery, or 
only a mender, but for a maker and seller 
of that commodity. The cordwainers were 
incorporated in 1410, confirmed by Mary 
in 1558, by Ehzabethin 1562, and by James I. 
They built a new hall, which was opened 
Tuesday, July 23, 1577. {See Shoemakees.) 

CoEEA (Asia) is said to have been civHized 
by the Chinese about b.c. 1120. In 1692 a.d. 
it became subject to Japan ; but the Coreans 
having requested aid from China, the em- 
peror dehvered them from Japanese tyranny 



COE 

in 1698, and substituted his own dominion 
instead. Corea has since formed part of the 
Chinese empire. 

CoEEU (Ionian Sea). — This island, the 
ancient Corcyra, was colonized by the Corin- 
thians B.C. 734. The first sea-fight on record 
is said to have taken place between the 
fleets of Corcyra and of Corinth, B.C. 664. 
The two states were continually at war. 
The Corcj^reans defeated the Corinthian 
fleet off Cape Actium B.C. 435. The Spar- 
tans captured the island B.C. 303, and the 
Eomans b.c. 229. After passing through 
various vicissitudes, Corfu was taken by the 
Venetians a.d. 1386. The Turkish fleet was 
defeated by the Venetians near Corfu in 
July, 1716. The Turks returned, and after 
besieging the town of Corfu for forty-two 
days, retired Aug. 18, 1717. By the 5th 
article of the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 
17, 1797, the emperor of Germany allowed 
it to pass to the French. The aUied Turkish 
and Eussian forces wrested the island from 
the French March, 3, 1799 ; and this, vrith 
other islands, were formed into the repubhc 
of the Ionian Islands. Having again fallen 
into the hands of the French, they were 
recovered by the Enghsh in 1809, and placed 
under British protection in 1815. A con- 
ference respecting the affairs of Greece 
was held by the plenipotentiaries of Great 
Britain, France, and Eussia, at Corfu in 
1828. 

C o E I i«r G A ( Hindostan ) . — The Enghsh 
took possession of this place, and estabhshed 
a factory in the neighbourhood, a.d. 1759. 
Coringa is subject to terrific inundations of 
the sea. One in May, 1787, swept away 
aU the houses, and destroyed nearly the 
entire population, besides extending far 
inland. The total loss of hfe was estimated 
at about 15,000 people, besides more than 
100,000 head of cattle. A similar catastrophe 
happened in 1832. 

CoEi>'TH (Greece). — Some authors are of 
opinion that Corinth was originally the seat 
of a Phoenician colony. According to the 
traditional account, it was founded B.C. 1520, 
under the name of Ephyre, which was ex- 
changed for that of Corinth at a subsequent 
period. Sisyphus seized the place B.C. 1376, 
erected it into a kingdom, and founded 
the Isthmian games. The first event in its 
history that has been ascertained with any 
degree of accuracy is its conquest by the 
Dorians, B.C. 1074. Aletes was the first 
Dorian king, and the dynasty, which lasted 
327 years, consisted of twelve monarchs. 



B.C. 

925. Reign of Bacchis, a descendant of Aletes, 

His successors take the name of Bacchidas. 
786. The Corinthians invent trii-emes. 
745. The Corinthians depose theii- king Telestes 

and elect Automenes for prytanis, or 

annual magistrate. The annual prytanes 

govern for ninety years. 
734. A colony of Corinthians, under Archias, 

lands in Sicily, and founds Syracuse. 

Chei-sicrates founds Corcyra. 
664. Corcyra revolts, and defeats the Corinthiana 

in a naval engagement. 



J 



COE 



655. Cypselus expels the Bacchidse, abolishes the 
digiiity of prytanis, and begius to reign at 
Corinth. 

625. Reign of Periander, who reduces Corcyra to 
its old obedience, and encourages learning 
and the arts. 

585. Death of Periander, who is succeeded by his 
nephew Psammetichus. 

581. End of the Cypselian dynasty, and establish- 
ment of a republic. 

457. War with the Athenians, who defeat the 
Corinthians in the Megarid. 

435. The Corcyreans again defeat the Corinthians 
in some naval engagements, and captiu'e 



395. Corinthian war begins ; Corinth, Athens, 

Argos, Thebes, and Thessaly being opposed 

to Sparta. 
387. Peace of Antalcidas, which puts an end to 

the Corinthian war. 
344. Timophanes attempts to establish a despotism 

at Corinth ; but is defeated, and mui-dered 

by his brother Timoleon. 
338. Congi-ess at Corinth, which declares war 

against Persia, and appoints Philip of 

Macedon the Gtreek generalissimo. Corinth 

falls into the power of the Macedonians. 
243. Aratus delivers Corinth from the Macedonian 

sway, and annexes it to the Achaean 

League. 
228. First arrival of Koman ambassadors at 

Corinth. 
223. The Achseans surrender Corinth to Antigonus 

Doson. 
197. Battle of Cynoscephalae, after which Corinth 

is declared free, and reunited to the Achaean 

League. 
146. Sack of Corinth by L. Mummius, who 

slaughters all the male inhabitants ; sells 

the women and children for slaves ; 

conveys the art-treasures of the city to 

Rome ; and, having abandoned it to pillage, 

destroys it by fire. 
44. Corinth is restored by Julius Caesar. 

A.D. 

363. The Isthmian games are celebrated under the 
emperor Julian. 

396. It is taken by Alaric. 

532. Justinian rebuilds the walls and fortifica- 
tions. 
1146. It is plundered by Roger, king of Sicily. 
1205. The Crusaders lay siege to it. 

1209. It is besieged by GeoHrey Villehardoin. 

1210. It is erected into an archbishopric about this 

year. 
1247. It is taken by William Villehardoin, prince 

of Achaia. 
1358. It is granted to Niccolo Acciaiuoli. 
1422. It is ceded to the Venetians. 
1453. The Turks seize it. 
1687. It is taken by the Venetians. 
1714. June 20. Retaken by the Tui'ks. 

1822. Oct. 2. The Greeks captui-e the fortress. 

1823. The city is taken by the Greeks, and added 

to their newly-formed kingdom. 
1858. Feb. 21. The town destroyed by an earthquake. 

CoKiNTHiAN Oedee of architecture was 
invented by Callimachus b.c. 540. 

CoEiifTHiAifs (Epistles to the). — Two let- 
ters written by St. Paul to the church which 
he had founded at Corinth during his stay 
there in 51 and 52. The first epistle was 
written by St. Paul from Ephesus, in March, 
55, and the second from Philippi, about 
October in the same year. 

CoEiNTHiAN Wae.— Corinth/ Athens, Ar- 
gos, Thessaly, and Thebes, entered into an 
alliance against the Spartans B.C. 395, and 
the war was prosecuted with great vigour, 
untU brought to a conclusion by the peace of 
Antalcidas, B.C. 387. Hostilities were, for 



COR 

the most part, waged on the territory, or in 
the vicinity of Corinth. Hence it was called 
the Corinthian war. 

CoEiOLi (Italy) was taken from the Latins 
by the Volscians, from whom it was wrested 
by the Romans B.C. 493. AH traces of the 
town had disappeared by B.C. 443. The story 
of Coriolanus in connection with this city 
is not considered authentic by Niebuhr and 
others. 

CoEK (Ireland) is said to owe its origin to 
St. Barr, who founded a cathedral andmonas- 
tery here in the beginning of the 7th century. 
{See CoEK, See op.) It was laid waste by the 
Danes a.d. 832. A fire destroyed the greater 
part of the town in 978, and it was again 
reduced to ashes during another Danish 
invasion in 1013. In 1172 it surrendered to 
Henry II., who established an English gar- 
rison ; but the Irish besieged it in 1182 and in 
1185, and finally efi'ected its capture in 1195. 
King John granted Cork its first charter in 
1185. The Franciscan monastery of Grey 
Friars was founded in 1214, and that of the 
Dominicans in 1229. This city was repre- 
sented in the Irish parliament in 1359. In 
1493 the charter was forfeited, in consequence 
of the favourable reception given to Perkin 
Warbeck, but it was restored by James I. in 
1609. In 1612 and 1622 fires destroyed great 
part of the city, and a flood swept away some 
public buildings and bridges in 1633. Cork 
was besieged in 1642, and in 1643 aU its Irish 
inhabitants were expelled. The parhamentary 
forces seized it in 1649, and dming the Protec- 
torate it suffered much oppression in conse- 
quence of its adherence to the royahst cause. 
James II. landed here in 1689, and in 1690 
the forces of William III., under the earl of 
Marlborough, took the town after a spirited 
resistance. The North-Gate Bridge over the 
Lee was erected in 1712. The cathedral was 
taken dovm in 1725, in consequence of the 
injuriesithadsustained during Marlborough's 
siege ; but a new one was commenced on the 
original site in 1735. The Mansion-House was 
erected in 1767, the library was established in 
1792, the house of correction built in 1818, and 
the city and county court-house was completed 
in 1835. Riots, caused by scarcity of food, 
broke out June 10, 1842, and Daniel O'Con- 
nell held a monster meeting in the neighbour- 
hood June 8, 1845. Queen Victoria landed 
here Aug. 3, 1849, and desired that the town 
should henceforward be called Queen's 
Town in consequence. In 1850 Cork and 
Dublin were united by railway, and an indus- 
trial exhibition was opened June 10, 1852. 

CoBK (See of). — This see was founded by 
St. Barr, or Finnbarr, about 606. In 1490 it 
was united to CloynebyPope Innocent VIII., 
and in 1586, May 17, the see of Ross was also 
added. Cloyne was separated from Cork and 
Ross between 1638 and 1660, and in 1678 Cork 
was again made distinct. The tliree sees 
were ordered to be permanently united by 
act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 37, s. 32, passed 
Aug. 14, 1833, which came into operation 
at the death of Bishop Brinkley in 1835. 

CoEK-TEEE. — The bark of this tree, a kind 
247 



COK 

of oak, was used by the Greeks and Eomans 
for various purposes ; and amongst others, to 
make floats to their nets, anchor-buoys, 
swimming-jackets, and soles for their shoes^ 
Beckmann contends that the Eomans alsoused 
it to stop vessels of every kind. Cork was 
first used for this purpose in Europe on 
the iavention of glass bottles, in the loth 
century. The cork-tree was introduced 
into England from the south of Europe a.d. 
1699. 

CoEW. — Jacob sent his ten sons into 
Egypt to buy corn (Gen. xlii.) during the 
great famine, about B.C. 1707. According to 
the Arundelian marbles, Ceres taught the 
art of sowing corn at Athens B.C. 2409, and 
sent her son Triptolemus into other cities to 
inculcate the same art. Corn was regularly 
distributed to the citizens of Eome, of Con- 
stantinople, and other towns, in ancient times. 
Greece was supplied mth corn from the 
countries bordering on the Black Sea in the 
time of Xerxes. Corn was imported to Eome 
from Sicily B.C. 486. 

CoEN ExcHAN&E. — The London Corn Ex- 
change was projected and opened a.d. 1747. 
Alterations were commenced in 1827, and the 
new building was opened June 24, 1828. 

CoEN Laws. — The exportation of corn 
from England, except in certain cases, 
was prohibited by 34 Edw. III. c. 20 
(1361). Modifications of the law ensued, 
and in 1436 exportation was permitted by 
15 Hen. VI. c. 2, provided the home price 
did not exceed 6s. 8d. per quarter. Dealers 
were first allowed to engross their com, i.e., 
to buy in one market with intent to sell at a 
profit in another, by 15 Chas. II. c. 7 (1663). 
The importation of corn, unless the price 
of wheat exceeded 6«. 8d. per quarter, that 
of rye 4s., and of barley 3s., was prohi- 
bited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1463), the pre- 
amble of the statute stating, ""V\Tiereas, the 
labourers and occupiers of husbandry within 
this realm be daily grievously endamaged by 
bringing of corn out of other lands and parts 
into this realm, when corn of the grow- 
ing of this realm is at low price." Further 
regulations on the subject followed, and the 
importation of corn was heavily taxed by 
22 Chas. II. c. 8 (1670), and also by 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 12 (1689), which substi- 
tuted a bounty for the previous duty on 
exported corn. The rapid increase of popu- 
lation, however, and the extended commerce 
and manufactures of the country, demanded 
alterations in the regulations respecting im- 
portation ; and at length the act 13 Geo. III. 
c. 43 (1773) permitted foreign wheat to be 
imported on payment of a duty of 6^. per 
quarter, when the home price was not less 
than 48s. The same statute ordered the 
bounty on exportation to cease when corn 
was at or above 44s. These regulations 
were again modified by 31 Geo. III. c. 4 
(1791), which increased the duties on im- 
ported corn. Mr. Eobinson's act, 55 Geo. III. 
c. 26 (March 23, 1815), removed all restric- 
tions on foreign corn imported in order to 
be warehoused, and permitted its importa- 
248 



COE 

tion for home consumption when at 80s. per 
quarter. This biU was very unpopular, and 
occasioned serious riots in London and 
Westminster, on the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th 
of March. By 3 Geo. IV. c. 60 (July 15, 
1822), the importation price was reduced to 
70s. per quarter, and for corn from British 
North America to 59s. per quarter. Mr. 
Canning's Com BiQ, proposed March 1, 
1827, passed the House of Commons, but 
was rejected by the Lords. The following 
year the same principles were embodied in 
9 Geo. IV. c. 60 (July 15, 1828), which is 
known as the SMding Scale, because the 
duty varied ; being 24s. 8d. when the home 
price was 64s. per quarter, 16s. 8d. when it 
was 69s., and Is. when it was at or above 73s. 
The second SMding Scale act (5 Vict. c. 14, 
April 29, 1842) amphfied this scale from 
£1 for under 51s. per quarter to Is. for 73s. 
Sir Eobert Peel's Com Importation BiU, 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (June 26, 1846), reduced 
the duty on aU corn imported at 53s. per 
quarter"^to 4s., until Feb. 1, 1849, when the 
duty was permanently reduced to Is. per 
quarter on all grain imported, whatever the 
price might be. 

CoEJTWALL (England) is said to have been 
governed by a prince named Corineus 
(whence its name) as early as B.C. 1145. 
Vespasian is supposed to have been its 
Eoman conqueror, about a.d. 41 ; but little is 
known of its history till a much later period. 
Vortigem, earl of Cornwall, became king of 
Britain in 425, and his earldom formed part 
of the kingdom till about 460, when the 
Saxons murdered 300 of the British no- 
bility and compelled the rest to seek retire- 
ment in the mountainous wilds of Wales and 
Cornwall, where they re-estabUshed an inde- 
pendent kingdom. Arthur, who began to 
reign in 517, and ultimately extended his 
dominions far beyond their original limits, is 
the most celebrated of the Cornish sove- 
reigns. Cuthred, king of Wessex, annexed 
a portion of ComwaU to his territories in 
753, and in 835 Egbert gained the whole 
kingdom at the battle of Hengstone HiU. 
Alfred erected Cornwall into an earldom 
before 901, and the earls continued in unin- 
terrupted succession from the old British 
kings of the country tiU 1066, when William 
the Conqueror substituted in their place his 
half-brother Eobert. The dignity remained 
in the royal family till the death of the last 
earl, Edmund, in 1300, when it reverted to 
the crown. In 1337 Edward III. created 
the Black Prince duke of Cornwall, and the 
title has since formed part of the style of the 
prince of Wales. In 1497 one Thomas Flam- 
mock incited the Cornishmen to rebeUion, 
and led them in arms to Blackheath, where 
they were defeated by Lord Daubeny, June 22, 
1497. In June 1549 the county again rose 
against the imposition of the Protestant 
prayer-book, and the rebelhon was only 
quelled at the battle of Sampford Courtenay 
(q.v.). In 1595 the Spaniards made a 
descent on the Cornish coasts, and com- 
mitted several depredations. 



i 



COR 

CoEONATiON. — Justin II., who succeeded 
Justinian Nov. 15, 574 a.d., was the first 
emperor crowned with ceremony by the 
patriarch of Constantinople. Charlemagne 
adopted the custom, and was crowned by 
the pope, at Eome, Dec. 25, 800. Edward, 
crowned on Whitsunday, 902, is said to have 
been the first English monarch to adopt the 
ceremony. The custom for the queen to be 
crowned originated here before the Con- 
quest. The French queens were for a long 
time crowned at the abbey of St. Denis, 
near Paris. Kingston-on-Thames, London, 
Westminster, and Winchester, were chosen 
by dift'erent English kings, in early times, as 
the place of coronation. Edward the Con- 
fessor, who was crowned at Winchester, 
formally fixed the monastery founded by 
him at Westminster as the place for the 
ceremony. 

Coronation Banquet. — The feast usually 
held in Westminster HaU on the day of the 
coronation, was omitted by WilMam IV. on 
his coronation, Sept. 8, 1831, and has been 
since discontinued. 

CoEONATiON Oath. — The oath taken in 
Sweden before the conversion of the country 
to Christianity is stiU extant. It contains 
the name of Odin, and was accommodated to 
the Christian faith by Eric a.d. 1156. The 
Greek emperors in their coronation oath, 
which consisted of six articles, professed, 
amongst other things, their acceptance of 
the'Apostles' Creed and of the apostolical tra- 
ditions, confirmed the rights of the Church, 
and acknowledged the constitutions of the 
seven oecumenical councils. The oath of the 
kings of France was similar to that of 
Etheh-ed II., king of England. The oath 
taken by Ethelred II., who was crowned in 
978, is still extant. The next of which a 
copy exists is the oath taken by Henry I. in 
1100, and it agrees exactly with the former. 
The office used by King Ethelred appears to 
have been adopted by his successors down 
to the reign of Edward II., when some 
slight alterations were made. One of the 
articles of impeachment against Archbishop 
Laud was the charge of having altered the 
coronation oath for Charles I. By 1 WiU. 
& Mary, c. 6 (1689), a new coronation oath 
was framed, the former oath containing, 
according to this statute, " doubtful words 
and expressions with relation to ancient laws 
and constitutions now unknown." This was 
altered at the union with Scotland. 

CoKONATiON Stone. — " The legends of the 
old historians," says Taylor (Glory of Ee- 
gality, p. 53), "inform us that this is the very 
stone on which the patriarch Jacob laid his 
head in the plain of Luz ; that it was brought 
from Egypt into Spain, by Gathelus, the 
supposed founder of the Scottish nation; 
that it was thence transported into Ireland, 
* amongst other princehe iewells and regall 
moniunents,' by Simon Brech, who was 
crowned upon it about b . c . 700, and that it was 
thence carried to Scotland by King Fergus, 
B.C. 330." The real history is, that it was 
transferred from Ireland, to Scotland at an 



COR 

early period, and was placed in the abbey 
church of Scone in 850. The Scottish kings 
were crowned here until 1296, when Ed- 

fard I. carried it to England. It was agreed 
y the treaty of Northampton, in 1:328, that 
the stone should be returned to Scotland, but 
this was not done. It is fixed in a chair made 
of oak. 

CoRONEiA (Greece). — Agesilaus defeated 
the Thebans and their aUies in a plain near 
this city, B.C. 394. Several battles were fought 
in the vicinity. {See Ch^eoneia.) 

CoEONEE. — This office is of very ancient 
institution, and is said by Ducange to be 
pecuhar to the English. The laws of Mal- 
colm II., who began to reign a.d. 1004, contain 
many regulations respecting the authority 
of this officer in Scotland. The lord chief- 
justice of the Queen's Bench is the chief 
coroner in the realm ; but there are, besides, 
particular coroners for every county, who 
were first appointed in 1276 by the statutes 
of Westminster (4Edw. I. st. 2). Originally 
none but knights were permitted to hold the 
office ; but it has gradually become sufficient 
that a man possess landed property worth 
£20 per annum. Coroners are chosen for 
hfe ; but by 25 Geo. II. c. 29, s. 6, passed in 
1752, extortion, neglect, or misbehaviour, are 
made reasons for removal. In case of sick- 
ness or other sufficient cause, coroners 
are allowed to act by deputy by 6 & 7 Vict, 
c. 83, s. 1, passed Aug. 22, 1843. 

CoEONET. — The exact period at which 
coronets were used by the different orders 
of the nobfiity is not known. Henry III.. 
granted them to earls, James I. to viscounts, 
and Charles II. to barons. Dukes and mar- 
quises also wear coronets. The coronet was 
originally a circlet or garland, worn as an 
ornament. Some authorities say it was not 
used by knights before the reign of Ed- 
ward III., and then indiscriminately by 
princes, dukes, earls, or knights. 

CoEPOEATiONS are of two kinds, aggregate 
or sole ; the first consisting of many persons 
united together into one society, and kept up . 
by a perpetual succession of members ; the 
second of one person only and his successors. 
The honour of their invention is attributed 
to the Romans, {See Municipal Coepoea- 

TIONS.) 

CoEPULENCE. — In Sparta, citizens who 
grew too fat were soundly whipped. Nau- 
chs, the son of Polytus, was brought before 
the Ephori, and his excessive corpulence was 
exposed to the pubhc. He was, moreover, 
threatened with perpetual banishment if he 
failed to reduce his body within reasonable 
dimensions. Sennertus mentions a man and 
a woman who weighed respectively 600 and 
450 lb. Bright, of Essex, who died in 1750, 
weighed 588 lb. Daniel Lambert, who died 
June 21, 1809, weighed, a few days before his 
death, 52 stone 11 lb., or 739 lb. 

CoEPUS Cheisti. — This festival of the 
Romish church, in favour of the doctrine of 
transubstantiation and the adoration of the 
host, was first celebrated at Liege a.d. 1241, 
by the canons of St. Martin. Urban IV. pub- 



COR 

lished a bull in favour of it between 1262 
and 1264 ; but it did not become general tmtil 
the order was repeated by Clement V. in 
1311, and it was strictly enjoined by tbe 
council of Vienna, the 15tli general council, 
1311 and 1312. It is celebrated on the Thurs- 
day after Trinity Sunday. 

Corpus Cheisti, or Beis'edict Colle&e 
(Cambridge), was founded a.d. 1351, by the 
brethren of the guilds of Corpus Christi and 
the Virgin Mary. The old building was 
replaced by a new one in 1823. The chapel 
was bmlt by Sir Nicholas Bacon in 1578. 

Corpus Cheisti College (Oxford) was 
founded by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
chester, A.D . 1516. An additional building was 
erected by Dr. Turner in 1706. 

CoEEESPONDiifG Society. — In 1794 two 
pohtical societies, established in 1791, at- 
tracted considerable attention in England. 
One of them was styled the Society for Con- 
stitutional Information, and the other, the 
most numerous, the Corresponding Society. 
The professed object of both was reform in 
the parhamentary representation of the 
people ; but they cherished designs of a dan- 
gerous character. The latter, in particular, 
denounced the war with France, and cor- 
responded extensively -svith the leading repub- 
licans in France. The London Corresponding 
Society and four other societies forwarded a 
sympathetic address to the French National 
Convention, bearing date Sept. 27, 1792. A 
proclamation against seditious meetings had 
been issued May 21, 1792, and in 1794 the 
secretaries to the two societies. Home Tooke 
and others, were arrested as guilty of trea- 
sonable practices, and committed to the 
Tower. The trials came on before a special 
commission at the Old Bailey, Oct. 25, and 
having in three cases resulted in an acquittal, 
the prosecution was abandoned. The Lon- 
don Corresponding Society held open-air 
meetings near Copenhagen House, Oct. 26, 
Nov. 13, and ia Marylebone Fields Dec. 9, 
1795, and again in the fields near Copenhagen 
House, Nov. 12, 1796. Bills for the safety 
and preservation of his Majesty's person and 

fovernment, and to prevent seditious assem- 
Hes, were passed late in 1795. The London 
Corresponchng Society called a meeting in a 
field near St. Pancras, July 28, 1797, when 
their proceedings were interrupted by the 
authorities, and several of their leaders kept 
in custody until they procured bail. The 
mutiny at the Nore, Sept. 1, 1797, was stirred 
up by emissaries from these societies. Prompt 
measures were adopted by the government, 
and although the London Corresponding 
Society ceased to exist, its members formed 
other associations, which continued to create 
discontent during this critical period. 

CoEEUPTiBLES and Incoeeuptibles. — 
Two factions into which the Monophysite 
church at Alexandria was divided. Mosheim 
gives the following account of their origin. 
Julian of HaUcarnassus, in the year 519, 
maintained that "the divine nature had so 
insinuated itself into the body of Christ, 
from the very moment of conception, as to 



COR 

change its nature and render it incorrupt- 
ible." Hence the schism, which lasted many 
years, and even produced contentions that 
ended in bloodshed. 

C o E s I c A ( Mediterranean Sea ) . — This 
island, called by the G-reeks Cymus, became 
the seat of a colony of Phocseans B.C. 564. 
They were expelled by the Tyrrhenians. The 
Romans attacked the inhabitants B.C. 259, 
but they were not finally subdued until b.c. 
231. The Vandals overran Corsica a.d. 456, 
and it fell into the power of the Saracens in 
852. In 1077 the pope ceded it to the Pisans, 
and in 1297 it was given to James II., of 
Aragon, by Boniface VIII. James, however, 
made no effort to secure it, and it remained 
in the hands of the Pisans tUl they were 
expelled by the Genoese in 1312. The French 
and Turks made an attempt to conquer the 
island in 1553, but it was finally secured to 
the G-enoese by the treaty of Cateau-Cam- 
bresis in 1559. A revolt broke out in 1730 ; 
and in 1755 General Paoli deUvered great 
part of the country from the Genoese yoke. 
Finding itself unable to reduce the inha- 
bitants to subjection, the repubhc of Genoa 
ceded Corsica to France by the treaty of 
Compiegne, Aug. 5, 1768. In 1793 Paoli 
renewed his efforts to hberate his coimtiy, 
and succeeded in delivering it from French 
domination. The Assembly unanimously 
voted the union of Corsica to the crown 
of Great Britain, June 8, 1794. Lord Minto 
ruled as viceroy tih 1796, when it was recap- 
tured by a French force under Gentili. 
Under the republic, Corsica formed the two 
departments of Golo and Liamone. In 1811 
they were united into one. The British 
attempted its recapture in 1814. Since 
the peace of Paris, May 30, the same year, it 
has remained in undisturbed possession of 
France. 

CoETENUOVA (Battle). — Fought between 
the emperor Frederick II. and the Lombard 
League, at this place, near Milan, Nov. 27, 
1237. The conflict was sustained with great 
vigour, but the Italians were at length de- 
feated. 

CoETES. — The name given to the national 
assembly in Spain and in Portugal. The 
commons were admitted by representation 
in the Cortes of Aragon a.d. 1133, and in the 
Cortes of Castile in 1169, or, according to 
some authorities, in 1160. The convocation 
of the states in Aragon was made annual, 
instead of biennial, in 1307. About ninety 
towns sent 192 representatives to the Cortes 
of Burgos in 1315 ; and fifty towns sent 126 
to the Cortes of Madrid in 1391. The Spanish 
Cortes assembled at Cadiz in 1810, after a 
long interval, and opened Sept. 24. They 
drew up a constitution, which was finally 
accepted March 19, 1812. Ferdinand VII. 
suppressed the Cortes in May, 1814, but 
restored them, and took the oath of allegi- 
ance to the constitution of 1812, March 8, 
1820. They were again suppressed Oct. 1, 
1823, and a decree was issued for their re- 
storation April 13, 1834, and they reassembled 
July 24, in the same year. 



COE 

CoETiCELLA (Battle). — The tyrant Ecce- 
liao defeated the papal forces at this place, 
in Italy, Aug. 30, 1258. 

CoRTONA (Italy), the Corythus of Virgil 
(^n. iii. 167 ; vii. 206), is supposed to have 
been founded by the Umbrians, from whom 
it was wrested by the Pelasgians. Situated 
on a lofty hill between Arretium and Clusiiim, 
in an almost impregnable position, it was 
one of the most important cities of Etruria, 
and formed one of the twelve of the Etruscan 
confederation. It afterwards feU under the 
power of the Eomans, but the exact period 
when this happened has not been ascertained. 
The modern Cortona was one of the earhest 
bishoprics of the Christian church. The 
bishop of Arezzo claimed spiritual jurisdic- 
tion over it in the 13th century. This led to 
a war, and Cortona was taken and its castle 
destroyed A. D. 1258. It wassoJdto the Floren- 
tines in 1411, and has since remained in their 
possession. The Academia Etrusca, in this 
city, was estabhshed in 1726. 

CoEUNDTJM. — The identity of this mineral, 
long knovra under the name of adamantine 
spar, with the sapphire, pointed out by 
Pelletier and De Lametherie in 1787, was 
confirmed in an account read before the 
Royal Society of London, by Mr. Greville, 
June 7, 1798. 

CoETJNNA (Battle). — Soult having followed 
the British in their retreat from Spain, 
came up vrith them near this seaport town, 
on the night of the 13th of January, 1809. 
The English general. Sir John Moore, made 
preparations for the embarkation of the 
troops ; but the transports had not arrived, 
and he was compelled to give battle. The 
action commenced at two in the afternoon 
of the 16th, and though the Enghsh were 
at first reptilsed, by dint of great exertion, 
they defeated their opponents. Sir John 
Moore fell in the hour of victory; and 
Sir John Hope, on whom the command 
had devolved, succeeded in embarking the 
army during the night. The French army 
amounted to 20,000 and the English to about 
14,000 men. The loss of the former was 
2,000, and that of the latter nearly 1,000 in 
killed and wounded. Corunna is called by 
English sailors " The Groyne." 

CoETEE, or forced labour. — Turgot issued 
a decree for the abohtion of the system in 
France in 1775 ; but it was not carried out. 
It was, however, aboUshed in 1789. Baron 
Stern abohshed it in Prussia in October, 
1807. 

CoEWEN (Battles). — Henry II. was de- 
feated near this town, in Wales, by Owen 
Gwynneth, a.d. 1165. Henry IV. sustained a 
reverse in the same locality from Glendower, 
in 1402. 

CoETGAUM (Battle). — A force consisting 
of 500 native infantry, 26 European artil- 
lerymen, and a small number of auxiliary 
horse, was assailed at this village, in Hin- 
dostan, Jan. 1, 1818, by the Peishwa, with an 
overwhelming force. The former main- 
tained its ground, and the Peishwa made 
a precipitate retreat. 



COS 

Cos (Archipelago), the capital of a small 
island of the same name, was destroyed 
by an earthquake, during the Peloponnesian 
war, B.C. 431-404. The island belongs to 
Turkey, and is now called Stanko, or 
Stanchio. 

CosA, or CossA (Italy).— This city of 
Etruria, received a Roman colony b.c. 273. 

CosENZA (Italy).— The ancient Consentia, 
the chief city of the Brutii. Alaric died in 
this city a.d. 410. The course of the Bu- 
sento, a small river that washes its walls, 
was diverted, and in its bed, the body of the 
hero, with the spoils and trophies of Rome, 
was interred, when the waters were restored 
to their natural channel. Consentia was 
destroyed by the Saracens in 988. It is the 
seat ot an archbishopric. 

Cossacks. — The origin of the Cossacks 
has occasioned much controversy. The 
generally received opinion is, that they are 
a native Russian race, intermixed with Cal- 
mucks and Tartars. They are divided into 
two principal classes, the Cossacks of the Don 
and the Cossacks of Little Russia. The latter 
are first mentioned in the 14th century, 
during the Polish invasion of Russia. They 
were not known by the name of Cossacks 
until 1516. Stephen Bathon, king of Poland, 
formed them into regiments, under the 
control of a hetman, or headraan, in 1592. 
They placed themselves under the protection 
of Russia in 1654, and revolted in 1708. The 
Cosacks of the Don entered the service of 
Russia in the 16th century. Tscherkask, 
their capital, destroyed by fire iu 1744, was 
rebuilt in 1805. 

CossiMBAZAE (Hiudostan) . — The East- 
India Company estabhshed a factory here 
A.D. 1706. SurajahDowlah seized it in June, 
1756. 

CossovA (Battles). — The sultan Amurath 
defeated a combined army of Albanians, 
Dalmatians, Hungarians, and WaUachians, 
on the plains of Cossova, in Servia, in Sept, 
1389. A Servian soldier, lying wounded on 
the field of battle, stabbed Amurath in the 
belly, and the wound proved mortal. Amu- 
rath II., one of his successors, defeated 
John Corvinus Huniades at the same place 
in 1448. The Turkish army amounted to 
more than 100,000, whilst Huniades could 
only muster 24,000 men. 

Costa Rica (South America) formed part 
of the kingdom of Guatemala, until the 
declaration of independence by the Spanish 
colonies in South America, a.d. 1821, when 
it was united to the Mexican kingdom of 
Iturbe. It formed one of the Central 
American Confederacy in 1823, and, on the 
dissolution of that confederacy, became an 
independent republic. A commercial treaty 
between England and Costa Rica was signed 
at San Jos^ Nov. 27, 1849, and ratifications 
were exchanged in London Feb. 20, 1850. 
It consists of sixteen articles. The rich gold- 
mines in the forest of Aguacate were first 
worked in 1821 . 

CosTEOMA (Russia), the capital of a pro- 
vince of the same name, was founded a.d. 
251 



COS 

1152. The monastery of Ipatskoi, from 
which the founder of the Eomanoif dynasty- 
emerged in 1613, was estabhshed in 1330. 
Costroma is the seat of a bishopric. 

Costume. ((See Dress.) 

Cottage. — By 31 Eliz. c. 7, passed in 
1589, no cottage was to be erected unless 
four acres of land were attached to it, and 
only one family was allowed to inhabit it. 
The act did not apply to towns or to places 
on the coast ; nor did it interfere with the 
erection of cottages for miners, or keepers 
in parks, forests, &e. It was repealed by 
15 Geo. III. e. 32, passed in 1775. 

CoTTOS". — This useful material is obtained 
from the cotton-plant, which Linnaeus sub- 
divided into five species. It has been grown 
in India from time immemorial, and is men- 
tioned in the annals of Egypt. 

A.D. 

1252. Cottou goods made in Persia. 

1253. Flemish weavers make linen in England. 

1328. A species of woollen goods, called " Man- 
chester cottons," made at Manchester by 
Flemish emigrants. 

1368. Cotton manufHctured in China. 

139it. Cotton (woollen) fii-st made at Kendal. 

1497. First European manufacture of cotton goods 

attempted in Spain and Italy. 
1590. Cotton cloth brought to London from 

Guinea. 
1634. Linen trade commenced in Ii'eland. 
1650. Very fine calicoes made^ at Calicut, in 

India. 
1756. Cotton velvets first made in England. 

{See Cotton Tkade and Manueactuee. ) 

CoTTONiAN LiBSAET.— This coUcction was 
formed by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, who 
was born Jan. 22, 1570, and who died May 6, 
1631. It was largely augmented by his son 
and grandson. In 1700 an act of parliament 
was passed for the better securing and pre- 
serving this hbrary in the name and family 
of the Cottons, for the benefit of the pubhc. 
The house was piu-chased for £4,500 in 1706. 
In 1730 the library was removed to Ash- 
burnham House, Westminster, and Oct. 23, 
1731, it suffered greatly from a fire that 
broke out in the building. In 1757 the Cot- 
tonian library, with other collections, formed 
the commencement of the British Museum. 
The number of manuscript volumes con- 
tained in the hbrary before the fire was 958. 
Of these 114 were either destroyed or ren- 
dered useless, and 98 damaged. 

Cotton Teade and Manufactuee. — The 
first mention of the cotton trade of Great 
Britain occurs in Lewis Roberts' "Treasury 
of Trafl&c," published a.d. 1641, where Man- 
chester is named as receiving cotton-wool 
from Smyrna and Cyprus, and manufactur- 
ing it into "fustians, vermilhons, dimities, 
and other such stuffes." In 1660 all colonial 
cotton was ordered to be sent to England 
for manufacture, and in 1760 the annual 
value of the trade was only estimated at 
£200,000. A machine for spinning by rollers 
was patented by Messrs. Wyatt and Paul as 
early as 1738 ; but the inventors were unable 
to render it of practical utility, and it was 
252 



COU 

subsequently abandoned. The first great 
improvement in the manufacture was Har- 
greave's invention of the spinning-jenny, 
which was pex'fected in 1767. Sir Richard 
Arkwright's spinning-frame, patented in 1769 
and improved and again patented in 1775, 
completely superseded the laborious process 
of spinning by hand. The mule-jenny was 
invented by Samuel Crompton in 1775, and 
was immediately substituted for the previous 
machine of Hargreave. The expiration of 
Arkwright's patent in 1785 gave new impe- 
tus to the ingenuity of inventors, and the 
power -loom, which was patented by the 
Rev. Mr. Cartwright in 1787, wonderfully 
increased the rate of manufacture. Impor- 
tation of the raw material from America 
commenced in 1791, when 189,316 lb. were 
received. The invention of Eh Whitney's 
machine for separating the wool from the 
seed, which was completed in 1793, added so 
much to the facihty of transportation, that 
in 1794 the amount received was 1,601,760 lb. 
The total amount exported from the United 
States since the beginning of the trade 
amounted, in 1858, to 1,118,624,0121b. In 18.57 
the total value of the cotton goods exported 
from Great Britain amounted to £39,113,409, 
and the quantity of raw material consumed 
to 786,000,000 lb. 

Council, or Synod. — The chief authori- 
ties of the Church assembled in the 2nd cen- 
tury, in council or synod, to regulate eccle- 
siastical affairs. The council of Pergamus, 
in Asia, a.d. 152, is the first on record. {See 
General Councils.) 

Councils, in which persons assembled to 
dehberate on public affairs, existed in very 
early times. The Roman concilium was an 
assembly of the people from which the patri- 
cians were excluded. {See Pbivt Council, 
Town Council, &c.) 

Count.— This title, under its Latin equi- 
valent comes, dates from the reign of the 
emperor Augustus, who conferred it upon 
the senators who surrounded him most 
nearly. It was used in Spain about a.d. 650, 
and for a long period seems to have been of 
equal dignity with that of duke, no distinc- 
tion being made tUl 1297. During the Nor- 
man period in England, count and earl were 
titles of equal rank. 

Counties, or Shires. — Hume states that 
Alfred (a.d 871-901) divided all England into 
counties. The system certainly did not ori- 
ginate with him, as the shire-man is men- 
tinned in the laws of King Ina, who died in 
727. Knights of the shire were first sum- 
moned to parUament in 1258. 

CouNTT-CouRTS. — Thcse useful tribunals 
for the recovery of debts under £20 were 
estabhshed by 9 & 10 Tict. c. 95 (Aug. 26, 
1846), being "An act for the more easy 
recovery of small debts and demands in 
England." This act was amended by 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 101 (Aug. 1, 1849), and 
the jurisdiction of the county-courts was 
extended to suits for sums not exceeding 
£50 in amount by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 61 
j (Aug. 14, 1850). Some amendments were 



cou 

made in certain details relating to these 
courts by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 54 (June 30, 1852), 
by 17 Vict. c. 16 (June 2, 1854), by 19 & 20 
Vict. c. 108 (July 29, 1856), and by 20 & 21 
Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 25, 1857). By 22 & 23 Vict, 
c. 57 (Aug. 13, 1859), tbe power of com- 
mittal vested in the county-court judges 
by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, ss. 98, 99, 100 (Aug. 26, 
1846), was only to be exercised in cases in 
which credit had been obtained by fraud or 
breach of trust. England and Wales, ex- 
clusive of London, were divided into sixty 
districts, to be enlarged or diminished by 
the sovereign in councU ; and the courts 
are held in the most important towns 
in each district, once in every calendar 
naonth. For particulars respecting the 
county-courts that existed iu the Saxon 
period of English history, see Schyeemotes. 

CoTTEiEKS. — Xenophon says they were 
first employed by Cyrus. Herodotus (viii. 
98) speaks of the Persian couriers, who 
travelled with great rapidity. They were 
stationed on the road, one man and one 
horse to each day's journey ; and by these 
messengers Xerxes sent the news of his 
defeat to Persia, B.C. 480. Gibbon bears 
testimony to the rapidity with which com- 
munication was carried on in the Eoman 
empire by the regular institution of posts. 
"Houses," he says (ch. ii.), "were every- 
where erected at the distance only of five or 
six miles; each of them was constantly 
provided with forty horses ; and by the help 
of these relays it was easy to travel an 
hundred miles in a day along the Eoman 
roads." The couriers could, therefore, 
travel at great speed. Prescott speaks of 
the Mexican couriers, who travelled with 
incredible swiftness. The Peruvian chasquis, 
or runners, carried government despatches 
at the rate of 150 miles a day. Prescott 
says it is remarkable that this important 
institution should have been known to both 
the Mexicans and the Peruvians, without 
any correspondence with one another, and 
that it should have been found among two 
barbarian nations of the New World, long 
before it was introduced among the civUized 
nations of Europe. 

CoTJELAND (Eussia) . — This province, com- 
posed of the old duchies of Courland and 
SemigaUia, the bishopric of Pilton, and 
Polangen, a district of Samogitra, was an- 
nexed to Eussia A.D. 1795. Courland was 
conquered by the Danes in 1218, and by the i 
knights of the Teutonic order in 1289. In ! 
1561 it was rendered tributary to the king of j 
Poland, who erected it into a duchy, and 
invested the grand master of the order with 
the title of duke. TiU 1737 Courland was 
governed by hereditary dukes; but it was 
then agreed that the dignity should become 
elective. Numerous complications resulted; 
Eussian troops occupied the duchy in 1786, 
and the inhabitants ultimately petitioned 
the empress Catherine to unite their country 
to the Eussian empire, which was accom- 
plished March 18, 1795. Alexander liberated 
the serfs of Courland Sept. 24, 181S. 



COU 

CouET Baeon.— The court of civil juris- 
diction within a manor was anciently held 
once every three weeks, its chief business 
being the settlement of questions relative to 
the right of lands within the manor. By 
20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), its jurisdiction was 
limited to the right of recovery of rent, &c., 
and of deciding civil questions in which the 
damage did not exceed forty sliilhngs. Its 
operation was stUl further restricted by 
3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 27, s. 36 (July 24, 1833), 
and it has now fallen into disuse, in con- 
sequence of the permission granted to lords 
of manors by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, s. 14 (Aug. 28, 
1846), to surrender their right of holding 
these courts to the crown. It also bad juris- 
diction in criminal matters, and this, by 
20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), was limited to 
assaults, batteries, and smaller oifences, for 
which a fine of not more than twenty shiUijigs, 
and in default of payment one month's im- 
prisonment, might be inflicted. 

CoUET-LEETandVlEWOrFEAIirK-PLEDGE. 

— This court of record was established in the 
Anglo-Saxon period of our history, and it 
dealt with all crimes punished by the common 
law. Its original intent was to view the 
frank pledges, i.e., the freemen within the 
liberty, who, according to the institution of 
of King Alfred, were all mutually pledged 
for the good behaviour of each other. By 
52 Hen. III. c. 10 (1267), prelates, peers, 
and clergymen were exempted from attend- 
ance at this court. A portion of the business 
of the court was transferred to Quarter 
Sessions by 1 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1461), and this 
statute materially reduced its functions. 

Cottet-Maetial. — During the Tudor 
supremacy, military causes were decided by 
courts of war, held at stated periods, under 
the presidency of the marshal of England. 
Courts-martial, as now constituted, were dis- 
tinguished into general andregimental in 1686, 
and their power regulated by the Mutiny 
Act, 2 Wm. III. c. 6 (1690). Naval courts- 
martial are regulated by 22 Geo. II. c. 33 
(1749). 

CouET OF Eequests. {See Conscience, 

COTTETS OP.) 

CoTJETEAT (Belgium) was a municipial 
city in the 7th century. The fortifica- 
tions were built a.d. 1290, the castle in 
1385, and the citadel in 1647. The battle 
of the Spurs, in which the French army, 
amounting to 47,000 men, was defeated 
by 20,000 Flemings, was fought near this 
place July 11, 1302. Courtray was captured 
by the French in 1643, 1646, 1667, 1683, and 
May 17, 1744. They obtained possession of 
it again towards the end of Jime, 1792, but 
were compelled to evacuate it on the 30th. 
General Beaulieu completely routed the 
French near this city in 1793. The church 
of Notre Dame was founded in 1238, and 
the Town-hall m 1526. The first cloth ma- 
nufacture in Flanders was commenced at 
Courtray in 1260. 

CouETS for the administration of justice 
are referred to in Exodus, xviii. 25 & 26, in 
which the measures adopted by Moses about 
253 



COTJ 

B.C. 1491, for tlie judicial government of the 
Israelites, are described. The ancient He- 
brews had two kinds of coiirts,— the great 
Sanhedrim, or great Consistory, and the 
Council, or Lesser Court. The court of the 
Areopagus is said! to have been established 
at Athens B.C. 1506. The Cretan courts of 
justice attributed to Minos, were celebrated. 
Suits in courts in this country were first 
regulated by the provisions of 43 Hen. III. 
(1259) The Irish law-courts were confirmed 
in their independent rights by 23 Greo. III. 
c. 28 (1783). 

CouTRAS (Battle) .—During the war of the 
three Henries in France, the Eoman Cath- 
olic army, led by the duke of Joyeuse, was 
defeated and almost annihilated near Coutras, 
in Perigord, Oct. 20, 1587, by the Huguenot 
forces, led by Henry of Navarre. 

CoTELOSTG (Hindostan) .— This fortified 
town was taken by stratagem by the French 
A.D. 1750. Clive besieged and captured it in 
September, 1752, when the fortifications 
were destroyed. 

Covenanters. — The Covenant, professing 
to be based upon a document which James 
VI. of Scotland had signed in 1580, was 
dravm up and pubHshed by the Four Tables 
in Edinburgh, March 1, 1638. Of the Four 
Tables, as they were called, one consisted 
of the nobility, another of gentry, another 
of ministers, and another of burgesses ; and 
in their hands the whole authority of the 
kingdom was vested. They elected a gen- 
eral assembly, which met at Glasgow Nov. 
21, 1638, and abohshed episcopacy ; ordering 
that every person shoxild sign the Covenant 
on pain of excommunication. The Cove- 
nanters prepared for war, and though a 
treaty of peace was concluded June 18, 1639, 
they entered England Aug. 20, 1640. An 
agreement was signed at Kipon, Oct. 26, 1640, 
by which commissioners were to be appointed, 
to whom the settlement of the points in 
dispute were referred. This covenant, under 
the name of the Solemn League and Covenant, 
was received by the parliament at the assem- 
bly of divines, Sept. 25, 1643. It differed 
essentially from the Covenant of 1638, and 
according to HaUam (Eng. ch. x. pt. 1), 
" consisted in an oath to be subscribed by 
all sorts of persons in both kingdoms, where- 
by they bound themselves to preserve the 
reformed rehgion in the Church of Scotland, 
iu doctrine, worship, discipline, and govern- 
ment, according to the word of God and prac- 
tice of the best reformed churches ; and to 
endeavour to bring the churches of God in the 
three kingdoms to the nearest conjunction 
and uniformity in religion, confession of 
faith, form of church-government, directory 
for worship, and catechizing ; to endeavour, 
without respect of persons, the extirpation 
of popery, prelacy (that is, church-govern- 
ment by archbishops, bishops, their chan- 
cellors, and commissaries, deans and chap- 
ters, archdeacons, and all other ecclesiastical 
officers depending on that hierarchy), and 
whatsoever should be found contrary to 
sound doctrine and the power of godhness : 
254 



GOV 

to preserve the rights and privileges of the 
parliaments, and the hberties of the king- 
doms, and the king's person and authority, 
in the preservation and defence of the true 
religion and liberties of the kingdoms ; to 
endeavour the discovery of incendiaries and 
maUgnants, who hinder the reformation of 
religion, and divide the king from his people, 
that they may be brought to punishment ; 
finally, to assist and defend all such as should 
enter into this covenant and not suffer them- 
selves to be withdrawn from it, whether to 
revolt to the opposite party, or to give in 
to a detestable indifference or neutrality." 
This document was signed by members 
of both houses, and by civU and military 
ofl&cers. A large number of the beneficed 
clergy, whorefusedto subscribe, were ejected. 
Charles II. gave an unwUhng assent to it 
Aug. 16, 1650. A majority in the House of 
Commons ordered it to be burned by the 
common hangman. May 17, 1661. In the 
same year the Scottish parhament renounced 
the Covenant, and declared the king supreme. 
Heavy fines were imposed on many of the 
Covenanters. 

CovENT Garden, originally called Convent 
Garden, because it occupied the site of the 
garden and fields of a large convent or 
monastery. It was, with the lands, granted 
by Edward VI. to the duke of Somerset, and 
after his attainder was granted to John, earl 
of Bedford, by patent dated May, 1552. 
The square was formed about 1634 or 1635, 
from designs by Inigo Jones, and the church 
of St. Paul's was erected by the same archi- 
tect about 1632. Covent Garden was made 
a parish by an ordinance of Lords and 
Commons, Jan. 7, 1645 ; and the bounds of 
the parish were more clearly defined in 1660. 
Covent-Garden Market, which originated 
about 1656, at first consisted of a few tempo- 
rary sheds. In 1671 Charles II. made a 
grant of it to William, earl of Bedford, and 
from that time it gradually increased in 
importance. The present bvulding was erected 
by Mr. Fowler in 1830. 

Covent-Garden Theatre was opened by 
John Rich, the harlequin, Dec. 7, 1732; 
rebuilt by Henry Holland, 1792; and de- 
stroyed by fire Sept. 20, 1808. The first 
stone of the second theatre was laid by the 
prince of Wales Dec. 31, 1808, and the bmld- 
ing, designed by Sir Eobert Smirke, opened 
at increased prices Sept. 8, 1809. A riot 
ensued, known as the " Old Prices," or 
"O. P." riot, which lasted sixty-seven nights, 
and terminated in a compromise. During 
the years 1843-45, this theatre was leased by 
the members of the Anti-Com-Law League, 
and used for pubhc meetings. After having 
been altered and decorated by Mr. Albano, 
it was opened for Italian opera, April 6, 
1847. This theatre was again burnt down 
March 5, 1856, during a bal masque. The 
present magnificent edifice, from the designs 
of Mr.E. M, Barry, was opened May 22, 1858. 

CovENTET ( Warwickshire ) . — Canute 
founded a nunnery here, which was burnt by 
the traitor Edric a.d. 1016. Leofric, earl of 



cov 

Mercia, who died in 1057, founded a monas- 
tery on the ruins of the old nunnery, and 
granted the town a charter of immunity from 
taxation, at the intercession of bis wife 
Godiva. Edward III. granted a charter of 
incorporation in 1344, and in 1355 the city 
was surrounded by walls. In 1404, Henry IV. 
held here the Parliamentum Indoctorum, or 
Parliament of Dunces, so called because 
lawyers were excluded from it. Henry VI. 
erected it into a separate county in 1451 ; 
and in 1459 a second parHament was 
held, which received the epithet of JParlia- 
mentum Diabolicum, because it passed at- 
tainders against the duke of York and his 
chief supporters. In 1607 an inundation 
destroyed 257 houses, and in 1641 Charles I. 
made an unsuccessful attempt to take the 
city by storm. The walls were destroyed in 
1662 by order of Charles II. The manu- 
facture of silks and ribbons was introduced 
in 1685, and soon became the chief employ- 
ment of the inhabitants. In consequence of 
the commercial treaty with France, concluded 
at Paris Jan. 25, 1860, the Coventry weavers 
were thrown out of employment, and re- 
duced to great distress. Efforts to relieve 
them were made in the early part of 1861 ; 
and the proceeds of several musical per- 
formances, held in the more important 
English towns, were devoted to this object. 

CovENTKT Act. — Sir John Coventry, 
K.B. and M.P., was attacked in the streets 
of London, had his nose sht, and was other- 
wise maimed, Dee. 21, 1670, by Sir Thomas 
Sandys and other members of the royal 
guard. The attack was provoked by some 
remarks made by Sir John Coventry on the 
life led by Charles II., and is said to have 
been instigated by the duke of Monmouth. 
In consequence of this outrage, malicious 
wounding and maiming was made a capital 
offence by 22 & 23 Chas. II. c. 1, passed 
March 6, 1671, and the measure received the 
name of the Coventry Act. It was repealed 
by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 1, passed June 27, 
1828. 

Coveeipauk: (Battle) . — CKve defeated the 
French at this town, near Arcot, in the 
Carnatic, March 3, 1752. 

Ckacow (Poland), the ancient capital of 
the country, was founded by Cracus, about 
A.D. 700. In 1146 it was taken by the re- 
bellious subjects of Uladislas II., and in 
1189 was the scene of a council for the reform 
of the clergy. The Mongols ravaged it about 
1240. It was besieged in 1279 by the discon- 
tented nobles of Lesko the Black, but 
opposed a gallant and successful resistance. 
The imiversity was founded in 1364 by 
Casimir III., and enlarged in 1401 by 
Ladislas Jagellon. In 1655 the city was 
taken by the Swedes under Charles Gustavus, 
and again in 1702 by Charles XII. Kosciusko 
dehvered it from the EussianS March 24, 
1794, but it was seized by the Prussians 
June 15 ; and at the final partition of Poland, 
in 1795, was allotted to Austria. In 1809 it 
formed part of the duchy of Warsaw, but 
according to the provisions of the congress 



CRE 

of Vienna, subsequently became a republic 
under the protection of Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia, June 20, 1815. In Sept. 1831, it 
was occupied by 10,000 Russians ; and on 
Nov. 16, 1846, was seized by the emperor of 
Austria, to whom it has ever since belonged. 
A fire which broke out at noon, July 18, 
1850, laid a large portion of the city in 
ruins. 

Ckakganobe (Hindostan). — According to 
a Jewish tradition, the descendants of those 
Jews who escaped, on the destruction of 
Jerusalem, obtained permission from the 
native sovereign to settle at this seaport, 
on the coast of Malabar, about a.d. 490. 
The Portuguese captured it in 1505, and the 
Dutch wrested it from them in 1663, and 
erected fortifications. Hyder obtained pos- 
session in 1780 ; but the Dutch recovered the 
place, which they sold to the rajah of 
Travancore, an aUy of the British govern- 
ment, in 1788. Tippoo having failed in an 
attempt to capture it, Dec. 29, 1789, was more 
successful in 1790, and the town feU on the 
8th of May. The East-India Company's 
forces recovered it in 1791, and it was ceded 
to them by the treaty of peace, of which the 
preliminaries were signed Feb. 24, 1792, and 
the treaty itself March 17. 

CeANIOLOGT. {See PHEENOIiOGT.) 

Ceanoit (Battle). — The confederated 
Greeks were defeated by the Macedonians 
at Cranon during the Lamian war, B.C. 322. 

Ceaost (Battle).— An army of French, 
German, and English troops, commanded 
by the duke of Montpensier, was defeated 
near this city, in Anjou, in 1592, by the duke 
of Mereceur at the head of the Spanish troops 
and those of the League. 

Craonne (Battle). — A great battle was 
fought at this place, near Laon, in France, 
March 7, 1814, between the French under 
Ney and Victor, and the Prussians and Rus- 
sians led by Bliicher and Woronzoff. The 
former had 29,000, and the latter 21,000 men 
engaged; but the strength of the position 
counterbalanced this numerical superiority. 
The French retained possesion of the field of 
battle. There were, however, no trophies, 
and the losses on both sides were severe. 

Ckavant (Battle).— The earl of Salisbury 
defeated the aUied French and Scottish army 
at this place, near Auxerre, in Burgundy, 
July, 1423. 

Ceatfoed (Battle) . — Hengist defeated the 
Britons, led by Vortimer, near this place, 
in Kent, at that time called Creccanford, 
A.D. 457. 

Ceatons of various colours were used in 
France early in the 15th century. Cont^ 
crayons were invented in France in 1795, 
and named after their inventor, Conte. 

Ceeation op the WoEiD. — The learned 
Dr. Hales, in his great work entitled "A 
New Analysis of Chronology and Geography, 
History and Prophecy" (vol. i. p. 210), re- 
marks : " In every system of historical 
chronology, sacred and profane, the two 
grand ceras, of the Creation of the World, 
and of the Nativity of Christ, have been 



CEE 

usually adopted as standards, by reference 
to which all subordinate epochs, aeras, and 
periods have been adjusted." This author 
gives a list of 120 dates, commencing B.C. 
6984, and terminating B.C. 3616, to which 
this event has been assigned by different 
authorities, and he admits that it might be 
swelled to 300. Dr. Hales places it at B c. 
5411. The date commonly adopted is B.C. 
4004; being that of Usher, Spanheim, Cahnet, 
Blair, &c., and the one used in the Enghsh 
Bible. The following are some of the prin- 
cipal variations : — 



.,,„„_ /MuUer, 6984 

^i°^^o^ 1 Strauchius, 6484 

Indian chronology { i?^^^i,eords. 1^1 

Babylonian chronology Bailly, 61-58 

Chinese chronology Bailly, 6157 

Diogenes Laertins Playfair, 6138 

Egyptian chronology Bailly, 6081 

Septuagint Abulfaragi, 5.586 

Septuagint, Alexandrine Scaliger, 5508 

Persian chronology Bailly, 5507 

Chronicle of Axiun, Abyssinian Bruce, 5500 

Jackson 5426 

rPlayfair, 5555 
T„„„„-, , „ J Jackson, 5481 

J^^^P^'^ i Hales, 5402 

LUniv. Hist. 4698 

Hales 5411 

Indian computation \ Megasthenes, 5369 

Talmudists Petrus Alliacens, 5344 

Septuagint, Vatican 5270 

Bede Strauchius, 5199 

Samaritan computation Scaliger, 4427 

Samaritan text TJniv. Hist. 4305 

Hebrew text 4161 

Playfair ) ^„„ 

Walker / ^"'' 

Usher, English Bible, &c 4004 

Kepler Playfair, 3993 

Petavius 3984 

Melancthi.n Playfair, 3964 

Luther 3961 

Lightfoot 3960 

Cornelius a Lapide TTniv. Hist. 3951 

Scaliger, Isaacson 3950 

Strauchius 3049 

Viilgar Jewish computation Strauchius, 3760 

Kabbi Lipman Univ. Hist. 3616 

Ceect (Battle) .—Edward III. landed at 
La Hogue, July 10, 1346, and ravaged the 
country on the left bank of the Seine, as far 
as Paris. On his return he halted at Crecy, 
a village near Abbeville, Aug. 25. King 
Philip of France, who followed with an im- 
mense army, came up with the English at 
this place, and the battle commenced about 
four in the afternoon of Saturday, Aug. 26. 
The French army amounted to 130,000, 
whilst Edward III. could only muster 36,800 
men. The king divided this small force into 
three hnes. The first was commanded by 
the prince of Wales, the Black Prince, who 
distinguished himself greatly in that well- 
fought field, and the second by the earl of 
Arimdel. Edward himself led the third. 
After a severe struggle, the French were 
completely routed. They lost 30,000 of their 
infantry, 4,000 men-at-arms, 1,400 gentlemen, 
1,200 knights, and several nobles ; whUst the 
kings of Bohemia and Majorca were slain in 
that fatal fray. The Enghsh loss did not 
256 



CRE 

amount to a hundred of all ranks. Hallam 
attributes the result to "the yeomen, who 
drew the bow with strong and steady arms, 
accustomed to use it in their native fields, 
and rendered fearless by personal compe- 
tence and civil freedom." Some continental 
writers attribute this extraordinary victory 
to the effect of cannon, which thev pretend 
was used by the Enghsh for the first time on 
this occasion. The statement is not sup- 
ported by satisfactory evidence. 

Credit Mobilieb. — This company was 
created by a decree Nov. 18, 1852. Its 
head quarters are in Paris, and its operations 
consist in the undertaking or origination of 
pubhc enterprises, such as railroads, canals, 
and mines. It is constituted on the limited 
hability principle. 

Ceeditoit (Devonshire). — Winfred suf- 
fered martyrdom here June 5, 354 a.d. A 
collegiate church was founded at this town in 
905. In 909 it became the seat of a bishopric, 
which was removed to Exeter in 1050. 
Crediton has frequently suffered from exten- 
sive conflagrations, and in 1743 the greater 
part of the to^vn was destroyed. 

Creeds, as the standard and rule of faith, 
existed in the Primitive church. Bingham 
(Antiq. b. xvi. eh. 1, s. 1) says, "For as to 
fundamental articles of faith, the Church had 
then always collected or summed up out of 
Scripture m her creeds, the profession of which 
was ever esteemed both necessary on the one 
hand and sufficient on the other, in order to 
the admission of members into the Church 
by baptism ; and consequently both neces- 
sary and sufficient to keep men in the unity 
of the Church, so far as concerns the unity 
of faith generally required of all Christians 
to make tbem one body and one Church of 
behevers." The Apostles', the Nicene, and 
the Athanasian, the most ancient creeds 
extant, are described under their respective 
heads. The Augsburg Confession was drawn 
up in 1530, and modified in 1579. Forty -two 
articles of the Church of England, afterwards 
reduced to thirty-nine, were drawn up in 
1551. The creed of Pope Pius IV. was pro- 
mulgated in 1564. Mogila, metropohtan of 
Kiow, drew up the creed for the Russian 
branch of the Greek church in 1642. The 
Confession of the Westminster Assembly, 
passed in 1643, was ratified by act of parha- 
ment in 1690. 

Crema (Italy). — The emperor Frederick!, 
captured this town a.d. 1160, and having per- 
mitted the inhabitants to withdraw, aban- 
doned it to the flames. The town was much 
injured from the explosion of a powder- 
magazine and a fire that followed, April 13, 
1768. In 1797 the inhabitants were incited 
by French emissaries to throw off the yoke 
of Venice, and declare in favour of the Cis- 
padane repubhc ; and it was made part of 
the Cisalpine republic by the treaty of Campo- 
Formio, Oct. 17, 1797. 

Ceemera (Italy). — On the banks of this 
small river, which flowed iato the Tiber near 
Eome, the 300 Fabii estabhshed a fortified 
post, and carried on hostilities against the 



CEE 

Veientes. They were surprised July 16, 
B.C. 477, and not one of the band escaped. 

CEEMOTfA (Italy), the capital of a province 
of the same name, was the seat of a Roman 
colony B.C. 221. The Gauls were defeated 
in a great battle under its walls B.C. 200, and 
it received a new colony B.C. 190. Cremona 
suffered during the civil wars. The van- 
quished legions of Vitellius, after his defeat 
by the generals of Vespasian, a.d. 69, having 
taken refuge here, carried the city by assault. 
It was given up to pillage, and completely 
destroyed. Though rebuilt by Vespasian, it 
did not recover its former prosperity, and 
was again destroyed by the Lombards a.d. 
605. The inhabitants erected their city into 
a repubhc in 1107. It joined the Lombard 
League in 1176. The emperor Henry VII. 
imprisoned many of the inhabitants, abolished 
their privileges, and destroyed the ramparts 
of the city, in 1311. After this time it passed 
through the hands of several masters, and 
was ceded to Venice in 1428. Louis XII. 
took it in 1499, and bestowed it upon the 
Swiss, in return for their alliance. He 
obtained possession of it in 1509, and the 
inhabitants threw off the French yoke in 
1512. The Venetians recovered it for France 
in 1515. It shared the varied fortimes of the 
ItaMan cities, submitted to Bonaparte in 1796, 
and its incorporation with the Cisalpine 
repubhc was recognized by the emperor 
Francis II. in the treaty of Campo-Formio, 
Oct. 17, 1797. It was recovered by the allies 
in 1799, but the French regained possession 
in 1800. It was ceded to Austria at the set- 
tlement of Europe in 1814-15, and remained 
in its possession, with the exception of a 
short interval in 1848-49, until it was incor- 
porated vrith Sardinia by the treaty of Zu- 
rich, Nov. 10, 1859. Cremona is the seat of a 
bishopric. 

CRESOEifT. — Grideon took from Zebah and 
Zalmunna, kings of Midian, B.C. 1245, "orna- 
ments like the moon," that hung on their 
camels' necks (Judges, viii. 21 — 24). The 
Midianites were Ishmaelites, and it is there- 
fore probable that the Turks derived the use 
of the crescent, as one of their standards, 
from their ancestors, though some authorities 
state it was first used by them a.d. 1446, after 
the taking of Constantinople. Warburton 
(Crescent and the Cross) says, " The cres- 
cent was the symbol of the city of Byzantium, 
and was adopted by the Turks. This device 
is of ancient origin, as appears from several 
medals, and took its rise from an event thus 
related by a native of Byzantium. Philip, 
the father of Alexander the Great, meeting 
vdth great difficulties in carrying on the siege 
of this city, set the workmen one dark night 
to undermine the walls. Luckily for the 
besieged, a young moon suddenly appearing, 
discovered the design, which ^accordingly 
miscarried ; in acknowledgement whereof 
the Byzantines erected a statue to Diana, 
and the crescent became the symbol of the 
state." Philip besieged Byzantium B.C. 340. 

Crescent (Orders of). — Charles I., king 
of If aples and SicHv, instituted an order of 
257 



CRI 

knighthood of the Crescent, a.d. 1268; Rene 
of Anjou instituted another in 1448 ; and 
the Sultan Selim established an order of the 
Crescent in 1801, in honour of the battle of 
Aboukir. 

Ceespy, (Treaty,) between Francis I. 
of France, and the emperor Charles V., was 
signed at this small town, near Meaux, in 
Valois, Sept. 18, 1544. They agreed, among 
other things, to restore all conquests made 
subsequent to the truce of Nice in 1539, and 
to join in making war against the Turks. 
Charles V. renounced his claim to Bur- 
gundy, and Francis I. renounced all pre- 
tensions to the kingdom of Naples, the duchy 
of Milan, and the suzerainty of Flanders and 
Artois. 

Ceest. — The custom of adopting the figure 
of some animal as a cognizance is of great 
antiquity. Herodotus (i. 171) attributes to 
the Carians the invention of crests for 
helmets, devices for shields, and handles for 
bucklers. Alexander the Great is said to 
have assumed a ram's head as his device, 
and Julius Csesar a star. Richard I. of 
England is believed to have been the 
first modern to revive the practice, as 
his image on a seal of the period is 
represented in a helmet adorned with a 
sprig of the planta-genista, or broom, from 
which the name of his family was derived. 
Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster, is 
represented with a crest before 1286 a.d., and 
Baron de Spencer, in 1296, adorned his horse 
with the same embellishment. These earlier 
crests were mostly plumes of feathers. 
In 1322, the earl of Leicester assumed a 
dragon as his cognizance. Edward III. 
originated the custom of conferring crests as 
military honours in 1333. 

Crete. {See Candia.) 

Ceeteldt (Battle). — Prince Ferdinand of 
Brunswick defeated the count of Clermont 
at the head of the French army, on this plain, 
near Cleves, June 23, 1758. 

Cricket. — Although a game with bat and 
baU, somewhat similar to the modern pas- 
time, was played in England as early as the 
13th century, the name of cricket first occurs 
in the "Mysteries of Love and Eloquence," 
by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, pub- 
hshed A.D. 1685. Fosbroke states, that club- 
baU, a game played in the time of Edward III., 
was its ancestor. A match was played at 
Moulsey Hurst, between six unmarried and 
sis married women, Aug. 3, 1775. The former 
proved victorious. One of the fair cricketers 
scored seventeen runs. 

Crimea (Russia) was peopled originally 
by the Tauri. The Greeks formed settle- 
ments towards the middle of the 6th century 
B.C., and founded the Mttle kingdom of 
Bosphorus {q. v.) about b.c. 480. The 
Goths descended on its shores a.d. 250, and 
during the 4th century it submitted to the 
Huns, who were expelled by Justinian (527- 
565). In 679 it was seized by the Chazars, 
and after various reverses of fortune, sub- 
mitted to the Tartars in 1237. In 1261 the 
Genoese obtained considerable trading pri- 
s 



CEI 

vileges, and ultimately seized the country; 
but, in 1475, Mohammed II. overthrew their 
power, and subnaitted the Crimea to the 
Turkish yoke. It afterwards existed for 
about three centuries as a dependency of 
the Sultan, under the nominal government 
of native khans. In 1696 it was invaded by 
the Kussians under Peter the Great, and 
again in 1736, under Count Munich, who 
defeated the Tartar forces sent against him, 
but failed to accompUsh any signal success. 
A third Russian army of 40,000 men, led by 
Dolgoruki, entered the Crimea July 26, 
1770, and reduced the whole peninsula to 
subjection within a month; and in 1771 a 
new khan was chosen, who owed his eleva- 
tion to Russian influence. In 1783 the khan 
a dicated, and an imperial manifesto was 
issued, stating the intended incorporation 
of the Crimea with the Russian empire ; to 
accomplish which, more than 30,000 Tartars, 
of every age and sex, were massacred. The 
formal cession of the Crimea by Turkey did 
not take place till the peace of Jassy, Jan. 
9, 1792. During the Russo-Turkish war of 
1853-56, the Crimea was the scene of many 
of the principal operations. An army of 
58,000 men, of whom 25,000 were Enghsh, 
25,000 French, and 8,000 Turks, landed at 
Old Fort, twentv miles from Eupatoria, 
Sept. 14, 1854. The final evacuation of the 
Crimea by the aUies took place July 12, 1856. 

Crimeau- Medals. — The public distri- 
bution of these medals to the brave men who 
distinguished themselves in the Crimean 
campaign against Russia, was made by 
Queen Victoria in St. James's Park, May 18, 
1855. 

Ceimisus (Battle).— Timoleon of Corinth, 
with an army of 11,000 men, defeated the 
Carthaginians, 70,000 strong, on the banks 
of the Crimisus or Crimissus, a river in Sicily, 
B.C. 339. 

Crinoline. {See Hoops.) 

Cripplegate. — An ancient gate of the 
city of London, is noticed under this name 
as early as a.d. 1016. It was so called 
from the cripples who congregated here to 
seek alms. For some time a part of the 
postern was used as a prison for debtors 
and trespassers. The gate was rebuilt by 
the brewers of London in 1244, and was 
repaired in 1663. The materials were sold 
for £91 in 1760, the purchaser agreeing to 
commence the work of demoUtion Sept. 1 in 
that year, and to clear away aU the rubbish 
within one month from that date. 

Ceissa. {See Cireha.) 

Croatia (Austria) . — This province of the 
Austrian empire, forming part of the ancient 
Pannonia, was incorporated with Illyria by 
Augustus. The Goths settled here a.d. 509, 
and the Crotians, a tribe of the Wends, in 
640 ; and from them the country received its 
name. They conquered several neighbour- 
ing states, and erected Croatia into a king- 
dom iu the 10th century. It was incorporated 
with Hungary in 1100, and with that longdom 
passed under the Austrian rule. 

Ceockaeds. — Base coin imported into this 
258 



CEO 

country from Flanders, in large quantities, 
during the reign of Edward I. By 27 Edw. I.^ 
passed a.d. 1299, the circulation of this coin 
was prohibited under severe penalties. 

Ceockert-ware is supposed to have been 
invented by the Egyptians, who are said to 
have introduced it into Greece about B.C. 
1490. In a hundred years from that time 
it was in general use. {See Eaethenwaee.) 

Cromlechs. — These ancient structures, 
found in diiferent parts of the island, are 
now believed to be sepulchral monuments, 
though an opinion long prevailed that they 
were heathen altars or temples. The most 
celebrated is the cromlech at Plaa Newydd, 
in the island of Anglesey. 

Ceonstadt (Russia). — This strongly for- 
tified seaport-town was founded by Peter 
the Great a.d. 1710. Menschikoff wrested the 
island, on which part of the fortifications 
stand, from the Swedes in 1703. It received 
the name of Cronstadt in 1721. Nelson fol- 
lowed the Russian fleet to Cronstadt in May, 
1801. The alhed English and French fleets 
arrived off" Cronstadt the last week in Jxine, 
1854, and returned June 1, 1855 ; but on 
neither occasion were the fortifications 
assailed. 

Cropeedt Bridge (Battle). — The royal 
troops defeated the Parliamentary army led 
by Sir WUham "Waller at this place, near 
Banbury, June 29, 1644. 

Crosby Hall, Bishopsgate, formerly 
called Crosby Place, was built about 1470 a.d., 
by Sir John Crosby, grocer and woolman, 
knighted by Edward IV. in 1471. It was 
built of stone and timber, very large and 
beautiful, and, according to Stow, "the 
highest at that time in London." Richard, 
duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., 
lodged here. 

Cross.— The sign of the cross was used by 
Christians in the sacrament of baptism in the 
2nd century, and the cross was adopted as the 
standard of Christian warriors by Constantino 
the Great, who solemnly affirmed that he saw 
one two miles long shining in the heavens 
at mid-day, Oct. 26, 312 a.d. The cross on 
which our' Lord suffered is said to have been 
discovered by the empress Helena, mother 
of Constantine, a.d. 326. Three having been 
found buried beneath Calvary, the identity 
of the true cross was determnied by the 
miraculous cures it wrought on such sick 
people as touched it. This discovery is 
commemorated every 3rd of May, by the 
feast of the "Invention of the Cross." After 
this event images of the cross were erected 
on altars, which first took place about 340. 
In 614, Chosroes II., king of Persia, plun- 
dered Jerusalem and carried away the true 
cross, which was recovered \iy the emperor 
HeracUus, and restored to Calvary Sept. 14, 
629. The festival of the " Exaltation of the 
Cross," held Sept. 14, is in memory of this 
event. The worship of crosses was estabhshed 
at the council of Nicaea, in Bithynia, in 
786. During the Middle Ages crosses were 
erected to mark the site of any particular 
event. Thus Edward I. marked the spots on 



CRO 

which the bier of his queen, Eleanor, rested, 
on its way from Herdeby, in Lincoln, to 
Westminster, by building crosses over them. 
Eleanor died Nov. 28, 1291, and was buried 
Dec. 17. 

Cross (Maids of the). — This sisterhood 
was instituted A.D. 1625, atEoye, in Picardy, 
by four young women, who resolved to 
devote themselves to the education of poor 
girls. In 1636 they were compelled by perse- 
cution to remove to Paris, where their 
society was erected into a regular order by 
the archbishop in 1640, and confirmed by 
royal letters patent in 1642. 

Ceoss (Order of). — This order of ladies 
was founded by Eleonora de Gonzaga, a.d. 
1668, to commemorate the miraculous pre- 
servation from fire of a gold cross containing 
relics of the true cross. It was confirmed by 
bull of Clement IX., July 27, 1668, and by 
the emperor Sept. 9. 

Ceoss-bow. {See Aebalist.) 

Ceossed, or Cboucheb Feiaes. — 
Originally three orders of friars were thus 
called, in England, Flanders, and Bohemia, 
all of whom claimed St. Cletus, a.d. 78, as 
the founder ; and St. Cyriacus, who was 
bishop of Jerusalem in 331, as the restorer 
of their fraternity. The rules and constitu- 
tion were granted in 1169 by Pope Alex- 
ander III.; but the blue robe and silver cross, 
which distinguished the order in later times, 
were not adopted till 1462. In 1568 Pius V. 
sought to restore the friars to their original 
sanctity of life by confirming and enlarging 
their privileges, but apparently with httle 
success, as the order was finally suppressed 
by Pope Alexander VII. in 1656. 

Ceotosta (Italy) . — This city was founded 
by a colony of Achseans b . c . 710. War having 
broken out between the inhabitants and the 
people of Sybaris, the latter were defeated 
in a great battle, and their city was de- 
stroyed B.C. 510. The elder Dionysius took 
Crotona B.C. 389, and Agathocles b.c. 299, 
and it afterwards fell under the power of 
Pyrrhus. The Eomans seized it B.C. 277. 
A colony of Romans was sent here B.C. 194. 
It suffered greatly during numerous wars, 
and the modern town of Cotrone, which 
occupies its site, is a place of no importance. 

Ceown. — The first mention of a king's 
crown is in 2 Sam. i. 10, which describes the 
delivery of Saul's crovra and bracelet to 
David, B.C. 1055. At first crowns were plain 
fillets, bound round the head, though that 
taken by David from the Ammonites B.C. 
1038 (2 Sam. xii. 30), which weighed one 
talent, or 120 lb., and was adorned with 
precious stones, was doubtless of a diff"erent 
description. Tarquinius Priscus, B.C. 618, 
is said to have been the first Roman king 
who assumed a crown; but as a similar 
ornament was worn by his- oflEicers and 
magistrates, it cannot be considered a mark 
of royalty. The ordinary use of the modern 
crown commenced, according to Selden, with 
Constantine, whose reign began a.d. 306. 
Crowns were adopted by the Spanish sove- 
reigns about 580 ; by the kings of Lombardy, 
259 



CRO 

who wore iron crowns, about 590; and by 
the French kings in 768. Egebert, who be- 
came king of Kent in 786, is represented on 
his coins as crowned. The papal triple 
crown was originally a plain pointed cap. 
Pope Hormisdas added the first crown about 
523, Boniface VIII. the second (1294^-1303), 
and John XXII. the third (1316—1334). 

Ceown and Hale-ceown. — The first com- 
mission for coining these pieces of money 
was signed by Edward VI. on the 1st Oct. 
1551. 

CeownPoint (America). — G-eneralJohnson 
defeated the French near this fort, situated 
on Lake Champlain, Sept. 7, 1755 ; and they 
abandoned it in July, 1759. The fort was 
surprised by the revolted Americans in 1775. 
They evacuated it Oct. 13, 1776, after the 
signal defeat of their squadron on Lake 
Champlain. 

Ceows and Rooks. — In consequence of 
the depredations committed by these birds, 
an act (24 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed a.d. 
1532, to compel every one, under penalty of 
a fine, to do his best to destroy them, and 
to render it incumbent on aU villages and 
country towns to provide and maintain nets 
for their capture. This statute was partially 
repealed in 1565, by 8 Eliz. c. 15. 

Ceotdon (Surrey), caUed in Domesday 
Book Croinedone, was given to Lanfranc 
soon after the Conquest. A palace buUt of 
timber was in existence a.d. 1278. Archbishop 
Parker entertained Elizabeth at the new 
palace of Croydon in 1575. It was converted 
into a factory in 1780. Archbishop Whitgift 
founded the hospital in 1596. The canal was 
commenced in 1801, and the railroad to 
London opened June 1, 1839. 

Ceotland ( Lincolnshire) . — Ethelbald, 
king of Mercia, founded a monastery on 
this island a.d. 716. The building was 
completed in 726. The Danes killed the 
abbot and plundered the monastery in 870. 
It was restored by King Edred in 948. The 
abbey was destroyed by fire in 1091, and re 
built in 1112. It was again burnt in 1142, 
and restored about 1170. Croyland was sup- 
pressed vrith the other monasteries at the 
Reformation, 

Ceoziee, the pastoral staff" of an arch- 
bishop, is distinguished by a cross, and must 
not be confounded with the staff of a bishop, 
which terminates in a shepherd's crook. The 
origin of the crozier is referred to the original 
staff of the Romans. It was adopted at a 
very early period in the Church's history, 
and is known to have been in use about the 
year 500. In the 12th century the crozier 
was appointed to be borne by metropohtans 
and patriarchs, which privilege was after- 
wards extended to all archbishops by Gre- 
gory IX. (1227—1241). A writer in Notes 
and Queries (ii. 313) states that a crozier 
was borne at the funerals of Brian Ouppa 
of Winton, a.d. 1662 ; Juxon of London, 1663 ; 
Frewen of York, 1664; Wren of Ely, 1667; 
CosinofDunelm, 1671; Trelawney of Winton, 
1721 ; and Lindsay of Armagh, 1724. It is 
engraven on the monuments of Goodrich of 
S 2 



CEO 

Ely, 1552 ; Magrath of Cashel, 1622 ; Hacket 
of' Liehfleld, 1670 ; Creggleton of WeUs, 
Lamplugh of York, 1691; Sheldon, 1677; 
Hoadley of Winton, and Porteus of Lon- 
don. 

Ceoziees (Order of ) .—These monks claim 
St. Cletus, who flourished a.d. 78, as the 
founder of their order. AH that is known 
with any eertmnty respecting the origin of 
the order, is that it was in existence in Italy 
when Alexander III. succeeded to the papacy 
in 1159. In 1211 Theodore of CeUes founded 
a similar order in Flanders, and in 1236 another 
estabhshment was formed at Prague, in Bohe- 
mia. All these orders have gradually become 
extinct. 

CEUcirisiON-, 'fastening to the cross,' 
was a mode of execution common to most 
nations of antiquity. The Jews are said to 
have practised it very early, and the death 
of Saul's sons, whom the Gibeonites hanged 
on a tree (2 Sam. xxi. 9, b.c. 1022), is 
instanced as a proof; but it can scarcely be 
considered satisfactory. It has long existed 
in China, was practised by the Carthaginians, 
and is mentioned as in use in the earhest 
period of Assyi'ian history. Amongst the 
Carthaginians all ranks were hable to cru- 
cifixion, but the Eomau law restricted it to 
slaves. Christ suffered this death Friday, 
April 15, A.D. 29. During the siege of Jeru- 
salem by Titus in 70, the Eomans crucified 
about 500 Jews daily, insomuch that Josephus 
assures us the soldiers were unable to find 
wood for the crosses, or crosses for the 
bodies. The emperor Constantiae abolished 
death by crucifixion in 325. 

Ceueltx to Animals. — The Society for 
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was 
estabhshedin 1824. The laws on this subject 
were consohdated and amended by 5 & 6 
Win. IV. c. 59 (Sept. 9, 1835), and the pro- 
Tisions of the act were extended to Ireland 
by 1 Vict. c. 66 (July 15, 1837). 

Ceusades. — These wars, for the recovery 
of the Holy Land from the Saracens, took 
place in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. 
The first Crusade was undertaken in conse- 
quence of the appeals of Peter the Hermit, 
who was so shocked at the barbarous treat- 
ment experienced by Christian pilgrims to 
the Holy Sepiilchre, that he resolved in 1093 
to preach in favour of a war against the 
Mohammedan persecutors. 

A.D. 

1095. Nov. 18 to 28. Pope Urban II. addresses the 

Couucil of Clei-mont on the sanctity of 
the entei-prise, and announces the first 
Crusade. 

1096. During this year four abortive attempts are 

made to commence the Crusade^ by about 
275,000 fanatics, neai'ly all of whom perish 
on the march. In August, the properly- 
organized force of Godfrey of Bouillon 
sets out. 

1097. Harch. Godfrey crosses the Hellespont. 

May 8 to June 24. Siege and capture of 
Niccea, in Bithynia. Oct. 21. Siege of 
Antioch. 

1098. Jime 3. Capture and sack of Antioch. 

June 28. The battle of Antioch is gained 
by the Chi-istiaus. 
2G0 



CEU 



1099. June 7. The Christian anny, in number 
40,000, invests Jerusalem. July 15. .Jeni- 
SJilem is taken, and the inhabitants are 
put to the sword. July 23. Godfi-ey is 
elecxed king of Jerusalem, and the first 
Ci-usade ends. 

1146. Easter. St. Bernard preaches the second 
Crasiide, which is conducted by Louis VII. 
of Fi-ance, and Conrad II. of Gennany. 

1148. Defeat of the Christians at the siege of 

Damascus. ^^ 

1149. Conrad II. and Louis VIT. return to Europe. 

The end of the second Crusade. 

1187. Oct. Jerusalem is recaptured by the infidels, 

under Saladin. 

1188. Philip Augustus of France and Henry II. of 

England resolve on a third Crusade. 

1189. The emperor Frederick Barbarossa joins the 

enterprise. Aug. Siege of Acre i^ commenced 
by Guy of Lusignan. 

1191. March. Philip an-ives at Acre. June 8. 

Richard Coeur de Lion airives at Acre. 
July 12. Capture of Acre. 

1192. Oct. 25. End of the third Crusade, and de- 

parture of Richard I. for England. 
1195. Henry VI. of Germany undertakes the fourth 

Crusiide, at the instigation of Pope Caeles- 

tine III. 
1197. The Crusade abandoned, in consequence of 

the death of the emperor. 
1199. Inuoeeut IIL commissions Fulk of Nuilly to 

preach the fifth Crusade. 

1202. Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, undertakes 

the command of the expedition, which 
sets out soon after Easter. Nov. Capture 
of Zara by the Christians. 

1203. Jtme 25 to July 18. Siege and capture of Con- 

stantiuoisle, and end of the fifth Crusade. 
1216. The Gei-mans and Hungarians commence the 
sixth Crusade. 

1218. May. The Crusaders besiege Damietta. 

1219. Nov. 5. Captuie of Damietta. 

1228. Aug. The tmperor Fiederick 11. sails from 

Brundisium, and arrives at Acre. 

1229. Feb. 20. A truce is agi-eed upon between 

Frederick II. and the Sultan, for ten years 
and forty days, and Jenisalem is restored 
to the Chi-istians. 

12.38. The Tm-ks seize Jerusalem. 

1239. Thibaud, count of Champagne, commences 
the seventh Crusade. 

1241. PJchard, earl of Cornwall, ransoms Jerusalem, 
and obtains a nominal surrender of Pales- 
tine to the Christians. 

1244. Jerusalem is besieged and taken by the Koraa- 

mians. 

1245. The eighth Ci-usade is determined on by the 

Council of Lyons. 
1248. Aug. Louis IX. of France sails as leader of 

the Crusade. 
1250. Louis IX. is made prisoner by the infidels at 

Mansourah. June. He is ransomed, and a 

ten years' truce is agreed upon. 
1254. April. Loviis IX. returns to France. 
1268. Louis IX. and Edward, prince of Wales, 

resolve to undertake a ninth Crusade. 

1270. Departui-e of L.uis IX. Aug. Louis IX. dies 

of a pestilence at Carthage. 

1271. April. PriQce Edward arrives at Acre. 

1272. July. The Entrlish quit Palestine. 

1291. May 18. The Mamelukes takes Acre ; thereby 
destroying all Christian power in Syria. 

CEirsTTJMEEiTTM (Italy), also called Crus- 
tmneria or Crustumium, was one of the Latin 
cities that took up arms against Eomulus, to 
avenge the rape of the Sabiae women, B.C. 
750. After several conflicts, it was reduced 
to subjection to Eome, B.C. 499. 

Ceuzado. — Alfonso V. of Portugal first 
struck this gold coin, bearing the impression 
of a cross, about a.d. 1457, when Calixtus III. 
ordered a crusade against the infidels. 



CEY 

Crtophortjs. — This instrument, the frost- 
bearer, or carrier of cold, for freezing water 
l)y its own evaporation, was invented by 
Dr. Wolla^ton. The " Philosophical Trans- 
actions" for 1813- (p. 73) contam Dr. Wol- 
laston's account of the invention. 

Crtptogeaphy, or the art of secret writing, 
was practised at a very early period. {See 
Cipher.) 

Crystal Palace (Hyde Park). — The 
building committee appointed by the com- 
missioners, invited designs March 13, 1850, 
and reported upon iib3 plans, aU of which 
they rejected May 9. The oouLiact for the 
Crystal Palace was signed July 10. The first 
column was fixed Sept. 26, and the building 
was dehvered to the commissioners Feb. 3, 
1851 . Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding 
with the year, and its width 408, with an 
additional projection on the north side, 936 
feet long by 48 wide. The central portion 
was 120 feet wide, by 64 high ; on either side 
of this was another portion, 72 feet wide, by 
4i high ; and the north and south portions 
were 72 feet vfide, by 24 high. The transept 
was 72 feet in width and 108 in height. The 
entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 
19 acres, nearly seven times as much as St. 
Paul' s Cathedral. There were three entrances, 
with eight pay -places to each, and 18 doors for 
exit. Four galleries, accessible by 10 double 
staircases, ran lengthways. The building 
contained 3,300 iron columns, 1,074 base 
pieces beneath the columns, and 3,500 
girders. For the roof 17 acres of glass were 
required. There were also 1,500 vertical 
glazed sashes. The galleries and the floor 
contained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring, 
and the woodwork was estimated at 600,000 
cubic feet. It was opened May 1, and closed 
Oct. 11, 1851. The entire budding was re- 
moved in 1852. {See Great ExHiBiTioif.) 

Crystal Palace (Sydenham). — At the 
close of the Great Exhibition of 1851, a com- 
pany was formed, in order to purchase the 
materials of the building, and to re-erect them 
on another site. This was registered as 
the Crystal Palace Company, May 17, 1852. 
Penge Park and the adjacent property, 
amounting to 200 acres, was soon after 
purchased. 



1852. Aiig. 5. Mr. Laing, M.P., erects the first 

column of the new biiilding. 

1853. Aug. 15. Twelve work)neii are killed by the 

faU of a scaffold. Dec. 31. Mr. Waterhouse 
Hawkins gives a dinner to twenty-four 
scientific men, in the body, of his model 



1854. Feb. 28. The directors announce the intended 

opening of the Palace in May. June 10. 
The Palace is opened by the Queen. Oct. 28. 
MUitai-y musical fete, in aid of the Patriotic 
Fund. 

1855. April 20. Visit of the emperor and empress 

of the French. Dec. 13. Extraordinary 
general meeting of the shareholders, who 
complain greatly of management. 

1856. Jime 18. Fu-st complete display of the water- 

works. Nov. 1. Robson is sentenced to 
twenty years' transportation, for forgery 
and fraud on the Crystal Palace Company, 
to the amount of £28,000. 



cue 



1857. June 15, 17, and 19. Preliminaiy performances 

take place in preparation for the Handel 
festival. Sept. 2. Tonic Sol-Fa concert, by 
3,000 children. 

1858. July 2. Second rehearsal for the Handel 

festival. 

1859. June 20, 22, and 24. Handel festival. 

18t)0. June 25, &c. Concerts by 3,000 Oi-pheonistes. 
July 9. Distribution of prizes to volunteers, 
for proficiency in rifle- shooting. 

1861. Ffcb. 20 and 21. The north wing of the 
building is blown down. May 26. The 
Palace is opened to shareholders and their 
friends on Simday. 

Ctesiphom- (Assyria) .—The date of the 
foundation of this city, on the eastern bank 
of the Tigris, and only a short distance from 
Seleucia, has not been ascertained. It was 
the favourite winter residence of the Parthian 
monarchs, and was sacked by the Eomans 
about A.D. 165. The emperor Severus took 
it by assault a.d. 198, and carried ofi" 100,000 
captives. The Persians, defeated by the 
emperor Juhan, in June, 365, took refuge in 
Ctesiphon ; but the emperor would not under- 
take the siege. Omar sacked it in March, 
637 ; and from this blow it never recovered. 
At this period it was known by the name of 
Madayu. {See Cufa.) 

Cuba (Atlantic). — This, the largest of the 
West-Indian islands, was discovered by 
Christopher Columbus, Oct. 28, 1492. It 
was named Juana, then Fernandina, and 
afterwards Santiago. The natives called it 
Cuba, which name has since come into 
general use. Columbus returned to the 
island April 29, 1494, and again in 1502. The 
first Spanish settlement was formed in 1511. 
They carried on continual war with the 
aboriginal inhabitants, who were almost 
exterminated by 1560. The cultivation of 
tobacco and the sugar-cane was introduced 
about 1580. Nearly the whole of the island 
was captured by the Enghsh in 1762 ; but it 
was restored to the Spaniards by the 19th 
article of the treaty of Paris, concluded 
Feb. 10, 1763. {See HAVANisrAH, &c.) 

Cub AN, or Kttb an (Kussia) . — The territory 
on the banks of the river Cuban was recognized 
as independent by the Kussians and Turks 
in 1774, but in 1783 the empress Catherine 
and Prince Potemldn added it to the Eussian 
empire. 

Cubit, the first measure of which we have 
any record. Noah was ordered to make the 
length of the ark 300 cubits, its breadth 50, 
and the height 30, B.C. 3468 (Gen. vi. 15). 
Authorities are divided respecting its length, 
which was probably about twenty inches. 

Cuckistg-Stgol, or Tumbrel, an instru- 
ment, invented for the punishment of scolds, 
by ducking them in the water, was in use in 
this country at a very early period. The 
churchwardens' and chamberlains' accounts 
at Kingston-upon-Thames for the year 1572 
contain the foUowiug : — 

s. d. 

The making of the cucking-stool 8 

Ironwork for the same 3 

Timber for the same 7 6 

Three brasses for the same and thi-ee wheels 4 10 
261 



cue 

The punislmient was administered in this 
town in April, 1745. The newspaper of the 
time thus chronicles the event : " Last week 
a woman that keeps the Queen's Head ale- 
house, at Kingston, in Surrey, was ordered 
by the court to be ducked for scolding, and 
was accordingly placed in the chair, and 
ducked in the river Thames, under Kingston 
Bridge, in the presence of two or three 
thousand people." Another woman was 
punished in the same manner at this place as 
late as 1801. 

Cucumber. — The Greeks and Eomans 
pickled the cucumber. It is said to have 
been common in England in the time of 
Edward III., and having been lost during 
the wars of the Eoses, was reintroduced in 
the reign of Henry VIII. 

CuDDALOEE (Hindostan). — This town was 
ceded by its native prince to the East-India 
Company a.d. 1681. They built a factory, 
which was extended and fortified in 1702. 
The French took it in 1758, and abandoned 
it on the approach of Coote in 1760. The 
French, assisted by Hyder, captured it 
April4, 17.-^2. The English failed in an attempt 
to retake it in 1783, but it was restored to 
them by treaty, March 11, 1784. 

CuFA (Assyria) .— " The name of Cufa," 
says Gibbon (ch. li.), "describes a habitation 
of reeds and earth." It was founded by 
Omar, after the sack of Ctesiphon, a.d. 637, 
and, in its construction, the ruins of that 
city were employed. It revolted against 
Othman in 656, and Ali was killed in the 
mosque of Cufa, Jan. 21, 661. 

CuiEASs. — This defence for the breast 
and back existed among the Egyptians, 
Persians, Greeks, and Romans, though its 
form was, of course, subject to many modifi- 
cations. Its modern name is derived from the 
French cuir or Latin cormm, both of which 
signify leather, because that was the mate- 
rial usually employed. Subsequently, rings 
and scales were added, and at length, cui- 
rasses were formed of sohd plates of iron and 
brass, which protected the body, from the 
neck to the girdle. These became general 
during the reign of Edward III. (1327-1377). 
Its use was revived in the English army in 
1820. 

CuiEASSiEE. — Captain Cruso ("MOitarie 
Instructions for the Cavallrie," 1632) says : — 
*' This sort of Cavallrie is of late iavention, 
namely by the Germanes." Cuirassiers also 
formed part of the French army, and were 
retained when it was reorganized in 1791. 

CuiiDEES. — The name given to the mem- 
bers of a rehgious order, established in 
England, Ireland, and Scotland, in the early 
ages of the Church. The origin of the 
Culdees is assigned to the 5th century, and 
St. Patrick, whose mission to Ireland oc- 
curred in 432, is said to have been of the 
number. Columba, the apostle of the Piets, 
who landed in Scotland in 563, was also 
a Culdee ; and the same sect includes 
Columbamis, who introduced Christianity to 
the Burgundjans, Franks, and Swiss, in 590. 
The Culdees never acknowledged the papal 



CUM 

supremacy, and they possessed several seats 
of learning in Scotland. That of Melrose, 
which was one of the chief, was burnt by 
the Danes in 850. St. Andrews was so 
renowned, that King Constantine II. spent 
the last years of bis hie there, and died there 
in 943. The Culdees existed at Bardsey as 
late as 1188, and at lona until 1203. They 
flourished at Dimkeld until 1127, when 
King David I. converted their monastery into 
a cathedral, and took measures, by which 
the Culdees were gradually suppressed. 

CuLLODEX (Battle). — The duke of Cum- 
berland defeated the Pretender Charles 
Edward on this moor, near Inverness (0. S.) 
April 16, 1746. This victory entirely crushed 
the rebellion. 

Culm (Battle).— A battle was fought 
between the aUied Austrians, Prussians, and 
Russians, and the French, near Culm, in 
Prussia, Aug. 29 and 30, 1813. The French, 
who were defeated, lost, in the two days, 
18,000 men, whilst the loss of the allies 
did not exceed 5,000. Sixty pieces of cannon, 
two eagles, and 300 ammunition-waggons, 
were captured from the French. 

CuLVERiN. — A culverin of 41b. calibre 
was made by the Moors a.d. 1132, and called 
Salamonica ; and several instruments of a 
similar kind were employed at the battle of 
Tongus in 1408. Hand culverins were intro- 
duced aboiit 1440. 

CuM^ (Italy). — This, the earliest Greek 
colony in Italy, is said by some authorities 
to have been founded B.C. 1050. It must, 
however, be referred to a later date. From 
about B.C. 700 to B.C. 4.50, it enjoyed the 
highest prosperity. It resisted an invasion 
of the Etruscans B.C. 522. Aristodemus 
obtained the supremacy B.C. 505, and was 
expelled by the nobles after he had exercised 
it about twenty years. Tarquinius Superbus, 
the exiled king of Rome, sought refuge 
at Cumse b. c. 496. Hieron, tyrant of 
Syracuse, came to the aid of the Ciunseans, 
and defeated the Carthaginian and Tyrrhe- 
nian fleet B.C. 474. The Samnites captured 
Cumse B.C. 420, put the male inhabitants 
to death, and estabhshed a colony. It was 
admitted to the Roman franchise B.C. 338. 
Sylla retired to the neighbourhood of Cumae 
after his abdication, B.C. 79. Ifarses captured 
the town after a long siege, a.d. 553. It 
was destroyed by an earthquake in 1538. 
Cumse was "also celebrated as the abode of 
the fabled Sibyl, and for a long time her 
supposed cave was shown to visitors. Justin 
Martyr saw it in the middle of the 2nd 
century. Cimiae was for some time the seat 
of a bishop. 

CuMANA (Venezuela), the capital of a 
province of the same name, is the oldest 
city founded by Europeans in South America. 
Diego Castellon commenced it a.d. 1523. It 
was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- 
quake in 1766. The inhabitants joined in 
the revolt against Spain, April 19, 1810. 

Cumberland is said to owe its name 
to the Cymbri or Cumbri, its aboriginal 
inhabitants. lu 945, Edmund, king of 



England, gave it to Malcolm I., of Scotland, 
on condition that the lattei' should assist 
him in his endeavours to repel hostile in- 
vasions, and in 1032 this arrangement vras 
confirmed by Canute. At the period of the 
Conquest, Malcolm II. aided the northern 
rebels in their opposition to Norman 
tyranny'; inconsequence of which, William I. 
led an army against him in 1072, and added 
Cumberland to his own territories, giving 
Malcolm some English towns as a compen- 
sation. The county remained an object of 
contention between the two kingdoms for 
some time, and was ravaged by the Scotch 
in 1091 and 1135 ; on which last occasion 
Stephen resigned his claim. Henry II. 
recovered it in 1157. Cumberland was 
finally annexed to England in 1237. The 
Border service was instituted by Edward I. 
in 1296, when Eobert de Chfford was made 
Lord Warden of the Marches, and appointed 
to guard the country against Scotch invasion, 
and to decide disputes between the people 
of both kingdoms. Edward Bruce ravaged 
Cumberland in 1315, and in 1322 his brother 
Eobert also entered the county, whence he 
returned with immense booty; and for a 
long period the whole border territory was 
the scene of continual marauding incursions. 

CuNAXA (Battle). — Cyrus the Younger 
was defeated and slain by Artaxerxes II., 
at this place, in Upper Asia, b.c. 401. 

CuNEKSDOBF (Battle). — Frederick II., of 
Prussia, attacked the allied Austrian and 
Eussian army at this place, near Frankfort, 
Aug. 12, 1759. The Prussians were at first 
successful, and a messenger was sent to 
Berhn, with the following message to the 
queen : — " Madam, we have driven the Eus- 
sians from their intrenchments. In two 
hours expect to hear of a glorious victory." 
Their opponents, however, renewed the con- 
test with great vigour, and the king was 
compelled to order a retreat, having lost 
30,000 men in killed and wounded, and 200 
pieces of artUlery. 

C TJ K A 9 o A ( Atlantic ) . — The Spaniards 
formed a settlement on this island, one of 
the Antilles, a.d. 1527. It was taken by the 
Dutch in 1634. The inhabitants having 
claimed the protection of England, the island 
and its dependencies surrendered to an 
English squadron Sept. 13, 1800. The island, 
restored by the 3rd article of the treaty of 
Amiens, March 25, 1802, was, on the renewal 
of the war, again captured by a British 
squadron, Jan. 1, 1807. Towards the end of 
August, 1814, England restored the island 
to the Dutch, in whose possession it has since 
remained. 

CuKFEW Bell. — The Couvre-feu, or Cur- 
few, was a signal for putting out fires and 
lights. William I. is said to have introduced 
it into England a.d. 1068, although it is pro- 
bable that he only enforced a regulation 
already in existence, as a similar custom at 
that time prevailed in Italy, France, Spain, 
and other countries. The severity, however, 
with which WiUiam I. enforced it, compelling 
the people to extinguish both fires and lights 



CUR 

when the curfew-beU rang at eight in the 
evening, caused the introduction of the 
custom to be attributed to him. In those 
early times, the fire was generally made in 
a hole in the middle of the floor, the 
smoke escaping through an aperture in the 
roof. When the beU tolled, the wood and 
embers were raked together, and the fire 
was extinguished. The curfew was modified 
by Henry I. in 1100. The Liber Albus con- 
tains regulations of the city of London, 
passed during the reigns of Edward I. 
and Edward III., by which persons were 
forbidden to wander about the city armed, 
after curfew. The practice of ringing the 
bell at eight o'clock is still kept up in many 
places in England. 

CuKiA MuEiA Islands (Indian Ocean), 
on the south coast of Arabia, were visited by 
Portuguese missionaries a.d. 1588; at which 
time the poptdation, only one of them being 
inhabited, consisted of a few savages, who 
subsisted on fish, which they dried in the 
sun. In 1819 they were invaded by the 
Wahabees, who destroyed their houses, 
IdUed their goats, and sold some of their 
children to slavery. The islands, five in 
number, were explored and described by 
Dr. Hulton in 1836. They are also called 
the Koorya Moorya Islands. 

Ctjkling. — This game is said to have been 
introduced into Scotland by the Flemish 
immigrants, at the commencement of the 
16th century. 

Currants, or " raisins de Corinthe," were 
first introduced into this country in the 16th 
century, when they were called " Corinthes," 
from the part of Greece in which they are 
produced in the greatest abundance. An 
attempt was made in the reign of Henry 
VIII. to introduce the culture of this par- 
ticular vine in England. The duty on 
currants, which was very high, was reduced 
in 1834 and in 1844. 

Cureant-Tbee was first planted in 
England a.d. 1533. The hawthorn currant- 
tree was introduced from Canada in 1705. 

Curse op Scotland. — The reason why the 
nine of diamonds is called the curse of Scot- 
land, has been discussed in Notes and Queries. 
Amongst the reasons assigned are the fol- 
lowing : — Because the duke of Cumberland, 
after the battle of CuUoden, April 16, 1746, 
wrote upon the back of this card a very cruel 
and inhuman order for the destruction of the 
persons and property of the rebels. Because 
the armorial bearings of the earl of Stair, 
who was very unpoptdar in Scotland, on 
account of the part he took in promoting the 
Union in 1707, were so arranged as to re- 
semble the nine of diamonds. Because 
"curse of Scotland" is a corruption of 
" cross of Scotland," the allusion being to 
St. Andrew's cross, which is supposed to 
resemble the nine of diamonds. Because 
diamonds imply royalty, being ornaments 
to the imperial crown ; and every ninth king 
of Scotland has been a tyrant and a curse to 
his country. Because the heraldic bearmgs 
of the Dalrymple family are, on a saltire 



CUB 

azure, 7iine lozenges of the field ; tlie second 
Viscount Dalryniple and first earl of Stair 
being called the curse of Scotland, from the 
part he took in the massacre of Glencoe 
in 1692. Because it is the greatwinning card 
at comette, a game introduced into Scotland 
in 1538, by the French attendants of Mary 
of Lorraine, queen of James V., to the ruin 
of many Scotch families. Because the nine 
of diamonds is the pope in the game of Pope 
Joan, originally called Pope Juho, and said 
to have been played as early as the time of 
Queen Elizabeth. The latter explanation, 
from the anti-papal spirit displayed by the 
Scottish people, is beheved to be the true 
one. 

Ctiesitok Baeon. — Although the functions 
of this officer originated at the same time as 
the Exchequer, they did not give rise to a 
separate dignity till the reign of James I. 
The first mention of baron-eursitor occurs 
in May, 1610, when Thomas Caesar received 
the title. By 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 99 (Aug. 29, 
1833), many of the duties of this office were 
abolished. 

CuETATOis-E (Battle). — The Austrians, after 
a severely-contested action, defeated the 
Italian army at this village, between Mantua 
and Vicenza, May 29, 1848. 

CUEZOLA (Adriatic), the ancient Corcyra 
Nigra, so called from the dark colour of the 
pines that grow upon it, is said to have been 
colonized by the Cnidians. It was seized 
A.D. 997, by the Venetians, under the Doge 
Pietro Urseolo II., and in 1298 a Genoese 
defeated a Venetian fleet in its vicinity. In 
1420 it was retaken by the Venetians, and in- 
corporated with the province of Venetian Dal- 
matia, and in 1485 it resisted the attempts 
of Frederick of Aragon for its capture. The 
Turkish corsair Uluz-Aii attacked Curzola 
in 1571, and the governor and garrison having 
fled, the women put on armour, and saved 
the place from pUlage. The Eussians twice 
seized Curzola in 1806. In 1807 it was 
ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit. The 
Enghsh obtained possession in 1813, and re- 
tained it till its cession to the Austrians, 
July 15, 1S15. 

CusHEE Pieces were invented by Eichard 
Leake, who was born a.d. 1629. He fought 
in the great sea-fight against Van Tromp in 
1673, and died in 1696. Leake held the posi- 
tion of master-gunner of England and store- 
keeper of Woolwich. 

CtrsHiON-DANCE, also called Joan Sander- 
son, is a very old round dance. According 
to Fosbroke, in most ancient dances a man 
and a woman danced together, holding each 
other by the hand or arm, and a kiss was the 
established fee of the lady's partner. One 
of the characters in Heywood's play of "A 
Woman killed with Kindness," 1600, re- 
marks, "I have, erenow, deserved a cushion; 
caU for the Cushion-dance." Playford's 
" Dancing-Master," pubhshed in 1698, con- 
tains a description of this dance, usually in- 
troduced at weddings. 

Custom-house. — The business of the 
Customs was transacted, at Billingsgate 



CUT 

A.D. 979, but no building was especially 
devoted to this purpose till 1385. In 1559 
a larger house was erected, which was 
destroyed during the Great Fire of 1666 ; and 
the new edifice, built by Sir Christopher 
Wren in 1668, was also burnt in 1718. It 
was rebuilt by Eipley soon after, and shared 
the fate of its predecessors Feb. 12, 1814. 
The fijst stone of a new custom-house had 
been laid in 1813, as the former building 
was found inadequate to the requirements 
of the times, and this was opened May 12, 
1817. In 1825, owing to the defective man- 
ner in which the foundations had been laid, 
part of the new building fell in, when 
the whole central portion was taken down 
and restored by Mr. Smirke. The custom- 
house of Dubhn was completed in July, 1621, 
and rebuilt before 1661. In 1707 a new 
building was erected ; but as this was found 
to be unsafe in 1773, another was commenced 
in 1781, and completed in 1791. A dreadful 
fire, which broke out in the sugar and spirit 
stores, Aug. 10, 1833, destroyed 700 pim- 
cheons of spirit, 300 casks of tallow, and 
nearly 5,000 hogsheads of sugar. 

Customs were paid on vessels and goods 
at BiUingsgate, during the reign of Ethelred 
II., A.D. 979. They were granted to the king 
in 1274 by 3 Edw. I., and in 1282, the duty of 
collecting them was intrusted to foreigners. 
Queen Ehzabeth farmed them to Sir Thomas 
Smith, receiving at first £14,000, which sum 
was raised, in 1590, to £42,000, and after- 
wards to £50,000. In 1666, Charles II. 
farmed them for £390,000. In 1787 they 
were regulated by the Customs Consohdation 
Act (27 Geo. III. c. 13), which has been 
since amended, by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 107 (Aug. 
20, 1853), and 18 & 19 Vict. cc. 96 & 97 (A«g- 
14, 1855). 

CusTos Beevium. — This office in the court 
of Queen's Bench and in the court of 
Common Pleas was abolished by 1 WiU. IV. 
c. 58 (July 23, 1830). 

CusTos EoTULOEUM, or keeper of the Eolls 
or records of the session of the peace, was 
ordered to be appointed under the sign 
manual, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 1 (1545), and 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 21 (1689). 

CusTOZA (Battle). — Marshal Eadetsky 
defeated the Italians at this place, near 
Mantua, July 23, 1848. 

CuTCH (Hindostan) was an independent 
state A.D. 1582, and held possessions in Scinde 
and other neighbouring territories, all of 
which were lost by Eao Lacka, who suc- 
ceeded to power in 1751 . Futteh Mohammed, 
the general of the army, expelled the reign- 
ing prince in 1792, and was himself overthrown 
in 1802 ; after which Cutch became notorious 
as the seat of hordes of robbers, who were 
a source of constant annoyance to the 
adjoining provinces. Consequently, the 
East -India Company interfered in 1809, 
and compelled the government of Cutch to 
promise that the offfences complained of 
should be discontinued. In 1815 it became 
necessary to enforce this agreement by an 
appeal to arms; and the result was, that 



CUT 

another more stringent treaty was entered 
into in 1816. In 1819 the Rao was dethroned 
for misgovernment, and a regency was 
appointed until his infant heir should be able 
to rule. A secret but extensive trade in 
slave children was discovered and suppressed 
in 1835; and other improvements, such as 
the abolition of sutteeism and infanticide, 
have also resulted from British intercourse. 

CuTLEEY. — The manufacture of cutlery is 
an art of great antiquity. The precise 
period at wmch it was introduced into Great 
Britain is not known. Sheffield was famous 
for its steel manufactures in the 13th cen- 
tury, as Chaucer speaks of the " Sheffield 
thwytel," as a common article. Henry V. 
incorporated the London cutlers in 1417. 
The Sheffield artisans did not receive their 
charter tiU 1624. By 59 Geo. III. c. 7, s. 1, 
passed March 23, 1819, makers of wrought- 
steel cutlery obtained the privilege of mark- 
ing them with the figure of a hammer ; and 
by sec. 5, a penalty of ten pounds per dozen 
was imposed on all vendors of cutlery falsely 
stamped " London made." 

CuTTACK (Hindostan). — The Mohamme- 
dan writers, about 1212, mention this country 
under the name of Jagepore. It was con- 
quered and annexed to Bengal in 1592. The 
Mahrattas obtained possession of it in 1751, 
and it was ceded to the East-India Company 
by the second article of the treaty of Deo- 
gaum, Dec. 17, 1803. The capital of the 
district, also called Cuttack, sustained a 
celebrated siege in 1592. It was captured by 
the East-India Company's army Oct. 14, 
1803. 

CtrxAB. — This strongly-fortified post, near 
Baza, in Spain, was taken from the Moors 
by the Spaniards in 1489. 

CuxHAVEif ( Germany ) . — This seaport 
town, belonging to Hamburg, was occupied 
by the Prussians in 1800. The French took 
possession in 1804, and evacuated it in 1813, 
when it was occupied by a British force. 

Cuzco (Peru), the capital of the Incas, 
said to have been founded by Manco Capac, 
in the 10th or 11th century, was entered by 
Pizarro Nov. 15, 1533. The siege of Cuzco 
commenced early in Eeb, 1536, when the city 
having caught fire in several places, was 
nearly consumed. The Peruvian army waged 
the conflict for more than five months, and 
withdrew in August. Prescott says : "It 
stood in a beautiful valley on an elevated 
region of the plateau, which, among the 
Alps, would have been buried in eternal 
snows, but which within the tropics enjoyed 
a genial and salubrious temperature. It was, 
moreover, the 'Holy City;' and the great 
temple of the Sun, to which pilgruns resorted 
from the furthest borders of the empire, 
was the most magnificent structure in the 
New World, and unsurpassed, probably, in 
the costliness of its decorations, by any 
buUding in the Old." 

CrAisroGEN- is a gaseous compound, dis- 
covered by Gay-Lussac in 1815. 

Ctclades (^gean Sea). — This group of 
twelve islands received this name because 



CYP 

they lay in a circle around Delos, the 
smallest of them. Artemidorus increased 
the number to fifteen. Originally inhabited 
by Carians, who were expelled' by Minos, 
they were afterwards colonized by lonians 
and Dorians. The Cyclades passed from 
Turkish rule, and were included in the new 
kingdom of Greece, formed in 1829. 

Cycle. — The Chinese cycle of sixty years, 
or 720 revolutions of the moon, was instituted 
by Hoang-ti, who flourished about 2660 B.C. ; 
and that of Cleostratus, who proposed a 
cycle of eight years, began about 532 b.c. 
The Metonic cycle was mvented by Meton 
of Athens about 432 b.c, and was super- 
seded by that of Cahppus, which commenced 
B.C. 330. 

Cydee is said to have been first made in 
Africa, and introduced by the Carthaginians 
into Spain, whence it passed into Normandy. 
In addition to the hereditary duty on cyder 
granted by 12 Charles II. c. 23, s. 4 (1660), a 
duty of 4s. per hogshead was levied by 13 
Win. III. e. 5, s. 5 (1701), upon alley der and 
perry made in England. A duty of £4 per 
tnn on aU cyder and perry imported from 
foreign countries was imposed by 5 Will. & 
Mary, e. 7, s. 27 (1694), and continued for 
ninety-five years by 4 Anne, c. 6, s. 11 (1705). 
The duties having undergone various modifi- 
cations, were repealed by 1 Will. IV. e. 51 
(July 16, 1830), from Oct. 10, 1830. 

Cynics. — These philosophers received this 
name on account of their snarhng disposition, 
or from the Cynosarges, a gymnasium in the 
suburbs of Athens, in which their founder 
Antisthenes, born B.C. 420, used to lecture. 
Diogenes, born b.c. 414, was one of the most 
celebrated of this sect. They were some- 
times called the School of Barkers, 

CYNOscEPHALiE (Battlcs). — Two battles 
were fought in this mountain-range in Thes- 
saly ; the first, B.C. 364, between the Thebans 
and Alexander of Pherse, when the former 
were victorious, though Pelopidas, their 
leader, was slain; and the second B.C. 197, 
in which the Roman consul Flaminius de- 
feated Phihp V. of Macedon. 

Cynossema (Sea-Fight). — The Athenians 
defeated Mmdarus and the Spartan fleet, off" 
Cynossema, on the coast of Caria, B.C. 411. 

Cypeess, said to be the Tezzah of Scrip- 
ture, is remarkable for its durabihty ; and on 
this account was used for statues of the gods 
and cases of mummies. The gates of St. 
Peter, at Rome, made of this wood, lasted 
1,100 years. It was used for coffins. The 
common cypress is known to have been cul- 
tivated in England as early as a.d. 1551, and 
was probably introduced from Canada about 
1548. The deciduous cypress was brought 
into this country from North America about 
1640, and the cedar of Goa in 1683. A 
common age for the cypress on the American 
continent is 400 years. 

Cypeus (Knights of).— The order of the 
Sword, in Cyprus, was instituted by Guy de 
Lusignan towards the end of the 12th cen- 
tury. It nimibered 300 barons, and became 
extinct when the Turks took Cyprus in 1570. 
265 



CYP 

Ctpetjs (Mediterranean) . — TMs island was 
colonized by the Phoenicians at a very early 
period. It passed successively under the 
supremacy of the Syrians, the Grreeks, the 
Egyptians, and the Persians. On the death 
of Alexander the Great it was incorporated 
with Egypt. It was made a Roman province 
B.C. 58. Caesar gave it to Arsinoe and 
Ptolemy, the sister and brother of Cleopatra, 
B.C. 47. It was made an imperial province 
B.C. 27, but was given up to the senate B.C. 
22. Paul and Barnabas visited the island 
A.D. 44 (Acts, siii. 4). The island was an 
independent province of the early Church, 
and was divided into thirteen, or, according 
to other authorities, fifteen dioceses. The 
Jews of Cyprus rebelled during the reign of 
Hadrian (a.d. 117-138), and massacred above 
200,000 of the inhabitants. A coimcil was 
held in Cyprus in 399. The Saracens took 
possession of the island in 648, but soon 
after retired. Haroun al Eashid captured it 
about 803, and John Zimisces expelled the 
Saracens in 964. Eichard I. of England 
wrested the island from Alexis Comnenus in 
1191 ; and at first ceded it to the Templars, 
but in 1192 bestowed it upon Guy of Lusig- 
nan. Cyprus was reduced to subjection by 
the Genoese in 1373, and feU under the 
power of the Venetians in the 15th century. 
Selim II. took it in August, 1571, and it has 
since remained in the possession of the Turks. 
The Turks massacred several thousands of 
the Christians in 1821. These outrages com- 
menced in May. Cyprus was not included 
in the new kingdom of Greece, formed in 
1829. 

Cte, St. (France). — Louis XIV., at the 
instigation of Madame de Maintenon, in 
1686, founded at this village, near Versailles, 
an institution for the education of 250 ladies 
of noble birth. Madame Maintenon died at 
this place in 1719. In 1793 it was converted 
into a military hospital. Napoleon I. trans- 
ferred the military school of Fontainebleau 
to St. Cyr in 1806. It is called the "Ecole 
speciale Mihtaire de St. Cyr." 

Ctee^taica (Africa), a district of Africa, 
which received this name from Cyrene, its 
chief city, and was also called Pentapohs, 
because it contained five principal cities, 
Apollonia, Arsinoe, Barce, Berenice or Hes- 
perus, and Cyrene. It was colonized by the 
people of Thera, under Battus, who founded 
Cyrene b . c . 631 . A republic was estabhshed 
in the middle of the 5th century. Ptolemy, 
son of Lagus, reduced it under subjection to 
Egypt B.C. 321. It became a Eoman pro- 
vince B.C. 74, and was united with Crete 
B.C. 67. The Saracens completed the con- 
quest of the country a.d. 647, and it is now 
inhabited by different Arab tribes. Cyrenaica 
was explored by Dr. Delia CeUa in 1817, and 
by Capt. Beechey, E.N., and H. W. Beechey, 
in 1821 and 1822. 

Cteenaics. — This ancient school of philo- 
sophers was thus named from Cyrene, the 
birthplace of the founder, Aristippus. He 
began to teach B.C. 365. They made pleasure 
the summum bonum. 



CZE 

Cteene, or CrEEN^. — The chief city of 
Cyrenaica, in A frica, was founded by Battus 
and his followers from Thera, B.C. 631. 
Seven kings of this race succeeded, and 
about B.C. 450 a repubhc was established. 
It was afterwards made subject to Egypt, 
and passed under the dominion of Eome, 
B.C. 74. The ruins of this town, called by 
the Turks Ghrennah, stiU exist. 

Cteicus (Asia Minor) is said to have 

been settled by some Pelasgi, driven from 

Thessaly by the lonians. At an early period 

it was subject to Athens, and having revolted, 

was reduced to submission B.C. 411. Min- 

darus, the Spartan admiral, was defeated in 

the neighbourhood of Cyzicus, B.C. 410. It 

was ceded to Persia by the peace of Antal- 

cidas, B.C. 387. Mithridates failed in an 

attempt to take it B.C. 74; and the Romans 

made it a free city ; of which privilege it was 

deprived by Tiberius a.d. 37. Christianity 

was introduced at an early period, and it 

was made a bishop's see. The Goths ravaged 

the city a.d. 259, and Procopius seized it 

A.D. 365. The Mohammedan army besieging 

Constantinople went into winter quarters at 

this place in 668, and it soon after declined 

I in importance. In ancient times Cyzicus 

j was seated on an island of the same name ; 

- but an isthmus has gradually formed, and 

I what was formerly an island is now a pen- 

\ insula. 

j Cteoeedium, or Coettpedium (Battle). — 
1 Lysimachus was defeated and slain at this 
j place, in Phrygia, by Seleucus, B.C. 281. 
C T T H E E A ( Mediterranean Sea ) . — This 
island is celebrated as the place whence the 
worship of the Syrian goddess Aphrodite 
! was introduced into Greece ; and is repre- 
sented, in the ancient mythological accounts, 
as the spot which received her when she rose 
from the foam of the sea. It was long 
dependent upon Argos, and then passed 
I imder the rule of Sparta. The Athenians 
! under ISTicias seized it B.C. 424. It reverted 
[ to Sparta. The Athenians, under Conon, 
captured it B.C. 393. It is now called Cerigo, 
I and is one of the Ionian Islands. 
i CzAE. — Voltaire considers this title to have 
I been derived from the tzars or tchars of the 
kingdom of Cazan. It is«evidently of oriental 
j origin. Ivan III. was the first Eussian 
j monarch to assume the title. The eldest 
son is called czarowitz, and the empress 
czarina. 

CzAsiiATT (Battle). — The Austrians, led by 
Prince Charles of Lorraine, encountered the 
Prussians at this village, near Chotusitz, in 
Bohemia, about thirty -five miles from Prague, 
May 17, 1742 (O.S.). After a hard-fought 
battle they were compelled to retire, which 
they did in good order, carrying away four- 
teen standards, two pair of colours, and 1,000 
prisoners. The Prussians took eighteen 
pieces of cannon, two pairs of colours and 
1,200 prisoners. The Austrians had only 
gained the village of Czaslau, by a forced 
march, the night before the battle. 

CzEEisroviTZ (Austria). — This circle, for- 
merly a part of Moldavia, was ceded to 



DAC 

Austria by Turkey a.d. 1777, and annexed to 
Galicia in 1786. By the imperial patent of 
Dec. 31, 1851, it was constituted a crown 
land, under the name of Buckowina. The 
chief city, of the same name, is the seat of a 
Greek bishop. 

X). 

Dacca (Hindostan) became the capital 
of the eastern portion of Bengal a.b. 1608, 
and was confirmed as such by Meer Jumla, 
the general of Aurungzebe, in 1657. The 
town reached its greatest prosperity under 
the viceroyship of Shaista Khan, which 
terminated in 1689 ; since which period it 
suffered a gradual decline, till its opulence 
was partially restored by the establishment 
of provincial councils in 1774. A bank was 
established at Dacca in 1846, and the Seram- 
pore mission established a station in 1816. 

Dacia, including parts of Hungary, Tran- 
sylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessa- 
rabia, was originally peopled by the Getae, 
whom Alexander defeated b.c. 335. Lysi- 
machus conducted an expedition into the 
country B.C. 292. Their retreat having 
been cut off in the plains of Bessarabia, 
they were all made prisoners. Valerius 
Messala attacked the Dacians b.c. 34, and 
Augustus despatched Lentulus against them 
B.C. 10 ; but neither general achieved any 
striking success. Domitian sent a large force 
into Dacia under Cornehus Fuscus, a.d. 86, 
but the expedition proved a failure, owing 
to the determined valour of the Dacian 
leader Decebalus. A peace was agreed 
upon in the year 91, Donutian consenting 
to pay tribute to the barbarian monarch, 
and to acknowledge his regal rights ; and 
these humiliating terms seem to have been 
fulfilled till 101, when Trajan discontinued 
the payment, and invaded Dacia. After 
gaining many victories, he granted peace 
to Decebalus in 103, and assumed the title 
of Dacicus ; but war was renewed in 104. 
The final subjugation of the Daci, and the 
reduction of their territory to a Koman 
province, did not occur till the death of 
Decebalus, in 106. Hadrian, who took mea- 
sures to contract his empire ia 117, retained 
Dacia, and it remained a province of Kome 
until AureUan abandoned it to the Goths, 
270. In 376 the Goths were expelled by 
the Huns, and in 379 Dacia was made part 
of the Eastern empire by Gratian. In 453 
Ardaric, king of the Gepidae, seized the 
country, and in 566 it was conquered by a 
colony of Scythians. They were subdued 
by Charlemagne, and the Magyars overran 
Dacia in the 9th century. {See Hungabt.) 

Dadab (Battle).— The Brahoes, 5,000 
strong, were defeated, ia an attack upon the 
British forces, near this town, in Beloochistan, 
Nov. 3, 1840. 

Daggeb. — Gregory of Tours, writing in 
the 6th century, mentions this weapon as 
part of the equipment of the Frankish sol- 
diery. It afterwards acquired the name 
Misericorde, "because," says Hewitt, "in 



DAL 

the last struggle of contending foes, the 
uphfted dagger compelled the discomfited 
fighter to cry for mercy." Under this title, 
it is mentioned in the Charter of Arras, a.d. 
1221, and also by Guiart in 1302. Du 
GuescUn speaks of its use as a missile in 
1368. 

Daghistak (Asia).— Peter the Great 
overran this province of the Caucasus, 
situated between the Euxine and the Cas- 
pian Sea, A.D. 1722. It was incorporated with 
Eussia, as part of the province of Georgia, 
in 1801 ; since which period the inhabitants 
have waged several contests to recover their 
independence. 

Dagtieeeeotype. — This process, by which 
the pictures of the camera lucida are ren- 
dered permanent, was invented by M. 
Daguerre, a.d. 1838. The method, described 
by M. Arago, at the meeting of the Academie 
des Sciences, Jan. 7, 1839, was afterwards 
greatly improved by other scientific men. 
(See Photogeapht.) 

Dahaea Massacee. — During the war in 
Algeria, the Ouled-Eiahs, a Kabyle tribe, 
pursued by a French army led by Colonel 
Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff, took 
refuge in the caverns of Dahara, June 18, 
1845. The French surrounded the caverns, 
and failing to induce the Ouled-Eiahs to 
surrender, placed lighted faggots at the 
entrance. When the troops obtained ad- 
mission, June 20th, they found 500 dead 
bodies; and of 150 who remained ahve, but 
few recovered. 

Dahlia. — This flower is indigenous to 
Mexico, whence it was sent to Spain a.d. 1789. 
The marchioness of Bute introduced it into 
England the same year ; but the stock having 
become extinct. Lady Holland caused new 
plants to be imported in 1804. The present 
British stock is chiefly derived from a large 
assortment of plants brought from France 
in 1815. This flower received its name from 
the Swedish botanist Dahl. On the continent 
it is called Georginia. 

Dahomet (Africa) . — This negro kingdom 
was founded by Tacoodonon, chief of the 
Foys, A.D. 1625. It first came under 
the notice of Europeans early in the 18th 
century, when King Trudo, who began to 
reign in 1708, destroyed all the white settle- 
ments on the coast. In 1727 the kingdom 
of Whyda was conquered and annexed, and in 
1772 the coiirt of the Idng of Dahomey was 
visited by Mr. Norris, who published a very 
interesting narrative of the cruel customs of 
the people. 

Daiwstadt (Battle).— The Eussians, 3,600 
strong, were defeated at this place, in Fin- 
land, by a Swedish force, amounting to 
2,200 men, June 28, 1789. Gustavus III., 
king of Sweden, served as a volunteer in this 
action. 

Dalmatia (Austria) revolted from lUyria, 
and became an independent state b.c. 180. 
C. Marcius Figulus invaded the country 
B.C. 156, and took Dehiunium, the capital, 
compelling the Dalmatians to purchase 
peace by the payment of an annual tribute. 
267 



DAM 

Another expedition was led against them 
B.C. 155j and the capital sustained such 
serious injury that the seat of government 
was transferred to Salona. L. CsecUius 
MeteUus headed a third invasion B.C. 119, 
and was rewarded for his success by a triumph 
and the surname of Dalmaticus. Gabinius 
commenced the fourth Dalmatian war B.C. 
48, but he was defeated. Octavianus defeated 
the Dalmatians B.C. 35, and obtained the 
submission of the country, and its reduction 
into a Roman province, B.C. 34. Eevolts 
occurred b.c. 16 and 11, and it continued in 
a very unsettled state until its subjection by 
Tiberius, a.d. 9. Diocletian, on his abdica- 
tion, May 1, 305, retired to Dahnatia, which 
remained undisturbed till 461, when it was 
threatened by the Suevi, and saved by the 
valour of MarceUinus. The Heruli, under 
Odoacer, effected its conquest in 481 ; and it 
remained under Gothic sway tiU Justinian 
regained possession in 535. In 634 Herachus 
invited the Croats to dispossess the Avars, 
who had attained considerable power, and in 
five years Dalmatia was occupied by Croatian 
and Servian vassals of the empire. Chris- 
tianity was introduced in 640, and in 806 the 
country submitted to the Franks, who were 
expelled in 837 by Terpimir, who estabhshed 
the ducal authority. In 887 Dahnatia was 
plundered by the Narentines, and in 997 
the Venetians gained some influence, which 
they lost in 1052. The Hungarians entered 
Dalmatia in 1091, and for some time after, its 
history is httle more than a record of struggles 
bet^veen these invaders and the Venetians. 
The latter ceded aU claim Feb. 18, 1358. The 
Turks invaded Dalmatia in 1500, and for 200 
years the country was almost incessantly the 
seat of war. A peace was concluded in 1573, 
but war was renewed in 1596 ; and in 1646 
Dalmatia was again invaded by an immense 
Turkish force. Peace was again concluded 
in 1669, but broken in 1685 ; renewed Jan. 26, 
1698, again violated in 1714, till at length the 
peace of Passarowitz in 1718 restored tran- 
quillity to the country. By the treaty of 
Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, Dalmatia was 
ceded to Austria, which power surrendered 
it to France by the treaty of Presburg 
Dec. 26, 1805. Under French dominion it 
was first incorporated with the kingdom of 
Italy, and subsequently, in 1810, with that of 
lUyria. In 1814 Dalmatia was restored to 
Austria, in whose possession it stiU remains. 
Damascus (Syi-ia) is first mentioned in the 
time of Abraham, b.c. 1912 (Gen. xiv. 15). 
It was taken by David B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. 
vui. 6) , and was the capital of Syria during 
the reign of Benhadad, B.C. 930 (2 Chron. 
xvi. 2). Jeroboam restored it to Israel 
B.C. 822, but Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, 
took it B.C. 740, and carried its inhabitants 
captive to Kir (2 Kings, xvi. 9). It after- 
wards remained subject to the Assyrians and 
Persians till B.C. 333, when it was taken by 
Parmenio, the general of Alexander the 
Great. The Romans xmder Pompey effected 
its capture B.C. 64. Paul eonunenced his 
ministry at Damascus a.d. 33 (Acts, ix. 19) ; 
2GS 



da;jt 

and, according to some authorities, Ananias, 
by whom the Apostle was ordained, was the 
first bishop of the see. The city was taken 
from the Romans in Jan. 635, and by the Sara- 
cens, who made it the seat of their govern- 
ment, in 661. In 1006 it was taken by the 
Ghiznivites, who yielded it in 1075 to the 
Seljukian Turks. JSToureddin (1145—1174) 
added the kingdom of Damascus to that of 
Aleppo. The Crusaders laid siege to it in 
1149, but without success ; and it was taken 
and sacked by Tamerlane, Jan. 23, 1401. In 
1516 it was seized by SeHm I. and annexed 
to the Ottoman empire. In 1832 Damascus 
was taken by Ibrahim Pasha, and, by a fir- 
man, dated May 6, 1833, was granted to 
Mehemet Ah. In Feb. 1840, it was the 
scene of a cruel persecution of the Jews. 
Damascus was restored to Turkey at the 
conclusion of peace in 1841. 

Damask. — Rich stuffs of silk and Hnen 
were so called because they were originally 
manufactured at Damascus; whence the 
trade was carried to Venice, Genoa, and 
Lyons. In the 15th century most extrava- 
gant prices were given for superior quahties, 
the fashion of wearing it being adopted by 
Henry V. and Edward TV. Damask table- 
cloths were first imported from France in 
1575. 

Damase Rose, so called from Damascus, 
was introduced into Europe a.d. 1573. It is 
stUl largely cultivated in Syria for the purpose 
of making otto of roses. 

Damianists, the followers of Damianus, 
the Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria, 
arose in the 6th century. They made a dis- 
tinction between the divine essence and the 
three persons in the Godhead. 

Damietxa (Egypt), near the site of the 
ancient Tamiathis, underwent several sieges 
during the Crusades. It was taken IS^ov. 5, 
1219, but the infidels regained possession in 
1221. Louis IX. captured it in June, 1249, 
and having been taken prisoner, purchased 
his freedom in 1250, by the surrender of the 
city to the Saracens, who soon afterwards 
ordered it to be destroyed. The modern 
town, erected four miles further from the 
sea, was fortified by Bonaparte in 1798. The 
French evacuated it in 1801. An Enghsh 
force took possession of Damietta in 1807. 

Dance of Death. — This subject, so popular 
with the artists of the Middle Ages, seems to 
have been first painted a.d. 1312, in the church 
of the Dominicans at Basle. The earhest 
printed work on the subject which bears a 
date is " La danse Macabre," pubhshed at 
Paris in 1485. Holbein's "Dance of Death" 
was first pubhshed at Lyons in 1538. It 
comprises forty-one cuts, each surmounted 
by a Latin text, and having underneath four 
French verses. A second edition of this 
work appeared in 1542, and it has since been 
frequently reprinted. 

Dakcees. — This sect arose at Aix-la- 
ChapeUe A.D. 1373, andspread through various 
parts of the Netherlands. Its members, of 
both sexes, hand in hand, danced furiously 
till they feU upon the ground. They were 



DAN 

the forerunners of the Convulsionists in 
France and the Jumpers in England and 
America. 

Dancing is said to have been invented by 
Athothus, the Egyptian Mercury. The 
Curetes introduced dancing to time B.C. 1534, 
and Miriam and the Israelitish women testi- 
fied their joy at their dehverance from the 
Egyptians by dancing to the sound of their 
timbrels, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xv. 20). David 
danced before the ark of God B.C. 1044 
(2 Sam. vi. 14). JEschylus united dancing 
to the dramatic performances of the Greeks 
about B.C. 499, and pantomimic dances were 
introduced on the Eoman stage B.C. 22. 
Dancing was an ordinary recreation at 
the convivial meetings of the Greeks. 
Meursius mentions 184 kinds of dancing. 
Dancing was px'ohibited in a.d. 366 by the 
council of Laodicea. The Church Dance, 
which may stiU be seen on certain festivals in 
the cathedral at Seville, was stopped in 
France in the 11th century. Sir Christopher 
Hatton, afterwards lord chancellor, is said 
to have ingratiated himself with Queen 
Ehzabeth by his excellence in dancing. 

Danebrog (Order of Knighthood) . — Some 
authorities refer the institution of this order 
to the earhest period of the Danish kingdom, 
while others say it was founded by Valde- 
mar II., a.d. 1219, in commemoration of a 
miraculous standard which descended from 
heaven, and ralhed his troops when they were 
on the point of fleeing before the Livonian 
pagans. In the 15th century the order fell 
into decay, but it was revived by Christian V. 
Oct. 12, 1671, and received new statutes 
Dec. 1, 1693. The constitution of the order 
was extended by Frederick VI., who issued 
letters patent to that effect June 28, 1808. 

Danegelt, or Dane Monet, a tribute 
exacted by the Danes to secure the cessation 
of their invasions of England. It was first 
paid by Ethelred II., or the Unready, a.d. 991, 
on the advice of Siric, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, and consisted of 16,000 pounds of 
silver. Another levy of 24,000 pounds of 
silver was exacted in 1002, and it afterwards 
became a regular custom for the Anglo- 
Saxon kings to extort money from their 
subjects to bribe the Danes. Edward the 
Confessor abohshed the Danegelt in 1051. 
It was restored by WiUiam I. in 1068, and 
again suppressed at the councU held at 
Oxford by King Stephen in 1136. The last 
recorded payment of Danegelt took place in 
1175. The citizens of London were reheved 
from the payment of this tax by the 5th 
article of Henry the First's charter. 

Danes. — The Scandinavian tribes who in 
the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries, invaded 
many parts of the continent, and of England, 
were known xmder this general name. Their 
ravages in France and upon the continent 
of Europe are described under the article 
Northmen. 



787. First appearance of tli.e Danes in England. 
793. They pillage laadisfarne, and ravage North- 
umberland. 



DAN 



794. The Danes are defeated at Wearmouth. 
79-5. They land in Ireland. 

832. They seize Sheppey Island. 

833. They defeat Egbert at Charmouth. 

835. Egbert defeats them at Hengstou, in Co:-n- 

wall. 
837. The Danes are defeated at Southami>ton, but 

gain a victory on the isle of Portland. 
84-5. They are defeated by Ethelv/ulf at the PaiTet. 
851. They winter in Sheppey ; sail up the Thames 

with 350 ships ; plunder Canterliury and 

London ; and are defeated by Ethelwulf at 

Ockley, in Sui-rey. 
853. They are victorious in Thanet. 
860. They land at Southampton, and threaten 

Winchester ; but are diiven back by Osric 

and Ethelwulf. 
867. They take York, which is defended by Ella 

and Osbert, who both fall in the battle. 
869-70. They subdue East Anglia, and destroy the 

monastery of Barduey and the abbeys of 

Croyland, Coldingham, ai\d Ely. 
871. They fight nine battles in the countiy south 

of the Tliames, and conclude peace with 

King Alfred. 

874. They conquer Mercia. 

875. Healfden invades Northumberland, and 

destroys Tynemouth and Liiidisfarue. 
Gutlirum and other chiefs seize Cam- 
bridge, where they winter. 

876. They talse Wareham and Exeter, and con- 

clude a sec >nd treaty with Alfred. 

. of 120 vessels wrecked at 
Third treaty with Alfred, done 
at Exeter. 

878. They compel Alfred to hide in Athelney. 
After six months, he collects his forces, 
defeats them at Etliandun, and persuades 
Guthrum to embrace Christianity. 

881. The Danes land in Scotland. 

884. They renew their attacks, and lay siege to 
Rochester, which is relieved by Alfred. 

894. Alfred defeats Hastings at Farnham, Bam- 
fleet, and Chester. 

896. Hastings leaves England. 

897. Alfred defeats them near the Isle of Wight. 
901. Ethelwold, son of Ethelred, is defeated iii a 

project to assume the crown, and compelled 

to seek refuge with the Northumbrian 

Danes, who elect him king. 
911. The Danes suffer a great defeat at Wodensfield, 

from Edward, king of Wessex. 
921. The Northumbrian Danes submit to Edward 

the Elder. 
978. Tlie Danes are defeated by the Irish on Tara 

Hill. 
981. A Danish fleet ravages Devon and Cornwall. 

991. Another formidable invasion. They arH in- 

duced to retire on receiving £10,000 of 
tribute money. {See Daitegelt.) 

992. They renew theii- attacks, and are defeated 

by Ethelred, in a naval engagement. 

994. Sweyii is defeated in an attempt to take 
London. He ravages Essex, Kent, and the 
southern counties ; and receives £16,000, 
on condition of his quitting the country. 

999. Four thousand Danes are slain at the battle 
of the Suck, in Ireland. 

1002. Danish invasion bought off for £25,000. 

Ethelred orders the massacre of every 
Dane in England , which is perpetrated ou 
the eve of St. Bride's day, Nov. 13. 

1003. SwejTi invades Enj:land, and plunder's Exeter 

and Wilton. 

1005. He leaves England, in consequence of a 

famine. 

1006. Another Danish invasion lays waste nearly 

all England. 

1010. The I'anes burn Oxford and Cambridge, 

and obtain possession of sixteen English 
counties. 

1011. They burn Canterbui-y, and carry away the 

archbishop, whom they mui-der the fol- 
lowing year. 
1012 They receive £48,000 tribute, and disband 
their fleet. 

269 



DAN 



1013. Sweyn takes London, and asserts his rule 

over the whole country north of Watling- 
street. 

1014. The battle of Clontarf, in Ireland, is lost by the 

Danes. [See Ciontahf.) 
1016. Canute, son and successor of Sweyn, gains 

many victories, and obtains from Edmund 

Ironside the cession of the northern half 

of England. 
1018. Canute exacts a tribute of £80,000. 
1047. An invading fleet lands at Sandwich. 
1054 They fight against Macbeth, under Siward, 

earl of Northumberland. 
1066. Sept. 25. They are defeated by Harold, at 

Stamford-bridge. 
1069. The sons of Sweyn arrive, with 240 ships, 

in the Hiunber. They bum York, and 

slay more than 3,000 of its Norman de- 



Danewiske (Battle). — G-eneral Wrangel, 
at the head of 30,000 Prussians, defeated the 
Danes, 10,000 strong, after a struggle of 
eight hours' duration, at this place, near 
Schleswig, on Easter Sunday, April 23, 
1848. 

Daihsh Ameeica. — The islands of St. Tho- 
mas, Santa Cruz or St. Croix, and St. John, 
which belong to Denmark, are described 
under their respective heads. 

Dantzic (Prussia), which existed as early 
as A.D. 970, was taken by Mestwin, duke of 
eastern Pomerania, in 1271, and by the Poles 
in 1294. In 1310 it fell imder the domina- 
tion of the Teutonic Order, who retained it 
till 1454, when it became a free town 
under Polish protection. In 1517 it was 
besieged by the Teutonic Knights ; and, in 
1577, was taken by Stephen Batory, king of 
Poland, whose authority it had disputed. 
Charles Gustavus, of Sweden, invested John 
Casimir II. within its walls in 1656, but with- 
out success. In 1709 the plague committed 
great ravages amongst its population ; and, 
in 1734, it was besieged and taken by the 
Eussians and Saxons. At the second parti- 
tion of Poland, in 1793, Dantzic was assigned 
to Prussia. It was taken by the French 
May 20, 1807, and restored to its former 
mdependence by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 
1807. But though nominally independent, it 
was really subject to the French, who gar- 
risoned it, and retaiued it under their autho- 
rity unto they were expelled, after a long 
siege, by a Eussian and Prussian force under 
Alexander, duke of Wiirtemberg, Jan. 2, 
1814 ; since which date it has been restored 
to Prussia. The city was much injured by 
the explosion of a powder-magazine Dec. 10, 
1815. An inundation which occurred April 9, 
1829, laid the whole city imder water, and 
destroyed many thousand houses and cattle, 
besides causing considerable loss of hfe. 
In July and September, 1831, Dantzic was 
visited by the cholera, which destroyed 1,028 
lives. The prmcipal buildings are the cathe- 
dral, commenced in 1343, and finished in 1503 ; 
Trinity Chui-ch, founded in 1514 ; the Eath- 
haus in 1556 ; and the Hohe Thor iu 1588. 

Danube. — The ancient Danubius, or Ister, 
was crossed by Darius on his expedition into 
Scythia, b.c, 515; and by the Celtic bar- 
270 



DAE 

barians previous to their invasion of Greece, 
B.C. 280. Trajan buUt a fine stone bridge 
across it a.d. 103, which was destroyed by 
Hadrian in the year 120, lest it should en- 
able the northern barbarians to invade the 
Thracian provinces. Charlemagne formed a 
magnificent project, which was never carried 
out, of connecting the Ehine with the Danube 
by means of a canal. Steam navigation was 
estabhshed on the Danube in 1838, when the 
Austrian company was formed and incor- 
porated by the emperor. The Bavarian 
company was estabhshed in 1836. The 
navigation of the Danube was declared free 
from all impediment or toU by the 15th 
article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 
1856. 

Danubiak Pbincipalities. — Moldavia 
and Wallachia were united under the name 
of the " United Principahties of Moldavia 
and Wallachia," by the convention of Paris, 
signed Aug. 19, 1858. They were placed 
under the suzerainty of the sultan, but vdih 
power to carry on their ovm administration 
vrithout his interference, government being 
administered by a hospodar and elective 
assembly iu each principahty, and a central 
commission common to both principalities. 
{See Moldavia and Wallachia.) 

Daea (Mesopotamia) was founded by 
Anastasius, a.d. 505, as a bulwark against 
the Persians. It was frequently besieged, 
and was taken by Chosroes I. in 572. 

Dardanelles.— Xerxes threw a bridge of 
boats across this channel, anciently called the 
Hellespont, B.C. 481 . The bridge was destroyed 
by a stoi-m. In consequence of this disaster, 
the water received 300 lashes, and the next 
bridge remained secure. Alexander crossed 
the straits B.C. 334 with an army of about 
35,000 men. The Saracens under Soliman, 
the son of Orchhan, crossed this channel 
A.D. 1360, and first erected the Mohammedan 
crescent in Europe. In 1465 Mohammed II. 
erected two forts to defend the passage, 
and in 1659 two more, named Sestos and 
Abydos, were added by Mohammed IV. 
The passage of the Dardanelles was effected 
by Admiral Sir Thomas Duckworth, Feb. 19, 
1807, in spite of the severe fire of the forts. 
He returned through the channel March 1 
the same year, when the squadron sustained 
much injury, owing to the unfavourable 
weather and to the immense stone shot used 
by the enemy. The straits were also passed 
by the allied fleets of England and France at 
the commencement of the Eusso-Turkish 
war (q.v.), Oct. 14, 1853. By a secret article 
of the treaty of UnMar-Skelessi, between 
Eussia and Turkey, signed at Constantinople 
July 8, 1833, the latter power agreed to close 
the Dardanelles against vessels of war 
belonging to foreign powers. The ancient 
rule of excluding all ships of war in time of 
peace, confirmed in the convention signed at 
London, July 13, 1841, is recognized by the 
10th article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 
1856. 

Daedanelles (Sea-fight) .—The Genoese 
defeated the Venetians, the Catalans, and 



DAE 

the Greeks in an engagement in the Darda- 
nelles, A.n. 1352. 

Daric, a Persian gold coin, struck by 
Darius the Mede, B.C. 538. The daric was 
originally coined at Babylon; whence its 
circulation extended over all the East, and 
even into Greece. The device was an archer 
in the act of drawing his bow. Dr. Bernard 
estimates the weight of the daric at 15 grs. 
more than our guinea. Specimens in the 
British Museum weigh 128'-1 and 128-6 grs. 
Hussey estimates its value at £1. Is. lOd. 
1*76 farthing. There were also darics of 
silver. 

Dakiek (Central America) . — This isthmus 
was discovered by Columbus, who founded 
Porto Bello a.d. 1502. Vaseo Nunez de Bal- 
boa crossed it and discovered the Pacific 
Ocean, Sept. 25, 1513. A Spanish colony 
was established on the isthmus in 1510. 
Wilham Paterson, the originator of the Bank 
of England, first proposed to form what is 
known as the Scottish settlement at Darien 
in 1694. The company was incorporated by 
an act of parHament, to which the royal 
sanction was given June 26, 1695. Three 
ships and two tenders, having on board 1,200 
men, besides women and children, left Leith 
July 26, 1698. They reached the isthmus 
Nov. 1. The chiefs of the expedition landed 
on the following day, and took formal 

gossession of the country, naming it New 
aledonia. They built a fort, which they 
called New St. Andrew, and soon became 
involved in a quarrel vrith the Spaniards, 
who regarded them as pirates and bucaneers. 
Disease committed terrible ravages amongst 
them, and those that remained aUve were 
compelled to embark in three vessels. More 
than half of them perished during the voyage 
to New York. A second expedition, con- 
sisting of four ships, with 1,300 men, that 
had left Edinburgh in August, 1699, did not 
reach the colony until four months after its 
abandonment. They built a new fort, and 
having been assailed by a Spanish fleet and 
army, concluded a treaty March 30, 1700, 
engaging to evacuate Darien in fourteen 
days. They embarked on the 11th of April. 
Two of the ships were lost, and only a small 
number of the colonists returned to their 
native land. In November, 1827, the isthmus 
was surveyed by Mr. Lloyd, acting under 
the orders of General Bolivar, with a view to 
ascertain the best route, either for a road or 
a canal, by which it might be traversed. 

Darling Eiver (AustraUa) wasdiscovered 
by Captain Sturt in 1829, and was named 
after the then governor of the colony. 

Darmstadt (Germany) was made a city 
A.D. 1330, and became the residence of the 
landgraves of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1567. The 
grand-ducal palace was commenced in 1568, 
and the town-hall was built in 1580. Darm- 
stadt has been the scene of two conven- 
tions : the first, between the grand-duke of 
Hesse -Darmstadt and Baden, was signed 
Oct. 5, 1806, and the second, between the 
grand-duke and Jerome Bonaparte, June 3, 
1810. 



DAV 

Dartfokd (Kent) was either founded by 
the Romans, or built on the site of a former 
Roman town, as numerous remains of Roman 
furniture, houses, coffins, &c., are found in 
its vicinity. Ethelbert founded a nunnery 
here a.d. 604, which was ravaged by the Danes 
in 770. The marriage by proxy of Isabella, 
sister of Henry III., to Ferdinand II. of 
Germany, was solemnized in Dartford church 
in 1235. Edward III. held a great tourna- 
ment in the town in 1330, and founded the 
priory in 1349. Wat Tyler's insurrection 
broke out at Dartford in 1382. In 1538 the 
priory was abolished, and the house con- 
verted into a royal palace, and in 1576 the 
grammar-school was founded. Sir John 
Spilman erected the first paper -miU in 
England at Dartford in 1580. In 1780 a 
camp was formed at Dartford, and in 1790, 
1795, and 1805, the powder-mills were blown 
up, causing, on each occasion, considerable 
loss of life. The infant-school and mechanics' 
institute were established in 1843. 

Dartmouth (Devon) was an important 
borough, market-town, and seaport at an 
early period. The crusading fleet assem- 
bled in its harbour a.d . 1190. The charter for 
a market and fair at Dartmouth was granted 
in 1226, and that by which the town was 
endowed with a corporation in 1342. In 1347 
it was the third in the hst of seaports which 
furnished Edward III. with a fleet for the 
siege of Calais, and in 1377 it was attacked 
and nearly destroyed by a powerful French 
army. In 1404 it was again assailed by a 
French force under M. du Chastel, whose 
army was compelled to take flight, after losing 
its commander and many of the principal 
officers. During the Great Rebellion, Dart- 
mouth was twice taken ; by the Royalists 
under Prince Maurice in 1643, after a siege 
of a month's duration, and by the ParUa- 
mentary forces under Sir Thomas Fairfax, 
Jan. 18, 1646. The mechanics' institute was 
established in 1846. 

Dauphin, the title of the eldest son of 
the king of France, was first assumed by 
Charles (grandson of Philip VI.), afterwards 
Charles V., to whom the province of Dau- 
phiny was ceded by its sovereign, Hum- 
bert II., July 16, 1349. The title was per- 
manently attached to the eldest sons of the 
French kings by John II. in 1356, and was 
last used by Louis Antoine, who assimied it 
in September, 1824, on the accession of his 
father as Charles X. The dauphins quar- 
tered on their shields the arms of France and 
Dauphiny, and only yielded precedence to 
crovraed heads. 

Davidists, or David-Gregorians.— This 
sect was founded by David George, or Joris, 
the son of a market crier, who was born at 
Delft A.D. 1501. He joined the Anabaptists in 
1534, when he began to have visions and 
revelations. He pubhshed his " Book of 
Wonders" in 1542. In 1544 he retired to 
Basel, in Switzerland, and hved in retire- 
ment there twelve years. He called himself 
the third David, another son of God, and held 
various heretical opinions. His followers 
271 



DAV 

existed in Holland till about a century after 
his death. "* 

Dayid's, St. (Wales). — The see at Caerleon 
was removed here by St. David before the 
year 546. In 810 the town was burnt, and in 
904 and 906 it was taken and ravaged by the 
Danes. In 930, Sampson, the archbishop, 
removed to Dole, in Britanny, and the see 
became merely episcopal, although the 
bishops still exercised archiepiscopal autho- 
rity. In 981 the town was again pOlaged by 
Gothrit and Harold, and in 993 by the Danes, 
who slew the archbishop. The Saxons took 
it in 1011, and committed great devastation, 
and in 1020 it was destroyed by EHaf. About 
1115 Bishop Bernard professed his subjection 
to the archbishop of Canterbury, and the see 
lost all archiepiscopal power. John of Gaunt 
founded a college here in 1365, of which only 
the chapel is now in existence. 

David's, St., Day. — The Welsh custom of 
wearing a leek in the cap on the 1st of 
March originated a.d. 540, when the Bri- 
tons, under Cadwallader, defeated the Sax- 
ons. St. David ordered the British warriors 
to wear a leek, that they might be known 
to each other ; whence the present custom is 
derived. 

Davis's Steaits (N"orth America) were 
discovered by Captain John Davis, Aug. 11, 
1585, during his first voyage in quest of the 
north-west passage. 

Davy Lamp for hghting the miner, 
without risk from the explosion of fire- 
damp, was invented by Sir Humphry Davy, 
in 1816. j 

Deaco>"S were flLrst appointed by the 
Apostles to superintend the daily minis- 
tration to the poor, a.d. 31 (Acts, vi. 1 — 6). 
The original niimber was seven; viz., Stephen, 
PhQip, Prochorus, Xicanor, Timon, Par- 
menas, and!Xicolas. Deacons of the Church ! 
of England were prohibited from conse- i 
crating the Holy Communion by 13 & 14 I 
Chas. II. c. 4, s.'l4 (1662), under penalty of 
£100. 

DEACOTfESSES are of very early origin in 
the Christian church, as St. Paul (Eom. xvi. 1) 
speaks of Phebe as "a servant {CiaKOVOC, 
or deaconess) of the church which is at 
Cenchrea," a.d. 58. By a law in the Theo- : 
dosian Code, pubhshed a.d. 438, they were i 
to be widows who had had children and i 
were above 60 years old ; but instances were i 
not uncommon in which the office was tilled ' 
by virgins. Their duties were to baptize 
and catechise women, to attend the sick and 
martyrs in prison, and to superintend the ' 
behaviour of female worshippers at church, i 
It is doubtful when the office was discon- 
tinued; butthecouncilof Orange, Xov. 8, 44il, 
forbade any more deaconesses to be ordained; i 
which prohibition was repeated by the Coun- ' 
cil of Albon in 517, and the Coimcil of Orleans 
June 23, 533. The order did not, however, 
become extinct tUl the 11th century, and in 
the Greek church deaconesses continued 
as late as the end of the 12th century. j 

Deaf akd DuiiB. — The earhest legis- i 
272 ' 



DEA 

lation for the deaf and dumb appears in 
the code of Justinian (a.d. 528), which 
declares persons bom thus, incapable of 
making a wiQ, manumitting a slave, and 
performing other civil offices. The Vene- 
rable Bede states that John, bishop of 
Hagulstad (Hexham), enabled a deaf man 
to talk in 685, and Rodolphus Agricola 
(1442 — 1485), states the capacity of those 
{ bom deaf to receive instruction, and men- 
! tions instances in which it had been success- 
l fully imparted. The art was first re- 
duced to a system by Jerome Cardan 
(1501 — 1576), and was successfully prac- 
tised by the Spanish Benedictine, Pedro 
de Ponce, who died in August, 1585. 
Jean Bonifacio published his work on the 
language of action in 1616, and John Bulwer's 
" Philocophus, or the Deafe and Dumbe 
Man's Friende," pubhshed in 1648, is pro- 
bably the earliest Enghsh work on the 
subject. Dr. WaUis announced his abihty 
to teach the deaf in 1653, and George Dal- 
garno's manual alphabet, the first pubhshed 
in England, appeared in 1680. The great 
French teachers of the deaf and dumb are 
the abbe de I'Epee (1712—1789), and the 
abbe Sicard (1742 — 1822), who laboured 
arduously and successfully to estabhsh an 
elFective system of instruction for their 
unfortunate pupils. The first school for the 
deaf and dimib was opened in Edinburgh 
about 1760, by Thomas Braidwood, who 
removed it to 'Hackney, London, in 1783. 
The London Asylum for poor deaf and dumb 
children was projected and estabhshed in 
1792, by the Eev. John Townsend, who 
collected a considerable sum of money for 
the purpose. The duke of Gloucester laid 
the first stone of the new Asvlum in the Old 
Kent Eoad, July 11, 1807. The Asylum of 
Edinburgh was' founded in 1810 ; "that of 
Birmingham in 1812 ; of Claremont (Dubhn) 
in 1816 ; of Glasgow in 1819 ; of Manchester 
in 1823 ; and of Liverpool in 1825. Accord- 
ing to the census of 1851, Great Britain 
and Ireland contained 17,300 deaf and dumb 
persons, being in the proportion of 1 to 1,590 
of the whole population. 

Dean Foeest (Gloucestershire) contained 
iron-mines at a veiy early period of English 
history, probably before the Eoman invasion. 
Its boundaries were defined by 20 Chas. II. c. 3 
(1667) . The mine law courts, for the pro- 
tection of the free miners, &e., were abohshed 
in 1777, and the free miners have since lost 
many of their alleged rights. Eiots broke 
out here June 8, 18.31, in consequence of the 
opposition of the foresters to the inclosure of 
any part of the forest, when upwards of 2,000 
men destroyed the fences, and indulged in 
other riotous proceedings. 

Death (punishment of). — Among the 
ancient Jews, stoning, burning, and cru- 
ciflLsion were the chief capital penalties. 
Draco, B.C. 621, endeavoured to repress 
crime among the Greeks, by visiting every 
olFence vrith death; but Solon, B.C. 594, 
limited the extreme sentence of the law to 
murder, and a few other heinous offences. 



DEA 

The Eomans inflicted it on murderers, 
traitors, violators of public morals, and 
vestals who broke their vows of chastity. 
The codes of Theodosius and Justinian, 
promulgated a.d. 438 and 528, were very 
mercifvd as regards capital punishment, 
which was chiefly confined to murder, 
treason, adultery, forgery (if committed by 
a slave) , and man-steaHng. Under the 
Anglo-Saxons, it was almost limited to theft, 
other offences, including murder, being 
dealt with by fines. William the Conqueror 
(1066—1087) abolished it altogether as a 
system, and substituted mutilation. Never- 
theless the first instance of decapitation 
for treason, in this country, occurred in his 
reign, Waltheof, earl of Northumbria, being 
beheaded at Winchester, May 31, 1076. 
Henry I. revived the capital penalty in 
certain kinds of theft in 1108, and in 1241, 
hanging, drawing, and quartering were first 
inflicted on a pirate named Maurice. The 
punishment of death subsequently became 
much more common, and in the time of 
Edward II. (1307—1327) was awarded to 
traitors, who were drawn and hanged; to 
murderers, robbers, and incendiaries, who 
were hanged ; to heretics, who were burned ; 
and to offenders against nature, who were 
buriedalive. By4 &5 Vict. c._56 (Juiie2, 1841), 
it is now limited to the crimes of treason, 
murder, unnatural offences, setting fire to 
the queen's ships or stores, injuring life with 
intent to murder, burglary accompanied 
with attempts to murder, robbery accom- 
panied with stabbing or wounding, setting fire 
to a dwelling-house having any person therein, 
setting fire to, casting away, or otherwise 
destroying ships with intent to murder, 
exhibiting false fights vsith intent to bring 
ships into danger, and piracy, accompanied 
with stabbing, &c. 

Death's Head, (Order of,) was founded 
by the duke of Wiirtemberg, a.d. 1652. It 
is for females only. 

Debtors. (See Bankeupts, Impeisom-- 
MENT FOR Debt, &c.) 

Deccan' (Hindostan). — The boundaries of 
this territory have varied greatly at different 
periods. The term is now usually applied to the 
southern portion of India, situated between 
the Nerbudda and Kustna rivers. Its first 
independent sovereign was Allah ud Deen, 
A.D. 1337 ; and in 1690 it was conquered by 
Aurungzebe, who divided it into six provinces. 
In 1717 Mzam ul Mulck wrested it from the 
Mongol sovereigns of Delhi, and rendered it 
subject to the Mahrattas, who maintained 
their ascendancy till 1818, when a large 
portion was ceded to the British. 

Deceleia (Greece) . — Thisplace, originally 
one of the twelve cities of Attica, was taken 
and fortified by the Lacedaemonians B.C. 413, 
and was retained by them tfll the end of the 
Peloponnesian war. 

December, so called from decern, ten, 
was the tenth month in the year of Romulus, 
B.C. 753; and became the twelfth, when 
ISTuma Pompilius placed the months of 
January and February before March, 
273 



DEC 

B.C. 713. During the reign of Commodua 
(a.d. 180 — 192) it was called Amazonius, 
in honour of the emperor's mistress Martia, 
who had been painted in the habit of an 
Amazon. 

Decemvirs. — The supreme council often, 
appointed at Rome b.c. 451, compiled their 
laws of the ten tables the same year, and at 
first governed so as to vrin the respect of 
their fellow-citizens. But, in the year B.C. 
449, they were deposed, in consequence of 
the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards 
Virginia, and the consular government was 
restored. 

Decennalia. — These festivals were insti- 
tuted by the emperor Augustus, b.c. 24, 
in acknowledgment of the prosperity of his 
administration during the preceding ten 
years. They were continued by the em- 
perors every tenth year of their reign, with 
games, sacrifices, and largesses to the people. 
The last was celebrated by Theodosius II. 
A.D. 411. 

Decimal System was appHed by the 
French government to coinage, weights, and 
measures, in 1792. Sir John Wrottesley 
introduced it to the notice of Parfiament, 
Feb. 25, 1824, but no measures were adopted 
for testing its utihty, A committee of the 
House of Commons reported in favour of 
its adoption Aug. 1, 1853 ; and in Nov. 1854, 
a commission of inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of Lord Monteagle, Lord Over- 
stone, and Mr. Hubbard. The Decimal 
Association, formed in June, 1854, and the 
International Association, instituted at Paris 
in 1855, both labour for the introduction 
of the decimal system. 

DECiMATioiir was introduced among the 
Eomans as a military punishment by Appius 
Claudius, about B.C. 449, and continued in 
use tiR it was abolished by Theodosius, a.d. 
383. 

Decimtts (Battle). — BeMsarius defeated 
the Vandals Sept. 14, 533 a.d., on a plain 
ten miles from Carthage, and on this ac- 
count the victory received the name of 
Decimus. 

Declaration- op Rights.— This declara- 
tion for vindicating and asserting the ancient 
rights and hberties of the subject was agreed 
to by the lords spiritual and temporal, and the 
Commons, Feb. 12, 1689 (O.S.). Itwas read 
before WiUiam, prince of Orange, at White- 
hall, and accepted by him Wednesday, Feb. 13 
(O.S.). (/See Bill OF Rights.) 

Decretals, letters written by the popes 
to decide questions in ecclesiastical law. 
Pope Sericius wrote the first a.d. 385, to 
Himerius, bishop of Tarragona, in Spain. 
A series of forged decretals were written in 
France between the years 829 and 845, the 
aim of which was to exalt the episcopal 
dignity, and increase the power of the upper 
magnates of the Church. Gratian pubhshed 
a coUection of decretals in 1150, and Gre- 
gory IX. compiled five books of them, which 
were called the Pentateuch, in 1234, to which 
Boniface VIII. added a sixth in 129S. Cle- 
ment V. issued his five books, knowni as the 
T 



DED 

Clementines, in 1313, and John XXII. used 
them as the foundation of the canon law in 
1317. This was the last authentic series of 
decretals. The later ones, called Extrava- 
gantes, have only been occasionally pre- 
served, and the latest of them was written by 
Sixtus IV. in 1483. 

DEDiCATioir OP Chtjeches. — We read in 
Exodus (xl. 33, B.C. 1490), that Moses 
dedicated the tabernacle iu the wilderness, 
and in 1 Kings (viii. 1—64, B.C. 1004), that 
Solomon devoted his temple to the service 
of God. The second temple was likewise 
dedicated, as we learn from Ezra (vi. 16, 17, 
B.C. 515). According to Biagham, the first 
authentic accounts of the consecration of 
Christian churches occur in the 4th century, 
when, in the words of Eusebius, "it was'a 
desirable sight to behold how the consecra- 
tions of the new-built churches and the 
feasts of the dedications were solemnized in 
every city." The church of Jerusalem, 
erected by Constantine on the site of the 
Holy Sepulchre, was consecrated by a fuU 
synod of bishops specially convened for 
the purpose, a.d. 335 ; and in 341 the 
church of Antioch was also dedicated by a 
great company of bishops summoned for that 
end. 

_ Deeds. — Among the Anglo-Saxons, when 
title-deeds were lost, new ones were pre- 
pared, from memory, of similar effect; 
an instance of which occurred a.d. 903. 
Deeds were not generally dated until the 
reign of Edward II., although the practice 
commenced in the time of Edward I. The 
indenture of deeds was rendered unneces- 
sary by 7 & 8 Yict. c. 76, s. 11 (Aug. 6, 
1844). 

Dees (Hindostan) was fortified by Sooraj 
Mull, A.D. 1760. In 1776 it was taken by 
Nudjiff Khan, after a siege of twelve 
months. General Eraser defeated Holkar 
under its walls K'ov. 13, 1804; and Lord 
Lake took the fortress by storm Dec. 14 
in the same year. 

Defamation.— By the laws of Lothaire, 
king of Kent (a.d. 673—684) , calumny and de- 
famation were visited by severe fines. Under 
Alfred, Edgar, and Canute, those who spread 
false reports forfeited their tongues, unless 
they paid the full amount of their mulct. 
The law respecting defamation of character 
was amended by 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 24, 
1843) ; and the offence was removed from 
the jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastical courts 
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (June 26, 1855). 

Defence of the Eealm Act. — This act, 
"To make better provision for acquiring 
lands for the defence of the realm" (23 & 24 
Vict. c. 112), was passed Aug. 28, 1860. 

Defewdek of the Faith. — Leo X. con- 
ferred the title of " Eidei Defensor" on 
Henry VIIL, as a mark of approval of his 
work against Luther, dedicated to that 
pontiff. The buU by which it was granted 
bears date Oct. 11, 1521, and the title was 
confirmed by 35 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1543). 
The title had, however, been assumed by 
the kings of England previous to the time 
274 



DEI 

of Henry VIII. Eichard II. used it in 
his proclamation against the opinions of 
Wycliffe, dated Westminster, July 3, 1382. 

Defenders, and Peep-o'day Boys, — • 
two Irish factions, the first being Roman 
Cathohcs, and the last Presbyterians, which 
originated July 4, 1784, near Market -hiU, 
in the county of Armagh. On Whit- 
Monday, 1785, seven hundred Protestants, 
known as the ]S"appagh fleet, met the De- 
fenders, who had assumed the title of the 
Bawn fleet, and were on the point of 
coming to an engagement, when they were 
induced to separate by some private gen- 
tlemen. In January, 1793, Ireland was 
much disturbed by the Defenders, who 
attacked the houses of Protestants. A 
battle was fought between these two 
factions Sept. 21, 1795, at the village called 
the Diamond ; in which forty - eight De- 
fenders were killed, and many more wounded. 
To commemorate this battle the first Orange 
lodge was formed. 

Degkadation. — In the Primitive Church 
this sentence was awarded to aU who were 
guilty of very flagitious crimes. In 767 it 
was executed upon the patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, who was compelled to leave the 
church backwards, and was stripped of his 
paUium, while an anathema was pronounced 
over him. By 23 Hen. VIII. c. 1, s. 6 
(1531), clerks convicted of treason, murder, 
&c., were to suffer degradation. In chivalry, 
knights are degraded only for the most 
heinous offences. Instances occurred as early 
as 1322, and as late as 1621. The mode of 
execution was for the culprit's spurs to be 
hacked off his heels, his sword broken over 
his head, and himself announced to be 
"no longer knight, but a scoundrel-knave." 
Peers can only lose their nobihty by death 
or attainder ; "though one instance occurs in 
which parhament degraded a nobleman for 
poverty; viz. that of George Neville, duke 
of Bedford, who was degraded in 1477. 

Degrees of Geometry were first 
measured by Eratosthenes, who flourished 
B.C. 275 — 194. Hipparchus of Nice, B.C. 
162, first determined the relative positions 
of places by means of their latitudes and 
longitudes. 

Degsastan, or Degstan (Battle). — 
Ethelfrith defeated the Scots at this place, 
by some supposed to be Dalston, in Cum- 
berland, A.D. 603. 

Deiea. — The conquests of Ida, in the 
North of England, were, on his death, 
divided into two states — Deira and Ber- 
nicia. Ella became king of the former a.d. 
559. On his death, in 588, Deira was joined 
to Bernicia. Oswin seized Deira in 644, 
and was slaiu by Oswy, king of Bernicia, 
Aug. 20, 651. 

Deists. — This appellation was assumed ia 
France and Italy about the middle of the 
16th century, by those who were sceptical 
in regard to Christianity, but acknowledged 
the existence of a God ; and they are men- 
tioned as a new sect in the preface to 
the second volume of Virot's " Instruction 



DEL 



DEL 



Chr^tienne," puMished in 1563. Among the 
earliest writers who erected deism into a 
system, must be classed Lord Herbert of 
Cherbury, whose work " De Veritate" ap- 
peared at Paris in 1624. Other eminent 
deists were Hobbes, who died in 1679 ; 
Toland, in 1722 ; Tindal, in 1733 ; Bohng- 
broke, in 1751 ; Hume, in 1776 ; Gibbon, in 
1794; Paine, in 1809 ; and among foreigners, 
Voltaire, in 1778; Eousseau, in 1778; and 
Condorcet, in 1794. 

Delawaee (United States), so called 
from Lord De la War, governor of Virginia, 
who was the first to enter the bay, a.d. 1610. 
It was colonized by the Swedes in 1627; 
talcen by the Dutch in 1655 ; and seized by 
the English in 1664. In 1704 it was erected 
into a separate colony, which rank it main- 
tained till the separation from the mother 
country. Its constitution was formed in 
1776, and amended in 1831. 

Delegates (Court of). — On the pro- 
hibition of appeals to the pope, the 
Court of Delegates was created to exer- 
cise the supreme appellate jurisdiction. It 
generally included the judges of the court 
of Westminster, and the doctors of the 
civil law, and was established by 25 
Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1533). Its jurisdiction 
was aboUshed by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 92 
(Aug. 7, 1832), which provided that all 
appeals formerly made to it should in future 
be laid before the sovereign in council ; 
and this act was amended by 3 & 4 
WiU. IV. c. 41, s. 3 (Aug. 14, 1833), which 
ordered aU such appeals to be referred 
to the judicial committee of the privy 
council. 

Delet (HoUand) was founded by Godfrey 
le Bossu, duke of Lower Lorraine, a.d. 1074. 
The new church was erected in 1381 ; and 
the town was much injured by a fire in 
1536. Here Hugo Grotius was born, April 
10, 1583 ; and WiUiam I., prince of Orange, 
assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, July 10, 
1584. The Hotel de Ville was built in 
1618. A mausoleum, erected in memory 
of WiUiam, in the new church, in 1620, 
is considered one of the finest objects in 
the town. Delft siiffered severely from 
the explosion of a powder-magazine in 
1654. 

Delhi (Hindostan), the ancient capital 
of the Patau and Mongol empires, was an 
important city, governed by its own rajah, 
as early as a.d. 1008. In 1011 it was taken 
and pillaged by Sultan Mahmoud, of Ghuznee ; 
and in 1193, Cuttub ud Deen wrested it 
from the Hindoo princes, and founded the 
Patau, or Aifghan empire. Timour crossed 
the Indus, and captured Delhi, in 1398 ; and 
in 1525, Sultan Baber took the city, and 
abolished the Patau dynasty, establishing in 
its stead that of the Mongols. Akbar, the 
greatest of the Mongol emperors of Delhi, 
commenced his reign in 1556, and died in 
1605. In 1735 the city was partially burnt 
by the Mahrattas, and soon afterwards, 
March 9, 1739, it was taken by Nadir Shah, 
who rendered its capture notorious by the 
275 



cruelty and rapacity with which it was 
effected. The Mahrattas obtained posses- 
sion of Delhi in 1770, and the Eohillas in 
1788. The battle of Delhi was fought Sept. 11, 

1803, between the French and Mahrattas, 
under Bourquin, and the English, under 
General Lake, and gained by the latter, who 
entered the city the following day. In Oct. 

1804, it was besieged by Holkar, who was 
compelled to retire in spite of his superior 
force. From this period no event of im- 
portance occurs in the history of Delhi 
until May 11, 1857, when it was entered by 
fugitive rebel sepoys from Meerut, and made 
the head- quarters of the rebeUion. The 
English laid siege to it on the 8th of June, 
commenced the cannonade Sept. 11, and 
completed the capture Sept. 20. The king 
and his two sons were taken Sept. 21, and 
the latter were immediately shot by Lieut, 
Hodson. The English troops left Delhi in 
pursmt of the rebels Sept. 23. 

Delicate Investigation. — This inquiry 
into certain alleged improprieties on the 
part of Caroline Elizabeth, then princess of 
Wales, and afterwards queen of England, as 
wife of George IV., was conducted by a com- 
mission appointed by the king, May 29, 1806, 
and composed of Lords Spencer, Grenville, 
Erskine, and EUenborough. The chief pro- 
moters of the investigation were Sir John 
and Lady Douglas, who laid charges against 
the princess, of which the committee declared 
her innocent, although they condemned her 
for culpable levity of conduct. Sir John 
and Lady Douglas persisted in their asser- 
tions, and in March, 1813, the subject was 
much discussed in the House of Commons. 
The bin for the degradation of the queen 
was proposed by Lord Liverpool, and 
read for the first time, July 5, 1820. Its 
second reading took place Aug. 17, and the 
case was opened by the Attorney General 
in support of the biU, Aug. 19. Mr., after- 
wards Lord Brougham, commenced the 
defence, Oct. 3, and the Lords voted in 
favour of the third reading of the biU, 
Nov. 10. In consequence, however, of the 
strong feeling of the country in favour of the 
queen, and of the nearly equal state of 
opinion among the peers, the majority 
only amounting to 9, the bOl was abandoned 
on the motion of Lord Liverpool. 

Delinquents.— AU persons assuming 
powers not authorized by statute were, by 
the Long Parhament, in 1640, declared to be 
delinquents. On the 15th of Feb. 1641, the 
House of Commons ordered a person to be 
sent for as a delinquent for speaking scan- 
dalous words against a member ; and June 7 
in the same year the House of Commons 
ordered, that when any man was sent for 
as a delinquent, and afterwards by order 
of the House was bailed, he should not on 
that account be discharged of arrest in other 
suits. Hume remarks, " This term was newly 
come into vogue, and expressed a degree 
or species of guilt not exactly known or 
ascertained." Many of the nobility and 
gentry, for exercising what they believed to 
T 2 



DEL 

be the legal powers of magistracy, were 
involved in the crime of dehnquency. 

Delium (Battles) .—The Boeotians defeated 
the Athenians near the temple of Apollo, at 
Delium, B.C. 424. Socrates, and his pupU 
Alcibiades, took part in this battle. The 
troops of Antiochus of Syria defeated the 
Eomans at Dehum, B.C. 192. 

Delos (^gean Sea). — This island, one of 
the Cyclades, is said to have been the birth- 
place of Apollo, and was one of the chief 
seats of his worship. It was made the com- 
mon treasury of the states united against 
Persia, b.c. 477. The Athenians purified it 
by removing aU its tombs, &c., B.C. 426 ; and 
banished aU its inhabitants b.c. 422. About 
B.C. 146 it became important as a seat of 
commerce, but it subsequently lost all trade, 
and is now a mere heap of ruins. 

Delphi (Greece).— The celebrated temple 
and oracle of the Pythian ApoUo is said to 
have been founded by the Amphictyons 
B.C. 1263. It was destroyed by fire B.C. 
548, and some accuse the Pisistratidae of 
having burnt it, but Herodotus (ii. 180) 
acquits them of any such intention. It was 
reljuilt by the Amphictyons, and decorated 
by the Alcmseonidge, who so enriched the 
new edifice that Xerxes sent an expedition 
in search of plunder, B.C. 480. The Persians, 
however, were compelled to retreat by the 
immense blocks of stone which were hurled 
upon them by supernatural means, according 
to the report of the priests. The Phocians 
seized the temple B.C. 357, and enriched 
themselves with its immense wealth, which 
amounted to 20,000 talents of gold and 
silver. Philip of Macedon restored it to the 
custody of the Amphictyons B.C. 346, and it 
remained undisturbed luitil attacked by the 
Gauls under Brennus, B.C. 279, when the 
enemy was a second time repelled by the 
overthrow of huge masses of rock. It was 
again plundered by Sylla, B.C. 82 ; and by 
Nero, who took from it 500 brazen statues, 
A.D. 67. The temple was suppressed by 
Theodosius, who died a.d. 395, and with it 
the existence of the town may be said to 
have ceased. 

Delphin" Classics. — This edition, sug- 
gested by the duke of Montausier, was 
prepared by order of Louis XLV. for the use 
of the Dauphin, whence the name {In usuni 
serenissimi Delphini). Hallam (Lit. Hist., 
vol. iv. pt. 4, ch. 1), says, — "The choice of 
authors as well as of editors was referred 
to Bishop Huet, who fixed the number of 
the former at forty." The first edition con- 
sisted of sixty-four volumes, all of which, 
with the exception of Ovid, issued at Lyons, 
were published at Paris. Florus and SaUust 
appeared in 1674, and Ausonius in 1730. 
Mr. Valpy commenced the repubhcation of 
the Delphin Classics in 1818, The editions 
are unequal in merit. 

Deluge. — The first mention of the Deluge 
occurs in Gen. vi. 7 — 22, which describes the 
directions received by Noah relative to the 
construction of the ark. The commencement 
of the flood is related Gen. vii. 10—12. The 
276 



DEN 

waters increased for forty days (v. 17) , and 
remained upon the earth 150 days (v. 24) , at 
the end of which time the ark rested on 
Mount Ararat (Gen. viii. 4). The follow- 
ing are some of the dates assigned to this 
event : — 



B.C. 

Septuagint 3246 

Jackson 3170 

Hale3 3155 

Josephus 3146 

Pei-sian 3103 

CaliYuga 3102 

Chinese 3000 

Samaritan 29U8 

Howai-d 2K98 

Clinton 2482 



Playfair 2352 

ITsher and English 

Bible 2348 

Marsham 2344 

Petavius 2:i2i) 

Ii-ish 2296 

Strauchius 2293 

Hebrew 2288 

Vvdgar Jewish ... 2104 



Besides the general Deluge, there are others 
recorded by classical authors, of which the 
chief are those of Ogyges, about B.C. 1760, 
and Deucalion, B.C. 1504, the first of which 
was confined to Attica, and the latter to 
Thessaly. 

Dembewielkie (Battle). — The Poles de- 
feated the Russians with great slaughter at 
this place, near Warsaw, March 31, 1831. 

Demebaea and Essequibo (South 
America). — Colonies were planted on the 
banlcs of these rivers by the Dutch, about 
1580. They were taken by the British under 
General Whyte, April 22, 1796 ; and restored 
to Holland, by the peace of Aiaiens, March 
27, 1802. The English captured them again 
Sept. 20, 1803. By an agreement, signed 
Aug. 13, 1814, the Dutch surrendered these 
possessions to England. (See Guiana.) 

Demexkia. — The Athenians instituted an 
annual festival under this name in honour of 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, B.C. 307. 

Demmijt (Prussia). — This was an im- 
portant to-wn in the time of Charlemagne, 
and has sustained several sieges. The Swedes 
took the garrison prisoners a.d. 1757, and the 
Prussians regained possession in 1759. The 
French captured Demmin April 17, 1807. 

Detain- (Battle). — At this village, in 
Prance, Marshal Vihars, at the head of a 
French army, defeated the aUied Dutch and 
German troops, commanded by the earl of 
Albemarle, July 24, 1712. Prince Eugene, 
who by some writers is represented as having 
taken part in the action, was, by the admir- 
able strategy of Marshal ViUars, compelled 
to witness a defeat that he could not 
avert. 

Denaeius, the standard silver coin among 
the Eomans, was first coined B.C. 269. Its 
value amounted to ten bronze asses, or eight- 
pence halfpenny. About B.C. 216 its value was 
raised to sixteen asses, the as being reduced 
considerably in weight. Gold denarii were 
struck at Eome B.C. 206. 

Denis, St. (France). — A chapel in honour 
of St. Denis was founded at this place a.d. 
250. Dagobert was buried here in 580. 
Dagobert I. founded the abbey in 613, and 
it has ever since been the place of sepulchre 
for the French monarchs. The first church 
was finished in 775, and the present edifice, 
commenced in 1130, was completed in 1281. 



DEN 

Abattle between the Eoman Catholics and the 
Huguenots was fought in its vicinity in 1567, 
■\9^hen the latter were victorious. The abbey 
was suppressed in 1792. By a decree of the 
Convention, Aug. 6, 1793, the royal tombs 
were opened, but they were restored by 
Napoleon in 1806. 

Denmark, — The early history of this 
country is involved in obscurity. Some 
native writers give lists of its sovereigns 
from the time of Noah, while others are 
content vdth ascribing the foundation of 
the kingdom and the name of the country 
to Dan, whose reign, they say, began 
B.C. 1038. The first inhabitants were pro- 
bably the Cimbri or Cimmerians, who were 
supplanted by the Goths four or five 
centuries before the Christian aera. 



1038. Alleged accession of Dan. 
483. Reigu of Ruric Slingeband, during -which 
the events that form the basis of Shake- 
speare's " Hamlet" occurred. 
70. Anlval of Odin. 

40. Death of Skiold, usually reputed the founder 
of the monarchy. 

A.T). 

794. Ragnar Lodbrog perishes in an attempt to 

invade Northumberland. 
828. Harold T., the first Christian sovereign of 

Denmark, retires to a monastery. 
912. Rollo, the Dane, obtains Normandy. 
944. Harold II. assists the Normans against the 

French king, whom he conquers and makes 

prisoner. 
991. Harold II. , famous for his prowess in war and 

his zealous adoption of Christianity, is 

assassinated by order of his son Sweyn. 

1013. England submits to Sweyn. 

1014. Accession of Canute the Great. 

1028. Canute conquers Norway, which he governs 

simultaneously with England and Den- 
mark. 
1042. Magnus, king of Norway, inherits the throne 

of Denmark. 
1047. Separation of Norway and Denmark ; Sweyn 

II. ascending the throne of the latter 

country. 
1087-1095. Reign of Olaf II., surnamed the Himgry, 

in consequence of a terrible famine which 

visited his kingdom. 
1147. The sovereignty is divided between Canute V. 

and Sweyn III., who wage along and bloody 

civil war with each other. 
1157. "Valdemar the Great succeeds to the imdivided 

throne. 
1250. Murder of Eric VI. by his brother Abel. 

1325. Christopher II. is expelled by his subjects. 

1326. Aug. 15. Count Gerhard, of Hoi stein and 

Stormam, receives the duchy of South 
Jutland as an hereditary fief, with royal 
rights over the inhabitants of Sleswig. 

1340. Valdemar IV. is elected king. 

1397. June. The Union of Calmar. Margaret be- 
comes queen of Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden, which are united into one kingdom. 

1440. Eric bestows Sleswig on Adolf, count of 
Holstein. 

1448. Christian I. ascends the throne, and founds 
the Oldenburg dynasty. Sweden resumes 
its independence under Charles Knutson. 

14-57. John Bengston, archbishop of Upsal, defeats 
Charles Knutson, and reunitt^s the three 
kingdoms under one monarch. 

1464. Christian I. is made duke of Sleswig and count 
of Holstein. 

1477. Christian I. relinquishes his efforts to main- 
tain the sovereignty of Sweden. 

1481. May 2-2. Death of Christian I. He is succeeded 
on the Danish and Norwegian thrones by 
his sou John. 



A.D. 

1497. 
1523. 
1525. 



1620. 
1652. 



1726. 
1728. 



1761. 
1772. 



1773. 

1784. 



1786. 
1795. 



1810. 
1813. 



DEN 



Nov. 19. Sweden submits to John. 

Deposition of Christian II. 

Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden, 
which he renders independent of Denmark 
and Norway. 

Frederick I. declares in favour of Luther- 
anism. 

On the death of Frederick I., the succession 
is disputed by the deposed Christian II. , 
Christian duke of Holstein, and Prince 
John of Holstein. The duke of Holstein 
succeeds as Christian III. 

Tranquebar, in Hindostan, is ceded to Den- 
mark. 

Instigated by the Dutch, Frederick III. seizes 
and sells twenty-two English vessels at 
anchor in the port of Copenhagen. 
Cromwell compels the Dutch to make 
reparation. 

Denmark is invaded by Charles Gustavus, of 
Sweden, who threatens Copenhagen, and 
receives Scania, Blenkiugen, Halland, 
Bornholm, Bahus, Janetland, Drontheim, 
and parts of Bremen and Rugen. 

Oct. The authority of the king is made abso- 
lute and hereditary. 

Acquisition of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. 

June 14. Peace of Stockholm, between Den- 
mark and Sweden. 

Rantzau is added to Denmark. 

A fire at Copenhagen lays the city in ruins, 
burning six churches, the university, with 
its library, the town-hall, many other 
public buildings, and 2,500 private houses. 

Ho!stein-Plon is added to Denmark. 

Jan. 16. Caroline Matilda, queen of Christian 
VII., is arrested on a charge of incon- 
tinence, and afterwards banished. April 
28. Execution of Counts Struensee and 
Brandt, for implication in the queen's 
offence. 

Holstein - Gottorp is ceded to Denmark by 
Russia, in return for Oldenburg and Del- 
menhorst. 

March 28. Christian VII. having become 
insane, his sou, Prince Fi-ederick, is ap- 
pointed regent. 

Liberation of the serfs in Denmark. 

Establishment of tribunals of conciliation, 
to adjust law disputes by mediation instead 
of litigation. 

AprU. 2. Bombardment of Copenhagen by 
Lord Nelson, who destroys or captures 
seventeen sail of the line. The Danish 
loss is said to amount to 1,800 men. This 
victory puts an end to the Armed Neu- 
trality. 

The Danish poor-law comes into operation. 
Its provisions are, the maintenance of the 
destitute at the public cost, and the total 
prohibition of begging. The Danes sup- 
press the slave-trade. 

Sept. 9. Holstein is declared an integral 
part of the Danish monarchy, quite and 
for ever separate from the Germanic 
empire. 

Aug. 16. Copenhagen is invested by the British 
fleet under Admiral Gambler, and the army 
under Lord Cathcart. Sept. 2. Firing 
commences. Sept. 5. The town capitulates, 
and its fleet, consisting of 18 ships of the 
line, 15 frigates, 6 brigs, and 25 gun-boats, 
falls into the hands of the English. 

The conscription is introduced. 

Sept. 5. War is declared against Sweden. 
Dec. 16. Holstein is held by the allies. 

Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel. Denmark cedes Heli- 
goland to Great Britain, and Norway to 
Sweden, receiving in return Swedish 
Pomerania and Rtigen. 

June 4. Denmark cedes Pomerania and 
Riigen to Pi-ussia, receiving Lauenburg 
and a pecuniary compensation as indem- 
nity. June 8. The king joins the Germau 
Confederacy. 

Introduction of savings' banks. 

277 



DEN 



1820. Introduction of system of mutual instruc- 
tion. 

1824 June 16. Commercial treaty with Great 
Britain signed at London. 

1825. A violent storm breaks through the isthmus 
between the North Sea and the LsTnfiord, 
thereby making the north part of Jutland 
an island. 

1831. Frederick VI. institutes provincial states. 

1846. July 8. Christian VIII. issues a letter patent, 
declaring his undoubted right to the duchy 
of Sleswig, and his intention to submit his 
claim to Holstein for due consideration. 

1848. Jan. 28. Frederick VII. publishes a new con- 

stitution, by which Sleswig, Holstein, and 
Denmark, are to be governed by " common 
states," elected alternately in the duchies 
and Denmark. March 24. Revolt of 
Sleswig and Holstein commences at Kiel. 
April 23 (Easter Sunday). The Prussians 
defeat the Danes, and take possession of 
Sleswig. May 1. Jutland is occupied by the 
Prussian forces. Aug. 26. Armistice for 
seven mouths i< signed at Mai mo. 

1849. July 10. The armistice is renewed for six 

months. 
18-50. July 2. Peace with Prussia is signed at Berlin. 
July 17. Danish troops enter Flensburg. 
July 2.5. The Danes conquer the trooiis of 
Sleswig -Holstein, at Idstedt. Aug. 17. 
Cession of the Danish possessions on the 
coast of Africa to Great Britain. Oct. 4. 
The Holsteiners, under General "Willisen, 
attack Friederichstadt, but are driven 
back. 

1851. Jan, 11. Submission of the duchies to Den- 

mark, and reference of the matters in 
dispute to the arbitration of the Germanic 
Confederation. 

1852. Feb. 18. The government of Holstein is 

assigned to the Danish minister, for 
Holstein - Lauenburg, by the German 
commissioners. The Prussian and Austrian 
troops leave the duchy. May 8. Inter- 
national treaty, relative to the succession 
of the crown of Denmark, is signed at 
London. 

1855. Oct. 1. The Danish government sends des- 
patches to all the states interested in the 
question of the Sound dues, inviting them 
to confer with Denmark relative to a 
definite aiTangement. Oct. 2. The king 
publishes a new constitution. 

18-57. March 14. Denmai-k agrees to abolish the 
Sound dues, on receiving a compensation 
equal to £3,386,2.58. 

1858. Nov. 6. Great changes in the constitution of 

Holstein. 

1859. July 14. Denmark is connected with Great 

Britain by submarine telegraph. 

1860. May 3. The Prussian diet resolves to assist 

the duchies of Sleswig - Hosltein against 
Denmark. 

1861. Jan. Preparations are made to resist the 

anticipated attack of Gei-many and Prussia. 
March. Holstein rejects the propositions 
of the Danish government. Apiil 8. The 
infantry is ordered to be doubled. April 27. 
The government delivers its fin 1 answer 
respecting Holstein, and refuses to make 
further concessions. July 27. About 500 
Sleswigers, in favour of the rights of 
Denmark over Sleswig, visit Copenhagen- 
where they meet with an enthusiastic 
pubUc reception. 

SOVEEEIGNS OF DENMABK. 



DEO 



Died. 

B.C. 

Skiold 40 

Fridleif 1 23 

A.D. 

Frodel 35 

IWdleifll 47 

Havar 59 

278 



Died. 

A.D. 

Frode n 87 

"Wermund the Sage 140 

Olaf the Mild .... 190 

Dan Mykillate .... 270 

Frode III 310 

HalfdanL 324 



Died. 

A.D. 

Fridleif III 348 

Frode TV 407 

Ingild, or Ingel 436 

Halfdanll 447 

Frode V 460 

Heke and Eoe 494 

Frode VI 510 

Rolf Kvake 522 

Frode VII 548 

Halfdan III 580 

Euric Slyngebande 588 

Ivar Vidiadme 647 

Harold HUdetand 735 

Sigurd Ring . . . . 750 

Ragnar Lodbrog . . 794 

Sigurd Snogoje .... 803 

Hardi-canute .... 850 

Eric 1 854 

Eric II 883 

Gorm the Old .... 941 

Harold Blaatand . . 991 

Sweyn 1014 

Began to 
reign. 

A.D. 

Canute the Great. . 1015 



to 
reign. 

A.D. 

Hardi-canute 1035 

Magnus 1 1042 

Sweyn II 1047 

Harold III 1076 

Canute IV 1080 

Olaf II 1087 

Eric III 1095 

Nicholas 110-5 

Eric IV 1134 

Eric V 1137 

Canute V. and 

Sweyn in 1147 

Valdemai- I. (the 

Great) 1157 

Canute VI 1182 

Valdemar U 1202 

Eric VI 1241 

Abel 12.50 

Christopher 1 1252 

Eric VII 1259 

EiicVIII 128o 

Christopher II 1320 

(Interregnum) .... l:i34 

Valdemai-lV 1340 

Olaf in 1373 



SOVEEEIGNS OF DENIIAKK, NOEWAY, 
AJfD SWEDEN. 

Began to Began to 

reign. reign. 

A.D. A.D. 

Margaret 1387 1 Christian 1 1443 

Eric of Pomerauia 1412 John 1481 

Christopher IIL .. 1439 1 Christian II 1513 

SOVEEEIGNS OF DENMAEK AND NOEWAT. 



A.D. 

Frederick 1 1.523 1 

Christian III 1539 

Frederick II 1559 

Christian IV 1588 

Frederick III l(-48 

Chz-istian V 1070 



±.D. 

Fi-ederick IV 1699 

Christian VI 1730 

Frederick V 174<J 

Christian VII 1766 

FredeiickVL .... 1808 



SOVEEEIGJTS OF DENMAEK. 



Christian VIII. 



). A.D. 

19 I Frederick VU 1848 

Dennewitz (Battle). — The allied Prus- 
sian, Swedish, and Eussian army defeated 
the French, under Marshal Ney, at the 
village of Dennewitz, in Prussia, Sept. 6, 
1813. The Prussians, who for some time 
maintained their ground against overwhelm- 
ing numbers, were, by the arrival of Ber- 
nadotte with the Swedes and Eussians, 
strongly reinforced, when the French were 
completely routed. They lost 13,000 men, 
43 pieces of cannon, three standards, and 
6,000 stand of arms, whilst the loss of the 
aUied army was about 6,000 men. 

Deodand.— By 9 & 10 Vict. c. 62 (Aug. 18, 
1846), the forfeiture of any chattel for having 
been the cause of the death of a man, was 
abohshed from and after Sept. 1, 1846. 
Deodauds, at first given to the Church, after- 
wards became the property of the Crown. 

Deorham (Battle). — Ceauhn, king of the 
West Saxons, defeated the Britons at Deor- 
ham, supposed to be Dirham, in Gloucester- 
shire, A.D. 577. Three British kings fell in 
the battle, and the victors took possession 
of Bath, Cirencester, and Gloucester. 



DEP 

Deptfoed (Keat). — Henry VIII. esta- 
blished a storehouse here about 1513, and 
granted a charter to the shipmen and mari- 
ners of England to found a guUd in the parish 
church, under the name of the " Guild of the 
Most Glorious and Undivided Trinity," 
May 20, 1514. Here, too. Queen Elizabeth 
Tisited the Golden Sind, in which Drake had 
circumnavigated the globe, April 4, 1581. 
The tovrn suffered from a fire in 1652, and 
from a flood in 1671. Trinity House hospital 
was founded in 1685. In 1698 Deptford was the 
residence of the Guar Peter the Great, during 
his initiation into the mysteries of ship- 
building. "Waterworks were erected here 
in 1699; and the victuaUing-oflice, built in 
1745, was burnt in 1749. The ancient haU of 
the Trinity House was taken down in 1787, 
and the hospital was rebuilt in 1788. 

Deputies (Chamber of). — The French 
legislative assembly received this title by 
a charter of Louis XVIII. in 1814, and 
retained it till the publication of Louis 
Napoleon's constitution, Jan. 14, 1852, 
which appointed the Corps Legislatif in its 
stead. 

Deebenb (Asia), the capital of Daghistan, 
occupies the site of the ancient Albana. The 
Kussians took it a.d. 1722, restoring it to 
the Persians in 1735. It again fell into the 
power of Eussia in 1796, and was incor- 
porated with that empire early in the present 
century. 

Debet (Derbyshire) is supposed to have 
been founded by the ancient Britons. At 
the Conquest, a.d. 1066, it was granted to Wil- 
liam Peverell, natural son of WiUiam I., and 
in 1160 a Benedictine nunnery, of which 
some vestiges stiU remain, was founded. The 
grammar-school, which is supposed to be one 
of the most ancient endowments in England, 
was granted to the corporation in 1554. In 
1592 the plague visited the town and carried 
off many of its inhabitants, and in 1745 it was 
the extreme point reached by the Pretender 
in his invasion of England. The silk manu- 
facture was introduced by John Lombe in 
1717, that of porcelain in 1750, and in 1793 
Messrs. Strutt erected here the first fire- 
proof miU in England. The infirmary was 
erected in 1800, and the town-haU in 1828. 
In 1833-4, 2,400 factory hands struck work, 
and the prosperity of the town materially 
suffered in consequence. The arboretum, 
which was presented to the town by Mr. 
Joseph Strutt, was opened Sept. 16, 1840, 
and in Oct., 1841, the town-haU was de- 
stroyed by fire. A new cattle-market was 
opened in 1861. 

Debet Admin-isteation-s.— The first was 
formed on the resignation of the Eussell 
Admimstration, officially announced Feb. 23, 
1852. The cabinet was thus constituted : — 



Ti-ea3ury Earl of Derby. 

Lord Chancellor Lord St. Leonards. 

President of the Council .. Earl of Lonsdale. 

Privy Seal Marquis of Salisbury. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . . Mr. Disraeli. 

Home Secretary Mr. Walpole. 

Foreign Secretary Earl of Malmesbury. 



DEE 

Colonial Secretary Sir John Pakington, Bart. 

Ad miralty Duke of Northumberland . 

Board of Control Mr. Herries. 

Public Works Lord John Manners. 

Board of Trade Mr. Henley. 

Postmaster-General Earl of Hardwicke. 

They were defeated on their budget Dec. 16, 
1852, and on the following day resigned the 
seals of office. {See Abeedeek Adminis- 

TEATiON.) The second was formed on the 

resignation of the first Palmerston Adminis- 
tration, Feb. 20, 1858. The Cabinet was thus 
constituted ; — 

Treasury Earl of Derby. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Chelmsford. 

President of the Council. .Marquis of Salisbury. 

Privy Seal Earl of Hardwicke. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Mr. Disraeli. 

Home Secretary Mr. Walpole. 

Foreign Secretary Earl of Malmesbury. 

Colonial Secretary Lord Stanley. 

Admiralty Sir John Pakington, Bart. 

Board of Control . Earl of Ellenborough. 

Secretary at War Colonel Peel. 

Public Works Lord John Manners. 

Boaa-d of Trade Mr. Henley. 



Lord Staiiley became president of the 
Board of Control (and on the passing of 
the India bOl, minister for India) on the 
resignation of the earl of Ellenborough in 
June, 1858 ; and Sir E. Bulwer Lytton, 
Bart., took Lord Stanley's place as colonial 
secretary. Mr. Walpole resigned the home 
secretaryship, and Mr. Henley the presi- 
dency of the Board of Trade, Feb. 28, 1859. 
The former office was taken by Mr. Sotheron 
Estcourt, and the latter by the earl of 
Donoughmore. An amendnaent to the ad- 
dress was carried against the ministry 
June 10, 1859, and they resigned on the 
following day. (^S'eePAiMEESTOw's Second 

Ad MINIST E ATIO If . ) 

Debet Tbials. — At the assizes held at 
Derby, July 26, 1817, the grand jury found 
an indictment of high treason against Bran- 
dreth. Turner, Ludlam, and others. As par- 
ticipators in the Luddite insurrections, they 
were charged -svith levying and making war 
against the king. Special commissions were 
opened Sept. 25, and the trial commenced 
Oct. 15, and terminated on Saturday, Oct. 
25, when twenty-three of the prisoners 
received sentence of death. Brandreth, 
Turner, and the elder Ludlam were executed 
at Derby on the 7th of November, and the 
others were reprieved. 

Debet (Ireland), See of.— The date of 
the establishment of this bishopric is un- 
known. ColumbkiUe founded a monas- 
tery at Deny about a.d. 546. The first 
bishops of the district were called bishops of 
Tyrone, and had their see at Ardsrath or 
Ardstraw, in Donegal coimty; but in 597 
they removed to Eathlone or Maghera, in 
Londonderry. In 1158 a council of bishops 
decreed that Derry should be erected into a 
see, and a bishop was apparently appointed, 
though there is no regular succession of 
bishops of Derry till 1279. The Church 
Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, 



DES 



DIA 

Devi-Cotta Fokt (Hindostan) was taken, 
from the rajat of Tanjore, by Clive, a.d. 1749. 
The French took it in 1758 ; but it was re- 
captured by the English in 1759. 

Devizes (Wiltshire) is a very ancient 
town, although no authentic information 
remains respecting its early history. The 
castle, at one time one of the strongest in 
the kingdom, was erected by Eoger, bishop 
of SaHsbury, about a.d. 1132. In 1233 
it was the prison of Hubert de Burgh ; and 
in 1299 was, together with the town and 
park, settled by way of dower on Margaret, 
queen of Edward I. In July, 1643, the 
army of Charles I. was besieged here by the 
parliamentary forces. The latter sustained a 
total defeat near the town, July 13. The 
county bridewell was erected in 1810. 

Devonpost (Devonshire) received its 
present title in 1824, having previously 
been styled Plymouth Dock. A mechanics' 
institute was established in 1825 ; and the 
column to commemorate the change in the 
name of the town was erected in 1827. 
{See Plymouth.) 

Devoxshiee AnMiiasTEATiON- took office 
in ]^ovember, 1756. The cabinet was thua 
constituted : — 

Treasxuy The Duke of Devonshire. 

Pi-esident of the Coimcil. .Earl of Granville. 

Privy Seal Earl Gower. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . .Hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 

( Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl 
Seci-etaries of State < of Chatham. 

( Earl of Holdemesse. 

Admiralty Earl Temple. 

Board of Trade Earl of Halifax. 

Secretary at War Viscount Barrington. 

Treasurer of the Navy Et. Hon. George Grenville 

The great seal was placed in commission. 
The king demanded the seals of office from 
Lord Temple April 5, 1757. Pitt was dis- 
missed a few days later, and the adminis- 
tration was dissolved. An interregnum of 
nearly thi-ee months' duration followed. (See 

]^EWCASTLE AND PiTT ADMINISTRATION.) 

Dhaewae (.Hindostan), taken from the 
Mahrattas by Hyder Ali a.d. 1778, was 
recaptured in 1791. In 1837, rehgious dis- 
putes between the Brahmins and Lingayets 
rose to such a height here, that the British 
government was compelled to interfere. 

Diadem. — Selden ("Titles of Honour") 
states that although the crown and the 
diadem have T)een from ancient times con- 
founded, yet the latter was a very different 
thing from what a crown now is or was. 
The diadem was a fillet of silk, or Mnen ; 
and no other crown was used, excepting in 
some Asiatic kingdoms, before the Chris- 
tian sera. Diocletian assvimed the diadem 
A.D. 303. 

Dials were in use among the Jews as 
early as B.C. 713, when the dial of Hezekiah 
went back ten degrees, in answer to the 
prayer of Isaiah (2 Kings, xx. 11 ; and 
Isaiah, xxxviii. 8). Phny ascribes their 
invention to Anaximander, who flourished 
B.C. 547, and says that the first dial at 
Eome was set up by Papirius Cursor, who 



s. 32 (Aug. 14, 1833), directed that on the 
death of the bishop of Raphoe then in office, 
that diocese should be united to Derry. 
Under this provision the union of the two 
sees took place in 1834. 

Desolation Island (Indian Ocean) was 
discovered by the Erench navigator Ker- 
guelen in 1772, and named after him. Cap- 
tain Cook landed here Dec. 24, 1776, and 
having discovered that it was not a continent, 
as Kerguelen supposed, changed the name 
from Kerguelen' s Laud to the Island of 
Desolation. 

Despaed'sPlot. — In the year 1800 Colonel 
Edward Marcus Despardbegan to plot against | 
the government, and having induced about 
six-and-thirty persons to join him, formed a 
conspiracy to assassinate the king and sub- 
vert the government. The blow was fixed 
for Tuesday, the 16th of November, 1802, the 
day that had been appointed for the opening 
of parHament. Despard and about thirty 
of his associates were arrested at their place 
of assembly, the Oakley Arms pubhc-house, 
in Lambeth, on the night of Nov. 16. After 
a long examination, Colonel Despard and 
fourteen others were committed to take their 
trial for high treason before a special com- 
mission. The ringleader and six of his asso- 
ciates were executed at Horsemonger-lane 
Gaol, VD. presence of an immense crowd, 
Eeb. 21, 1803. 

Dessau (Battle). — ^Wallenstein defeated 
Mansfeld and John Ernest of Weimar, in an 
engagement at the bridge of Dessau, in 
G-ermany, April 25, 1626. It was the scene 
of several encounters between the Erench 
and the aUied squadrons in 1813. 

Desventueadas, or Unhappy Islands 
(Pacific) , were discovered by Magellan during 
his voyage across the Pacific in the spring of 
1521. The name was given to them by this 
enterprising navigator on account of their 
lonely and deserted appearance. It is 
doubtful whether they have been visited by 
any European since their discovery. 

Deteoit (United States) was founded by 
the Erench a.d . 1683. The Enghsh captured 
it in 1759, and it suffered greatly dm-ing the 
revolutionary war. It was incorporated in 
1802. The act of incorporation having been 
withdrawn in 1810, it was again incorporated 
in 1815. Lansing took its place as the capital 
of Michigan in 1847. 

Deteoit Eoet (Upper Canada). — The 
American general Hull, with 2,500 men and 
33 pieces of cannon, capitulated at this fort 
to a British force consisting of 700 men, 
including mihtia, and 600 auxiliary Indians, 
Aug. 16, 1812. The Enghsh withdrew from 
the fort in 1813. 

Dettingen, (Battle,) was fought June 16, 
1743, near the village of Dettingen, in 
Bavaria, and is memorable as being the 
last battle in which a king of England ap- 
peared in person on the field. The Hessians 
and Hanoverians, under George II. of 
England, defeated the Erench under Mar- 
shal Foaflles. The former lost 1,500, and 
the latter 3,000 men. 
280 



DIA 

had taken it from the Samnites B.C. 293. 
The first dial constructed at Eome was in 
B.C. 164, for before that year they had been 
brought from foreign parts ; and in the time 
of Plautus (B.C. 184) they were common, as 
he makes one of his characters rail at their 
frequency. Their adoption as ordinary 
parts of ecclesiastical architecture dates 
from A.D. 615, when they were set up in 
the churches of Burgundy. 

Diamond. — This gem is mentioned as 
the sixth jewel of Aaron's breastplate, 
B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 18). Some author- 
ities consider that the original would be 
more correctly rendered by some other word. 
Phny, in the "j^fatural History," written 
A.D. 77, speaks of it as the most costly of 
human possessions, and states that the an- 
cient writers mention Ethiopia as its locahty, 
but that it had been brought from India 
shortly before his own time. India, and 
especially the districts around Golconda, 
furnished nearly all the diamonds of Euroxje, 
until the discovery of the Brazihan mines 
in 1728. In 1730, the Eio Janeiro fleet 
brought 1,146 ounces of diamonds into 
Europe. These mines were let, in 1740, 
to a company of Eio Janeiro merchants. 
The diamond mines of the Ural mountains 
were discovered June 22, 1829. The art of 
cutting diamonds was discovered by Louis 
Berghem, of Bruges, in 1476. The diamond 
was first used for writing on glass in the 
16th century. In 1562, ornaments cut with 
a diamond on Venetian glasses were com- 
mon. In 1564, Clement Birague, of Milan, 
succeeded in engraving on them. The in- 
flammability of the diamond was first as- 
serted by Boetius de Boot in 1607, and 
demonstrated at Florence in 1694; while 
the products resulting from its combustion 
were ascertained by Lavoisier in 1772. 
Aauong celebrated diamonds may be men- 
tioned the Kohinoor, which was found in 
one of the Golconda mines before the 
Christian aera. In 1526 it passed into the 
hands of the emperor Baber, by whose 
descendant, Mohammed Shah, it was sur- 
rendered to Nadir Shah, in 1739. Eunjeet 
Singh, the Hon of the Punjaub, obtained 
it as a ransom from Shah Shooja in 1813, 
and in 1849 it was delivered to the EngKsh 
by Dhuleep Singh. Queen Victoria received 
it from the chairman of the East-India Com- 
pany July 3, 1850, and it formed one of the 
attractions of the Great Exhibition of 1851. 
In 1852 it was recut, and now weighs 102 

carats, being worth £276,768. The Pitt, 

or Eegent diamond, was bought by T. Pitt, 
Esq. (grandfather of Wm. Pitt), during his 
governorship of Fort St. George, for £12,500, 
in Feb. 1702. In 1717 it was purchased by 
the regent of Orleans for £135,000. It 
weighs 137 carats, and is the most perfect 

diamond in the world. The Orloif, or 

great diamond of the Eussian sceptre, ori- 
ginally formed the eye of an Indian idol. 
In 1775 it was sold to the empress Catherine 
for £90,000, an annuity of £4,000, and a 
patent of nobility. It is said to weigh 193 



DIA 

carats. The Pigott diamond was brought 

to England by Earl Pigott, and sold by lot- 
tery in 1801. It weighs 49 carats, and is 

worth £40,000. The great diamond of 

the emperor of Brazil was discovered in 1808 
by a negro slave. It is uncut, and weighs 
1,680 carats : its value has been estimated at 
£5,644,800. Free importation and ex- 
portation of diamonds were permitted by 
6 Geo. II. c. 7 (1733). They were allowed to 
be landed without entry, report, or warrant, 
by 3 & 4 wm. IV. c. 52, s. 2 (Aug. 28, 1833). 
Diamond ISTecklace. — Boehmer andBas- 
sanges, the court jewellers of France, were 
commissioned by Louis XV., in 1774, to col- 
lect the most beautiful diamonds, for a neck- 
lace, which he intended to present to Madame 
du Barry. The king died before the necklace 
was completed ; but the jewellers persevered 
with their work, hoping that Louis XVI. 
would purchase it for Marie Antoinette. The 
necklace was valued at 1,800,000 francs, or 
£72,000. An intriguing woman, Madame 
Lamotte, who took the title of countess, 
pretending to have received authority from 
Marie Antoinette to purchase the necklace, 
induced the jewellers to part with it in return 
for orders, to which the forged signature of 
the queen was attached, amounting to 
1,400,000 francs, or £56,000. This negotia- 
tion was completed in January, 1785. Several 
persons connected with the court became the 
dupes of Madame Lamotte, and a girl, named 
Leguet or D'Ohva, was on one occasion made 
to personate the queen. The Cardinal de 
Eohan, grand almoner, who had been em- 
ployed as an instrument to carry out her 
schemes by Madame Lamotte, was arrested 
Aug. 15, 1785, and Madame Lamotte herself 
was taken at Bar-sur-Aube on the 19th. 
They were both sent to the Bastille. At the 
trial that ensued, brought to a close May 31, 
1786, the cardinal's innocence was clearly 
established, and Madame Lamotte was sen- 
tenced to be flogged, branded on both 
shoulders, and imprisoned for hfe. She 
managed, however, to escape after an impri- 
sonment of about ten months' duration, and 
took refuge in England. Having been pur- 
sued for debt, she endeavoured to escape by a 
window on the second story of her house, 
and falling from the window-sill, was kiUed 
on the spot. The scandal created by this 
affair proved most disastrous. Talleyrand 
Perigord wrote to a friend : " Attend nar- 
rowly to that miserable affair of the neck- 
lace : I should not be surprised if it over- 
turned the throne." 

DiAMPEE (Hindostan).— The archbishop 
of Goa held a council here a.d. 1599, for the 
purpose of compelhng the inhabitants to 
abjure the heresies of the I^estorians. 
Diana (Temple). (S'ee Ephesus.) 
DiAEBEZiK (Asia). — This town, occupying 
the site of the ancient Amid or Amida, was 
sacked by Tamerlane a.d. 1393. It was 
frequently besieged, and was captured by 
Selim in 1515. The Persians regained pos- 
session in 1605, but it reverted to the Turks 
at the peace in 1639. It is the seat of a 
281 



Die 

I^estorian arclibisliop and of a -Jacobite 
patriarcli. The Turks call it Kara Amid, or 
Black Amid, in allusion to the black basalt 
used in the construction of the houses, &c. 

Dice are said to have been invented by 
Palamedes at the siege of Troy, about B.C. 
1183, though some authors ascribe their ori- 
gin to the Lydians, B.C. 600. They were used 
by the Eomans, by whom they were called 
tesserae. The talus, though frequently men- 
tioned as a species of dice, is hardly entitled 
to the distinction, as it always signified a 
figure with only four sides on which it could 
rest. The practice of cogging dice was 
known to the Eomans. The council of 
Ehberis in 305 passed a general canon for- 
bidding laymen to play at dice, under the 
penalty of suspension from communion for a 
whole year. The council of Constantinople in 
691 prohibited the use of dice to both clergy 
and laity, the penalty for the former being de- 
privation, and for the latter excommunication. 
Dice were introduced into England at a very 
early date, and at the pex-iodof the Conquest 
(1066) they formed one of the chief amuse- 
ments of the people, who played with them 
in a most extravagant manner. By 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 18, s. 2 (May 9, 1828), the duty on dice was 
fixed at twenty shillings the pair. 

Dictator. — The Eoman dictators pos- 
sessed sovereign power in the state, and were 
the generals-in-chief of the army. The first 
was Titus Lartius, who was appointed B.C. 
499. The dictators were at first chosen from 
the patrician order of the people ; but in the 
year b.c. 356, Marcus EutUus, a plebeian, 
obtained the honour. The office was tinally 
abrogated by the law of Antony, B.C. 44. 

DiCTiONAET. — The oldest dictionary of 
which we have any record, is one in the 
Chinese language, compiled by Pa-out-she, 
about B.C. 1100. Marcus Terentius Tarro, 
who flourished B.C. 116 — 128, was one of the 
first classic authors who turned his attention 
to lexicography; but the most celebrated 
dictionary of antiquity is the Onomastikon 
of Julius Pollux, which was completed before 
A.D. 177. The earhest Latin dictionary of 
modern times was pubhshed by John Balbi 
of G-enoa in 1460 ; but that of Calepio, pub- 
lished in 1502, is much more perfect. Sebas- 
tian Munster's Chaldee Dictionary appeared 
in 1527 ; Pagninus' Lexicon of the Hebrew 
language in 1529 ; Eobert Stephens' The- 
saurus in 1.535 ; and Erpenins's Arabic Dic- 
tionary in 1613. Schindler's Lexicon Penta- 
glottum appeared in 1612, and Edmund 
Castell's Lexicon Heptaglotton in 1869. 
Phillips's World of Words appeared in 1657. 
Moreri pubhshed his Biographical, Histo- 
rical, and Geographical Dictionary in 1673. 
Elisha Cole's Enghsh Dictionary appeared 
in 1677; and Bayle's Historical and Critical 
Dictionary and the Dictionary of the French 
Academy in 1694. Dr. Johnson's English 
Dictionary was comj)leted in May, 1755, 
Walker's Dictionary appeared in 1791, and 
Prancis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar 
tongue in 1785. 

DiDTMiTJM, a rare metal, the discovery 
282 



DIG 

of which was announced by Mosander in 
1841. 

Dieppe (France), as early as the 10th 
century, was a fishing village possessing 
some fortifications. In the 11th century 
the town was called Bertheville. Henry II. 
erected the castle in 1188, and the church 
of St. Jacques was commenced in 1200. 
Dieppe was attacked by the English in 1442, 
and again in July, 1694 ; being on the latter 
occasion nearly destroyed by fire. 

DiEKSHEiM (Battle). — Moreau effected the 
passage of the Ehine at this place, after 
a series of combats -with the Austriaus, April 
19 and 20, 1797. Desaix and Davoust dis- 
tinguished themselves in these encounters. 

D I E s T ( South Brabant ) . — This town, 
taken from the French by the duke of Marl- 
borough in 1705, was recaptured by them 
in the same year. 

Diet. — The name given to the assembly 
of the German states, which was instituted 
in the most ancient times, and reconstituted 
by Charles IV. in 1356, on the publication of 
the " Golden Bull." These sittings were 
made permanent at Eatisbon, Dec. 23, 1663. 
They were removed to Frankfort by the 
" Confederation of the Ehine," July 17, 1806. 
The following are some of the most cele- 
brated diets. 

A.D. 

1180. Diet of Wiii-zburg, which deposed Henry the 

Lion, duke of Brunswick. 
1467. Biet of Nuremberg, which divided the States 

into the College of Electors, the College of 

Princes, and the College of Imperial 

Towns. 
1.521. Diet of Worms, at which Luther refused to 

recant. 

1529. Diet of Spires, which prohibited the spread of 

the reformed religion, and occasioned the 
famous protestation from which the re- 
formers are called Protestants. 

1530. Diet of Augsburg, summoned by Charles "V., 

to reunite the princes of Christendom, 
and secure their co-operatiou against the 
Turks. 
1541. Diet of Ratisbon, summoned to reunite the 
Protestants with the papists, who were 
unable to agree respecting twenty-two 
articles of faith submitted to their con- 
sideration by the pope's legate. 

DiETT ET MOif Deoit, or, God and my 
Eight, the motto of the royal arms of 
England, was the parole of the day, given by 
Eichard I. at the battle of Gisors, Sept. 20, 
1198. It was assumed by him and his suc- 
cessors, but did not appear on the broad seal 
before the time of Hemy VIII. Anne dis- 
continued " Dieu etmon Droit," substituting 
" Semper eadem" in its plaoe; but George I. 
restored the old motto. 

Digest. — The first digest of the Eoman 
laws was made by Varro, B.C. 66. Grego- 
rianus, a.d. 306; Hermogenianus, 365; and 
Theodosius the Yoimger, 438, also compiled 
and simplified the laws; but the term "Digest" 
is usually apphed to the Pandects of Justi- 
nian, which formed the second part of his 
code, finished in 529. They were in fifty 
books, and a copy of them was found at J 
Amalphi in the year 1137. M 

Di&aEES. — These levellers, who pre- ~ 



DIG 



DIR 



tended that the earth ought to be held in 
co.uinion, and commenced cultivating some 
waste land in Surrey, were dispersed by the 
military, April 16, 1649. 

Digit. — The term applied to any whole 
number under ten. The system of notation 
by digits, commonly called the Arabic sys- 
tem, was used by the Hindoo Aryabhatta in 
the 5th century, and was first employed in 
Arabia by Mohammed Ben Musa towards 
the latter part of the 9th century. By the 
end of the 10th century they were fully esta- 
bhshed throughout Arabia, and were soon 
after introduced mto Europe. Their general 
adoption by European accountants » was, 
however, very gradual; and even at the 
beginning of the 16th century the Eoman 
notation was common. 

Dijon (France), the ancient Dibio, or 
Divio, is said to have been founded by 
Marcus Aurelius. Clovis defeated the Bur- 
gundians in a battle near this place, a.d. -500. 
It was burnt in 1137, rebuilt in 1157, and in 
1179 became the residence of the dukes of 
Burgundy. The cathedral dates from 1291, 
and the church of Notre Dame was com- 
pleted in 1334. The castle was completed in 
1513. Dijon is the seat of a bishop. Councils 
were held here in July, 1077 ; in 1116 ; and 
from Dec. 1 to 13, 1199. 

Dilettanti. — This society was established 
in 1734 by some gentlemen who had travelled 
in Italy, for the purpose of encouraging a 
•taste for the fine arts. They sent an expe- 
dition to the East, which left England June 9, 
1764, and returned Nov. 2, 1766. The result 
of their investigations was the " Ionian An- 
tiquities," of wMch part I. was published in 
1769, part II. in 1797, and part III. in 1840 ; 
Chandler's "Travels in Asia Minor," pub- 
lished in 1775 ; Chandler's " Travels in 
Greece," published in 1776 ; and a volume 
of Greek Inscriptions, published in 1774. 
Another expedition was sent to the Levant 
in 1814. The society consists of fifty mem- 
bers, who dine together at the Thatched 
House tavern, the first Sunday in every 
month, from February to July. 

DiNANT (Belgium). — Notice of this town 
occurs in records of the 6th century. It 
was taken and destroyed in 1486, by Philip 
the Good, duke of Normandy. It was 
speedily rebuilt, and was again seized by the 
duke of Nevers in 1554. The French, under 
the Marshal de Crequi, took it in 1675; 
under Marshal Saxe in 1746 ; and again in 
1794, when it was erected into the chief town 
of the department of Sambre-et - Meuse. 
It was restored to Holland in 1814. 

DiNDiGUL (Hindostan) was conquered by 
the rajah of Mysore a.d. 1755, taken from 
Tippoo Saib by the British in 1783, and 
restored in 1784. In 1792 it was ceded to 
the British government. In 1809, 1810, and 
1811, this town and its neighbourhood were 
■visited by a very fatal epidemic, which car- 
ried off nmnbers of the population. 

Diocese. — Bingham (Antiq. ix. c. 1, s. 3), 
speaking of the division of the Eoman empire 
into dioceses, says, — " It is generally owned 



that the division of provinces is more ancient 
than that of dioceses : for the division into 
dioceses began only about the time of Con- 
stantino" (A.D. 306—337). A list of the 
dioceses of the empire is given in the 
" Notitia Imperii," said to be written about 
the year 400, at which time they seem to 
have numbered thirteen. The term was first 
used in its episcopal sense about the time 
of the council of Aries, 314, which addressed 
a letter to Pope Sylvester I., wherein men- 
tion is made of his holding "the greater 
dioceses." The first division of a large 
diocese into several smaller ones took place 
in 569. The establishment of dioceses in 
Britain was coeval with the introduction of 
Christianity, but information on the subject 
is very meagre. British bishops attended 
the council of Aries, 314, as well as that of 
Sardica, 347. For further information on the 
Enghsh dioceses see Bishops. 

Diocletian ^ea, or the Mn&. of Mae- 
TTES, dates from the proclamation of 
Diocletian as emperor, Aug. 29, a.d. 284. 
This sera was generally used by Christians 
tin the introduction of the Christian sera, 
about 527. 

DiOEAMA. — This mode of exhibiting paint- 
ings of landscapes, architecture, &c.,withsuch 
effects of light as to produce most complete 
optical illusion, was first estabhshed at Paris 
by MM. Daguerre and Bouton in 1822. In 
1823 a bufidnig was erected for its exhibition 
at Eegent's Park, London, and for some 
time the speculation proved prosperous. 
After a time, however, the amusement 
failed to attract visitors, and the building 
was ultimately sold to Sir Morton Peto, for 
conversion into a Baptist chapel, in 1855. 

DiPHTHEEiA, a diseased state of the mu- 
cous membrane of the throat, which causes 
the development of a false membrane. The 
best authorities believe it to be no other 
than the "putrid sore throat" described by 
early writers. The ancient Greek physician 
Aretseus refers to a similar disease. It pre- 
vailed in an epidemic form in Italy, Spain, 
and other European countries in the 16th 
and 17th centuries. In England, the con- 
tinent of Europe, and North Ajnerica, it 
broke out in the 18th centurj^. It appeared 
again at Tours, in France, in 1818, and in 
1856 raged with epidemic violence at Bou- 
logne. The first accurately described cases 
in this eountiy occurred in 1857. M. Bre- 
tonneau, of Tours, gave it the name of 
"diphtherite" in 1821. 

DiBECTOET. — The first London Directory 
was published by Lee and Major in 1677, 
under the title of "A Collection of the 
Names of Merchants, &c." The first bear- 
ing the name was published in 1734, under 
the title of " Kent's Directory ; or, a List of 
the Principal Traders in London." The 
Post-Office Directory appeared in 1800. 

DiEECTOEY. — The French Directory was 
appointed by the constitution pubhshed 
June 23, 1795. It exercised authority from 
Oct. 27, 1795, till Nov. 11, 1799, when the 
consular government was estabhshed in its 
283 



DIE 

stead. It was composed of five members, 
one of ■whom was to retire yearly, and 
governed the republic conjoiatly with the 
Council of Ancients and the Council of 
Five Himdred. 

DiKECTOEX POE PuBtIC WOESHIP. — 

During the civil war, the puritans supphed 
the place of the Book of Common Prayer by 
a volume bearing the above title. It was 
prepared by a committee appointed Oct. 17;, 
1643, and was estabhshed by parhament 
Jan. 3, 1645. 

DisciPLiiTE. — The first book of discipline 
was drawn up by the ministers of the Scottish 
Church in 1560, for the purpose of estab- 
hshing discipline and uniformity in the 
Church. It abohshed the government of 
bishops and the observance of fasts and 
saint days, and established kirk sessions, 
besides appointing other minor particulars. 
The second book of discipline, approved by 
the General Assembly in April, 1578, did not 
receive the sanction of Parhament, and then 
only in a modified form, until 1592. 

DisPENSAEiES were set up in monas- 
teries and the houses of the wealthy during 
the Middle Ages. They were estabhshed in 
their present form towards the end of 
the ISth century. The first was the Eoyal 
General Dispensary, Smithfield, founded' in 
1770. The Westrainster Dispensarj^ was 
established in 1774; the London Dispen- 
sary in 1777; the Surrey Dispensary in 
1777; the Finsbury Dispensary in 1780; 
the Eastern Dispensary in 1782 ; the Pubhc 
Dispensary in 1782; the Marylebone Dis- 
pensary in 1785 ; the "Western Dispensary 
in 1789 ; the Tower Hamlets Dispensary in 
1792 ; the London Electrical Dispensary in 
1793 ; the Bloomsbuiy Dispensary in 1801 ; 
the Ishngton Dispensary in 1821 ; and 
the University of London Dispensary in 
1828. 

D ISP EN- SAT IONS. — Papal dispensations 
were first granted by Innocent III. in 
1200. Subjects of the Enghsh sovereign 
were forbidden to appeal for them by 
25 Hen. VIII. c. 21 (1533), which, however, 
empowered the archbishop of Canterbury to 
grant, by an instrument imder his seal, 
unto the king and his successors, for causes 
not contrary to the laws of God, aU such 
dispensations as were formerly from the see 
of Kome. 

DisPEM-siirG- PowEE. — The power of sus- 
pending or dispensing with the laws, or the 
execution of the laws, claimed and exercised 
by some of the Enghsh sovereigns, was 
declared illegal, and formally abohshed by 
the Bill of Eights (1 Will. & Mary, sess. 2, 
c. 2) passed in 1689. 

Dispersion- op Makkiitd. — This took 
place at the building of the tower of Babel 
(Gen. li. 8), and various dates are assigned 
to it by different authorities. It occurred, 
according to the chronology adopted in the 
English Bible, B.C. 2234. 

Dissenters. — Protestants holding dijBFer- 
ent views from the Church of England are 
thus named. About the year 1565 they 
284 



DIU 

were called Puritans. Their numbers were 
much increased by the Act of Uniformity, 
13 & 14 Chas. II. c. 4 (1662), from which 
about two thousand clergymen dissented, 
thence receiving the name Nonconformists 
or Dissenters. The Test Act, 35 Chas. II. c. 2 
(1672), excluded from government employ- 
ment aU who refused to take the oaths 
of allegiance and supremacy, and to take 
the sacrament according to the rites of 
the Estabhshed Church. The Toleration 
Act, 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1688), first gave 
dissenters legal security in the celebration 
of their worship ; but the great act for 
their rehef was the Corporation and Test Ee- 
peal Act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17, May 9, 1828), 
which enabled them to accept public em- 
ployment without violating their scruples 
respecting the taking of the sacrament. 
Dissenters were first permitted to solemnize 
marriages in their own places of worship, or 
at a registrar's office, by 6 & 7 WiU. IV. 
c. 85 (Aug. 17, 1836). 

Dissidents.— The term apphed to dis- 
senters from the established religion of 
Poland, viz., the Eoman CathoUc. They 
were allowed the free exercise of their 
religion by the pacta conventa, in 1573, but 
were persecuted in 1718. In 1766 Eussia and 
Prussia supported them in their claims for 
unrestricted worship, and in 1775 their rights, 
with a few exceptions, were completely 
restored. 

DiSTAPE. — Spinning by distaff was intro- 
duced into England a.d. 1505. The day after 
the Epiphany, or Twelfth-day, was jocularly 
called St. Distaif' s or Eock Day, because 
the Christmas holidays havuig then termi- 
nated, housewives resumed the distaff, &c. 

Distillation. — This art, said to have 
originated amongst the inhabitants of north- 
ern Europe, was, with many others con- 
nected with chemical science, introduced 
into Spain by the Moors about the year 
1150. Argand' s improvements in mechanical 
processes were perfected about 1780. 

Ditch, or the IS^ations. — The third expe- 
dition of the Koreish against Mohammed, 
A.D. 625. Gibbon (eh. 1.) remarks : — "This 
third expedition is variously named, from the 
nations which marched under the banner of 
Abu Sophian, from the ditch which was 
drawn before the city, and a camp of 3,000 
Mussulmans. The prudence of Mohammed 
declined a general engagement : the valour 
of AU was signahzed in single combat ; and 
the war was protracted twenty days, till the 
final separation of the confederates. A 
tempest of wind, rain, and hail overturned 
their tents : their private quarrels were 
fomented by an insidious adversary; and 
the Koreish, deserted by their allies, no 
longer hoped to subvert the throne, or to 
check the conquests of their invincible 
exile." 

Diu (Hindostan). — This island was taken 
A.D. 1515 by the Portuguese, who made it a 
strong fortress. The Arabs of Muscat as- 
sailed and pillaged it in 1670. It was gar- 
risoned by British troops in 1809. 



Drv 

BiviiTATioir. — The Israelites were prohi- 
bited from practising divination of any kind 
by the law of Moses (Deut. xviii. 9-12), 
B.C. 1451. Among the ancients, divination 
was practised in many different forms. It 
is supposed to have originated among the 
Etruscans. Disraeli (Amenities of Litera- 
ture, ii. 258) remarks, "The mystery of the 
divining-rod is as ancient as the days of 
Cicero. The German miners introduced its 
practice among our Cornish miners." 

Divine Eight of Kings.— -The doctrine 
that kings are entitled to the unqualified 
submission of their subjects was maintained 
by the Convocation Book of 1603, by 
Hobbes in 1642, by Sir Eobert Fihner in 
his "Patriarcha" in 1680, and by Sher- 
lock in 1684. Dr. Pusejr's sermon, Nov. 5, 
1837, exhibits the views of modern High 
Church writers on the subject. 

Diving-Beil. — In the time of Aristotle 
(B.C. 384 — 322), divers used a kind of kettle 
to enable them to continue long under water. 
The earUest positive mention of the use of 
the diving-bell in Europe occurs in the works 
of John Taisnier, who was born'A.D. 1509. In 
1665 it was employed to raise some portions 
of the Spanish Armada, which had been 
wrecked off the Isle of Mull, and in 1687 
WUHam Phipps succeeded by its means in 
recovering £200,000, which had been lost in 
a Spanish vessel off the coast of Hispaniola. 
The instrument was much improved by 
Witsen in 1671. Dr. Halley's grand plan 
for introducing a supply of fresh air, which 
he effected about 1715, is the most important 
event in the history of the apparatus. 
Further improvements were effected by 
Mr. Spalding, who was drowned while pro- 
secuting some experiments with the diving- 
bell, June 1, 1783. Smeaton first appUed it 
to engineering operations in 1779, and in 
1788 he contrived a means of supplying air 
by means of a forcing air-pump. 

Divorce was permitted by the Mosaic law 
B.C. 1451 (Deut. xxiv. 1—4), The first in- 
stance among the Eomans occurred B.C. 
331, and the custom afterwards became very 
frequent, in spite of the Lex de maritandis 
ordinibus, passed B.C. 18, and theiea; Fajopia- 
Foppcea, a.d. 9, which attempted to restrain 
the facilities for obtaining it. In England 
divorces were of two kinds, — a mensd et thoro, 
when the parties lived separate but without 
a dissolution of the marriage vow, and a 
vinculo matrimonii, when their union was 
declared illegal from the first, and was con- 
sequently totally dissolved. The first example 
of a divorce effected by act of parliament, 
without the previous consent of the spiritual 
court, was that of the notorious countess of 
Macclesfield, who was separated from her 
husband April 2, 1698. In 1798 Lord 
Loughborough obtained the passing of a 
series of resolutions which required every 
application for divorce to be supported by 
an ecclesiastical sentence and by a previous 
verdict at law. Previously to 1840, divorce 
bills in the House of Commons were decided 
■by the whole house ; but in that year they 



DOC 

were referred to a committee of nine mem- 
bers. In December, 1850, commissioners 
were appointed to inquire into the law of 
divorce. The Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes Act (20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, Aug. 28, 
1857) aboMshed all authority of the Eccle- 
siastical Court respecting divorces, and 
vested it in the " Court for Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes," which was to be pre- 
sided over by three judges, the judge of the 
Probate Court being one. This act was 
amended and extended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 108 
(Aug. 2, 1858), and by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 61 
(Aug. 13, 1859). 

DiziEK, St. (France), was besieged by 
Charles the Fifth's army, commanded by 
Ferdinand de Gonzaga, in 1544. It sur- 
rendered after a brave resistance. In 1775 
the town was nearly destroyed by fire 
through the carelessness of a baker. Napo- 
leon I. drove back the advanced guard of the 
allies here, Jan. 27, 1814. 

Djevan-Botjlak (Battle).— The Eussians 
gained a victory over the Persians at this 
place, in Persia, July 18, 1827. 

Djidda, or Jidda (Arabia), was sur- 
rounded by a wall a.d. 1501 by the sultan of 
Egypt. In 1803 Sherif Pasha attempted 
to render the town independent of the 
Sherif of Mecca, but failed, and died sud- 
denly ui 1804, about which time it sur- 
rendered to the Wahabees, who expelled the 
Turks. In 1811 Mohammed Ali took mea- 
sures to recover it, and in 1812 he succeeded 
in obtaining possession. The celebrated 
traveller Burckhardt arrived here July 15, 
1814. 

DoBEO (Battle). — Prince Menschikoff, at 
the head of a Eussian army, defeated the 
Swedes at this place, in the Ukraine, Sept. 20, 
1709, 

DoBBTNiTCHi, ( Battle, ) was fought in 
this plain, in Eussia, by the pretender 
Dmitri, at the head of about 20,000 Poles 
and Cossacks, against 70,000 Eussians, led 
by the generals of the Czar, Jan. 20, 1605. 
The former was defeated, with the loss of 
seven-eighths of his army and aU his baggage 
and artillery. 

DocET^, or Docetes. — These heretics, 
who contended that Christ was a god, and 
that he did not really suffer death on the 
cross, but only in appearance, arose in the 
1st century. Gibbon says : — " While his 
blood was still recent on Mount Calvary, the 
Docetes, a numerous and learned sect of 
Asiatics, invented the phantastic system, 
which was afterwards propagated by the 
Marcionites, the Mauichseans, and the various 
names of the Gnostic heresy." They denied 
the resurrection and ascension, and sepa- 
rated into various divisions under different 



Docks. — The first docks constructed in 
England were the Commercial Docks, at 
Eotherhithe, part of which existed as the 
Howland Great Wet Dock in 1660. The 
present title was adopted in 1807. The first 
dock at Liverpool was completed about 1720, 
and the first at Hull in 1778. The West- 
285 



DOC 

India Docts, whicli are tlie most extensive 
warehousing establishment in the port of 
London, were commenced in February, 1800, 
and partially opened in August, 1802. The 
south dock was added in 1829. The East- 
India Docks were opened in 1806. Bristol 
floating harbour, which has all the charac- 
teristics of a dock, was commenced in 1804, 
and finished in 1809. The first stone of the 
London Docks was laid June 26, 1802, and 
they were opened in February, 1805, and till 
January, 1826, were the only docks at which 
ships bound for the Thames, with cargoes of 
wine, brandy, tobacco, and rice (except ships 
from the Indies), were permitted to unload. 
These docks were improved by a new en- 
trance in 1832, and by an enlargement of the 
basia in 18-58. St. Catherine's Docks were 
partially opened Oct. 25, 1828, and the 
Victoria Docks in November, 1855. Docks 
were commenced at Glasgow about 1662. 

DocETAEDS. — The foiTnation of dock- 
yards commenced in England during the 
reign of Henry YIII. There are seven in 
England; viz., Woolwich, founded before 
1515; Portsmouth, before 1-548; Deptford, 
about 1513 ; Chatham, estabhshed by Eliza- 
beth ; Sheerness, by Charles II. ; Plymouth, 
founded soon after 1688, and called Devon- 
port Dockyard since 1824 ; and Pembroke, 
originally estabhshed at Milford Haven in 
1790, and removed to Pembroke in 1814. 

Doctor. — Doctors of law existed among 
the Jews. Some authorities state that the 
Venerable Bede and John of Beverley re- 
ceived the title of doctor, at Cambridge, 
before 721 ; but this is doubtful. The degree 
was introduced at Bologna in the 12th cen- 
tury by Irnerius; and in 1207 it was con- 
ferred in England. Doctorships in medicine 
may be traced to 1384, and in music to 
1463. 

DocTOEs' CoMiroiJ^s. — Soon after the 
accession of Henry VIII. , in 1509, some 
civilians privileged to plead in the court 
of Arches formed a plan of association, by 
which they were to occupy contiguous houses 
and board in common. The spot first 
selected by them is not recorded; but in 
February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie pro- 
cured a lease of Montjoy House and other 
tenements, which he devoted to the accom- 
modation of the advocates, and which re- 
ceived the title of Doctors' Co m mons. The 
original edifice was destroyed m 1666 by the 
great fire of London. The courts were held 
in Essex House, Strand, until the college 
was rebuilt in 1672. They were incorporated 
in June, 1768, as "The College of Doctors of 
Law, exercent in the Ecclesiastical and 
Admiralty Courts." Doctors' Commons con- 
sisted of five courts; viz., the Court of 
Arches, the Prerogative Coxirt, the Court Of 
Faculties or Dispensations, the Consistory 
Court, and the High Court of Admiralty. 
The new courts of Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes and of Probate, came into opera- 
tion in January, 185S. 

DoBONA (Greece) . — The site of this ancient 
town, celel)rated for its oracle of Jupiter, has 



DOL 

not been ascertained. The ^tohans razed 
the temple of the god B.C. 219. It was a 
bishopric in the early church, and one of its 
bishops is mentioned as late as a.d. 516. 
l^otice of the town itself occurs in the 6th 
century. 

Dog. — The act for preventing the steahng 
of dogs (10 Geo. III. c. 18) was passed in 
1770. A tax was imposed upon dogs by 36 
Geo. III. c. 124 (May 19, 1796), which was 
extended to Ireland by 48 Geo. III. c. 42 
(May 27, 1808). The use of dogs for pur- 
poses of draught was abohshed as regards 
London by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47, s. 56 (Aug. 17, 
1839), which prohibition was extended to all 
parts of the United Kingdom by 17 & 18 Vict, 
c. 60, s. 2 (July 31, 1854). 

DoG-DATS. — The Venerable Bede, who 
flourished between 673 and 735, gives as the 
commencement of the dog-days, July 14. 
In a calendar prefixed to Queen EUzabeth's 
Book of Common Prayer, ordered to be 
used in 1559, they are made to begin July 6, 
and to end Sept. 5, which arrangement con- 
tinued till the Eestoration in 1660, when they 
were omitted altogether from the Prayer- 
book, and made to begin July 19, and end 
Aug. 20. On the reformation of the British 
calendar in 1752, their commencement was 
fixed on July 30, and their termination on 
Sept. 7. They now begin July 3, and end 
Aug. 11. 

Doge. — According to some authorities, 
Venice was governed by a duke bearing the 
title of doge as early as -440; but Darn 
assigns 697 as the date of the creation of the 
honour, and mentions Paid Luke Anafesto 
as the first who bore it. The Genoese re- 
volted against their counts in 1030, and 
elected a doge in 1034. 

DoGGEE-BANK (Sea-fight). — An English 
fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir Hyde 
Parker, engaged the Dutch near this sand- 
bank, between Great Britain and Holland, 
Aug. 5, 1781. After an obstinate conflict, 
the Dutch bore away. The English fleet 
having suffered severely in the action, was 
not able to follow in pursuit. 

Dogget's Coat and Badge.— A rowing- 
match, which takes place on the Thames 
every year, on the 1st of August, between 
the Old Swan near London Bridge and the 
White Swan at Chelsea, when the tide is 
strongest against the competitors, was insti- 
tuted by Thomas Dogget, the actor, to mark 
his attachment to the house of Hanover, 
Aug. 1 being the date of George the First's 
accession. It was first rowed for Aug. 1, 
1715. Dogget died Sept. 22, 1721, and be- 
queathed a sum of money, the interest of 
which was to provide annually a waterman's 
coat and badge, to be rowed for in perpetual 
remembrance of the day. 

Doit, or Doitkix, a base coin of small 
value, the circulation of which was prohi- 
bited by 3 Hen. V. c. 1 (1415). 

DoL (France).— William I. suffered some 
very severe losses in a vain attempt to cap- 
ture this town, in Britanny, a.d. 1075. A dis- 
pute which broke out between the churches 



DOL 

of Dol and Tours respecting tlie metropolitan 
rights which the former claimed against the 
latter, was decided in favour of Tours in 
1199. In 1793, during the Vendean war, 
Rossignol, at the head of the republican 
forces, was defeated at this town. 

DoLCiifiTES. — This sect, according to 
Milman (Lat. Christ. toI. v. b. xii. ch. 6), 
was of "kindred tenets with' the FraticeUi, 
or Spiritual Franciscans, with some leaven 
of the old doctrines of the Patarines (the 
Puritans) of Lombardy." It was founded by 
Dolcino, who was born at a village near 
Novara. He denounced the popes. The 
Dolcinites made their first appearance at 
Gattinara, in the Val de Sesia, in Piedmont, 
in 1304. The Inquisition sent forces against 
them in 1307, and after a brave resistance, 
during which numbers perished, Dolcino and 
a few of his followers were made prisoners. 
They were cruelly tortured, and afterwards 
burned ahve. 

Dole (France), the Dola of the Eomans, 
is of very ancient date, and was formerly 
the capital of Franche-Comte. Its uni- 
versity was founded in 1426, by Philip the 
Good, duke of Burgundy, and a parliament 
was established in 1442. The French failed 
in attempts to capture it in 1435 and in 1477 ; 
but it was taken and sacked by Louis XI. 
in 1479. Charles V. erected strong fortifi- 
cations here in 1530, and in 1636 it was un- 
successfully besieged by the French, who 
obtained it with the rest of Franche-Comte 
in 1668. By the treaty of Aix-la-ChapeUe, 
concluded May 2, 1668, it was restored to 
Spain, which flmally lost all power over it in 
1674, when it was seized by the army of 
Louis XrV. Its parliament was transferred 
to Besan9on in 1676, and its imiversity in 
1691, since which time it has declined in 
importance. 

Dollar. — This coin, as well as the German 
thaler, derives its name from the town of 
Joachims-Thal, in Bohemia, where silver 
pieces, of an ounce weight, were first coined 
in 1518. It is the principal coin of the 
United States, where Spanish dollars, worth 
4s. 4%(i., passed current until 1772, when a new 
coinage was struck. Spanish dollars were 
issued from the Bank of England March 10, 
1797, the value being 4s. 9d. each. They were 
recalled Oct. 3 in the same year. By an 
act passed in the United States in 1837, the 
doUar must weigh 412| grains of standard 
silver. Its value is 4s. 4<d. of our money. 

Domesday Book, defined by EUis as "the 
register from which judgment was to be 
given upon the value, tenure, and services 
of lands therein described," was undertaken 
by William the Conqueror, but the precise 
year in which he commenced it is not known. 
The frequently assigned date, 1080, is 
founded on an erroneous quotation of the 
Eed Book of the Exchequer, and there is 
good reason to beheve the Anglo-Saxou 
Chronicle is not far wrong in fixing its com- 
mencement in 1085, and its completion in 
1086. Domesday Book continued the 
authority as to the amoimt of taxation tiU 



DOM 

1522, when Henry VIII. caused a more 
accurate survey to be taken, which is known 
as the New Domesday Book. In 1767, 
George III. ordered the pubhcation of the 
original survey, which was commenced about 
1770, and completed early in 1783. Ingul- 
phus says the book was so called because it 
was as general and conclusive as the last 
judgment will be. 

Domingo, St. (Hayti). — This city was 
founded A. D . 1496 by Bartholomew Columbus, 
by whom it was first called Nueva Isabella. 
In 1502 it suffered severely from the effects 
of a hurricane, but was rebuilt by Ovando 
soon afterwards, and adorned with a fine 
Gothic cathedral in 1540. In the latter 
part of 1585 it was taken by Sir Francis 
Drake, who exacted from the inhabitants a 
ransom of £6,875. By the treaty of Basel, 
July 22, 1795, it was ceded to France, together 
vdth the other Spanish possessions in the 
island, and in 1801 it was seized by the negro 
chief Toussaint I'Ouverture. {See Hayti.) 

DomijStica (W. Indies) was discovered by 
Columbus on Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493. In 1668 
it submitted to the Enghsh, by whom it was 
again captured June 6, 1761. By the treaty 
of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763, it was ceded to Great 
Britain, and it was erected into a separate 
government under Sir W. Young, July 18, 
1770. In 1778 it was taken by the French, 
but was restored to Great Britain by the 
treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. The 
French made an inefi'ectual attempt to re- 
take it in 1795, and in 1802 its peace was 
disturbed by an insurrection of the negroes. 
The French again assailed it Feb. 22, 1805, 
when they opposed 4,000 men to the resident 
force of 200 ; but, after having destroyed 
Roseau by fire, they were compelled to 
retreat without achieving any substantial 
success. 

DoMiiiriCAL Letter. — The first seven 
letters of the alphabet are used in ecclesias- 
tical and other calendars to signify the days 
of the week, and the letter which stands for 
Sunday is known as the Dominical letter. 
January 1 is always expressed by A ; hence 
the Dominical letters change every year. 

DoMi]sriCALS. — ^The name anciently given 
to the lessons of Scriptm-e appointed to be 
read on Sundays. Alcuin, tutor of Charle- 
magne, is said to have instituted them 
between a.d. 750 and 760 ; but the custom of 
selecting the Sunday lessons in a systematic 
order was not generally adopted till the 
12th century. An oblation made on Siandays 
to the rector of the church in which a person 
attended service and received the sacra- 
ments, was also, in the early English church, 
known by this name. 

Dominicans. — This order of Friars, called 
in England, Black Friars, and in France, Jaco- 
bins, was founded by St. Dominick in 1215, 
and confirmed by Innocent III. in the same 
year. Honorius III. renewed the approval 
in 1216, and constituted the order under the 
rules of St. Augustine, which enjoined per- 
petual silence, almost continualfasts, poverty, 
and other mortifications. At the first gen- 



DON 

eral chapter of the order, in 1220, the renun- 
ciation of all possession and revenue was 
also enjoined. The convent in Paris was 
founded ia 1218. In 1221 the order was 
introduced into England, where the monks 
were called Black Friars, their first esta- 
bhshment being formed at Oxford. In 1276 
the corporation of London granted the order 
two lanes near the Thames, where a mon- 
astery was erected,' the neighbourhood 
of which still retains the name Blackfriars. 

^The order of the Dominican nuns was 

founded by St. Dominick in 1206. 

DoKATiSTS. — On the election of CecUianus 
to the see of Carthage, a.d. 311, the minority 
chose another bishop, who, dying in 313, was 
succeeded by Donatus. He formed the mal- 
contents into a separate party, named after 
himself. The pecuharity of the sect was its 
strictness in matters of church discipline. 
Severe laws were passed against it in 316, 
and it was condemned by the council of 
Carthage in 411. It was not totally extin- 
guished tni the 7th century. 

DowAxrwEETH (Bavaria) was the scene of 
the execution of Mary of Brabant, by her 
husband, Louis the Severe, on an iH-foimded 
charge of iniidehty, Jan. 18, 1256. In con- 
sequence of its adherence to the reformed 
religion, it was placed under the ban of the 
empire in 1607, and was seized by an army 
of 17,000 men under Maximihan of Bavaria, 
who aboHshed the Protestant reUgion, and 
transferred the city's municipal privileges 
to the elector. The duke of Marlborough 
gained an important victory here over the 
Bavarian army of the count of Ai'co, July 2, 
1704 (O.S.), when the allied army lost nearly 
5,000 men. In 1706, Donauwerth recovered 
its rights as an imperial city, but again lost 
them by the peace of Baden, signed Sept. 7, 
1714. Its subjection to Bavaria was finally 
determined by an agreement signed Jime 18, 
1782. A second battle was fought here 
Oct. 6, 1805, between the armies of Marshal 
Vandamme, and of CoUoredo, in which 
the French were victorious. 

Do3!TifELAN- Lecxiteeship, in Dublin Uni- 
versity, was estabhshed Feb. 22, 1794, the 
expense being defrayed from a legacy of 
£1,243, bequeathed by Mrs. Ann Donnelan 
to the College of Dublin, It is a divinity 
lecture. 

DoEOHESTEE (Dorsetshire), the Eoman 
Du/rnovaria and Dunium, became a bishopric 
A.D. 886, and continued an episcopal town till 
1078, when the see was transferred to Lin- 
coln. The free grammar-school was founded 
in 1579. Judge Jeiferies presided over a 
special commission here in 1685, which he 
rendered infamous by the cruelty and in- 
justice of his judgments. In 1705, 10,000 
persons assembled in the Eoman amphi- 
theatre to witness the burning of Maiy 
Channing. The tovra-haU was built in 1791, 
and the hospital in 1840. 

DoEiAifS. — A people of ancient Greece, 
who asserted their descent from Dorus, son 
of HeUen and the nymph Orseis, or of Apollo 
and Phthia, who is said to have flourished 



DOU 

B.C. 1400. The HeracHdse, of Doric extraction, 
returned to the Peloponnesus B.C. 1104: 
settled in that part of Greece, and overran 
Attica B.C. 1045. About B.C. 800 they were 
attacked by the Thebans, who expeUed them 
from their country, of which they took 
possession. The Phocseans declared war 
against them b.c. 458, and seized most of 
their important towns. 

DoEic Oedee of Architecture, originated 
among the Dorians about B.C. 1104. It ia 
more airy and graceful in style than the 
Tuscan, and ranks as the second of the five 
orders. 

DoEOGOBrsH (Battle). — The Eussians de- 
feated the French at this town, in Eussia, 
Oct. 12, 1812. 

DoEPAT, or DoEPT (Eussia). — This town, 
in Livonia, formerly belonged to Sweden. 
Gustavus Adolphus founded its university 
in 1632. Having been removed to Pemau, 
it was re-estabUshed at Dorpat in 1802. 
The town was taken by Peter the Great, 
July 23, 1704, and was destroyed by fixe in 
1775. 

DoESET (England) . — The Danes landed at 
Wareham, in this county, a.d. 876. They 
renewed their ravages in 982, 998, 1001, and 
1015. They were defeated and put to flight 
in 1016 by Edmund Ironside. 

DoET, or DoEDEECHT (HoUand). — This 
town, capital of a district of the same name, 
was foimded a.d. 994, and is said to be the 
oldest town in HoUand. Fortifications were 
erected in 1231. In 1421 it was separated 
from the mainland by an inundation, which 
covered upwards of 70 villages, and drowned 
100,000 persons. The church of ISTotre 
Dame, founded in 1366, and a large part of 
the town, were destroyed by fire in 1457. 
The first meeting of the States of Holland 
after their successful revolt from Spanish 
dominion was held here in 1572, when "Wil- 
ham, prince of Orange, was made stadtholder. 
The celebrated synod of Dort assembled 
Nov. 13, 1618, and ended its sittings May 25, 
1619. It was a meeting of the Protestant 
clergy for the purpose of deciding whether 
Calvinism or Arminianism is the true doc- 
trine of Scripture, and they declared in 
favour of the former system. 

DoETi^uii (Battle). — The Crusaders de- 
feated Soliman and the Tvirks at this town, 
in Phrygia, July 4, 1097. Three thousand 
Pagan "knights are said to have fallen in this 
battle. The Turks lost above 30,000 men, 
Sohman's camp was pillaged, and large 
quantities of spoil fell into the hands of the 
Crusaders. 

DoTJAi (France), the Eoman Duacvm, 
at which a synod was held a.d. 871, was 
taken by Phihp the Fair in 1297. In 1368 
it was given to Louis, coimt of Flanders, 
and in 1562 Phihp II. of Spain founded its 
university. The college for Enghsh papists 
was estabhshed by the same monarch in 1569. 
Louis XIV. took Douai from the Spaniards 
m 1667. It was captured by the ahies, under 
the duke of Marlborough, June 25, 1710 ; but 
Marshal Villars retook it in 1712. The peace 



DOU 

of Utrecht, signed April 11, 1713, finally 
restored Douai to France. 

DouAi Bible. — This Bible, which was 
translated into English by the students at 
the Eoman Cathohe coUege of Douai, is the 
only English translation which is sanctioned 
by the pope, and was published at Douai in 
1609. It only contains the Old Testament, 
as the English college at Eheims had printed 
a translation of the New in 1582. 

DouEO (Passage of the). — The British 
army, under Sir Arthur WeUesley, succeeded 
in crossing this river in spite of a very 
resolute opposition by the French under 
Marshal Soult, May 12, 1809. The EngHsh 
casualties amounted to 23 killed, among 
whom was Lieutenant-General Paget ; 96 
wounded, and 2 missing. The French lost 
500 killed and wounded, 5 guns, and a large 
quantity of ammunition. They left 700 sick 
and wounded in the hospital of Oporto, and 
50 guns in the arsenal. 

Dover (Kent), the Koman Dubris, 
where Julius Caesar landed, Aug. 26, B.C. 55. 
Some authors consider him the founder of 
the castle, but it was most probably built by 
Mandubratius, king of the Trinobantes, who 
died B.C. 19. It was strengthened by Arvi- 
ragus, A.D. 70. In 209 the emperor Severus 
bmlt a gate, of which the foundations stiU 
remain ; and in 367 a cohort of 1,100 men 
was stationed in the town. Withred, king 
of Kent, fortified the town, and built St. 
Martin's church, about 700. In 1051 the 
inhabitants resisted the troops of Eustace, 
earl of Boulogne. In 1052 Godwin, earl of 
Kent, compelled them to give him hostages 
and ships, and in 1066 the town was burnt 
by the Norman invaders. The priory was 
founded by Archbishop Corboil in 1132. In 
1216 Hubert de Burgh held the castle against 
Louis, the dauphin of France ; and in 1299 a 
mint was established in the town by Edward I. 
By a statute passed in 1330, the charge for 
conveying passengers from Dover to Calais 
was fixed at sixpence for a foot-passenger, 
and two shillings for a man and ahorse. AU 
travellers to the continent were compelled to 
embark at Dover in 1339. In 1515 a fellow- 
ship of Trinity pilots was established. A 
pier was built in 1549 ; and in 1606 a charter 
was granted by James I., which tended very 
considerably to increase the maritime im- 
portance of the place. During the civil war, 
the Parliamentary forces took Dover by 
stratagem, Aug. 21, 1642. Charles II. landed 
here on his restoration. May 27, 1660. In 
1780 important alterations were commenced 
in the castle, which has since been entirely 
remodelled. The theatre was bxult in 1790, 
and the custom-house in 1806. In May, 
1808, the town received considerable injury 
from a fire. An ancient well was discovered 
in the keep in 1811. Louis XVIII. embarked 
here for France on his restoration to the 
throne, April 23, 1813 ; and the emperor of 
Russia and the king of Prussia landed June 
6, 1814. Lighting by gas was introduced into 
the town in 1822. Prince Albert landed here, 
previous to his marriage with Queen Victoria, 
289 



DOW 

Feb. 6, 1840. The London and Dover (South- 
Eastern) EaUway was opened Feb. 7, 1844; 
and the London, Chatham, and Dover Rail- 
way iu 1861. The submarine telegraph to 
Calais was permanently estabhshed Oct. 13, 
1851. 

Dover (Sea-fight). — Blake, with a squad- 
ron of fifteen vessels, reinforced during the 
engagement by eight under Captain Bourne, 
fought a severe action with the Dutch fleet, 
consisting of forty -two ships, under the com- 
mand of Admiral Van Tromp, May 19, 1652. 
The action was maintained with great gallantry 
for five hours. Blake captured one ship and 
sunk another, and the Dutch withdrew to 
the coast of Holland during the night. 

Dover (Treaty). — Charles II. and Louis 
XIV. concluded a secret treaty, which was 
signed at Dover May 22, 1670. Charles II. 
agreed to reconcile himself with the Church 
of Eome as soon as the affairs of the kingdom 
should be sufficiently established to permit 
him. Louis XIV. engaged to pay him two 
millions of livres Tournois, one half three 
months after the ratification of the treaty, 
and the remainder in six months; and to 
furnish and maintain, at his own cost, 6,000 
troops to assist Charles II. in his design. 
Charles also engaged to aid Louis in subju- 
gating Holland, and in upholding the Bour- 
bons in Spain. 

Dover (United States), ia New Hamp- 
shire, was founded in 1623 by Edward and 
Wniiam Hilton. It was placed under the 
jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1642, and 
on the 27th of June, 1689, it was attacked by 
Indians, who burnt five or six houses and 
mills, and killed several of the inhabitants. 

Do WEE. — Wharton (Laws relating to 
Women, b. iv. c. 1, s. 6) defines dower as 
" the right which a widow has in the third 
part of the lands and tenements of which her 
husband died solely and beneficially pos- 
sessed." By 5 & 6 Edw. VI c. 11 (l551), 
the widows of traitors lost aU right to dower. 
Five kinds of dower originally existed ; viz., 
dower by the common law, dower by custom, 
dower ad ostium ecclesim, dower ex assensu 
patris, and dower de la plus belle. The last 
was abolished by 12 Chas. II. c. 24 (1660), 
and the third and fourth by the Dower Act, 
3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 105 (Aug. 29, 1833), which 
came into operation Jan. 1, 1834, and vir- 
tually placed the right of dower entirely at 
the husband's disposal. 

DowLETABAD (Hiudostau). — This town, 
considered the key of the Deccan, the 
ancient Deoghir, was taken by the Mo- 
hammedans under Allah-ud-Deen in 1293, 
and in 1306 was rendered subject to the 
emperor of Delhi, who changed its name to 
Dowletabad, and endeavoured to make it 
the capital of his dominions. About 1595 it 
surrendered to Ahmed Nizam Shah, of Ah- 
mednuggur, whose dynasty becoming extiuct 
in 1600, it was seized by an Abyssinian slave, 
named MaUik Amber. In 1634 it was taken 
by the Mongols, from whom it was wrested 
in 1717 by Nizam-ul-Mulk, whose descend- 
ants have ever since retained it. In 1758 it 

V 



DOW 

was occupied for a time by a French force 
under M. Bussy. 

Down (Ireland). — This see is supposed to 
have been founded about the close of the 5th 
century, and to have been origmaUy located 
at Downpatrick (g. v.). The diocese was 
united to Connor at an early period, but 
they were separated a.d. 1136 or 1137. They 
were permanently united by the pope in 
1441. In 1609 James I. made the church of 
the Holy Trinity at Downpatrick the cathe- 
dral of the diocese ; but this falling into 
decay, Charles II. transferred the title to the 
parish church of Lisburn, by a patent dated 
Oct. 27, 1662. On the death of James Saurin, 
bishop of Dromore, April 9, 1842, that see 
was united to Down and Connor, according 
to the provisions of the Church Tempo- 
rahties Act (3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 37 Aug. 14, 
1833). 

Downing College (Cambridge) . — Sir 
E. Downing, Bart., by his vdU, dated Dec. 20, 
1717, left estates, which, in the failure of 
heirs in a certain hne of succession, were to 
be devoted to the foundation and maintenance 
of a college at the university of Cambridge. 
The college was founded by charter, Sept. 22, 
1800, and the statutes were framed in 1805. 
Land having been purchased, the first stone 
of the college buildings was laid May 18, 
1807, and undergraduates were admitted to 
reside in 1821. 

Downpatrick (Ireland). — One of the 
most ancient towns in Ireland, existing in 
the days of St. Patrick, who is said to have 
founded the cathedral. He died a.d. 493. 
In 1538 its church was pillaged by lord- 
deputy Grey, and in 1609 it was made the 
cathedral of the diocese of Dowu. In con- 
sequence of the decayed state of the building, 
Charles II. transferred the title of cathedral 
to Lisburn church Oct. 27, 1662; but in 1790 
Dovrapatrick cathedral was restored for 
divine service. 

Draco's Code, which punished all of- 
fences with death, was compiled about B.C. 
621, and remained in force until superseded 
hy the nulder legislation of Solon, B.C. 
594. 

Dragoons.— Knights called dracones, be- 
cause they fought imder the standard of a 
dragon, are of very ancient date. Modern 
dragoons are of French origin, having been 
instituted by Charles de Cosse, marshal of 
Brisac, about the year 1600. In 1632 two 
kinds existed, called pikemen and musketeers. 
The oldest Enghsh regiment of dragoons is 
the Scots Greys, first enrolled l^ov. 19, 1683. 

Drainage was practised by the ancient 
Egyptians and Assyrians at a very early 
date. Attempts were made to drain the 
Pontine marshes B.C. 160, but without 
permanent effect. Baldwin I., count of 
Flanders, is believed to have commenced the 
drainage of his territories about a.d. 863, 
but they were not effectually protected from 
inundations of the sea till 1180. In 1633 the 
Spaniards constructed works for the purpose 
of draining the city of Mexico, which, from 
its situation in the centre of a lake, was 
290 



DRA 

subject to frequent inundations. The drain- 
ing of the great Bedford level, under the 
management of the earl of Bedford and 
others, was completed March 25, 1653. In 
consequence of the frequent recurrence of 
cholera, measures have recently been adopt- 
ed for securing a better system of drain- 
age in this country. The Metropohtan 
Board of Works, appointed by 18 & 19 Vict, 
c. 120, s. 43 (Aug. 14, 1855), exercises control 
over aU main sewers of the city of London, 
and, by the terms of the act, was boimd to 
complete sewers, to prevent the passage of 
any sewage into the Thames near London, 
before Dec. 31, 1860 (s. 135). By 21 & 22 
Vict. c. 104 (Aug. 2, 1858), the board was to 
commence, as soon as possible, works for 
the main drainage of the metropolis, and for 
preventing the further pollution of the 
Thames, the shores and bed of which they 
were empowered to improve by embank- 
ments, &c. To enable them to effect this, 
they were permitted to borrow money to the 
amount of £3,000,000, and to levy a rate of 
threepence in the pound on the annual value 
of property in London and its environs, on 
the basis of the county rate. This rate is 
called the Metropolis Main Drainage Rate, 

Drake's Circumnavigation op the 
Globe. — This, the first voyage round the 
globe accomplished by an Englishman, was 
performed by Sir Francis Drake, who sailed 
from Plymouth Dec. 13, 1577. He arrived 
in the La Plata April 14, 1578, and entered 
Port St. Juhan June 20. Here Drake 
executed Mr. Thomas Doughtie on a charge 
of mutinous conduct, after which he resumed 
his voyage, Aug. 17. He seized CaUao, 
where he captured seventeen heavily-laden 
ships, Feb. 15, 1579 ; and on the 1st March 
he took a Spanish galleon, which yielded a 
booty of about £150,000. After completing 
the circumnavigation of the globe, and meet- 
ing many surprising adventures, the expe- 
dition returned to Plymouth in safety, Sept. 
26, 1580, where Queen Elizabeth visited him 
on board his ship and knighted him. 

Drama. — The ancient drama originated 
with the Greeks, whose efforts were at first 
wholly extempore. Comedy was introduced 
at Athens B.C. 562, by Susarion and Dolon, 
whose company of buffoons performed on 
waggons, and smeared their i^ces with the 
lees of wine, instead of concealing them with 
masks. The chorus, which was of Doric 
origin, was added B.C. 556. Tbespis of 
Icaria introduced a single actor, who related 
the mythological deeds of Dionysius or 
Bacchus, and carried on serious conversations 
with the chorus, B.C. 536. He is therefore 
regarded as the founder of tragedy. Phry- 
niehus introduced other subjects besides the 
deeds of Bacchus, and also employed female 
characters in his productions, B.C. 511. 
Written comedy began with Epicharmus of 
Cos, who attired his performers in costume, 
and adorned his stage with purple curtains. 
Heflourishd about b.c. 500. Anaxandrides, 
the comic poet, who flourished B.C. 376, was 
the first who wrote plays with regular plots. 



DEA 

The principal Greek poets were : — Tragic : 
^schylus (B.C. 525 — ^156), Sophocles (b.c'.495 
—405), and Euripides (B.C.4.S0— 406). Comic: 
Eupolis (B.C. 429 — ?), Aristophanes (about 
B.C. 427; last comedy, b . c . 388 ) , and Menander 
(B.C. 342 — 291). Theatrical exliibitions were 
introduced at Rome during a pestilence, in 
B.C. 364, in order to propitiate the favour of 
the gods, or to divert the minds of the 
populace from the miserable condition to 
which they were reduced. The actors were 
Etruscans, and their performances consisted 
of dances without words or dramatic plot. 
Songs, however, were soon added, as accom- 
paniment, and at length Livius Andronicus, 
who flourished about B.C. 240, wrote Latin 
plays with regular plots and fables. In 
consequence of losing his voice from the 
frequency of his performances, he employed 
a boy to sing the ode whilst he himself 
danced ; thus introducing a most important 
improvement. Tragedy never flourished at 
Rome, although several distinguished authors 
endeavoured to render it popular. The chief 
of these were Nsevius, who flourished B.C. 
235, and Ennius (b.c. 239—169). The prin- 
cipal Roman comic dramatists are Plautus 
(B.C. 227—184), Statins (flourished B.C. 179, 
died B.C. 168), and Terence (b.c. 195—159). 
The old drama maintained its footing till the 
4th century, when Gregory of Nazianzus ban- 
ished it from the Constantinople theatres, 
and introduced in its stead dramatic compila- 
tions from the Sacred Writings. From Con- 
stantinople these productions were conveyed 
to Italy. They were succeeded by the Mys- 
teries, or religious comedies, from which the 
modern drama is almost entirely derived. 
Thus the "Feast of Fools" and the "Feast of 
the Ass," with other similar religious farces, 
were instituted by Theophylact, patriarch of 
Constantinople, about a.d. 950. These mys- 
teries were introduced into England about 
1110, when the Story of St. Catherine was ex- 
hibited at Dunstable. In 1264 a society del 
Gonf alone was established at Rome to repre- 
sent the passion of the Saviour, and before 
1300 sacred dramas were performed in Ger- 
many. The Chester mysteries are referred 
by Warton to the year 1327, though HaUam 
considers that date a century too early. The 
"Confrarie de la Passion" was established 
in France as a regular theatrical company j 
about 1400. The earHest drama of a secular j 
kind was Bibiena's comedy of the Calandra, 
which was performed at Venice in 1508. | 
Udal's "Ralph Roister Doister," written 
about 1.54<0, and printed in 1565, is the first se- 
cular Enghsh play. The creation of the office 
of master of the revels, whose duty was 
to arrange the theatrical entertainments of 
the court, occurred in 1546, and contributed 
greatly to the rise of the British drama. In 
1574 the earl of Leicester's servants received 
a patent to act plays in any part of England, 
and in 1576 they built the theatre at Black- 
Iriars, which was the first building of the 
kindin England. Marlowe's "Edward II.," 
which appeared in 1593, is regarded as the 
earliest English historical play. Burbage, 
291 



DRA 

Shakespeare, Hemmings, and others, re- 
ceived a license to act plays in any part of 
the kingdom. May 19, 1603. Actresses, who 
were originally from France, first appeared 
in England, at the Blackfriars theatre, in 
Michaelmas, 1629 ; but the innovation was 
vehemently opposed by the stricter portion 
of the community, and in great part occa- 
sioned the pubhcationof Prynne's " Histrio- 
Mastix, or Players' Scourge," which appeared 
in 1633. During the supremacy of the Puri- 
tans the drama was discouraged, all the 
theatres being closed by a parliamentary 
order dated Sept. 2, 1642, and their fittings 
and furniture destroyed by another, dated 
Jan. 22, 1648. Sir Wilham Davenant, how- 
ever, opened a kind of theatre in Rutland 
House, Charterhouse Yard, May 23, 1656, 
on which occasion scenes were first employed 
in a public theatre ; and, in 1662, both he 
and KiUigrew obtained patents to open 
playhouses by monopoly, from Charles II. 
Davenant' s theatre in Lincoln's -Inn Fields 
was opened early in 1662, the actors being 
styled "the Duke of York's Company of 
Comedians." Killigrew's company, known 
as the " King's Company," opened Drury 
Lane in 1663. The theatre in Dorset Garden 
was opened in 1671 ; and in 1682 the king's 
and the diike's companies united patents, 
and removed to Drury Lane. The popu- 
larity of operas so injured the pay of the 
actors, that Betterton and other leading 
performers opened another theatre in Lin- 
coln's-Inn Fields in 1695. By 10 Geo. II. 
c. 28 (1737), plays were ordered to be revised 
and licensed by the lord chamberlain before 
they could be legally performed. 3 WiU. iV. 
c. 15 (June 10, 1833), knovm as the Authors' 
Dramatic Copyright Protection Act, pro- 
hibited the performance of any play unless 
the sanction of the author had been pre- 
viou.sly obtained. The provisions of this act 
were extended to operatic performances by 
5 & 6 Yict. c. 45, ss. 20 & 21 (July 1, 1842). 

Dramatic College. — Mr. Henry Dodd 
having placed five acres of land and 100 
guineas at the disposal of a provisional 
committee, for the founding of an institution 
to liear this name, a public meeting was held 
at the Princess's Theatre on the morning of 
Wednesday, July 21, 1858. Mr. C. Kean 
presided, and was, with three others, ap- 
pointed trustees. On the 20th of September 
a dispute commenced between Mr. Dodd and 
the committee, respecting the conditions of 
the gift, and at a meeting held at the Adel- 
phi Theatre, Jan. 12, 1859, Mr. Dodd's 
offfer was rejected, and arrangements were 
made for erecting the building elsewhere. 
A site was subsequently selected at May- 
bury, near Woking, and the foundation-stone 
of the college was laid by the Prince Consort, 
Friday, June 1, 1860. 

Drapers' CoMPAinrwas incorporated a.d. 
1430. The patent for their arms bears date 
1439. 

Drapier's Letters.— These letters, 
written by Dean Swift under the signature 
ofM. B. Drapier, condemned the govern- 
u 2 



DEA 

ment for granting a patent in 1723, to sup- ! 
ply a deficiency of £108,000 in the copper j 
coinage of Ireland, to a man named Wood. 
They began to appear in 1723, and created 
a sensation in Ireland, perhaps unparalleled 
in the hterary histoiy of the country. In 
April, 1724, Harding, the printer of the 
letters, was imprisoned and prosecuted by 
the crown ; but, in spite of persecution, he 
refused to betray their author. In conse- 
quence of the excitement in the country, the 
patent was abandoned, after £4<'),00() in 
halfpence had been coined ; and Wood, who 
received an indemnity of £3,000 per annum 
for twelve years, was compelled by the 
popular indignation to leave the country. 

Deawii^g. — This art is evidently of 
extreme antiquity, being, at least, as old as 
the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which were in- 
vented about B.C. 2122. The Greeks attri- 
bute its origin to the ingenuity of a young 
girl of Sicyon, who traced, vrith a piece of 
charcoal, the shadow of her lover's profile 
on the wall, in order that she might possess 
a hkeness of him during his absence. 

DEEPAKiJir (Sea-fight). — During the first 
Punic war, the Eoman consul was defeated 
oif Drepanum, in Sicily, with a loss of ninety- 
three ships, by Adherbal and the Cartha- 
ginian fleet. This event occurred B.C. 2-49. 

Deesdejj- (Battle).— An allied Austrian, 
Eussian, and Prussian army, about 150,000 
strong, under Prince Schwartzenberg, 
attacked 131,000 French troops led by 
JSTapoleon I. at Dresden, Aug. 26, 1813. 
The battle, which commenced at four o'clock 
p.m., was renewed on the 27th, when Kapo- 
leon totally defeated his opponents. The 
allied army lost above 6,000 men in this 
battle, and General Moreau, who was en- 
gaged as a volunteer, feU in the conflict. 
The French loss amoimted to 4,000 men. 

Deesdejt (Saxony) was originally a mis- 
erable fishing village, founded in the 11th 
century. In 1136 it was beautified and en- 
larged by Henry the Illustrious, and in 14S5, 
on the division of Saxony between the sons 
of Frederick II., it feU to the lot of Albert, 
who made it his residence. In 1491 it was 
destroyed by fire, but was speedily rebuilt, 
and, in 1534, a castle was erected by George 
le Barbu. In 1548 it became the capital of 
the electorate, and in 1610 was visited by 
war, plague, and famine. The Prussians 
took it in 1745 and in 1756, when they were 
commanded by Frederick the Great, who 
again laid siege to it, July 13, 1760. He was, 
however, compelled to retire on the 22nd, after 
submitting the city to a bombardment, which 
reduced some of its noblest buildings to ruins. 
An Austrian army entered Dresden June 11, 
1809, and, after various reverses, quitted it 
July 21, the same year. The aUied army en- 
tered Dresden April 26, 1813, but it was soon 
evacuated and taken by the French (see 
Battle OF DsESDEif), who were compelled 
to retire Nov. 11. Eiots occurred here Sept. 
9-13, 1830, diiriag which the town-haU was 
attacked and pltmdered, and many excesses 
were committed. Another insurrection broke 



DEE 

out June 3, 1849, which was finally suppressed 
on the 7th. Mr. Paget, an English traveller 
resident in Dresden, was arrested on a false 
charge of aiding the Hungarian revolution, 
Sept. 2, 1852. His liberation took place on 
the 25th. 

Deesdeiv ( Treaties ) . — Several treaties 
were concluded at Dresden, the most im- 
portant being the AUiance of Dresden, signed 
June 28, 1709, by which Frederick IV. of 
Denmark, and Augustus II. of Saxony united 
against Charles XII. of Sweden ; and the 
peace of Dresden, Dec. 25, 1745, between 
Saxony, Prussia, and Hungary. 

Deesdek China. — John Frederick 
Bottcher, an apothecary's assistant at 
Berhn, having fled to Dresden to avoid pro- 
secution for alchemy, was protected by the 
elector Augustus II., who provided him with 
means to discover the philosopher's stone. 
Although unsuccessful in this enterprise, 
he unexpectedly produced something so like 
oriental porcelain, that he abandoned his 
former useless pui'suits, and directed his 
attention to the perfection of his new dis- 
covery. After several years of arduous 
labour, he at length, in i709, succeeded in 
his attempt, and manufactured the first white 
porcelain made in Europe. A factory was 
established at Meissen in 1710, of which he 
was appointed director, and in 1715 he 
brought his invention to i)erfection. 

Deess. — In the " Book of Costume " it is 
stated that " all ancient nations seem to have 
had the same costume, formed of long gar- 
ments, without much shape or ornament; 
and as these were all much alike, they de- 
scended from father to son for many gene- 
rations. The colours most valued among the 
ancients appear to have been purple, red, and 
violet ; but white was the most used by the 
Israelites." The costumes of the early Greeks 
were remarkable from their close fit ; loose 
flowing garments being of later introduction. 
Among the Eomans, the toga, a dress derived 
from the Etruscans, was the characteristic 
costume, and, although discouraged by Au- 
gustus (B.C. 27 — A.D. 14) and Domitian (a.d. 
81 — 96), it maintained its popularity tiU the 
removal of the seat of government to Con- 
stantinople, A.D. 330, when it was superseded 
by the Greek pallium. The earhest mention 
of the Britons is by Herodotus (b.c. 478), 
who alludes to their custom of staining their 
bodies with woad as a proof of high descent. 
Strabo (b.c. 71 — a.d. 14) says that their dresa 
consisted of a long black robe bound round 
the breast ; and Herodian, writing a.d. 207, 
states that the inhabitants of the fenny dis- 
tricts wore little or no clothing, both that 
they might be at hberty to swim and wade 
through the marshes, and that their tattooed 
bodies might be seen and appreciated. The 
Druids wore long white robes and mantles, 
with oak -leaves bound round the forehead, 
and the chief priest was adorned with a 
breastplate of a crescent form, which was 
beheved to possess the power of strangling the 
wearer if he ever gave false judgment. When 
the Eomans conquered England, they of 



DEE 

course introduced their costume, wMch 
Tacitus tells us began to be adopted in the 
time of Agricola (a.d.78). The Saxons 
introduced drawers, trowsers, long and 
short tunics, — ^whence the modern rustic 
smock is derived; cloaks, caps of wool, 
felt, or fur ; stockings, usually cross-gar- 
tered; boots, shoes, and gloves. The Danes 
wore dresses similar in style, but more orna- 
mental, and the Normans introduced no 
novelty on their first arrival, except the 
ladies' surcoat, a short cloak, with long and 
ugly sleeves. Parti-coloured coats were first 
worn in England in the reign of Henry I., 
chaplets, or wreaths of artificial flowers in 
the time of Edward III., hoods and taberts 
in the reign of Henry IV., hats in the time 
of Henry VII., shoes in 1633, and breeches 
superseded trunk hose in 1654. In the 13th 
century the tabard, a sleeveless garment, 
consisting of two pieces, hanging before and 
behind, came into use, and in the 14th cen- 
tury a great variety of sleeves, cloaks, and 
head-gear, with pantaloons, sleeveless spen- 
cers, scarfs, and long-pointed shoes, became 
characteristic features. The women of this 
century were chiefly distinguished by the 
whimsical designs of their head-dresses ; 
they also wore stay-hke garments outside 
their other dress. In the 15th century tight 
breeches and slashed sleeves were introduced. 
Strutt states, "At the close of the 15th, the 
dress of the English was exceedingly fantas- 
tical and absurd, insomuch that it was even 
dif&cult to distinguish the one sex from the 
other. The men wore petticoats over their 
lower clothing; their doublets were laced 
in the front like a woman's stays across a 
stomacher; and their gowns were open in 
the front to the girdle, and again from the 
girdle to the ground." The horned head- 
dress for ladies appeared at the beginning 
of this century, and continued in vogue till 
1461, when the steeple fashion became pre- 
valent. Swords, as a part of domestic dress, 
were introduced in the latter part of the 15th 
century. The chief innovations of the 16th 
century were the enormous puflfed doublets 
and trunk breeches of the men, and the 
hooped fardingales and high wing-like col- 
lars of the ladies. In the 17th century, judges' 
wigs, coats with short sleeves, puffed breeches, 
and boots with very large tops, were favourite 
fashions, and the Puritans embroidered their 
garments with rehgious maxims. Muffs for 
the hands are mentioned as part of the equip- 
ment of gentlemen during the frost of 1683-4. 
In the early part of the 18th century the 
ladies' commodes, introduced in 1687, at- 
tained the extravagant height which excited 
Addison's raillery in the Spectator; and the 
hooped petticoats were so altered in fashion, 
that, in the words of a writer in the Weekly 
Journal of 1718, "when a slender virgin 
stands upon a basis so exorbitantly wide, she 
resembles a funnel, a figure of no great ele- 
gancy." Gentlemen wore square-cut coats, 
stiffened with wire and buckram. Towards 
the middle of the century, head-dresses of 
enormous height were worn by the ladies, 



DEO 

who, according to the London Magazine for 
1768, used such expensive modes of dressing 
the hair, that it was sometimes left nine 
weeks without attention, which time, says 
the author, is "as long as a head could well 
go in summer." The formation of the 
Macaroni Club in 1772 contributed greatly 
to extravagance of costume, which con- 
tinued undisturbed by any important novelty 
until the introduction of the modern round 
hat for gentlemen in 1789. Short waists be- 
came fashionable in 1794, but in 1798 they 
resumed more graceful proportions, and at 

length regained their proper shape. 

Various laws have been enacted at different 
times for the regulation of costume in Eng- 
land. Such are 37 Edw. III. c.8, &c. (1363) ; 
3 Edw. IV. c. 5 (1463) : 22 Edw. IV. c. 1 
(1482) ; 1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 2 (1554) ; 
and 13 EHz. c. 19 (1570). The last act re- 
quired every person above six years old, 
except maidens, ladies, and gentlewomen, 
and lords, knights, and gentlenaen of 20 
marks a year, to wear on Sundays and holi- 
days a woollen cap of English manuiacture, 
under a penalty of 3s. 4<Z. 

Dreux (France). — This town was taken 
and destroyed by the English a.d. 1188. An 
obstinate battle was fought between the 
Eoman Cathohc army and the Huguenot 
forces, led by Cond^, at this place, Dec. 19, 
1562. Both commanders were made prison- 
ers. Henry IV. of France took the town, after 
a siege of eighteen days, in 1593. 

DRiKKiNG-FoirKTAiNS. — Amceting in sup- 
port of the movement to erect drinking- 
fountains was held at Willis's Eooms, April 
12, 1859. The first pubhc fountain in London 
was erected by the Metropolitan Drinking- 
Fountains Association, at the expense of 
S. Grurney, Esq., M.P., at the corner of St. 
Sepulchre's churchyard. It was opened for 
general use April 21, 1859. Numbers of 
drinking-fountains have since been erected 
in London, and in various provincial towns. 

Dbo&heda (Ireland) was fortified by 
Turgesius the Dane, a.d. 911. Lucas, arch- 
bishop of Armagh, founded a Dominican 
convent here in 1224, and in this building 
the four Irish kings, O'Neill, O'Hanlon, 
O'Donnell, and Macmahon, did homage to 
Eichard II., March 10, 1395. In 1412, 
Henry VI. granted a corporation, and the 
town afterwards became of considerable 
political importance, courts and parliaments 
being held in it by the English viceroys. 
" Poyning's Law," which rendered the Irish 
parHament subservient to that of England, 
was passed at Drogheda in 1494. Cromwell 
stormed and took the town Sept. 11, 1649, 
putting 3,000 of the inhabitants to the 
sword ; and in 1690 it resisted an assault by 
King William III.'s army, to which it sur- 
rendered after the battle of the Boyne. 

Dromoke (Ireland) was erected into a 
bishop's see by St. Coleman about 510, but 
there is no regular succession of bishops tiU 
the 12th century. Jeremy Taylor became 
bishop of Dromore in 1661. The Church 
Temporahties Act (3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 37, 



DEO 

Aug. 14, 1833) provided that, when next 
vacant, the see of Dromore should be united 
to those of Down and Connor. This oc- 
curred on the death of Bishop Saurin, April 9, 
1842. 

Deoittheim, or TROifDHJEM (Iforway). — 
This town, founded by Olaf I. in 997, 
was the capital of Norway, until that king- 
dom was united to Denmark. The cathedral 
was commenced in 1033. Drontheim was 
made an archbishopric in 1151, was ceded 
to Sweden in 1658, and restored to Denmark 
in 1660. The Swedes invested Drontheim, 
but without success, in October, 1718. 

Dkownin^& (Punishment of). — This pun- 
ishment, common amongst many nations 
of antiquity, was treacherously inflicted near 
K^icomedia, a.d. 370, on eighty legates, who 
complained of certain grievances, which the 
em.peror Valens found it inconvenient to 
redress. It was awarded, by a charter of 
Eichard I., dated 1189, to any crusader of 
his army who shotdd kill a fellow-soldier on 
shiploard. In this country it was long a j 
punishment inflicted upon women. During | 
the French revolution, it was revived by the 
monster J. B. Carrier, who, in 1793, con- 
structed vessels in which a hundred victims 
might be drowned at once. (See ZS^otades. 

Dkuids, the priests of the ancient Gauls 
and Britons, who revered the oak and mis- 
tletoe, and were the legislators aud teachers 
of the people. Their origin is unknown. 
Suetonius Pauhnus put numbers of them to 
the sword, when he took Anglesey, the 
ancient Mona, in the year 61 a.d., and from 
that time their authority was at an end. 

Drum. — Eepresentations of this instru- 
ment occur on Egyptian sculptures of the 
16th century B.C., where it is always depicted 
as being struck by the hands. It was intro- 
duced into Europe by the Saracens, and was 
played, probably for the first time in France, 
on the entry of Edward III. into Calais in 
1847. 

Dritmclog (Battle).— Graham of Claver- 
house was defeated here by the Scottish 
Covenanters, Sunday, June 1, 1679 (O.S.). 
Forty of the royahsts and one of the rebels 
fell in the action, and Claverhouse himself 
was nearly made prisoner. 

Dextbtkaeds. — By a law of Pittacus, b.c. 
539, the ancient Greeks uxflicted double 
punishment upon such as committed crime 
in a state of intoxication ; one penalty being 
awarded for the actual offence and the other 
for the intemperance which occasioned its 
commission. TheApostoHcal Canons, a.d. 2-50, 
declared all drunken priests degraded from 
their sacred office, and Pope Eutychian (a.d. 
275 — 283) denounced sentence of excom- 
munication against laymen guilty of iutox- 
ication. In England a law was passed against 
drunkenness in 975, and by 4 James I. c. 5 
(1606), and 21 James I. c. 7, s. 3 (1623), offen- 
ders are liable to a fine of five shillings, to 
be devoted to the use of the poor, or six 
hours in the stocks, and for a second offence, 
to be bound with two sureties in £10 for 
good behaviour. 
294 



DUB 

Drtjbt-Lane Theatre waa opened by 
the king's company under Thomas KiHi- 
grew, April 8, 1663. In January, 1672, it was 
burnt down, and a new one, erected from the 
designs of Sir Christopher Wren, was opened 
May 26, 1674. This theatre became the only 
one in London, when Davenant's company 
united with the king's, Nov. 16, 1682. After 
undergoing considerable alterations, it was 
reopened Sept. 23, 1775. The Theatrical 
Fund was established by Garrick in 1776. 
The last performance in Wren's theatre took 
place June 4, 1791, after which it was pulled 
down and rebuilt by Henry HoUand. The 
new building was opened with a performance 
of sacred music, March 12, 1794. It was 
burnt down Feb. 24, 1809. The first stone 
of a new theatre, designed by Mr. B. Wyatt, 
was laid Oct. 29, 1811, and the new building 
was opened with a prologue by Lord Byron, 
Oct. 10, 1812. 

Druses, a people of Syria, who trace their 
descent from Durzi, a disciple of the Fati- 
mite caliph Hakem (a.d. 996—1020) . In 1588 
they were subdued by Amurath III., but 
regained a portion of their independence in 
the middle of the 18th century. An insurrec- 
tion occurred among the Druses and Maron- 
ites in the spring of 1840. It was suppressed 
by the Turks in 1841. In 1860 they rose in 
arms against the Maronite Christians, and 
slew about 12,000 men, women, and children, 
of whom 2(X) were priests ; besides destroying 
163 villages, 220 churches, and seven convents. 
The massacre was suspended July 10, and 
the sultan dispatched Fuad Pasha as com- 
missioner to restore tranquillity. The conse- 
quence was, that 167 of the most guilty 
Druses were publicly executed at Damascus 
Aug. 20, and many others sent to Constan- 
tinople to undergo imprisonment and hard 
labour. 

Dublin- (Ireland) is mentioned by Ptolemy, 
under its Latin name " Eblana," a.d. 140. 
Its early history is involved in obscurity. 



448. 

493. 

984. 
1005. 
1014. 
1038. 



1173. 
1190. 



121.5. 
1-235. 
12.59. 
1278. 



St. Patrick converts the king of Dublin and 

his subjects to Chi-istiauity. 
First aiTival of the Daues, who surround the 

city with walls. 
Mentioned by Edgar, king of England, in a 

charter called " Oswald's Law." 
The subui-bs are burnt by Melaghlin, king of 

Meath. 
April 23. Brian Boru defeats the Danes of 

Dublin, at the battle of Olontarf (q. v.). 
Donat, bishop of Dublin, and Sitric, king of 

Dublin, found St. Michael's chapel, after- 
wards called Christchurch. 
St. Catherine's church built. 
Sept. 21. It is besieged and taken, by the 

English, under Earl Strongbow. 
Eeniy II. gi-auts Dublin, by charter, to the 

citizens of Bristol. 
A disastrous fire destroys great part of the 

city. Christchurch is rebuilt, and St. 

Patrick's chui-ch founded. 
Aug. 31. A patent is granted by King John, 

directing Fitzhenry, the governor of the 

town, to commence the castle. 
A bridge is built over the Liffey. 
Monastery of St. Francis is founded. 
MonasteiT of the Holy Trinity is founded. 
W hitelriars monastery is founded. 



DUB 



1283. Jan. 2. The greatest part of the city is de- 
stroyed by fire. 

1308. A provost and two bailiffs are appointed. 

1320. A university is established in St. Patrick's 
church, by Alexander de Bicknor, arch- 
bishop of Duhliu. 

1362. April 6. St. Patrick's church is destroyed by 



1409. 
1487. 



A mayor first appointed. 
Lambert Simnel is crowned king in Christ- 
church, by the title of Edward VI. 

ISOO. The city is besieged by a son of Gerald, earl 
of Kildare, and lord-deputy. 

1541. The priory and convent of Christchurch con- 
stituted a deanery and chapter. 

1548. The bailiffs of Dublin are first called sheriffs. 

1591. March 13. Trinity College is founded by 
Thomas Smith, mayor. 

1614. A convocation of bishops held, which estab- 
lishes the Thirty -nine Articles. 

1635. John Ogilby erects the first theatre in 
Dublin. 

1647. June 18. Surrenders to the parliamentary 
forces. 

1649. June 19 to Aug. 2. Unsuccessfully besieged 
by the marquis of Ormond. Aug. 14. 
Occupied by Cromwell previous to the siege 
of Drogheda. 

1652. High coui-t of justice is established, for the 
trial of papist rebels 

1662. Phoenix Park is commenced. 

1665. The chief magistrate is first called lord 
mayor. 

1670. The Blue-coat Hospital and Bloody-bridge 
are built. 

1676. Sir Humphrey Jervis builds Essex Bridge. 

1684. April 7. Great pai-t of the castle is destroyed 
by fire. 

1686. The Royal Hospital at Kilmainham is com- 
pleted. 

1688. March 24. James II. enters Dublin. 

1695. The Four Courts are built in Christchurch 
Lane. 

1701. July 1. The equestrian statue of William III. 
is inaugurated. 

1704. The Foundling Hospital is commenced. 

1707. Old Custom-house is founded in Essex Street. 

1720. Steven's Hospital is founded. 

1725. The market-house in Thomas Street is built. 

1728. Aug. The infirmary is founded on the Inns' 

quay. 

1729. Parliament-house on College Green is begun. 
.1745. St. Patrick's Hospital is foimded by Dean 

Swift. It is opened In 17-57. 

1749. April 2. The Koyal Dublin Societyis incorpo- 
rated, and St. Patrick's steeple erected. 

1753. April. St. Nicholas' Hospital is opened. 
Rebuilding of Essex Bridge commenced, 
and completed in 1756. 

1758. The new theatre in Crow Street is opened. 

1764. Queen's Bridge is founded. Finished in 1768. 

1767. June 11. Magdalen House, Leeson Street, is 
opened. 

1769. Aug. 2. The Royal Exchange is founded, and 

opened in 1779. 

1770. Meath Hospital is founded. 

1772. The Foundling Hospital and workhouse are 

incorporated. 

1773. New goal founded ; completed in 1780. Act 

for paving the streets passed, and penny 

post established. 
1775. Four Courts Marshalsea founded. 
1781. The new custom-house is founded, and opened 

Nov. 7, 1791. 

1783. June 25. Bank of Ireland is opened in 

St. Mary's Abbey. 

1784. July 17. Assembly-rooms, Cavendish Row, 

are founded. 

1786. New Fom- Courts founded, and police estab- 

lished. 

1787. Soldiers' Infirmary, Phoenix Park, is founded, 

and new theatre of Trinity College opened. 
1789. Jan. 15. Astley's theatre royal, for equestrian 

performances, is opened. 
8791. Apothecaries' Hall established, and Carlisle 

and Sarah's bridges ai-e founded. 



DUB 



1792. Feb. 27. The House of Commons is partly 
destroyed by fire. 

1796. July 29. Commercial Buildings are founded. 
Oct. First meeting of the city armed as- 
sociation. Nov. 3. New Four Courts 



1798. 
1801. 



1804. 
1806. 



1817. 
1819. 
1821. 



1825. 
1827. 
1829. 
1832. 
1833. 
18:i4. 



1837. 
1839. 
1843. 

1844. 
1848. 



1852. 
1853. 
1854. 

1858. 



May 19. Rebellion in Dublin, and arrest of 

Lord Edward Fitzgerald. 
Jan. 1. The united standard unLfurled from the 

castle towers, in consequence of the union 

with Great Britain. 
July 23. Emmet's insurrection breaks out Id 

Thomas Street. 
May 14. Fever hospital opened. 
Nov. 28. Bedford Asylum is founded. 
The Parliament-house is converted into the 

Bank of Ireland. 
Dec. 16, &c. Riots at the Crow -Street 

Theatre. 
The General Post-office is completed. 
April 16-20. More riots at the theatre. 
Aug. 12. George IV. visits Dublin. Theatre 

Royal, Hawkins Street, and George's dock, 

are opened. 
Dec. 14. Riot at the theatre, on the occasion 

of the lord lieutenant's \ isit. From the 

ctrcmnstance of a bottle being thrown at 

the vice-regal box, it is called the bottle 

riot. 
New Anatomy Buildings, and Royal Hibernian 

Academy of Arts, are founded. 
Gas introduced. 

Dec. 12, The King's Bridge is founded. 
Northimiberland Buildings are erected. 
First appearance of the cholera. 
Aug. 10. Great fire at the Custom-house. 
Dec. 17. Railroad to Kingston is opened. 
July 4. Dublin New Police Act passed (6 & 7 

Will. IV. c. 29). 
Mechanics' Institute is founded. 
Jan. 6. Much injury is done by a hurricane. 
Oct. 14. O'Connell and others are aiTested on 

charges of conspiracy and sedition. 
Sept. 6. Great demonstrations of popular joy, 

in con sequence of the liberation of O'Connell 

and his fellow-prisoners. 
May 15. Trial of Smith O'Brien. {See Cujsmel.) 

May 16. Ti-ial of Meagher. May 24-27. 

Trial of Mitchell, who is sentenced to 

foui'teen years' transportation. 
Aug. 6. Dublin is visited by Queen Victoria 

and the royal family. 
April 18. A hail-storm destroys property to 

the value of £27,000. 
Sept. The Exchange is inaugurated as the 

City-hall. 
May 12. The Dublin Exhibition is opened by 

the lord-lieutenant. 
Aug. 10. Aot passed for the establishment of 

a National Gallery, Library, and Museum 

in Dublin {17 & 18 Vict. c. 99). 
March 12. Serious fray between the students 

of Trinity College and the police, on occa- 
sion of the entry of the lord-lieutenant. 
April 6. Six persons are killed in an omnibus 

which falls into the canal. Aug. 22. The 

Queen arrives, and leaves for KiUamey 

Aug. 26. 



DuBLiif (See of).— St. Patrick is said to 
have placed a bishop over the church he 
founded at Dubhn, a.d. 448, but no names 
of prelates remain earlier than Livinus, who 
was promoted to the see in 633. In 1152, 
Bishop Gregory was raised to the arcM- 
episcopal dignity, and in 1214 the diocese 
was enlarged by the addition of the see of 
Glendaloch. George Brown, who succeeded 
to the archiepiscopal throne in 1535, was the 
first Protestant archbishop of the diocese. 
In agreement with a provision of the Church 
TemporaUties Act (3 & 4 WiU. IV. c 37 
295 



DUB 

Aug. 14, 1833), the see of Kildare -was 
united to Dublin, Aug. 8, 1846. 

Dublin Industeial Exhibitios-. — At a 
meeting of tlie Eoyal Dublin Society, teld 
June 24, 18-53, Mr. William Dargan offered 
to place tlie sum of £20,000 in the hands of a 
committee of twenty-five gentlemen, for the 
construction of a building in which an Irish 
industrial exhibition might be held. The 
offer was accepted, and the committee held 
its first meeting July 5. The bunding, 
designed by Mr. John Benson, was suffi- 
ciently advanced to admit exhibitors to 
deposit their goods, March 1, 1853 ; by 
which time Mr. Dargan' s adrances fell httle 
short of £80,000. The ceremony of opening 
the exhibition was performed by Earl St. 
Germains, the lord-heutenant. May 12. On 
the 29th of August it was visited by Queen 
Victoria and Prince Albert, and after a most 
successful season, was closed on the 1st of 
'NoYemhev. 

Ducat. — This gold coin is said to have 
been first strxick in the 6th century by 
Longinus, duke or diica of Eavenna. Others 
attribute its introduction to Eoger II., duke 
of Apuha, who coined a large number of 
ducats in 1140. Gibbon attributes the origin 
of the nam.e to the dukes of Milan. The 
Venetians adopted them in 1280, and they 
subsequently became the favourite medium 
of the commercial repubhcs of Italy. A 
silver coin, known as the dueatoon, was 
extensively used in Spain and Holland. 

Dudley's Conspieact. — In February, 
1556, Sir Henry Dudley, cousin to the duke 
of IS'orthumberland, entered into a conspi- 
racy, with other young men, to dethrone 
Queen Mary and establish the Princess 
Ehzabeth in her stead. The French agreed 
to furnish means, and it was proposed to 
rob the Treasury; for which purpose five 
of the conspirators were selected. The plot 
was, however, betrayed, and Throgmorton, 
and about fifteen more, were arrested and 
committed to the Tower, March 18. Dudley 
succeeded in making his escape. Throg- 
morton was executed April 28 ; Captain 
Stanton, May 19 ; Derrick, June 2 ; and Sir 
Henry Peckham and John Daniel, July 7. 

Duelling. — No doubt this mode of 
setthng disputes originated in the old system 
of assize of battle {q.v.), the first instance in 
England approaching to the modern duel 
being the encounter i between William count 
d'Eu and Godfrey Baynard, in 1096. In 1361 
a projected duel between Henry, duke of 
Lancaster, and the duke of Brunswick, was 
prevented by John, king of France ; and, in 
1398, Eichard II. prohibited one arranged 
between the dukes of Hereford and K^orfolk. 
HaUam remarks that duelling in the modern 
sense of the term was unknown before the 
16th century. In 1528 Francis I. challenged 
the emperor Charles V. to a mortal en- 
counter; but, though accepted, the challenge 
led to no engagement. Charles IX. of 
France prohibited the practice in his domi- 
nions in 1566. Duelling with small-swords 
was first introduced into England in 1587. 



DUE 

In 1597 duelling was allowed in England hy 
Queen EKzabefh. CromweU published an 
ordinance for its suppression in 1654, and 
Charles II. issued a proclamation denouncing 
death against any who should kill another in 
a duel, in 1679. A severe edict against duel- 
Hng was pubhshed in Bavaria, Nov. 9, 1773, 
which enacted that principals and seconds 
in a duel, even although no wounds were 
given, should suffer death, and be buried 
as criminals. A court of honour was esta- 
blished for its suppression in Prussia in 
1786, by deciding questions which otherwise 
would have occasioned duels. Three new 
articles of war were issued in 1844 to abate 
the practice in the English army. The 
following are some of the most remarkable 
duels : — 



1712. Xov. 15. The duke of Hamilton and Lord 
Mohun kill each other, the duel Toeiag 
fought with small-swords. 

1762. Oct. 5. Between John Wilkes and Lord 

Talbot, neither being injured. 

1763. Nov. 16. Between John Wilkes and Samtiel 

Martin , M. P. , when the former was wounded 

by a pistol-shot. 
1765. Jan. 28. Lord Byron kiUs Mr. Chaworth, at 

the Stai- and Garter, in Pall Mall. 
1769. Sept. Henry Flood shoots James Agar dead, 

1772. Jan. 31. Two French ladies of quality fight a 

duel with knives, in order to settle a ques- 
tion of precedency. 

1773. Feb. 2. Loi-d Townshend wounds the earl of 

Bellamont. 

1777. Oct. A Frenchman of quality is severely 

wounded in a duel by his lover, whuia 
he had abandoned. The lady was the 
challenger. 

1778. March 21. The count of Artois is wounded 'by 

the duke of Bourbon, at Paris. 

1779. Nov. 30. Charles James Fox is wounded by 

Mr. Adam. 

1780. March 22. Colonel FuUerton wounds Lord 

Shelbume, in consequence of expressions 
used ill a psirliamentary debate. 

1782. June 18. The Rev. Mr. Allen mortally wounds 

Lloyd Ihilany, Esq. He was tried July 6, 
found guilty of manslaughter, and seji- 
teiiced to pay a fine of one shilling, and to 
be imprisoned for six mouths. 

1783. Sept. 4. Colonel Cosmo Gordon kills Lieu- 

tenant-Colonel Thomas. Oct. 17. Mr. Green 
is killed by Mr. Munro. 

1786. June 8. Lord Macartney is wounded by Major- 

General Stuart. 

1787. Robeit Keon mui-ders Mr. Nugent while their 

seconds are making preliminary arrange- 
ments for a duel. He was tried Jan. 31, 
3788, and executed Feb. 16. 

1788. Dec. 21. Colonel Roper is killed by Mr. Pin efoy, 

who is tried and acquitted, Aug. 14, 1794. 

1789. May 26. The duke of York and Colonel Lenox 

meet on Wimbledon Common, but neither 
is wounded. 

1790. Arril 1. Mr. Curran afd Major Hobart, 

neither of whom is wounded. April 14. 
Sir George Ramsay is killed by Captain 
Macrae. May 4 Ulr. Power is killed by 
Captain Grumbleton. Sept. 20. Mr. An- 
derson kills Ml-. Stephens. 

1791. July 19. Mr. Graham is killed by Mr. Julius. 

1792. March. A duel takes place between Messrs. 

John Kembleand Aikin, the actors, neither 
of whom is injui-ed. June 9. The earl of 
Lonsdale and Cantain Cuthbert have a 
meeting without dangerous results. July 2. 
Lord Lauderdale and General Arnold ex- 
change shots without efi'ect. 
1794. June 18. Richard England shoots Mr. Rowlls. 
He is tried, and found guilty of man- 
slaughter, Feb. 19, 1796. 



DUE 



179(j. June 28. Mr. Gawler wounds Lord Valentia. 

Aug. 20. Mr. Carpenter is killed by John 

Pride. 
1798. May 27. A duel is fought between Mr. Pitt 

and Mr. Tlerney, neither of whom is 

wounded. 

1800. Mr. Grrattan wounds Mr. Corry. May 10. 

Mr. Corry kills Mr. Newbiu-gh. 

1801. Aug. 2(). Major Inipey is killed by Lieutenant 

WiUis, at Quebec. 

1802. Jan. 10. Mr. Hamilton is shot at New York, 

by Mr. G. J. iiaker. June 1.5. Lieutenant 
Eae kills Mr. Bremen, at the Cape of Good 
Hope. 

1803. March. Lieutenant W— and Captain J— 

exchange shots, with fatal effects to both. 
April 6. Captain Macnamara kills Colonel 
Montgomeiy. He is tried April 22, and is 
found not guilty, in spite of his own con- 



1804. March 6. Captain Best kills Loi-d Camelford. 
July. General Hamilton is killed by 
Aaron Burr, Vice-president of the United 
States. 

1806. Jan. 1. Ensign Butler kills Ensign Brown. 

March 22. Lieutenant Turrens is killed by 
Mr. Fisher. May 3. Messrs. Rogers and 
Long kill each other in a duel. Sept. 21. 
Mr. Richardson and Baron Hompesch have 
a meeting, and the former is shot through 
the body. Oct. 12. Mr. Long is shot by 
Mr. Armstrong. 

1807. May 5. Sir Fi-ancis Burdett and Mr. Paul! 

wound each other. June 8. Mr Alcock 
kills Mr. Colclough, and shortly afterwai'ds 
becomes deranged. June 23. Major Camp- 
bell shoots Captain Boyd. He is executed 
in Aug. 1808. 

1808. May 3. M. de Granpvee and M. le Pique fight 

in balloons, with blmiderbusses. M. le 
Pique's balloon is pierced by his adversary's 
shots, and he and his second are dashed to 
pieces by its sudden descent. 

1809. May 30. Lord Paget and Captain Cadogan 

meet, but without result. Hept. 22. Mr. 
Canning is wounded by Lord Castlereagh. 

1810. Sept. 6. Mr. Payne is kiUed by Mr. Clark. 

1811. March 4. Ensign de Betton kills Captain 

Boardman at Barbadoes. 

1812. Oct. 7. A duel between Lieutenants Stewart 

and BagnaU terminates fatally to the 
latter. 

1813. July 12. Lieutenant Blundell is killed by 

Mr. Maguire. 

1814. April 23. Lieutenant Cecil kills Captain 
. Stackpole, at Port Royal, Jamaica. 

1815. Feb. 1. Mr. D'Esterre is killed by Mr. 

O'Connell. Dec. Major HUlas is shot by 
Mr. Fenton. 

1816. Feb. 21. Mr. Dillon is shot by Mr. Kane. 

1817. March 8. Lieutenant Conroy kills Lieutenant 

Hindes. Dec. 12. Mr. Cochrane is killed 
by Major Lockyer. 

1818. Jan. 13. Lieutenant Bailey is shot by Mr. 

O'Callaghan. March 1. Lieutenant Cart- 
wright is killed by Lieutenant Maxwell. 

1819. Aug. 1. Mr. Uniacke kills Mr. Bowie. 

Oct. 6. Captain Pellew is killed by Lieu- 
tenant Walsh. 

1820. June 11. A duel between Lord Clare and 

Mr. Grattan terminates without injury. 
Aug. 13. Jtti'. Travera is killed by Mr. Huu- 
gerford. Aug. 20. Messrs. Stuart and 
Townsend fight with muskets, and both 
fall. Sept. 17. Mr. Burrowes is killed by 
Mr. Fulliot, whose skull is fractui-ed. 

1821. Feb. 16. Mr. Scott is killed by Mr. Chi-istie. 

April 10. M. Manuel is killed by M. Beau- 
mont. April 21. Viscount Petersham and 
Mr. Wedderbume meet without injuiy. 
May 22. Mr. Cuddle is kiUed by Mr. Brittle- 
bank. 

1822. March 26. Sir Alexander Boswell, son of the 

biographer, is killed by Mr. Stuart. May 2. 
The dukes of Buckingham and Bedford 
meet without result. * 



DUK 



1823. Feb. 28. Generals Pepe and Carascosa fight 

with swords, and the latter is wounded. 

1824. Oct. 30. Captain Gourlay is killed by Mr. 

Westall. ^ 

1826. July 1. Messrs. Lambton and Beaumont 
meet without any casualties. Dec. 26. 
Mr. Brie is kUled by Mr. Hayes. 

1829. March 21. The duke of Wellington and the 

earl of Winchelsea exchange shots without 
etlect. April 1. Captain Helsham kills 
Lieutenant Crowther. 

1830. Jan. 8. Mr. Clayton is killed by Mr. Lam- 

brecht. March 17. Mr. O'Grady is killed 
by Captain Smith. Aug. A duel between 
Dr. Smith and Dr. Jeffries, at PhUadelphia, 
terminates fatally for both parties. 

1833. May 10. Sir J. Jetfcott kills Dr. Hennis. 

1834. Jan. 30. General Bugeaud kills M. Dulong, 

at Paris. 

1835. April 25. Mr. St. John kills Count Catraffiana. 

Nov. 21. Colonel Bellamy kills Captain 
White, at Washington, and is desperately 
wounded himself. 

1836. Api'il8. General Evans is wounded by Captain 

Dickson. Aug. 4. The Hon. Grautley 
Berkeley and Dr. Wm. Maginn exchange 
three shots without effect. 

1838. April 27. Mr. Pigotis wounded by Mr. Carroll. 

June 16. M. Gerard de Meley wounds Lord 
Castlereagh. Aug. 22. Mr. Mirfln is shot 
by Mr. Eliot. 

1839. Jan. 13. Lord Londonderry and Mr. Grattan 

exchange shots without effect. Feb. 28. 
Lord Powerscourt and Mr. Roebuck meet 
without serious results. Dec. 10. Lords 
George Loftus and Harley exchange shots 
without effect. Dec. 20. Lord William 
Paget and Mr. Piske exchange shots. 

1840. May 17. Messrs. Wynn and Brown fight in 

a stage-coach, between Penn and Chicago, 
and both are killed. Sept. 12. Lord Car- 
digan wounds Captain Tuckett. He is 
brought to trial before the Hoiise of Lords, 
Feb. 16, 1841, and acquitted. 

1842. July 15. Thn Hon. Craven Berkeley and Mr. 

Boldero exchange shots without eft'ect. 

1843. Julyl. Colonel Fawcett is killed by Lieutenant 

Munro. 
1845. May 20. Mr. Seton is killed by Lieutenant 
Hawkey. 



Dttppindale (Battle) . — The earl of War- 
wick, at the head of the German lanzknechts, 
defeated the Norfolk rebels, at this pla'ce, 
Aug. 27, 1549, when about 3,500 of the latter 
were eut down. 

Dtjke, the highest title of nobihty in 
England, is derived from the Latin dux, a 
leader. It is applied to the descendants of 
Edom, in Genesis xxxvi. 15 — 43 (b.c. 1575 — 
1533) , and was used as a title of honour by the 
Eoman governors of provinces under the 
later emperors. It was introduced into 
England by Edward III., who created his 
son, the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall, a.d. 
1337. The order had become extinct in 
1572, and was revived by James I. The 
first Irish duke was Eobert Vere, created 
duke of Dublin in 1385. The title was 
introduced into Scotland by Eobert III., 
who created his son David duke of Eothe- 
say in 1399. The title of arehdiike is said 
to have been created byEodolph I., emperor 
of Germany, in favour of his son Albert, in 
1284. The first grand-duke was Cosmo di 
Medici, of Florence, who received the title 
from Pope Pius V. in 1569. 

Duke or York's Island (South Pacific 



DUL 



DUN 



Ocean) . — TMs island was discovered by Com- 
modore Byron, June 24, 1765. 

Dttlwich College (Surrey) was founded 
by Edward Alleyn, the actor, and designed 
by Inigo Jones. The chapel was finished in 
1616, and the fotmdation opened Sept. 13, 
1619. Its original name was God's Gift 
CoUege, and its purpose the maintenance of 
a master, four fellows, six poor brethren, 
six sisters, twelve scholars, and thirty out- 
members. Alleyn was buried in the chapel 
ISTov. 27, 1626. "^The east wing was finished 
in 1740. The girls' school was founded by 
James AUen, Aug. 31, 1741, and the picture- 
gallery was completed in 1813. The paintings 
were bequeathed by Sir Francis Bourgeois 
in 1811, and the gallery was opened to the 
public in 1817. Owing to the increased 
value of land, the wealth of the college accu- 
mulated so fast, that provisions were made 
for extending its benefactions by 20 & 21 Vict. 
c. 84 (Aug. 25, 1857). 

DuMBAETOX (Scotland). — The castle of 
Dumbarton, which is of very ancient date 
and resisted a siege by Agricola, was taken 
by Eadbert, king of Northumbria, a.d. 756. 
In 1221 the town was erected into a burgh 
by Alexander II., and in 1456 the countess 
of Lennox founded a coUegiate church, of 
which nothing but the ruins now remain. 
In 1563, Mary, queen of Scots, visited the 
castle, and in "May, 1571, it was taken, under 
circumstances of remarkable daring, by Cap- 
tain Crawford. Queen Victoria inspected this 
fortress Aug. 17, 1847. 

DuMBLANE, orDu>'BLAirE (Scotlaud), was 
erected into a bishopric about the year 1160. 
A battle (see Sheriff-muik) was fought near 
this town between the forces of the Pretender, 
under the earl of Mar, and those of George I., 
under the duke of Argyle, on Sunday, Nov. 13, 
1715 (O.S.), in which both parties claimed the 
victory. 

DujfBAK (Scotland) was conferred upon 
the earl of jSTorthumberland in 1072 by Mal- 
colm Caenmore. In 1296, John Warren, 
earl of Surrey, defeated John Baliol, in a 
great battle fought here, which for the time 
decided the fate of Scotland as a conquest of 
Edward I. In 1567 its castle was demolished 
by order of parliament. CromweU gained a 
great victory over the Scottish army at this 
place, Sept. 3, 1650, killing 4,000, and taking 
10,000 prisoners. 

Dttndalk (Ireland), seized by Edward 
Bruce in 1315, was the scene of his corona- 
tion as king of Ireland in 1317, and of his 
death in a battle fought vrith Lord Berming- 
bam, Oct. 5, 1318. In 1641 it was taken by 
Sir Phelim O'NeDl, who destroyed its castle 
and fortifications, and in 1642 it was stormed 
by Lord Moore and Sir Henry Tichbourne. 
It surrendered to Cromwell in 1649, and was 
occupied by the forces of William III., 
June 27, 1690. 

Dundee (Scotland). — Malcolm III., who 
reigned a.d . 1056 — 1093, built a palace here, in 
which he sometimes resided. It was made a 
royal burgh in 1210, and placed under the 
government of a constable in 129S. Edward 



Bruce took it in 1313. In 1544 the plague 
committed terrible ravages among its popu- 
I lation, and in 1641 Charles I. conferred upon 
1 it the present charter. In 1645 it was be- 
I sieged and taken by the earl of Montrose, 
I and in 1651 was sacked by Monk, who mas- 
j sacred about 1,300 of its inhabitants. Queen 
1 Victoria landed at Dundee in September, 
j 1844, in commemoration of which a magnifi- 
cent triumphal arch has been erected. Nine- 
I teen persons were killed by a boUer explosion 
at one of the linen-factories here, April 15, 
1859. 

Dttnes, (Battle,) was fought near Dunkirk 
during the siege of that town by the com- 
bined armies of France and England, June 4 
(14 N.S.), 1658. The Spaniards, who had 
advanced to the relief of Dunkirk, were 
totally defeated by the allied troops led by 
Turenne. 

DuNGAN-HiLL, (Battle,) fought at this 
place, in Ireland, between the Parliamentary 
army, under Colonel Michael Jones, and the 
Irish, under General Preston, Aug. 8, 1647. 
The numbers were nearly equal, and Jones 
gained a complete victory. 

DuNGENEss (Kent). — A French fleet of 
fourteen ships of the line anchored off this 
point Jan. 22, 1744, but sailed away on the 
approach of the English squadron com- 
manded by Sir John Norris, and was subse- 
quently scattered by a storm. Towards the 
end of the last century a lighthouse was 
erected on this cape, after the model of the 
Eddystone, and in 1807 a series of marteUo 
towers was commenced, to defend the coast 
between Dungeness and Folkestone. 

DuA'KELD (Scotland). — The Culdees had 

a monastery at this place, in Perthshire, as 

early as a.d. 729, which was erected into a 

I cathedral by David I. in 1127. Kenneth I. 

removed the remains of St. Columba to 

Dunkeld in 850. The present cathedral was 

j begun in 1330, and the charterhouse erected 

by Bishop Lauder in 1469. James VI. 

founded the grammar-school in 1567, and 

i the bridge over the Tay was built in 1809. 

! DuNKEES, or Gehman Baptists. — This 

reUgious sect was founded in Germany by 

Alexander Mack about 1708. In 1723 they 

were driven by persecution to America, 

where they established themselves at Ger- 

mantown, and founded a church. Among 

I their doctrines may be mentioned vege- 

1 tarianism, the necessity for good works, 

and the separation of the sexes. The origin 

of the name Dunkers is unknown. 

DxjifKiKK (France) was founded by 
Baldwin III., count of Flanders, about a.d. 
960. It afterwards passed into the possession 
of the counts of Hainault, who sold it to its 
former lords in 1280. In 1388 it was burnt 
by the English, and in 1435 was transferred 
to the house of Luxemburg, whose right 
passed by marriage to the Bourbons in 1487. 
Early in the 16th century it was seized by 
j the Spaniards, who retained it till July 1558, 
when it was re-taken by the French. The 
! duke of Parma re-annexed it to the Spanish 
j empire, in 1585. In 1646 it was taken by the 



freat Conde, and in 1652 was again seized 
y the Spaniards. Marshal Turenne retook 
it June 25, 1658, after the battle of Dunes 
(q.t^.), fought June 4, and gave it to the 
Enghsh, who had assisted him in its capture. 
Charles II. sold it to France for £500,000, 
Oct. 17, 1662. Louis XIV. increased its 
fortifications, which were sufficiently strong 
to resist a bombardment by the united fleets 
of Great Britain and Holland, July 26, 1694. 
By the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, it 
was agreed that all the military defences 
should be destroyed ; but these conditions 
were evaded, and the restriction was con- 
sequently renewed by the treaty of Paris, 
Feb. 10, 1763. The enforcement of the 
order was, however, found impracticable. It 
was repealed by the treaty of Versailles, 
Sept. 3, 1783, and the works have since been 
largely increased. The duke of York was 
defeated in an attempt to take Dunkirk, 
Sept. 7, 1793. The fortifications were 
greatly enlarged, and the port enfranchised 
in 1816. 

DuNMOW (Essex). — The priory was 
founded a.d. 1104, by Juga Baynard. 
The manor is held by a curious tenure, 
which has given the town notoriety beyond 
its real importance. The prior and canons 
were obliged to give a flitch of bacon to any 
couple who could swear, a year and a day 
after their wedding, that they had never 
quarrelled, or wished themselves unmarried 
again. It is unknown who originated this 
tenure, but probably it was one of the Fitz- 
Walters, the first of whom died in 1198. The 
flitch was claimed and awarded in 1445, 
1467, 1510, 1701, 1751, on Thursday, July 19, 
1855, and in 1860. In 1855 the ceremony 
was performed at G-reatDunmowTown Hall, 
as the lord of the manor refused to revive the 
custom. The happy candidates were Mr. 
and Mrs. Barlow, and the Chevaher de 
Chatelain and his lady. A similar custom 
prevailed in the manor of Wichnor, Staflbrd, 
where corn was given in addition to the flitch 
of bacon. 

DuNSiNAif E ( Battle) . — The army of the 
usurper Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane, 
in Perthshire, July 27, 1054, by Malcolm, the 
eldest son of the murdered Duncan, assisted 
})y an English force under Siward, earl of 
Northumberland. Macbeth escaped to Lan- 
phanauan, where he was slain in 1056. 

Dunstable (Bedfordshire) was founded 
by Henry I., and granted to a priory of 
Black canons, a.d. 1131. The corpse of 
Queen Eleanor rested here on its way 
from Lincolnshire to London in 1290, in con- 
sequence of which a cross was erected, which 
was pulled down during the Commonwealth. 
Cranmer opened a court here to consider 
the vahdity of Henry the Eighth's marriage 
with Catherine, May 10, 1533, and pro- 
nounced a divorce between them. May 23. 
The free school was founded in 1727. A 
large quantity of Roman copper coins of 
the reigns of Antoninus and Constantine 
was discovered here in 1770. 
DupPELif (Battle). — The Prussians and 



DUE 

Hanoverians endeavoured to drive the 
Danes from their position at Duppeln, 
June 5, 1848. The latter were compelled 
to retire, but the engagement was renewed 
the following day, when the Danes re-occu- 
pied the position they had abandoned the 
day before. 

DuppLiN-MooR (Battle). — The English 
forces under Edward Baliol defeated the 
Scotc hunder the earl of Mar, at this moor, 
in Perthshire, Aug. 11, 1332. The loss of 
the Scotch amounted to 13,000 men, while 
the Enghsh only lost two knights, thirty- 
three squires, with a few common soldiers. 

DuRANGO, or Gttadiana (Mexico). — This 
city was founded by Velasco in 1559, and 
erected into a bishop's see in 1620. 

Dukazzo, Dtkkachium, or Epibamnus 
(Albania). — This city, when founded by the 
Corcyrseans, B.C. 627, was called Epidamnus. 
It was seized by Glaucus, king of lUyria, 
B.C. 312. It was taken by the Iformans, 
under Eobert Guiscard, Feb. 8, 1082 ; and in 
1216 withstood a siege by the Venetians, 
who efiected its capture in 1386. The sultan, 
Bajazet II., took it in 1500, and annexed it 
to the Turkish empire, of which it still forms 
a part. 

DttEEir (Prussia). — Several cohorts of the 
Ubii were defeated at this place, the ancient 
Marcodurum, by the Batavian chief Civilis, 
A.D. 70 ; and Charlemagne held diets here in 
775 and 779, previous to his conflict with the 
Saxons. In 1543 it was besieged and taken 
by Charles V., and in 1642 was restored to 
Prussia by Duke Frederick Wfiham, who 
again surrendered it to the Imperialists the 
same year. The French seized it in 1794, 
and erected it into the capital of the depart- 
ment of Eoer ; but it was finally restored to 
Prussia in 1814. ' 

DuEHAM was founded by the monks of 
Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, a.d. 995. In 
1040, Duncan, king of Scotland, made an 
inefiectual attempt to capture it ; and in 
1069 the inhabitants were so oppressed by 
Eobert Comyn, earl of Northumberland and 
governor of the city, that they rose in 
rebellion and slew him, vrith 700 of his fol- 
lowers, Jan. 28. It was to revenge this atro- 
city that William I. devastated the northern 
counties in the latter part of the same year. 
The castle was founded in 1072, and a riot 
against the authority of Bishop Walcher 
terminated in his murder by the infuriated 
inhabitants. May 14, 1080. In 1323 the 
walls were restored by Bishop Beaumont, 
and in 1424 the city was the scene of the 
marriage of James I., of Scotland, with 
Lady Jane Seymour. The plague raged 
here with great fury in 1416, 1589, and 1597. 
In 1633 it was the residence of Charles I., 
and in 1640 was taken by the Scotch. It 
sent two members to the House of Commons 
in 1675. The infirmary was founded in 1791, 
and the county gaol and court-house erected 
in 1809. The palatine jurisdiction of the 
county was transferred from the see (q. v.) 
to the crown, by 6 Will. IV. c. 19 (June 21, 
1836). 



DUE 

DuEHAM (See of). — In 634, Aidan came 
from Scotland to Northumberland, at the 
solicitation of EJng Oswald, who estal.ilished 
him as bishop in Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, 
in 635. In 664 the see was merged in the 
diocese of York, but in 678 was again 
separated. In 875 the see was removed to 
Chester-le-Street, and in 995 was transferred 
to Durham. The see was suppressed by 
7 Edw. VI. c. 17 (1553). It provided that two 
sees were to be established at Durham and 
^Newcastle, and all the temporalities were 
granted to the duke of Northumberland. 
The deanery and twelve prebends were es- 
tabhshed by charter, dated May 12, 1541, 
which was confirmed by 1 Mary, s. 3, c. 3 
(1553). 

' Durham Lettee. — The pope having pub- 
lished a buU estabhshing a Eoman CathoUc 
hierarchy in England and Wales, Sept. 30, 
1850, Lord John EusseU, who was then 
premier, addressed a letter on the subject to 
the bishop of Durham. In this letter, which 
bore date Nov. 4, he not only expressed 
the strongest indignation at the attempted 
aggression, but condemned as "unworthy 
sons of the Church of England," aU clergy- 
men who approved of "the honour paid to 
saints, the claim of infaUibUity for the Church, 
the superstitious use of the sign of the cross, 
the muttering of the Liturgy so as to dis- 
guise the language in which it is written, 
the recommendation of auricular confession, 
and the administration of penance and abso- 
lution." 

DuEHAM or Neville's Ceoss (Battle). — 
Plulippa, queen of Edward III., totally 
defeated the Scottish army under David II., 
and took the king prisoner, at Neville's Cross, 
near Durham, Oct, 17, 1346. The loss of 
the Scotch in this battle was estimated at 
15,000. 

Dueham Univeesitt. — Oliver Cromwell 
signed a writ of privy seal for estabhsliing a 
university at Durham, May 15, 1657, which 
was suppressed at the Eestoration. The 
present institution was founded, with the 
consent of the bishop, by an act of chapter, 
Sept. 28, 1831, and parUament sanctioned 
the proposal by a private act (2 & 3 WiU. IV. 
e. 19) , which received the royal assent 
July 4, 1832. The university was opened 
Oct. 28, 1833, and its regulations were ap- 
proved by convocation, March 4, 1836. It 
was incorporated by royal charter, June 1, 
1837, and the first degrees were conferred 
June 8. Durham Castle was devoted to the 
accommodation of the students by an order 
in council, dated Aug. 8, 1837. Bishop 
Hatfield's HaU was opened in 1846, and 
enlarged in 1849, and bishop Cosin's HaU 
was opened in 1857. Durham University 
held the same position as the other univer- 
sities in the Medical Act (21 & 22 Vict. c. 90 
Aug. 2, 1858), and like them it elects a 
member of the General Council of Medical 
Education and Eegistration. 

DtJEEEKSTEiif (Battle). — A division of the 
French army under Marshal Mortier was 
attacked by the Eussians under Doctoroff, 



DWA 

while marching through a defile near this 
town of Lower Austria, Nov. 11, 1805. The 
Ereneh, though surroimded on all sides, 
fought with determined valour, and were 
at length rescued by the division of Du- 
pont, after losing 3,000 men and three stand- 
ards. 

DtJssELDOEE (Prussia). — Adolphus V., 
duke of Berg, raised this place from a village 
into a mumcipal town, a.d. 1288. The 
town-haU was built in 1567, and the bridge 
over the Ehrne in 1680. Carlstadt, the hand- 
somest part of the city, was founded by the 
elector, Charles Theodore, in 1786. In 1794, 
Diisseldorf was bombarded by the Ereneh, 
and, in 1802, the fortifications were de- 
stroyed by one of the articles of the treaty 
of LuneviUe. In 1806 the grand-duke of 
Berg fixed his residence here, and made it 
the seat of government, and in 1815 it was 
ceded to Prussia, together vrith the rest of 
the duchy. In 1829 it was made a free port. 
A famous picture-gallery, founded here in 
1710, by the elector John William, was re- 
moved to Munich in 1805, but a native school 
of painting, established by Cornehus in 1828, 
still sustains the artistic reputation of the 
town. 

Dutch Ameeica. — The possessions of the 
Dutch in America, consisting of Surinam, or 
Dutch Guiana, the islands of Cura9oa, St. 
Eustatius, and St. Martin, are noticed imder 
their respective designations. 

DuTLiN&EN (battle). — The Austrian army, 
under Generals Von Werth, Mercy, and 
Hatzfeld, defeated the French troops at this 
place in 1643. The vanquished lost many 
men in the action, and all their general 
officers were made prisoners. 

DuuMViEi, two patricians, first appointed 
in Eome by Tarquiniug Superbus, to take 
charge of the Sibylline books and consult 
them in times of pubhc difficulty, B.C. 520. 
They held their office for hfe, and were ex- 
empted from military service. The title was 
given to various authorities at Eome in cases 
where the functions of the office were vested 
in two persons. 

Dwaefs. — The custom of employing dwarfs 
to contribute to the amusement of the great 
is of high antiquity in the East, where the art 
of retarding human growth was successfully 
practised. This art passed into Greece B.C. 
324, and from thence to Eome about a.d. 50. 
Domitian exhibited gladiatorial contests be- 
tween dwarfs and beautiful women in 81, 
and the Eoman ladies employed them as 
domestic servants. The passion for dwarfs 
reached its height in Europe during the 
reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. of France 
(1515—1559). The last prince who kept 
them for his a^musement was Stanislaus, 
dydsie of Lorraine, whose favourite dwarf 
died in 1764. The following are some of the 
most famous dwarfs : — 

PMletus of Cos, bom B.C. 330, died B.C. 285. He 
■was a poet and philosopher, and was so shoi-t 
or thin that he was jocularly sain to caiTy lead 
in the soles of his shoes, lest he should be 
blown away. 



DYE 

Alyi'ius. ^ philosopher of Alexandria, who flou- 
rished ill the Sth century. 

Jean d'Estrix, bona in 1557, was scarcely a yard 
high at the age of 35. 

Jeffrey Hudson, born in 1619, was 18 inches high at 
7 years old, after which he did not grow till he 
was 30, when he attained the height of 3 feet 
9 inches. In 1644 he attended Quoen Henrietta 
Maria to France ; and in 1682 was seized on 
suspicion of being Implicated in the popish 
plot, and imprisoned in the Q-atehouse, West- 
minster, where he died, aged 63. 

John Coan, born in 1728, when 22 yeai's old weighed 
34 lb., including his clothes, and measured 
38 inches when in his hat, wig, and shoes. 

Hopkin Hopkin, born in 1736, was only 13 lb. in 
weight, and 2 feet 7 inches in height, at the 
age of 15 years, when he exhibited all the 
infirmities of advanced old age. 

Borowlawski, a Polish gentleman, born in 1739, 
attained the height of 39 inches, and died, in 
England, Sept. 7, 1837. He was remarkable for 
the acuteness of his intellectual faculties, and 
had a sister so much shoi-ter than himself, that 
she could stand under his arm. 

Nicolas Ferry, or B6b6, was born in 1741, and lived 
at the court of Stanislaus, king of Poland, 
who was much attached to him. At the age 
of 15 he displayed symptoms of old age, and 
he was only 22 when he died, at which time 
he measured 33 inches. 

Anne Theresa Souvray, bom in 1746, was only 
33 inches high at the age of 73 years, when she 
was remarkable for her gaiety and vigour. 

General Tom Thumb was brought to England in 
1846, where he appeared at the Lyceum Theatre, 
March 16. 

Dyeing. — TMs art, which, originated in 
Asia with the Phoenicians, was practised by 
the Egyptians at a very early date, and ap- 
pears to have been introduced into Canaan 
before b.c. 1728 (Gen. xxxvii. 3). The 
Tyrian purple was known as early as B.C. 
1500, and in Exodus xxxv. 23 (b.c. 1491), 
mention is made of blue, purple, scarlet, and 
of red skins of rams. On the decline of the 
Eoman empire, and the consequent decay of 
the arts in Europe, dyeing was neglected ; 
but in the 8th century some advance was 
made. In 1353 scarlet and a few other 
colours were dyed in England, and in 1429 
the first book on the subject appeared in 
Yenice. Before 1643 English cloth was 
exported to Holland to be dyed, but in that 
year the whole process was performed in 
England. The art of dyeing cotton scarlet 
or crimson was discovered in 1779. Turkey 
red was introduced in 1785. The principal 
statute relating to the business of the dyer 
is 23 Geo. III. c. 15, passed in 1783, and 
entitled "The Act for Preventing Frauds 
and Abuses in the Dyeing Trade." A great 
number of new colouring materials have 
been discovered and rendered available for 
dyeing purposes since 1850. 

Dyeeachium. (See Dueazzo.) 



Eagle. — Xenophon states 'that the eagle 
was first used as a military ensign by the 
Persians. It was adopted as the sole 
standard of the Eoman legions in the second 
year of the consulate of Marius, B.C. 104. 
Gibbon (ch. i,) remarks — "The golden 



EAR 

eagle, which ghttered in the front of the 
legion, was the object of the fondest devotion 
of the Eoman troops." Though the double- 
headed eagle is said to have been introduced 
by Constantine I. (a.d. 306—337), its origin 
may with greater justice be attributed to Char- 
lemagne, who, A,D. 802, added the second 
head to the eagle, to denote that the empires 
of Eome and Germany were united under 
him. The Eoman eagle was adopted by 
Napoleon I . , and confirmed by Napoleon III . , 
as the standard of imperial France : Austria, 
Eussia, and Prussia use the double-headed 
eagle as their national ensign. Prescott 
states, on the authority of the Spanish 
annahsts, that a golden eagle with outspread 
wings, in the fashion of a Eoman signum, 
richly ornamented with emeralds and silver- 
work, was the great standard of the republic 
of Tlascala. 

Eagle. — A base coin of this denomination 
was current in Ireland about the year 1272, 
and was declared illegal by 27 Edw. I. stat. 
De falsa Monetd (1299). The American 
eagle of ten dollars, together with the half 
and quarter eagles, were first coined by 
order of an act of congress passed April 
2, 1792. The value of the American eagle is 
£2. Is. of Enghsh money. 

Eagle (Orders of the). — The order of the 
White Eagle of Eussia was instituted by 
George OssOinsky, great chancellor of Po- 
land, and confirmed by Pope Urban VIII. in 
1634. It was, however, soon suppressed, 
and its actual foundation only dates from 
1713, when it was reconstituted by Au- 
gustus II., king of Poland. In 1831 this 
order was united with those of Eussia. The 
order of the Black Eagle was founded by 
Frederick I., of Prussia, on his coronation 
day, Jan. 17, 1701. The Golden Eagle was 
instituted at Wiirtemberg in 1702, and re- 
constituted in 1807. The order of the Eed 
Eagle, or of Sincerity, was founded in 
Prussia by George William, hereditary 
prince of Anspach and Bayreuth, in 1705 ; 
and reorganized July 13, 1734. In 1791 
Frederick WiUiam II. erected this into the 
second Prussian order, and in 1810 it was 
again reconstituted. 

Eael. — Selden believes that this title, 
which originally signified a man of birth, 
was synonymous with the Saxon ethehng, and 
that it was apphed to ealdormen about a.d. 
1020. In the reign of Edward the Confessor 
the whole kingdom was divided among five 
earls. The first English earl created after 
the Conquest was William Fitz-Osbern, made 
earl of Hereford in 1066. Sir John de 
Courcy, made earl of Ulster in 1181, is the 
first Irish earl. Previous to the creation of 
dukes in 1335, earls were the highest nobility 
in England : they now rank third, after mar- 
quisses. Originally earls had the third part 
of the profits arising from the pleas of the 
country. Their privileges, however, were 
much diminished by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 
(1535). The title of countess was first borne 
by the wives of earls in the 9th century. 
Eael Maeischal oe Scotland. — Thisoffi- 
301 



EAE 

cer, whose duty was to command tlie Scottish 
cavalry, was always chosen from the Keith 
family, the founder of which obtained it at 
the battle of Barry, fought a.d. 1010, 
against the Danes. At first, the title was 
great marischal; James II. made it earl 
marischal before July 4, 1451. In 1593 the 
holder of the title founded the college at 
Aberdeen, which is called after him the 
Marischal College. The office became ex- 
tinct in 1716, owing to George Keith's 
participation in the rebellion of the earl of 

Eakl Marshal of England. — This, the 
eighth officer of state, is the only nobleman 
who bears the title of earl by virtue of his 
office. The title is of great antiquity. Eoger 
de Montgomery, marshal of the Norman army 
at the Conquest, is said to have been the first 
marshal of England. The first on record 
was in 1135. King Stephen conferred the 
office upon Gilbert de Clare, afterwards earl 
of Pembroke, in 1139. Originally the holders 
of it were merely styled lord marshals. The 
title of earl marshal was conferred upon Tho- 
mas, earl of N^ottingham, by special charter 
of Eichard II. signed Jan. 12, 1386. The 
duties of the office were allowed to be dis- 
charged by deputy by a grant of Charles II., 
signed Oct. 19, 1672. (See Chivalkt, Court 
of) 

Eae-eings are first mentioned in 
Gen. xiiv. 23 (b.c. 1857), when Jacob is 
said to have buried the idols of his house- 
hold, with the " ear-rings which were in their 
ears." They were worn by the ladies of 
Greece and Eome, and by males in Lydia. 
The Parisian ladies adopted them in the 13th 
century, but their use was not general till 
the 15th and 16th centuries ; when, Stubbes 
says, the ladies " are not ashamed to make 
holes in their ears, whereat they haug rings, 
and other jewels of gold and precious stones." 
English gentlemen also wore them in the 
reigns of Elizabeth and James I. 

Earthenware.— The art of the potter 
is probably one of the most ancient in exist- 
ence. It was introduced into Greece from 
Egypt, B.C. 1490, and was encouraged at 
Eome by Ifuma Pompilius, about B.C. 700. 
The funereal earthenware of the Greeks 
was manufactured until about a.d. 350. 
During the dark ages that succeeded the 
dechne of the Western empire, none but 
the coarsest of pottery was manufactured ; but 
a better kind was introduced into Spain by 
the Moors a.d. 711, and was thence taken to 
Italy by the Pisans in 1115. In the 13th 
century the ItaUans made earthenware 
overlaid with an opaque coloured glaze, 
which was considerably improved after 1300. 
Earthenware was manufactured at Beauvais, 
in France, in the 12th century, and French 
Palissy ware was invented by Bernard 
Palissy about 1556. The Germans invented 
a glaze for earthenware in 1278, and exported 
stoneware in the 16th century. The earliest 
specimens of native British ware consist 
of earthenware tiles of the 13th century. 
Pitchers and jugs were soon afterwards 



EAE 

introduced. Wedgwood's most important 
discoveries were made from 1760 to 1762. 
A duty of lOd. per lb., levied on all 
imported earthenware, by the "Additional 
Book of Bates " attached to 11 Geo. I. c. 7 
(1724), was repealed by 15 Geo. III. c. 37 
(1775). A duty of 50 per cent, on the value 
of imported earthenware was levied by 49 
Geo. III. c. 98 (June 10, 1809). AH duties 
on imported earthenware were abolished 
by the Customs Amendment Act, 23 Vict, 
c. 22, s. 5 (May 15, 1S60). 

Earthquake. — No satisfactory account 
of the causes which produce this phenomenon 
has yet been given to the world. Humboldt 
remarks: "The phenomena of volcanoes, 
and those of earthquakes, have been con- 
sidered of late as the effects of voltaic elec- 
tricity, developed by a particular disposition 
of heterogeneous strata. It cannot be denied, 
that often, when violent shocks succeed 
each other within the space of a few hours, 
the electricity of the air sensibly increases 
at the instant the ground is most agitated ; 
but to explain this ]3heuomenon, it is un- 
necessary to recur to an hypothesis, which 
is in direct contradiction to everything 
hitherto observed respecting the structure 
of our planet, and the disposition of its 
strata." 



An earthquake, accompanied by thunder and 
lightning, occurred on Mount Sinai, on the 
01 casion of the delivery of the law. (Exod. 
xix. 18). 

One in Central Italy, which swalloweil up a 
city, and produced Lake Ciminus in its 
place. 

In China. 

In Greece, especially in Euboea, which is con- 
verted into an island by an inundation of 
the sea. 

In the Peloponnesus. Helice is overwhelmed 
by the sea. 

A chasm opens in the Roman forum, into 
which Quintus Curtius voluntarily leaps. 
It afterwards forms a lake. 

A lake 72^ miles long by 12^ wide, formed in 
one night in the Japanese island Niphon. 

(about). The city Lysiniachia is destroyed. 

The Colossus of Rhodes overthrown. Eusebius 
places this catastrophe B.C. 105. 

In Palestine. 30,000 pei-sons perished. 



Thirteen cities of Asia Minor are overthrown. 
In Palestine and Bitbyiiia, on the occasion of 

the Crucifixion, the city of Nicaea was 

destroyed. 
In Misenum and its neighbourhood ; followed 

next day by the destruction of Hercula- 

neum auH Pompeii. 
Antioch destroyed ; and a violent earthquake 

felt in China. 
Severe shocks are felt in Nicopolis, Neocse- 

sareia, Hierapolis, Laodiceia, Nicomedia, 

and Syracuse. 
An earthijuake in Rome, Libya, and Asia 

Minor, is attended by an eclipse and ter- 
rible inundation.s of the sea. 
Ang 24. One in Asia Minor, Bithynia, and 

Macedonia, the effects of which are expe- 
rienced by 150 cities. 
Nov. or Dec. Mcomedia, in Bithynia, is de 

stroyed. 
July 21. An earthquake felt in the Roman 

world. 
One is felt throughout the civilized world. 



EAE 



EAR 



494. Laodiceia, Hierapolis, aiid Tripoli, are de- 
stroyed. 
526. Nov. 29. Autioch again reduced to ruius. 
543. Sejit. 6. One is felt throughout the then 

known world. 
553 or 555. Aug. 15. An earthquake at Constanti- 
nople and many other places ; shocks being 

felt even in Egypt. The city of Berytus 

is demolished. 
557. Oct. 6 and Dec. 14. At Constantinople, where 

thousrtuds of the population perish. 
684, More than 5j0,000 acres of land in the 

Japanese island Sikokf are swallowed up 

by the sea. 
742. One of great violence in Egypt and Arabia. 

Its convulsions were observed at 600 

places. 
778. At Trevisa, in Italy, where 48 persons lost 

their lives. 
794. One at Alexandria, which overthrows the 

Pharos. 
801. April. In France, Gennauy, and Italy. 
859. Upwards of 1,500 houses are overturned at 

Antioch. Laodiceia and other towns of 

Syria also suffer considerable injury. 
893. An earthquake in India destroys 180,000 

lives. 
986. Oct. One at Constantinople. It is also felt 

throughout Greece. 
1007. Deinar, in Irak, is overtui-ned, and 10,000 

perfons are buried in the ruins. 
3029. Half of Damascus is destroyed. 
1040. Tabriz, in Persia, is reduced to ruins, and 

50,000 of the inhabitants are destroyed. 
1048. May 1. One is felt at Worcester, Derby, and 

other parts of England. 
1089. Aug. 11. An earthquake is felt throughout 

England. 
1115. Dec. Antioch, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and other 

towns in Syria, are greatly injured. 
1139. Gansana, in Persia, is destroyed, and 100,000 

persons are buried in its ruins. 
1142. Dec. One is felt at Lincoln. 
1158. Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, Aleppo, and 

01 her Syrian towns, are reduced to ruins, 

and 20,000 lives lost. 
1169. Feb. 4. Catania, and other towns of Sicily 

and Calabria, are ruined, and 15,000 per- 
sons kiUed. 
1186. Sept. Throughout Europe, but especially in 

England, Calabria, and Sicily. 
1218. In Franche ComtS a mountain opens, and 

engulfs 5,000 men. 
1227. In France, towards the mouth of the Rhone ; 

5,000 persons perish from the fall of rocks 

from the mountains. 
1268. Sixty thousand persons are killed by an earth- 
quake in Cilicia 
1274. Dec 25. An earthquake is felt thi-oughout 

England. 
1318. Nov. 14. In England. The most violent 

recorded in that country. 
1353. Jan. 1. One occurs at Borgd-San-Sepolcro and 

Modena, where 2,000 people perish. 
1456. Dec. 5. Throughout Naples, where many 

towns are injured, and 60,000 lives 

lost. 
1491. Oct. In the Archipelago. 5,000 persons 

perish in Cos. 
1509. Sept. 14. At Constantinople 1,700 houses are 

overthrown, and some thousands of lives 

lost. 
1531. Jan. 26. One in Spain, Portugal, &c. In Lisbon 

1,500 huuses and all the churches were 

thrown down, and many persons buried in 

the ruins. 
1580. April 6. In France, Belgium, and especially 

England. It was most violent at London 

and Dover. The bells at Westminster and 

other places were iriade to sound by the 

violence of the shock. 
1596. JxUy 22. In Japan, where many cities were 

reduced to ruins. 
1624 or 1628. An island of more than a league and 

a half long is raised near St. Michael, in 

the Azores. 



1626. July 30. Thirty towns and villages are de- 
stroyed -in the provinces of Capitaiiata and 
La Puglia. Naples also suffers ; and 17,000 
persons are killed. 

1638. March 27. One hundred and eighty towns and 
villages of Calabria and Sicily are reduced 
to ruins. 

1667. Schamaki is reduced to ruins, and 80,000 per- 
sons are buried. 

1690. Oct. 17. At Dublin and Kilkenny in Ireland. 

1692. June 7. Jamaica. At Port Koyal, three- 

fourths of the houses are overwhelmed 
by the sea, and 3,000 of the inhabitants 
lose their lives. 

1693. In Sicily and Calabria, where 49 towns, many 

villages, and 972 churches or monasteries 

are reduced to i-uia.s, and 93,000 lives 

lost. 
1703. Feb. 2. Aquileia is overthrown, and 5,000 

lives lost. Jeddo, in Japan, is reduced to 

ruins, and 200,000 of the inhabitants are 

buried. 
1708. Nov. 3. In Abruzzo, where 15,000 persons 

perish. 
1716. May and June. A violent earthquake destroys 

20,000 lives at Algiers. 

1726. Sept. 1. A terrible earthquake at Palermo. 

Four churches, ten palaces, and 1,600 
houses, are overthi'owu, and from 3,000 to 
6,000 Uves lost. 

1727. Tabriz, in Persia, is ruined, and 77,000 per- 

sons are overwhelmed. 

1731. Nov. 30. In China. The first shock buries 

100,000 persons in Pekin alone. 

1732. Nov 29. Violent shocks in the kingdom of 

Naples. 1,940 persons are killed, and 1,455 
wounded. 

1746. Oct. 28. In Peru, where Callao, Cavallos, 
and other towns, are overwhelmed by the 
sea. 

1750. Feb. 19. In London, and the country for seven 
mUes round. Several earthquakes occur 
at London this year. June 7. Two thousand 
persons perish in the island of Cerigo. 

1752. July 29. A very violent one at Hadrianople 
and Constaiitiuople, where mosques and 
houses sustain considerable injury. 

1754. Grand Cairo is destroyed, and 40,000 lives 

are lost. 

1755. April 28. Quito is overthrown. June 7. Kas- 

chan,innorthern Persia, is reduced to ruins, 
and 40,000 persons killed. Nov. 1. The 
great earthquake of Lisbon, which was 
felt from Iceland on the north to Morocco 
on the south, and from Bohemia on the 
east to the West-India islands on the west. 
It took place at 9-40 a.m., and lasted several 
minutes, there being three principal shocks. 
In Lisbon 12,000 houses were overturned. 
The loss of life is variously estimated at 
from 20,000 to 50,000 persons. Faro, 
Setubal, and Cascaez, also sustained much 
inj Liry. In Spain, the towns which suffered 
most were Seville, Sr,. Lucar, Xeres, Couil, 
and Cadiz. In Morocco, 10 00i> people were 
swallowed up. Nov. 19. Mequinez, in 
Morocco, is completely ruined, and 25,000 
Arabs are lost. 

1759. Oct. 30. In Syria, where 20,000 persons perish 
in the valley of Baalbec alone. 

1763. July 29. At Comorn, in Hungary, 1,500 houses 
are overturned. 

1767. Aug. Onethousaud six hundred persons perish 
at Mirtinico. 

1773. June 7. The city of St. Jago, in Guatemala, 
is buried. 5,000 or 8,000 families perish in 
the ruins. 

1778. July 3. A very violent earthquake nearly 
destroys Smyrna. 

1780. Feb. Tabriz, in Persia, sustains severe 
injuries. 

1783. Feb. 5. Awful devastation in Calabria and 

Sicily, attended with great, loss of life. 

1784. July 23. The city of Arsingham, in the pa- 

Bhalic of Erzeroum, is overthrown, and 
upwards of 5,000 lives lost. 

303 



EAR 



1788. Aug. 12. At St. Lucia, in the West Indies, 

where 900 persons perish. 

1789. Sept. 30. In Tuscany. Houses, men, and 

cattle are engulfed at Borgo-San-Sepolcro. 

1793. Aprill. In Japan, near the volcano JUigigama, 

which throws forth torrents of water, de- 
stroying 53.000 persons. 

1794. June 12. Throughout Campania, but espe- 

cially in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius, 
which bursts forth into active eruption, 
and overwhelms the city of Terre del 
Grecco, June 17. 

1796. Feb. 26. In Asia Minor, where 1,500 persons 

perish. 

1797. Feb. 4. Quito, in Peru, is overthrown, burying 

40,000 persons in its ruins. Dec. 14. Cumana 
is destroyed. 

1800. Sept. 26. One occurs at Constantinople. 

1802. Oct. 23. A very widely- extended earthquake 
is felt at Cronstadt, St. Petersburg, Bucha- 
rest, Constantinople, &c. The shocks are 
most violent in the Danubian princi- 
palities. 

1804. Jan. At Rotterdam, Haarlem, and other 

Dutch towns. 

1805. Friday, July 26. A most destructive earth- 

quake throughout Calabria, La Puglia, and 
the Ten-a-di-La.voro. Six towns and villages 
destroyed and 20,000 persons killed. 

1808. April 2. Very violent shocks in Piedmont 
and the valley of the Rhone. 

1810. Aug. 11. The village of Las Casas, in the 
island of St. Michael, one of the Azores, 
disappears, and is supplied by a lake of 
boiling sulphm-ous water. 

1812. March 26. Caraccas is totally destroyed by an 
earthquake. 

1817. April. Chang-Ruh, in China, is overthrown, 

and 2,800 ijersons buried in its ruins. 

1818. March. PhUippolis, in Turkey, a city of 

30,000 inhabitants, is said to be entirely 
engulfed iu the earth. 

1819. June 16. Severe shocks are experienced in the 

north of Hindostan. Bhooj , the capital of 
Cutch, is reduced to ruins, with the loss of 
2,000 of its inhabitants. 

1822. May 7. The town of Carthago, in Costa- 
Rica. Central America, quite overthrown. 
Aug. 10, 13, and Sept. 5. Aleppo is destroyed, 
and other towns injured, with the loss of 
20,000 of their tuhabitiints. Nov. 19. The 
coast of Chili, for more than 100 miles, is 
permanently elevated by an earthquake. 

1825. March 2 Algiers and BUda (an adjacent 
town) are severely injured. 7,000 persons 
perish. 

1827. Sept. Fort Kolitaran, near Lahore, Hindos- 

tan, destroyed, with about, 1,000 persons. 
Nov. 16. Very destructive shocks in Co- 
lumbia, S. America. 

1828. March 30. In Pern. Scarcely a house in Lima 

and Callao escapes injury. 

1829. March 21. Avery disastrous earthquake occurs 

ui the province of Murcia, Spain, and is 
attended with fearful destruction of pro- 
perty and life. 

1830. May 26 and 27. The city of Canton sustains 

severe shocks, which destroy between 6,000 
and 7,000 of its population. 

1835. Feb. 20. Concepcion, Santiago, and other 
to-rnis of ChUi, are reduced to ruins. Oct. 12. 
Castiglioue, in Calabria, is utterly de- 
stroyed, and 100 of its Innabitants are 
buried. 

1837. Jan. 1. A terrible earthquake in Syria 
utterly rains the town of Saphit, and 
destroys 3,500 of its inhabitants, besides 
overwhelming entire villages. 

1839. Jan. 11. Violent shocks are felt in the island of 

Martinique. 

1840. Feb 14. A terribly destructive earthquake oc- 

curs in the island of Ternate. June 20 to 
July 28 (O.S.). The district of Mount Ararat, 
in Armenia, is devastated by violent earth- 
quakes, attended with great destruction of 
houses and life. 
304 



EAS 



1840. Oct. 30. Violent shocks in Zante, where one 
village is completely overturned. 

1842. May 7. Hayti and Cape Haytien are severely 

injured by two violent shocks. 

1843. Feb. 8. Very -violent shocks occur in the West 

Indies. In Antigua alone, property to the 
amount of £100,000 is destroyed. The 
loss of life is inconsiderable. 

1845. Feb. 8. Severe shocks in Java. April 7. The 

city of Mexico is much injured by some 
violent shocks. 

1846. March 14. The most violent earthquake ever 

recorded in Norway. At Naiinstad five 
houses are overturned. 

1847. Oct. 23. The cityofAtlixco,in Mexico, is com- 

pletely ruined, with the desti-uction of 
many of its inhabitants. 
1851. Feb. 28. The islands of Rhodes and Maori are 
shaken. At the latter place, the Baba- 
Dagh mountain falls from a height of 
2,050 feet, and the village of Ghedrack- 
Bugasi disappears, with all its inhabitants. 
AprU 2. Valparaiso and other towns in 
Chili experience severe shocks. Aug. 14. 
The towns of Melfi and Barile, in South 
Italy, are totally destroyed, with 1,000 of 
their inhabitants. 

1853. July 15. The city of Cumana, in Venezuela, 

is destroyed, with 800 of its inhabitants. 
Aug. 18, and throughout the year. Nu- 
merous shocks occur in Greece, but more 
especially at Thebes, which suffers almost 
total destruction. 

1854. April 6. San Salvador, in Central America, 

overwhelmed, with a fourth of its inha- 
bitants. 

1855. Feb. 28. Broussa, the ancient capital of Asia 

Minor, is nearly destroyed. July 25 and 26. 
Some shocks are felt throughout Central 
Europe. Dec. 23. Jeddo is injured, and some 
towns in Nijihon are destroyed by an earth- 
quake. 

1856. March 17. Great Sanghir, one of the Moluccas, 

is visited by a severe earthquake, which de- 
stroys 2,806 of its inhabitants. Oct. 12. 
The Mediterranean, especially Candia, 
severely visited. In Caudia alone, 4,000 
houses and 1,600 people are destroyed. 

1857. Dec. 16. A very destructive earthquake in 

Calabria destroys many towns, and causes 
the death of 10,000 pewons. 

1858. Feb. 21.- Corinth is destroyed by an earth- 

quake. 

1859. March 22. Quito is reduced to ruins. 

1861. April. The city of Mendoza, in South 
America, U destroyed, more than 2,000 
houses being overthrown. The number of 
lives lost is estimated at 7,000, and the 
damage to property at 35,000,000 francs. 



East Angles. — This Anglo-Saxon king- 
dom, which comprised Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
Cambridgeshire, was founded by Uffa about 
A.D. 527, and became extinct at the death of 
Edmund the Martyr in 870. In 628 its king 
Eorpwald I. was converted to Christianity, 
and in 630 it was erected into a bishopric 
under Felix. In 673 the see was divided 
into Dunwich and Ehnham, which were re- 
imitedin 955, and in 1070 the see was removed 
to Thetford, whence it was transferred to 
Norwich in 1091. 

Eastek, the festival in commemoration 
of the Eesurrection, is so called from Eastre, 
or Eostre, a Saxon goddess, whose feast 
was anciently celebrated in the month of 
April. Some ascribe its institution to the 
Apostles, but the more general opinion is, 
that it was first observed by their immediate 
successors, about a.d. 68. The council of 



EAS 

Aries, in 314, decreed that the day of keeping 
this festival should be the Sunday after the 
fourteenth day of the March moon, and the 
council of Nice, in 325, confirmed this deci- 
sion. But, owing to the intricate calcula- 
tions this rule rendered necessary, disagree- 
ments in the time of celebration still con- 
tinued, and the Roman method was not 
estabhshed in France till 525, and in Britain 
and Ireland till about 800. The alteration 
of the calendar by Gregory XIII. in 1582 
permanently fixed the first Sunday after 
the fuU moon immediately following the 21st 
of March, as the da}^ for observing this fes- 
tival. Offerings, oblations, &c., were col- 
lected at Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, 
and other particular occasions, before the 
reign of Edward VI. By 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 
c. 13 (1548), it was enacted that such 
offerings should thenceforth be collected at 
Easter. 

E ASTER IsiiAiSTD, orDAVis's Land (Pacific 
Ocean), was discovered by Davis in 1686. 
It was visited and named by Eoggewein, 
who thought it was a new discovery, April 6, 
1722, and visited by Captain Cook, March 11, 
1774. 

Eastern Empire. — Valentinian I. first 
divided the Roman empire in June 364 a.d., 
when Valens became emperor of the East. 
The final separation took place a.d. 395. 
Gibbon (ch. xxxii.) remarks, "The division 
of the Roman world between the sons of 
Theodosius marks the final estabHshment 
of the empire of the East, which, from the 
reign of Arcadius to the taking of Constan- 
tinople by the Turks, subsisted one thousand 
and fifty-eight years in a state of premature 
and perpetual decay." 



364. The Eastern empire commences, under 

Valeus. 
388. Theodosius I. defeats Maximus, the tyi-ant of 

the West, who is beheaded by the army. 

394. Theodosius I. defeats the Gauls and Germans 

under Eugenius, who is slain. 

395. It is definitively separated from the West, 

under the >outh Arcadius, who governs 
under the guardianship of Rufus. 

408. Persecution of tue Pagans. 

425. Schof'ls iif law are opened at Constantinople. 

438. The Theouosian cude is published. 

474. Leo TI., an infant, and Zeuo. are joint-empe- 
rors. Leo almost immediately dies, as is sup- 
posed, by poison. 

478. Theodoric, son of Triarius, Invades the 
empire. 

514. The Gothic general Vitalian lays siege to 
Constantinople. 

529. The Justiuian code is published. 

532. The Nika insurrection at Constantinople. 

541. Justinian I. abolishes the consulship. 

545. The I'urks enter Asia. 

551. The Slavonians ravage TUyria, and penetrate 
almost as far as Constantinople. 

553. The senate is abolished by Justinian I. 

611. Chosroes II. of Persia conquers Syria. 

617. Herat-lius abjures Christianity, and embrace?! 
paganism , in order to conciliate Chosroes II. 

626. The Avaro besiege Constantinople, aod the 

Persians reach the Bosphorus. 

627. Heraclius finally defeats Chosroes II., and 

recovera all his lost territories. 
632. The Saracens invade the empire. 
644. Rebellion and death of Valentinian. 
668-675. The Saracens besiege Constantinople. 



EAS 



678. The Bulgarians obtain the country now- 
called Bulgaria. 

693. Loss of Armenia. 

695-705. ExUe of the tyrant Justinian II., during 
which the empire is ruled by Leontius ana 
Tiberius Apsimar in succession. 

711. The Bulgarians ravage the empire as far aa 
Constantinople. 

716. Constantinople is besieged by the Saracens. 

717. The emperor Theodosius III. abdicates, and 

retires to a monastery. He is succeeded by 
Leo III., the Isaurian. 
739. The Greek provinces of the empire are in- 
vaded in three parts by the Saracens, who 
are defeated by Acronius. 
770. Constantine IV. abolishes monasteries 

throughout the Eastern empire. 
792. Constantine VI., the last emperor of the 
Isaurian dynasty, is blinded, by order of 
his mother Irene. 
811. July 6. Nicephorus I. is defeated, and flain 

by the Bulgarians 
820. Accession of Michael II., Ihe founder of the 

Amorian dynasty. 
825. Dalmatia is taken from the em.pire by the 

Servians. 
827. Loss of Sicily and Crete. 
850. Bogoris, king of the Bulgarians, becomes a 

vassal of the empire. 
867. Accession of Basil I., founder of the BasUian 

or Macedonian dynasty. 
890. Southern Italy becomes subject to the Eastern 

empire. 
928. Five emperors reign simultaneously. 
1014. July 29. Great victory over the Bulgarians 

at Zetunium. 
1018. Bulgaria is made a province of the empire. 
1035. The empire is visited by famine, and ravaged 

by invaders. 
1040. Restoration of Sicily, and loss of Seivia. 
1057. Aug. 31. Michael VI. abdicates in favour of 

Isaac I. End of the Macedonian dynasty. 
1123. Revolt of the Servians. 
1144. Restoration of the senate., 
1186. Revolt of the Bulgarains. 
1195. Isaac II. is deposedand blinded by his brother, 
who ascends the throne as Alexius III. 

1203. July 18. Siege and eajjture of Constantinople 

by the Crusaders, who restore Isaac, and 
make his son, Alexius IV., joint emperor 
with him. 

1204. Jan. 28. Murder of Alexius IV., and acce.ssion 

of Alexius v., soon after which Isaac II. 
dies. The Crusaders again besiege Constan- 
tinople, put Alexius V. to death, and found 
the Latin fmpire of the East, of which 
Baldwin, count of Flanders, ascduds the 
throue May 9. 

1208. Epii'us and ^tolia are erected into an inde- 
pendent state. 

1261. July 25. Michael Palseologus restores the 
Greek empire to Constantiuople. 

1277. An inva=!ion of Sicilians, Venetians, and 
French, is repelled. 

1321. Civil war of the Andronici. 

1328. May 24. Abdication of the elder Andronicus, 
who is succeeded by Andronicus III. 

1353. The Turks enter Europe. 

1867. The Mamelukes conquer Armenia. 

1373. The treaty of Amurath, which limits the 
Eastern empire to Constantinople, Thes- 
salonica, part of the Morea, and a few 
islands 

1390. The empire loses all its Greek possessions in 
Asia. 

1396. Sept. 28. Battle of Nicopolis and massacre of 
10,000 Christian prisoners by the Turks. 

1400. Manuel II. surrenders part of Constantinople 
to Bujazet. 

1448. On the death of John Palseologus II. the 
empire is claimed by his three brothers. 
Constantine XII. is elected. 

14.53. May 29. Capture of Constantinople by Mo- 
humiued II., and extinction of the Eastern 
empire. 

X 



EAS 



EMTEEOES OP THE EAST. 



A.D. 

Valens 364 

Theodosius I., the 

Great 379 

Arcadius 395 

Theodosius II. 408 

Mareian 450 

Leo I. 457 

Leo II. and Zeno . . 474 

Anastasius 1 491 

Justin 1 518 

Justinian L 527 

Jusr.in IL 565 

Tiberius II 578 

Maurice 582 

Phocas 602 

HeracUus 610 

Constantine III. . . 641 

Constans II 641 

Constantine TV. .. 668 

Justinian 11 685 

PhUippicus 711 

Anastasius II 713 

Tneodusins III 716 

Leo III 718 

Constantine V 741 

Leo IV 775 

Constantine VI. and 

Irene 780 

Irene 792 

Nicephorus 1 802 

Stauracius 811 

Michael 1 811 

LeoV 813 

Michael II 820 

Theophilus 829 

Michael in 842 

BasUL, the Mace- 
donian 867 

Leo VI 886 



A.D. 



911 



976 
1025 



1034 



Alexander and Con- 
stantine VII. . . 
Eomanus I., Chris- 
topher, Stephen, 
and Constantine 

VIII 

Constantine VII. 

alone 

Eomanus II 

Nicephorus II 

John Zimisces. Ba- 
sil TI.. and Con- 
stantine IX 

Basil II. and Con- 
stantine IX .... 
Constantine IX. . . 

Eomanus IIL 

Michael IV 

Michael V 1041 

Zoe and Constan- 
tine X 1042 

Theodora 1054 

Michael VI 10.56 

Isaac 1 1057 

Constantine XI. . . 1059 
Eudocia and Eo- 
manus III 1067 

Michael VII.. An- 
dronicus I., and 
Constantine XII. 1071 
Nicephorus III. . . 1078 

Alexius 1 1081 

John 1118 

Manuel 1 1143 

Alexius II 1180 

Andronicus 1 1183 

Isaac II 1185 

Alexius IIL 1195 

Isaac II. (restored) 1203 



LATIM" EMPEEOES. 



Baldwin I. 1204 I Baldwin 

Henry 1206 | 

Peter of Courtenay 121 | 
Bohert of Cour- 
tenay 122 1 



II. 
John of 
enne 



and 
Bri- 



BaJdwin 11. (alone) 1237 



GEEEK EMPEEORS OF KICE. 

A.D. A.D. 

Theodore Lascaris I. 1204 I John Lascaris .... 1259 
John DucasVataces 1222 Michael Palseologus 1260 
Theodore LascarisII. 1255 | 

aEEEK EMPEEOES EESTOEED TO COlf- 
STANTIlfOPLE. 



Michael Palseologus 1261 I 

AndronicusII 1273 

Ai.dronicus III. . . 1328 I 
John Palseologus I. 1341 
John Cantacuzene 1347 



A.D. 

John Palasologusl. 

(restored) 1355 

Manuel II 1391 

John PalKologus II. 1425 
Constantine XII. . . 1448 



East-Iitdia CoMPAifT. — Tlus celebrated 
association for the purpose of carrying on 
trade with the East Indies was formed in 
London a.d. 1599, and obtained its charter 
Dec. 31, 1600. In 163.5 a rival company 
was estabhshed by Sir William Courten and 
chartered by Charles I., but the two asso- 
ciations united in 164J9. In 1657, Cromwell 
renewed their charter, which was confirmed 
by Charles II. in 1661, and again in 1677. In 
1694 the East-India trade was thrown open, 
but in 1698 a new company obtained a mono- 
poly, in exchange for a loan to government 



ECC 

of £2,000,000. In 1702, however, the old and 
new companies amalgamated, and formed the 
" United Company of Merchants of England 
trading to the East Indies." In 1772 the 
company was compelled to apply for a loan, 
and in 1784 the Board of Control was erected 
by 24 Geo. III. c. 25, to regulate the civil 
and military government of the company's 
territories. By 53 Geo. III. c. 155, s. 7 
(July 21, 1813), the importation of any goods 
but tea from any place except China was 
declared free to all British subjects, and the 
commercial character of the company was 
abohshed by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 
1833) . The number of directors was reduced 
from twenty-four to eighteen by 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 95 (Aug. 20, 1853), and the govern- 
ment of India was finally transferred from 
the comx^anv to the crown, by 21 & 22 Vict. 
c. 106 (Aug."'2, 1858). The Dutch East-India 
Company was foi'med in 1595. Charles VI. 
founded an East-India Company at Ostendin 
1719. It was dissolved in 1731. The Swedish 
East-India Company was formed in 1731 ; the 
French in 1740, and dissolved in 1770 ; and 
the Danish was formed in 1740. The Scotch 
East-India Company was estabhshed by an 
act of the Scottish parhament in 1695. 

East Indies. {See India.) 

Eastland Company. — This association 
was incorporated a.d. 1579 to trade to all 
places within the Sound except Narva. When 
the trade to Norway and Sweden was thrown 
open, this company dechned in importance. 

Ebionites. — A sect of Christian Jews 
founded at Bella, about a.d. 66, which 
attained importance in the 2nd century. 
They spread in the villages around Damas- 
cus, and had a church at Aleppo. Gibbon 
(ch. XV.) says : " The name of Nazarenes 
was deemed too honourable for these 
Christian Jews, and they soon received, 
from the supposed poverty of their tinder- 
standing, as well as of their condition, the 
contemptuous epithet of Ebionites." They 
beheved Christ to be a man, though endowed 
with divine power, and they maintained 
that the ceremonial law of Moses must be 
observed. The sect was still in existence in 
the 4th century. 

Ebeo. {See Tudela, Battle.) 

EoBATANA (Media). — This city is said to 
have been founded by Semiramis, though 
Herodotus mentions Dejoces as its founder. 
An account of the building of the city bv 
Arphaxad is given in the book of Judith 
(i. 2 — 4) . It was the summer residence of 
Cyrus and the succeeding kings of Persia. 
It is mentioned by Ezra xmder the name of 
Achmetha, and the modern Hamadan occu- 
pies its site. 

Eccentrics. — This convivial club, an off- 
shoot of the Brilliants, held its first meeting 
about May, 1800. 

Ecclesiastical Commission. — William 
IV. issued a commission of inquiry into the 
state of the Church of England, Feb. 4, 1835, 
which pubUshed its first report March 17. 
A new commission was issued June 6, and by 
6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (Aug. 13, 1836) the 



ECC 

commissioners became a corporation, with I 
perpetual succession and a conunon seal. 
The constitution of this corporation was 
materially amended by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113 
(Aug. 11, 1840), and 4 & 5 Vict, c, 39 
(June 21, 1841). 

Ecclesiastical Courts. — Previous to 
the Conquest, all offences were tried in civil 
courts ; but in 1085 WUliam I. published a 
charter of separation, which estabhshed 
ecclesiastical courts. By 24 Hen. VIII. 
c. 12, s. 2 (1532), all ecclesiastical juris- 
diction was declared to be immediately from 
the crown. This act, repealed by 1 & 2 Mary, 
c. 8, s. 6 (1554), was revived by 1 Eliz. c. 1, 
s. 4 (1558). In July, 1830, a commission was 
appointed to inquire into their practice and 
jurisdiction, which recommended sundry im- 
portant changes in 1832. The Probate and 
Divorce Court, established by 20 & 21 Vict, 
c. 77, s. 3 (Aug, 25, 1857), aboHshed aUthe au- 
thority of the Ecclesiastical Courts in matters 
relating to wiUs, &c. 

Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. — In con- 
sequence of the papal buU of Sept. 30, 1850, 
by which an attempt was made to estabhsh 
a Eoman Catholic hierarchy in England, 
Lord John KusseU, then prime minister, in- 
troduced a measure into parliament Feb. 7, 
1851, which was read for the third time and 
passed July 4. By this act (14 & 15 Viet. 
c. 60, Aug. 1, 1851), the papal brief was 
declared nuU and void, and a fine of £100 
was imposed on aU such as should endeavour 
to carry it into effect. 

Ecu A (Spain), the ancient Astigi, cele- 
brated for an aqueduct completed by Abde- 
rahman III., a.d. 949. The Merines de- 
feated the Castihans near this town in 1275. 

EcKMXJHL (Battle). — At this place, in 
Bavaria, the Austrian army, under the 
archduke Charles, was defeated by the 
French, under Napoleon I. and Davoust, 
April 22, 1809. 

Eclectics, a sect of ancient philosophers, 
founded by Potamon of Alexandria, who is 
said by some authorities to have hved in the 
time of Augustus, and by others in the 2nd 
century. He persuaded his disciples not to 
join any of the existing schools of philo- 
sophy, but to select from each what seemed 
most conformable to true reason. Between 
A.D. 200 and 235 similar principles were 
taught in reference to Christianity by Am- 
monius Saccas, who founded the school of the 
New Platonists. Another sect of Eclectics 
arose in the 17th century. 

Eclipse, signifies "failure," namely of light. 
The Brahmins appear to have been the first 
astronomers who attained the power of cal- 
culating solar and lunar eclipses. In their 
great astronomical work the " Surya Sidd- 
hanta," it is stated that a total eclipse of the 
sun occurred Feb. 18, B.C. 3102^ and modern 
calculations have proved the assertion true. 
Next in order the Chinese calculated 
echpses, and based their entire chronology 
on their observations of these phenomena, 
which date from the year B.C. 2940. The 
Babylonian register of eclipses commenced 
307 



ECO 

in the year B.C. 2226. Hales says, " In the 
age of Thales, at least, the elements of the 
calculation of eclipses were known in Greece ; 
for Herodotus says that he foretold to the 
lonians the year of the remarlcable echpse 
that put an end to the battle between the 
Medes and Lydians." 



May 17. A total eclipse is recorded by the 
Persian historians. 

May 28. A total ecUipse, which had been pre- 
dicted by Thales, the Milesian, inteniipts 
a battle between the Medes and Lydians. 

March 14. The army of Xei-xes is alarmed by 
a total solar eclipse. 

An eclipse is observed at Athens. 

Aug. 15. The total eclipse of Agathocles. 



1140. 
1191. 



1706. 
1715. 

1724. 
1733. 



1842. 
1850, 



A total eclipse takes place at the death of 

Agrippina. 
June 6. An eclipse occurs soon after the 

siege of Nisibis. 
Idatius mentions an eclipse. 
March 19. An eclipse occurs during the march 

of Mauricius to Thrace. 
May 5. A total eclipse occurs at the death of 

Louis J. of France. 
Aug. 31. A total eclipse takes place during 

the battle of Stiklastad. 
A total eclipse is visible in England. 
June 22. A very remarkable eclipse is visible 

in England. 
A total eclipse is visible in the British isles. 
Another total eclipse is visible in the British 

islands. 
A total eclipse occurs, which is visible in the 

British islands. 
A total eclipse is visible in the south of 

Europe. 
May 3. A total eclipse takes place, during 

which the stars are visible at London iu 

the daytime. 
A total eclipse of the sun is visible in 

Ensfland. 
May 2. A total eclipse is visible in the north 

of Europe. The red appearances round 

the nioon, since known as Baily's beads, 

were first noticed on this occasion. 
June 16. A total eclipse is visible in North 

America. 
July 7. A total eclipse is visible in the south 

of Europe. 
Aug. 8. A total eclipse is observed by M. 

Kutczyeki in the Pacific Ocean. 
March 15. A great annular eclipse is visible 

in England. Sept. 7. A total ecliysrt is 

visible in South America, and observed by 

order of the Brazilian government. 
July 18. A total eclipse, visible in Spain, is 

observed by a party of Englisb. astro- 
nomers. 



EcNOMiTs (Sea-fight). — The Eoman fleet, 
consisting of 330 ships, commanded by the 
consuls L. Manhus and M. Attilius Eegulus, 
defeated the Carthaginian fleet, consisting 
of 350 ships, under the command of Hanno, 
off Ecnomus, near Agrigentum, in Sicily, 
B.C. 256. Some authorities contend that the 
Eoman fleet had sailed from Ecnomus, and 
that the encomiter took place at another 
part of the island, off Heracleia Minoa. 

Economists, a sect of philosophers, who 
first began to propagate their views in France 
about 1761, and endeavoured to estabhsh a 
system of government and social life Ibunded 
on a knowledge of human nature as it actually 
exists. Francis Quesnay, born in 1694, and 
M. de Gournay, in 1712, are the two great 
X 2 



ECU 

founders of the school. The latter was made 
intendant of commerce in 1751, in Avhich 
capacity he strove vigorously to release 
mercantile men from the numerous restric- 
tions the legislature of the day imposed upon 
them. Quesnay's great work, Fhysiocratie, 
on, du Gouvernement le plus avantageux au 
genre humain, appeared m 1768. The first 
assembhes of the Economists were held in 
Madame de Pompadour's drawing-room. 

EcTTADOE (South America). — This country 
was discovered by Pizarro a.d. 1526, and it 
remained under Spanish rule until the rebel- 
hon of 1812. Its independence was secured 
in 1821, when it formed part of the republic 
of Colombia. On the disruption of the 
Colombian republic in 1831, Quito, with its 
associated provinces, assumed the rank of 
an independent repubhcan state, with the 
name of Ecuador or Equator. The naviga- 
tion of the rivers of this republic was de- 
clared free from aU dues for twenty years in 
1853. 

Eddas, two ancient Scandinavian books, 
one of which is in verse and the other in 
prose. Some of the songs in the former 
probably existed as early as the 6th century, 
but the majority date from the 7th and 8th. 
In the 12th century they were written for 
the first time in Iceland by Saemund Sigf usson, 
who died in 1133, and in 1643 the MS. 
was discovered by Bishop Brynjolf Sveinsson. 

The prose Edda was written by Snorro 

Sturleson, who died in 1241. It contains 
the mythological history of Scandinavia, 
and was discovered in Iceland in 1628. 
Editions of the Eddas were pubUshed at 
Stockhohn in 1818. 

Eddtstone LiGHTHOtrsE. — The first Hght- 
house on the Eddystone, a narrow rock 
14 miles from Plymouth, erected by Win- 
stanley in 1696, was destroyed by a violent 
tempest, Nov. 27, 1703. Its reconstruction 
was ordered by 4 & 5 Anne, c. 20 (1705), and 
completed by Mr. Rudyard in 1708. The 
new building was destroyed by fire in 
1755. In 1757 Smeaton began the present 
Lighthouse, which he constructed on improved 
principles, and completed Oct. 9, 1759. In 
1770 the upper portion, which was of wood, 
was burnt. It was reconstructed of stone 
in 1774, and the lighthouse has since remained 
uninjured. 

Edessa (Mesopotamia) is said to have 
been built by Nimrod, though Appian 
ascribes its foundation to Seleucus. It was 
taken by the emperor Trajan a.d. 102, and 
erected into a Eoman colony in 216, when 
Abgarus, its last sovereign, was sent in chains 
to Rome. In 260 it was the scene of a battle 
between the emperor Valerian and Sapor, 
king of Persia, in which the latter was vic- 
torious. Juhan confiscated the whole pro- 
perty of the church here, in consequence of 
the turbulence of the Arians, in 362, and in 489 
its theological school was pulled down by 
the emperor Zeno. A destructive flood did 
considerable injury to the city in 525, in 611 
it was taken by Chosroes II., king of Persia, 
and in 718 it was reduced to ruins by an 



EDI 

earthquake. Baldwin, count of Flanders, 
erected Edessa into a Christian principality 
in 1097, but in 1144 it was seized by the 
Mohammedans under Zenghis. From that 
time it gradually decHned, but has lately 
become important for its commerce, under 
the modern name of Orfah. 

Edgecotb (Battle). — During an insur- 
rection, Edward the Fourth's troops were 
defeated at tliis place, near Banbury, July 26, 
1469. The queen's father and brother, and 
the earl of Pembroke, were captured in this 
encounter, and put to death by the rebels. 

Edgehill (Battle). — At this hill, near 
the village of Keinton, or Kineton, in War- 
wickshire, Charles I. and the royahst 
forces under Prince Rupert encountered 
the parhamentary troops of the earl of Essex, 
on Sunday, Oct. 23, 1642. It was the first 
great battle in the Civil "War, and proved 
very disastrous to both armies, though the 
losses were so nearly equal that neither 
could claim a decisive victory. Among the 
slain was the earl of Lindsay, who had led 
the king's infantry. Clarendon estimates 
the total number of kdUed at 5,000 men. 

Edict op jS"antes — This celebrated act 
of toleration, granted by Henry IV. of 
France to his Protestant subjects, April 13, 
1598, confirmed aU their former privileges, 
removed every obstacle to their deriving 
benefit from the universities and public 
schools, and allowed them to establish 
places of worship throughout his kingdom. 
It was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, 
and revoked by Louis XIV. Oct. 22, 1685. 
This arbitrary act drove from France about 
half a million Protestants, many of whom 
settled in England, and introduced various 
arts and manufactures not previously prac- 
tised in this country. 

Edicts. — The principal Roman laws so 
named are the Perpetual edict, prepared by 
Salvianus Julianus, and promulgated by the 
emperor Hadrian, a.d. 132, and the edict of 
Theodoric in 500. 

Edinbuegh (Scotland), the capital of 
Scotland, was founded in the 7th century, 
and was described as a considerable village 
in the 8th. During the earlier period of 
its history it was the scene of numerous 
contests. 



626. A castle founded here by Edwin, king of 
Northumberland, is called Edwin's burgh ; 
whence some derive the name of the city. 
685. It is taken by the Picts. 
690. St. Cuthbert's church is founded. 
956. Restored to Indulphus, king of Scotland. 

1093. The town is besieged by Donaldbaue. 

1128. Holyrood Abbey is founded by David I. In 
the charter for its foundation Edinburgh 
is first spoken of as a royal burgh. 

1174. The castle is surrendered to the English 
to purchase the freedom of William tne 
Lion. 

1215. The first parliament is held here by Alex- 
ander II. 

1230. BlHckfiiars monastery is founded. 

1296. The castle is taken by the English, under 
Edward I. 

1313. The castle is recovered by the earl of Moray. 

1329. A charter grants Leith to Ediubui-gh. 



EDI 



1336. The English take refuge in Edinburgh, after 
the battle of Borough Muir. They are 
made prisoners by the earl oi Moray. 

1359. St. Giles's cathedral church is built. 

1401. Aug. Henry IV. invades Scotland, and bums 
Edinburgh. 

1430. A monastery of Greyfriars is established by 
James I. 

1437. Execution of the earl of Athol and two 
more, at Edinburgh, for the miirder of 
James I. 

1447. Trinity fair is appointed by James II. 

1450. The city is first fortified by a wall. 

1477. Charter of James III. 

1482. James III., having been protected from his 
rebellious nobles by the inhabitants of 
Edinburgh, erects their city into the me- 
tropolis of Scotland. 

1508. Oct. 6. James IV. grants the city a charter. 

1515. A serious skirmish, known as "Clear the 
causeway," takes place between the par- 
tisans of the various nobles, 250 of whom 
are slain. 

1519. The High School is first mentioned. 

1544 An English army lands at Koyston, takes 
Leith, and plunders Edinburgh. 

1547. The English burn Leith. 

1555. The streets are ordered to be lighted, owing to 
the frequent robberies. John Knox begins 
to preach at Edinburgh. 

1560. July 6. A treaty between Elizabeth and the 
Scotch is concluded at Edinburgh. 

1565. July 29. Marriage of Mary, Queen of 

Scots, and Lord Baiidey, in Holyrood 
House. 

1566. March 9. Murder of David Rizzio. 

1567. Feb. 10. The house in which Damley is re- 

siding is blown up by gunpowder, and 
the king killed. April 12. Trial and 
acquittal of the earl of Bothwell for the 
murder of the king. May 15. Man-iage 
of Maiy and the earl of Bothwell. 

1568. Edinburgh is ravaged by the plague. 

1571. The castle is besieged by the English. 

1572. Nov. 24. Death of John Knox. 

1574. The castle is repaired, and the halfmoon 

batteries are built. 
1578. The first high school is built. 

1581. Old College is founded by James VI. 

1582. April 14. James VI. grants the college a 

charter of erection. 

1584. Edinburgh is divided into four parishes. 

1591. Canongai,e gaol built. 

1596. Eiots in consequence of James the Sixth's 
interference with the Edinburgh clergy. 

1603. March 24. James VI. leaves Edinburgh, to 
ascend the English throne as James I. 

1610. Coaches are introduced into Edinburgh. 

1618. April 9. James revisits Edinburgh. 

1624. Feb. 12. Death of George Heriot, who leaves 
his large fortune to found an hospital, the 
first stone of which is laid July 1, 1628, and 
which is opened April 11, 1659. 

1633. June 15. Charles I. visits Edinburgh. 

1637. July 23. Sunday. Riot in St. Giles's church, 

in consequence of the introduction of the 
Liturgy. 

1638. The Solemn League and Covenant is signed 

in the Greyfriars' churchyard. 

1639. March 21. The Covenanters take the castle, 

which is recaptured by the marquis of 
Hamilton, June 22. 

1640. Completion of Parliament-house. 

1641. Charles^I. revisits Edinburgh, which is divided 

into six parishes. 
1645. The plague rages with fearful violence. 
1650. May 21. Execution of Montrose. Dec. 24. 

■The castle surrenders to Oliver CromweO. 
1661. Jan. 8. The Mercurms Caledonius, the first 

Edinburgh newspaper, is ijublished. 

May 27. Execution of the marquis of 

Argyle. 
1677. In consequence of frequent fires, the town 

council orders all houses to be built of 

stone, and roofed with slate or tile. 



EDI 



1681. Jan. 11. Riots among students of the uni- 
versity, in consequence of the magistrates 
having prohibited them from burning the 
pope's efligy. uct. The Merchants' Com- 
pany is incorporated by Charles I. 

1685. June 30. Execution of the earl of Argyll. 

1695. Bank of Scotland established at Edinburgh. 

1700. Feb. 3. Sunday. Two hundred families are 
rendered houseless by a terrible fire in the 
Meal-market. 

1718. May 7. The spire of the Greyfriars' church 
is destroyed by fire. 

1727. The Royal Bank is founded. 

1735. A theatre is erected by Allan Ramsay, in 

Carrubber's Close. 

1736. Sept. 7. The Porteous riots (<?.?).). 
1738. Royal Infirmary founded. 

1740. Food riots, which are suppressed by the 

military. 
1745. Sept. 17. Tuesday. Prince Charles Edward 

takes Edinburgh, and establishes a court 

in Hol3n-ood. 

1752. The New Town is projected. 

1753. Sept. 13. '1 he Royal Exchange is founded. 
1756. March 13. The old cross is reproved. 
1763. Oct. 21. The North bridge is founded. 

1769. Aug. 3. Five people are killpd by a fall of the 

North bridge. Theatre royal built. 
1774. Register-house founded. 

1776. Aug. 25. The Obsei-vatory on Calton Hi'l is 

founded. Penny post introduced by Peter 
Williamson. 

1777. June 24. High school. Infirmary Street, 

founded. 

1779. Feb. 2. Anti-popery riots. 

1780. Royal Antiquarian Society founded. 
1783. Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated. 

1785. Aug. 1. South bridge founded. 

1786. The chamber of commerce is established. 
1789. Nov. 16. The present university building is 

founded by Lord Naisier. 
1792. Dec. 11. First meeting of the Friends of the 

People. 
1796. The New and Piei-shill barracks are built. The 

count of Artois and other French nobles are 

allowed to find shelter in Holyrood. 
1799. Aug. 6. The French refugees leave Holyrood. 

1801. Sept. 7. Smart shock of an earthquake felt. 

1802. Oct. 10. The first number of the Edinburgh 

Review is published. 
1805. April 10. Edinburgh New Police Act. 
1807. Oct. 31. Nelson monument, on Calton Hill, is 

founded. 
1812. Jan. 1. Serious riots, in consequence of 

which three of the culprits are executed, 

April 22. 
1815. Sept. 19 Regent bridge and the new gaol 

are founded. 
1818. March 3. Edinburgh and Glasgow Canal is 

commenced. AprU. Gas is introduced. 

1821. April 28. The Melville column is founded. 

1822. Aug. 14, George TV. arrives at Edinburgh. 

Aug. 27. The national monument is 
founded. 

1824. June 24 and Nov. 15. Disastious fires. 

1825. J-uly 28. The High School, Calton Hill, 

founded. 

1826. Edinburgh and DalkeithEailway,and Scottish 

Academy are instituted. 

1827. Aug. 15. George the Fourth's bridge and the 

Westein bridge are founded. 

1829. Oct. 15. Infant school founded. 

1830. March 27. The museiun of the College of Sur- 

geons is founded. Oct. 20. Charles X. of 
France, expelled from his kingdom by a 
revolution, resides in Holyrood House. 

1831. The new waterworks are completed. 

1832. Jan. 27. The cholera first visits Edinburgh. 
1834. Sept. 8. The British Association meets at 

Edinburgh. 
1836. National Security savings' bank established. 

1839. March 15. Edinburgh and Leith Gas Company 

is established. 

1840. Aug. 15. Kemp's monument to Sir Walter 

Scott is founded. 



1847. 
1848. 



1857. 
18J9. 



EDI 



Feb. 18. The Edinbirrgh and Glasgow Railway 
is opened. Sept. 1. Arrival of the Queen 
and Prince Albert in Edinburgh. Sept. 3. 
Victoria Hall is founded by her Majesty. 
Sept. 5. The Queen holds a reception at 
Dalkeith Palace. Sept. 1.3. She leaves for 
England. 

May 28- Sunday. Owing to the "Act of 
Separation," the Free Cliurch ministers 
officiate in new places of worship, which 
creates gi-eat excitement at Ediuburgh. 

Jan. 19. Total destruction by fire of the old 
Greyfriars chui ch. The Southern, Western, 
and Edinburgh and Leith cemeteries are 
formed. 

Jujie 18. The North British Railway from 
Edinburgh to Berwick is opened. Aug. 15. 
Tiie Scott monument is inaugurated. 

April 9. Caledonian Railway terminus founded. 

March 7. Alarming riots in the city. June 28. 
The new corn-market is founded. 

Aug. 29. The Queen revisits Edinbm-gh, and 
stays at Holyrood House. Aug. 30. The Na- 
tional Giillery is founded by Prince Albert. 
Nov. 6. The new or Free college is opened. 

The colossal equestrian statue of the duke of 
Wellington is erected. 

The National Association for the Vindication 
of Scottish Rights meets in the music-hall. 

Aug. 5. Great fire ia the Lawn-market. 

Aug. 6. The prince of Wales resides in Holy- 
rood Palace, while attending classes at the 
univei-sity. 

Aug. 7. Her Majesty reviews about 20,000 
volunteers in the Queen's Park. 



Edinbuegh, (See of,) was created in 
1633 by Charles I., vrho extended its diocese 
from the Forth to Berwick, and made 
St. Giles's Church its cathedral. Dr. William 
Eorbes was consecrated the first bishop, 
Jan. 28, 1634. On the abolition of prelacy 
in Scotland, July 22, 1689, this see was of 
course suppressed ; but it was re-erected as 
a post-revolution bishopric in 1720. 

Edinbxjegh (Treaties). — Peace was con- 
cluded at this city between England and 
Scotland in 1482, and a treaty was concluded 
between Elizabeth and the Scotch July 6, 
1560. It provided that all the French 
troops should leave Scotland, and that Mary 
shoidd no longer use the style and arms of 
sovereigns of England and Ireland. In 1561 
Mary refused to ratify this treaty. 

EniifBUEGHUNiTEESiTY. — luloSS, Eobert 
Eeid, bishop of Orkney, bequeathed 8,000 
merks for the purpose of founding a univer- 
sity in the city of Edinburgh; but the money 
was detained by the abbot of Kinloss for 
twenty-four years before it could be apphed 
to the proposed object. Efforts were, how- 
ever, made by Mary, queen of Scots, April 
23, 1561, and in 1563 part of the present site 
was purchased. In 1581 the magistrates 
apphed for a charter, which was granted by 
James VI. in April, 1582, and in 1583 Eobert 
Eollock was nominated first principal of the 
new university. The government of the 
institution was remodelled Sept. 5, 1704, and 
the new building was founded by Lord Napier 
Nov. 16, 1789. 

Edom, or Idum.s;a (Asia), is the name 
given to the country inhabited by the de- 
scendants of Esau, who was living there B.C. 
1739 (Gen. xxxii. 3). The inhabitants re- 
fused to allow the Israelites to pass through 
310 



EDU 

their territory on their retreat from Egypt, 
B.C. 1452 (Num. xx. 14^21). Saul made 
war upon them B.C. 1093 (1 Sam. xiv. 47), 
and David established garrisons in their land 
B.C. 1040 (2 Sam. viii. 14). Solomon built a 
navyatEzion-geberB.c. 992 (1 Kings ix. 26), 
and Amaziah, king of Judah, gained a great 
victory, and took Selah, B.C. 825. The 
Edomites subsequently extended their bor- 
ders as far north as Hebron, where they 
were defeated by Judas Maccabaeus B.C. 
163. 

Edeisites. — This independent dynasty, 
which founded the kingdom and city of Fez, 
lasted from a.d. 829 to 907. The founder 
was Edris, a posthumous child of a descendant 
of AM. 

Education. — Among the ancient Greeks 
and Eomans, education was chiefly carried 
on in the schools of philosophy. The Britons 
left all learning to the Druids. The Saxon 
children were taught to repeat the psalms 
and other books by heart, reading being still 
uncommon in the time of Alfred. The 
English language was not spoken in the 12th 
century ; but after the Norman period child- 
ren learned their lessons in Enghsh, and 
afterwards translated them into French. 
Heading and writing became the chief 
liranches of education in the 14th century. 
The following are some of the most im- 
portant dates connected with the subject : — 



1070. 
1198, 



1441 
1552 



1567, 
1585 



1783. 

1785, 



Alfred the Great invites learned foreigners to 

establish schools in his dominions. 
Westminster school is founded about this 

year. 
Sampson, abbot of St. Edmund's, founds a 
school at Bury St. Edmunds for forty poor 
boys. 
Winchester school is founded by WiUiam of 

Wykeham, 
Eton College is founded by Henry VI. 
Christ's Hospital, or the Blue-coat school, is 

founded. 
Westminster school is re-founded by Queea 

Elizabeth. 
Rugby school is founded. 
Hanow school is founded. 
The first mutual - improvement society is 
established in Lundon, under the title 
of the Society for the Reformation of 
Manners. 
The Society for Promoting Christian Know- 
ledge is founded. 
, Sunday schools are established by Mr. Robert 

Raikes. 
. The Society for the Support and Encotirage- 

meut of Suiiday Schools is founded. 
. The first reform school is established by the 

Philanthropic Society. 
. The Sunday-school Union is established. 
. Joseph Lancaster founds the British and 

P'oreign School Siciety. 
. The first evening school is opened at Bristol. 
. Mr. Whitbread proposes the establishment 
of parochial schools, on the monitorial 
system, to the House of Commons, by 
whom it is rejected. 
. Andrew Bell founds the National School 
Society ; and the Rev. Mr. Charles estab- 
lishes the first aduit school at Bala, in 
Wales. 
. An infant school is established in Lanark. 
. A committee of the House of Commons 
publishes its reports on the state of en- 
dowed schools iu England. 



EDW 



1820. Mr. Samuel Wilderspin undertakes the 
management of the Spitalflelda infant 
school. 

1823. The first mechanics' institution is established 
at London. 

1825. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
Knowledge is founded. 

1837. The first ragged school is opened at West- 
minster. 

1839. The Council of Education is appointed. 

1843. The Field-lane " ragged " school is opened. 

1844. The Ragged-school Union is formed. 

1857. June 18. The convocation of the Oxford 

University passes a statute authorizing 
middle-class examinations. June 22. An 
educational congress is held in London, 
under the presidency of the Prince Con- 
sort. 

1858. June 21. Middle-class examinations commence 

at Oxford. 

1859. July 6. Her Majesty appoints a Committee 

of Council on Education to superintend 
the application of any sums of money 
voted by parliament for the purpose of 
promoting public education. 

1860. May 15. The committee present their report. 

1861. July 29. Minute issued, to come into opera- 

tion after March 31, 1862. 

Edward the First, the eldest son of 
Henry III. and his queen Eleanor, was born 
at Westminster, June 18, 1239. He married 
Eleanor of Castile in 1254., by whom he had 
four sons and eight daughters. Edward I. was 
proclaimed king, Sunday, Not. 20, 1272. He 
was then absent at the Crusades, and reached 
England Aug. 2, 1274, and was crowned, 
Sunday, Aug. 19. Eleanor died at Grantham, 
Nov. 28, 1291, and Sept. 10, 1299, Edward 
married Margaret, daughter of Philip III. 
and sister of Philip IV. of France, by whom 
he had two sons and one daughter. Edward I. 
died at Burgh, on the sands near Carhsle, 
July 7, 1307, and was buried in Westminster 
Abbey, Oct. 27. His second wife survived 
him, dying in 1317. Edward was surnamed 
Long-shanks, from the length of his legs. 
He is sometimes called Edward IV., the 
three Saxon kings of the name of Edward 
being reckoned. 

Edward the Second, the fourth son of 
Edward I. and Queen Eleanor, was born at 
Caernarvon, AprU 25, 1284, and ascended 
the Enghsh throne, Saturday, July 8, 1307. 
He married Isabella, daughter of Phihp IV. 
of France, Jan. 28, 1308, and was crowned 
Feb. 25. His wife bore him two sons and 
two daughters, namely, Edward (see Ed- 
ward III.) ; John, born Aug. 25, 1315, and 
created earl of Cornwall in 1328, died in 
October, 1334; Eleanor, born in 1318, mar- 
ried to Count Keyald II. of Gueldres, in 
1332, died at Deventer, AprU 22, 1355 ; and 
Joan, born in the Tower, in 1321, married to 
David II. of Scotland in 1329, and died 
Sept. 7, 1362. Edward II. was deposed 
Jan. 20 or 21, 1327, and assassinated at 
Berkeley Castle, Sept. 21. Isabella died in 
1357. Edward was surnamed Caernarvon. 

Edward the Third, the eldest son of 
Edward II. and Isabella of France, was born 
at Windsor, Nov. 13, 1313. The formal de- 
position of his father took place Jan, 20 or 
21, 1327, and Edward III. was proclaimed 



EGL 

king Jan. 24, and crowned on Sunday, Feb. 1. 
He married Philippa of Hainault, Jan. 24, 
1328, by whom he had five sons and five 
daughters. The most celebrated were, Ed- 
ward, surnamed the Black Prince, bom at 
Woodstock, June 15, 1330 ; he died June 8, 

1376, and left by his wife, Joan of Kent, one 
son, afterwards Eichard II. (q. v.) ; Lionel, 
born at Antwerp, Nov. 29, 1338, created 
duke of Clarence, and died in Italy, in 1368 ; 
and John of Gaunt, born at Ghent in 1340. 
He was created earl of Derby and duke of 
Lancaster, and died Feb. 3, 1399. Edward III. 
died at Shene, now Eichmond, June 21, 

1377, and was buried at Westminster. His 
queen, Philippa, died at Windsor, Aug. 15, 
1369. 

Edward the Fourth, second son of 
Eichard, duke of York, and his vrife Cicely, 
was born at Eouen, April 29, 1441. He ac- 
ceded to the throne March 4, 1461, was 
crowned at Westminster, June 28 or 29, 
and though Henry VI. resumed authority 
from Oct. 9, 1470, to April 1471, Edward's 
reign is usually reckoned as if no interruption 
had occurred tiU his death, which took place 
at Westminster, April 9, 1483. Edward IV. 
married EUzabeth WoodviUe, widow of Sir 
Thomas Grey, May 1, 1464. She died June 8, 
1492, They had three sons and seven 
daughters. Their eldest son became king 
(see Edward V.), and their daughter EHza- 
beth, born Feb. 11, 1466, united the houses 
of Tork and Lancaster, by her marriage 
with Henry VII. (q. v.). 

Edward the Fifth, the fourth child and 
eldest son of Edward IV. and EMzabeth 
WoodviUe, was born at Westminster, Nov, 4, 
1470. He was proclaimed king April 9, 1483, 
and is supposed to have been assassinated in 
the Tower by order of Eichard III., who 
usurped the royal authority June 26, 1483. 
The last document of his reign is dated 
June 17, 1483. 

Edward the Sixth, the son of 
Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, being the 
only child of that marriage, was born at 
Hampton Court, Oct. 12, 1537. He suc- 
ceeded to the throne Friday, Jan. 28, 1547, 
and died at Greenwich July 6, 1553. Ed- 
ward VI. was buried at Westminster, Aug. 8, 
1553. 

Eggs.— By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 122 (Aug. 12, 
1854), a duty of 8d. per cubic foot was 
charged on eggs imported from foreign coun- 
tries, andof 4<i. per cubic foot on those from 
British possessions. It was repealed by 23 
Vict. c. 22, s. 9 (May 15, 1860). 

Eglinton Tournament. — A magnificent 
festivity, in imitation of the mediaeval tourna- 
ments, was held by the earl of Eghnton, 
afterwards earl of Eghnton and Winton, at 
his castle in Ayrshire, Aug. 28, 29, and 30, 
1839. The marquis of Londonderry officiated 
as "king of the tournament," and Lady 
Seymour as "queen of love and beauty." 
Many of the guests were in ancient cos- 
tumes, and the expense of the entertainment 
is said to have amovmted to £40,000. The 
emperor Napoleon III., then Prince Louia 



EGT 

Napoleon, was one of the mimic warriors on 
this occasion. 

Egypt (Africa). — This country, called in 
the hieroglyphic inscriptions Ckemi, in the 
Hebrew Scriptures Mizraim, and in the 
Arabic Mesr, was one of the earhest seats of 
civilization. Its history is involved in ob- 
scurity. Hales (iv. p. 400) remarks : — " The 
mysteries of Egyptian chronology are not 
inferior, perhaps, to those of the Apocalypse ; 
both running into vast and unknown periods 
of time, the one before, the other since, the 
creation of the world." The following table 
has been compiled from the works of the 
best authorities : — 



2717. Menes, the first king of Egypt, and founder 

of the Thinite dynasty, begins to reign. 
2280. Thebes founded. 
2188. Memphis founded. 
2126. Egypt is divided into Egypt proper. Lower 

Egypt, This, and Memphis. 
2122. Hieroglyphics are invented by Athotes. 
2120. Suphis, and his brother Sensuphis, buUd 

pyramids to the north of Memphis, which 

still exist. 
2100. Osymandyas extends his conquests into Asia. 

The worship of Osiris, Isis, Phtha, and 

Ammon introduced. 
2080. Memphis is taken by the Shepherd kings of 

Pbffinicia, who establish their dynasty. 
1938. Lake Moeris is construcred. 
1920. Arrival of Abraham, and expiilsion of the 

Shepherd kings. 
1891. Syphoas introduces common letters. 
1828. The PhcEnicians expelled from Lower Egypt. 
1822. Memnon invents the Egj^ptian alphabet. 
1821. Amenophis I. becomes king of all Egypt. 
1728. Joseph is sold into Egypt. 
1715. Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams, and pre- 
pares for the seven years' famine. 
1706. Settlement of Jacob and his family in 

Goshen. 
1702. End of the seven years' famine. 
1635. Death of Joseph. 
1618. Accession of Sesostris. 
1615. The Ethiopians obtain a footing in Egypt. 
1597. Persecution of the Israelites. 
1491. The ten plagues are suffered by the Egyptians, 

and the exodus of the Israelites is accom- 
plished. 
1485. Eeign of Egyptus, from whom the country is 

named Egypt instead of Mizraim. 
1322. Commencement of the first Sothic cycle. 
1308. Reign ol Sethos, who builds the temple of 

Vulcan, at Memphis, and other stupendous 

works. 
1214. Reign of Thuoris, or Proteus, a wise king, 

whose politic conduct originates the Greek 

fable of his ability to assume any semblance 

he chose. 
1183. Menelaus arrives in Egypt after the Trojan 

war, and receives Helen from Thuoris. 
1082. Reign of Cheops. 
1004. Alliance between Shishak, king of Egypt, 

and Solomon. 
972. Shishak invades Judea, and takes Jeru- 
salem. 
825. Accession of Peterbastes, founder of the 

Tanaite dynasty. 
786. Egypt establishes her supremacy over the 

Mediterranean. 
781. Commencement of the Saite dynasty. 
769. So, the Ethiopian, deposes Auysis, and mounts 

his throne. 
722. Alliance with Hosea, king of Israel. 
719. So abdicates, and returns to Ethiopia. 
711. Invaded by Sennacherib, king of Assyria. 
685. Egypt is divided between twelve kings. 
660. Psammetichus I., one of the twelve kings, 

obtains the sovereignty of the whole of 

Egypt. 
312 



EGY 



630. Siege of Azotus, or Ashdod, by Psammetichus. 
It lasts twenty years, being the longest 
siege in history. 

610. Pharaoh Necho attempts to connect the Medi- 
terranean and Red Seas by a canal ; but, 
after losing 120,000 men, he is compelled to 
relinquish the tmdertaking. 

605. Pharaoh Necho is defeated by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of Babylon. 

600. Psammis, king of Egypt, invades Ethiopia. 

581. Nebuchadnezzar deposes Pharaoh Hophra, or 
Apries. 

572. Nebuchadnezzar ravages Egypt. 

569. Nebuchadnezzar makes Amasis king, during 
whose reign Egypt contains 20,000 cities. 

554. Solon visits Egypt. 

536. Pythagoras visits Egypt. 

535. Cyius, king of Persia, renders Egypt tribu- 
tary to bis power. 

525. Cambyses, king of Persia, invades Egypt, 
which he ravages, and abolishes the empire 
of the Pharaohs. 

484. Xerxes suppresses an insurrection of the 
Egyptians. 

460. Inarus rebels against the Persians. 

418. Herodotus visits Egypt. 

413. Amyrtseus restores Egypt to independence. 

350. Egypt is again subjected to Persia by Ochus. 

332. Egypt is conquered, and Alexandria founded, 
by AlexanderlTEe Great. 

322. Ptolemy I. (Soter) restores the independence 
of Egypt, and transfei-s the seat of govern- 
ment to Alexandria. 

320. Revolt of Phoenicia, and immigration of about 
100,000 Jews. 

314. Phoenicia is wrested from Egypt by Antigonus, 
king of Phrygia. 

301. BattU of Ipsus, which secures the indepen- 
dence of Egypt, and final restoration of 
Phcenicia. 

273. An Egyptian embassy arrives at Rome. 

272. Memphis is made the capital. 

246. Ptolemy III. invades Syria, whence he rettu'ns 
with immense booty. 

217. Battle of Raphia, which subjects Coele-Syria 
and Palestine to the Egyptian yoke. 

203. A treaty of alliance is concluded with Rome. 
Judea is lost. 

198. Syria regains its independence. 

183. An insurrection is quelled by Polycrates. 

171. Autiochus Epiphanes, of Syria, defeats 
Eulaeus, regent of Egypt, and makes him 
prisoner. 

164. The kingdom is divided between Ptolemy VI. 
and his brother Physcon. 

146. Ptolemy falls in battle, and Physcon usurps 
the throne. He marries his brother's 
widow, and murders her son, the rightful 
heir. 

131. Physcon (Ptolemy VII.) puts away his wife 
Cleopatra, and manies her daughter by 
his own brother. 

129. Ptolemy VII. is compelled to flee to Cyprus. 
He murders his two sons, and is restored 
the same year. 

128. A pestilence, caused by the putrefaction of 
immense swarms of locusts, carries off 
about 800,000 of the population. 

107. Cleopatra compels Pto. emy VIII. to retire to 
Cyprus, and governs Egypt with her son 
AJfexauder. 
88. Civil war between Ptolemy VIII. and Alex- 
ander I., the latter of whom is slain. 
82. Capture and destruction of Thebes, which 

had revolted. 
80. Abdication of Alexander III., and election of 
Ptolemy X., who renders his country tribu- 
tary to the Romans. 
58. The I^yptians expel Ptol emy X. , and establish 

Berenice and Tryph^na. 
55, Restoration of Ptolemy X. 
51. Death of Ptolemy X., who leaves his kingdom 

to Ptolemy XI. and Cleopatra. 
49. Ptolf-my expels Cleopatra, aaid civil war 
ensues. 



EGY 



Julius Csesar, in assisting Cleopatra, besieges 
and burns Alexandria, the splendid library 
of which city is almost destroyed by fire. 

Ptolemy XI. is defeated by Csesar, and drowned 
while crossing the Niie. The Egyptian 
throne is shared by Cleopatra and her 
younger brother, Ptolemy XII. 

Cleopatra poisons her brother. 

Mark Antony summons Cleopatra to trial for 
her brother's murder. They meet on the 
Cydnus ; and he is so overcome by her 
beauty, that he follows her into Egypt. 

Antony confers Phoenicia, Cyrene, and Cyprus 
on Cleopatra. 

Antony confers all Asia, from the Mediter- 
ranean to the Indus, on Cleopatra. 

Sept. 2. The battle of Actium, and total 
defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, by 
Octavius Csesar. 

Invasion and subjugation of Egypt by 
Octavius, and suicide of Antony and 
Cleopatra. Egypt becomes a Roman 
province. 

Invaded by 30,000 Ethiopian subjects of Queen 
Candace, who are repulsed by Petronius. 

Germanius visits Egypt. 

Insurrection of the Egyptian Jews. 

It is visited by Hadrian. 

Rebellion of the Jews, and second visit of 

Hadrian. 
The Egyptians revolt against the Roman 

government. 
The emperor Severus visits, Egypt. 
Caracalla visits Egypt, and massacres all the 

youth of Alexandiia for having ridiculed 

him. 
Rebellion of .Slmilianus, who is proclaimed 

emperor at Alexandria. 
Invaded by Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 
Fermus renders Upper Egypt independent 

of Rome. Aureliau regains it the following 

year. 
Probus repels a dangerous invasion of the 

Blemmyes. 
Upper Egypt rebels imder Achilleus. 
Diocletian besieges and takes Coptos and 



1250. 
1517. 



1763. 
1798. 



1799. 
18U1. 



1806. 
1807. 



Siege and capture of Alexandria by Diocletian, 
who thereby suppresses the rebellion of 
Achilleus. The Egyptian coinage ceases. 

An intindation and an earthquake destroy 
many of the inhabitants. 

Theodosius prohibits pagan worship, in con- 
sequence of which the Sepapion, and other 
famous Egyptian temples, are destroyed. 

Conquered by Chosroes Purvis, king of Persia. 

Dec. 22, Friday. Amer, or Annon, reduces all 
Egypt under Saracen domination. 

The dynasty of the Abasrsides is established. 

Egypt regains independence for a short 
period under the Tooloonides. 

It is Conquered by the genera's of El Moez, 
the Fatimite caliph of Mahadi. 

It is invaded by Amalric, king of Jerusalem, 
who penetrates to Cairo, and is then com- 
pelled to retreat. 

It is conquered by the Mamelukes, who es- 
tablish their dynasty. 

Overthi-ow of the Mamelukes liy Sultan Selim, 
who adds Egypt to the Ottoman empire. 

All Bey's rebellion. 

Egypt is invaded by the French, 'onder 
Napoleon Buonaparte. 

July 25. Battle of Aboukir {q.v.). 

Expulsion of the French by the English and 
Turks. 

Mohammed All is made pasha. 

March 27. The English are defeated in an 
attempt to occupy Rosetta. Sept. 23. They 
re- embark. 

March 1. Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo, 
by Mohammed All. 

The Turkish army in Egypt is remodelled, 

Belzoni prosecutes his discoveries. 



EIC 



1820. Alexandria is connected with the NUe by the 

Mahmoud Canal. 
1829. The firsi Egyptian newspaper is published. 
1831. Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, revolts from 

Turkey, and invades Syria. 

1834. The cholera visits Egypt. 

1835. The plague ravages Egypt. 

1839. Mohammed Ali revolts, and claims hereditary 

possession of Egypt and Syria. 

1840. The Egyptians are defeated by the British 

at Beyrout. 

1841. July 11. The dispute with Turkey is adjusted. 
1856. Oct. 12. An earthquake is felt in Egypt. 
1858. May 14. Achmed pasha, eldest son of fbrahim 

pasha, and heir to his titles, is killed at 
the Kafler-Said railway-station. 



DYNASTY OF THE LAGID.ffi, OE PTOLEMIES. 



Ptolemy Soter I. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus. 

Ptolemy Euergetes I. 

Ptolemy Philopator. 

Ptolemy Epiphanes. 

Ptolemy Philometer. 

Ptolemy Euergetes II. 

Cleopatra Cocce and Ptnlemy Soter IT. 

Cleopatra Cocce and Ptolemy Alexander I. 

Ptolemy Soter II. 

Cleopatra Berenice. 

Ptolemy Alexander II. 

Ptolemy Neus Dionysius. 

Cleopatra Tryphsena and Berenice. 

Cleopatra. 



Egyptian ^ea. — The year of the ancient 
Egyptians consisting of 365 days, brought 
back the commencement of the year to the 
same place in the seasons every 1461 years, 
which is termed the Sothic period. The first 
of these periods commenced B.C. 1323. To 
remedy the inconvenience of this calculation, 
the astronomers of Alexandria caused five 
days to be added every fourth year, b.c. 30 ; 
and the reform commenced five years after 
that date. 

Eheekbeeitstein (Prussia). — This strong 
fortress and town, on the left bank of the 
Rhine, opposite Coblentz, is mentioned un- 
der another name as early as 1153. The 
works having been rebuilt on a more exten- 
sive scale, were, in 1160, on account of their 
breadth, named by Hermann HiUin, arch- 
bishop of Treves, " Ehrenbreitstein," or the 
" Broad Stone of Honour." The French, 
under Marshal Boufiiers, failed in an attempt 
to capture it in 1688. Jourdan invested 
Ehrenbreitstein for a short time in 1795, and 
returned June 9, 1796; but the French forces 
were compelled to vrithdraw Sept. 17. In 
April, 1797, the French again blockaded the 
fortress, which surrendered Jan. 24, 1799. 
The French, who restored it by the treaty of 
Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801, blew up the forti- 
fications before they withdrew. Since the 
peace of 1814-15, the Prussian government 
have devoted large sums to the restoration 
of its defences. 

EiCHSTADT (Bavaria), the capital of a 
principality belonging to prince-bishops, was 
secularized, and conferred upon Austria in 
1802. It was ceded to the elector of Bavaria 
by the peace of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805, 
and was given to Prince Eugene Beau- 
313 



EID 



ELE 



harnois, diike of Leuchtenberg, in 1817. Its 
cathedral was founded 1259, 

EiDEB, or Etdee. — This river was con- 
nected with the Baltic by the Kiel Canal 
in 1784. It is twenty-three miles long, and 
was conuneneed in 1777. 

EiDo&EAPH. — This instrument for copying 
drawings was iuvented by Mr. Wallace iu 
1821. 

EiKOir Basilike ; or, The Portraiture of 
His Sacred Majesty King Charles I. in his 
Sohtude and Suffering. — The first edition of 
this work appeared ia 1648, and such was 
its popularity that no fewer than fifty edi- 
tions are said to have appeared in England 
and elsewhere before the end of 1649. The 
question of the authorship of this work has 
excited considerable controversy; some as- 
cribing it to the king himself, while others 
attribute its production to Dr. Gauden, the 
king's chaplain. 

Eisenach (Germany) was founded a.d. 
1140, and till 1406 was the residence of the 
landgraves of Thuringia. In 1521 it afforded 
shelter to Luther on his return from the 
diet of Worms. A considerable portion of 
the town has been rebuilt during the present 
century, and it was the scene of a meeting 
between the members of the new hberal 
party in Germany, who recommended the 
adoption of a central government instead of 
the diet, and proposed the formation of a 
national assembly, Aug. 14, 1859. 

EiSLEBEif (Prussian Saxony). — Celebrated 
as the birthplace of Martin Luther, Nov. 10, 
1433. He died here Feb. 13, 1546. The 
house in which he was born was destroyed 
by fire, June, 1689, and another erected on 
its site was opened as a free-school, Oct. 31, 
1693. 

EiSTEDDEOD, the name given to the annual 
assembhes of the British bards. They were 
of very ancient origin, being held at least as 
early as the 6th century of our aera, although 
there is no description of one previous to 
1176, when Ehys ap Gryffyd held a congress 
at Cardigan Castle. The last of these gather- 
ings, convened by royal authority, was sum- 
moned by a commission of Queen Ehzabeth, 
dated Oct. 20, 1567. They were revived 
towards the close of the 18th century, to 
encourage the study of the Welsh tongue, &c. 
An eisteddfod was held at Aberdare from 
Aug. 20 to 23, 1861. 

Ekateeutbtteg- (Asiatic Eussia ) was 
founded by Peter the Great a.d. 1723. 

Eeiateein-osiav (Eussia), the capital of a 
government of the same name, was founded 
by Catherine II. a.d. 1787. It is also called 
Jekaterinoslav. 

El Aeish (Egypt).— At this place, the 
ancient Ehinocorura, the French defeated 
the Turks, near Jaffa, Feb. 18, 1799. The 
fort capitulated Feb. 20, and was taken by 
the English Dec. 29, 1799. By the conven- 
tion of El Arish, signed Jan. 24, 1800, 
between the French and the Turks, it was 
stipulated that the French army should be 
permitted to return to Europe with its own 
arms and baggage, and that the fortresses of 
314 



Egypt, excepting Aboukir, Alexandria, and 
Eosetta, should be given up within forty-five 
days. 

Elba (Mediterranean). — This island, on 
the coast of Tuscany, the Hva of the Eomans 
and the ^thalia of the Greeks, was ravaged 
by a Syracusan ileet b.c. 453. During the 
Middle Ages it was subject to various Italian 
powers, and, on the 10th of July, 1796, it 
was seized by the British, by whom it was 
evacuated Feb. 18, 1797, when part of it was 
ceded to France by Tuscany. The remain- 
der was given up to France by the treaty of 
Florence, March 28, 1801. By a treaty be- 
tween Napoleon I. and the allied powers, 
signed at Paris April 11, 1814, the island 
of Elba was conferred upon him, vrith an 
annual revenue of 2,000,000 francs, he being 
permitted to retain the title of emperor. 
Napoleon I. resided in the island from May 3, 
1814, tiUFeb. 26, 1815, when he re-embarked 
for France, of which he recovered possession. 
Elba was afterwards retaken'by the Tuscans, 
July 30, 1815. 

ELBiNa (Prussia) was founded by the 
Teutonic knights about a.d. 1229. It was 
ceded to Poland in 1466, taken by Peter the 
Great in 1709, and united to Prussia in 1772. 
Frederick WiLLiam III., king of Prussia, 
concluded a humiliating convention with 
Napoleon I. at Elbing in 1807. 

Elceseans, or Elcesaites. — The 
followers of Elxai or Elcesai, a Jew, who 
flourished in the reign of Trajan (a.d. 98 — 
116). They engrafted many opinions de- 
rived from Oriental philosophy on a mixture 
of Judaism and Christianity. Epiphanius 
says it is doubtful whether the Elceseans 
should be classed among the Christian or 
Jewish sects. 

Elchin&eit (Battle). — Ney, at the head 
of a French army, defeated the Austrians at 
this village, in Bavaria, Oct. 14, 1805. For 
this victory Ney received the title of duke of 
Elchingen in 1808. 

El Doeado, or "the Golden Country," 
is the name given by Orellana, in 1531, to a 
country which he pretended to have dis- 
covered in the interior of South America, 
between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon. 
He asserted that gold and precious stones 
existed in this region in great abundance. 
In 1595 Sir Walter Ealeigh fitted out an 
expedition for the purpose of taking posses- 
sion of El Dorado for the Enghsh govern- 
ment. The term has been since apphed to 
different regions in which gold is found. 

Eleatics, a sect of philosophers, founded 
atElea, in Sicily, by Xenophanes of Colophon, 
about B. c. 538. Zeno, who flourished b.c. 
464, Empedocles, B.C. 435, and Melissus, 
B.C. 428, were leading philosophers of this 
school. They opposed the idea of a plurality 
of gods, but mingled this truth with many 
puerile and absurd conceits, which obscured 
and weakened its efficacy. 

Electoe Palatine.— This title was first 
assumed by Eodolph I., coimt palatine of 
the Ehine, in 1294. 

Electoes.— By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429), no 



ELE 

person was allowed to vote at the election of 
a member of parliament unless possessed of 
forty shillings yearly in land. Excise and 
custom-liouse officers were prohibited from 
voting by 22 Geo. III. c. 41 (1782). The 
mode of polling at elections is regulated by 
9 Geo. IV. c. 59 (July 15, 1828). Several 
new regulations as to electors were intro- 
duced by the Eeform Bill, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 
(June 7, 1832) ; and the crown received 
power to increase the number of polling- 
places in counties and boroughs, on the 
petition of the justices of those counties and 
boroughs, by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 102 (Aug. 20, 
1836). 

Electoes o¥ Gebmant. — The German 
empire became elective after the death of 
Conrad I., a.d. 919, when the right of 
choosing his successor was exercised by the 
dukes of Saxony, Bavaria, Eranconia, and 
Suabia. In 1257, there were seven electors ; 
viz., the archbishops of Mayence, Treves, 
and Cologne, with the count palatine of the 
Ehine, and the rulers of Brandenburg, 
Saxony, and Bohemia. These were recog- 
nized by the States in 1338, and confirmed 
by Charles IV. in the Golden BuU of 1356. 
The treaty of Westphalia added another 
elector in 1648 in the person of the palatine, 
Frederick V., whose vote had been recently 
conferred upon the duke of Bavaria ; and in 
1692 the emperor, Leopold I., conferred 
the title on the duke of Brunswick-Limeburg, 
who thus became the ninth elector. In 
1777 the electorate of Bavaria was re-united 
to the palatinate, which reduced the number 
to eight ; but in 1803 the diet of Eatisbon 
increased the number to ten; viz., the arch- 
chancellor of Mayence, Bohemia, Bavaria, 
Salzburg, Saxony, Brandenburg, Brunswick, 
Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse. In 1804, 
Francis I. declared the empire hereditary, 
in consequence of which the dignity of 
elector became merely nominal. The title 
is now only borne by the princes of Hesse- 
Cassel. 

Electeic Clock. — Professor Wheat- 
stone's electro-magnetic clock was exhibited 
and explained to the Eoyal Society Nov. 25, 
1840, and Mr. Bain patented an electric 
clock Jan. 8, 1841, which he exhibited at the 
Polytechnic Institution March 28. Mr. Shep- 
herd's electro -magnetic clock was one of 
the most remarkable objects of the Great 
Exhibition of 1851. An electric clock, which 
has since been removed, was set up in the 
Strand in 1852. 

Electeicitt, is so called from the Greek 
word electron, amber, because the first 
electrical phenomenon of which we have 
any record, is the property that substance 
possesses of attracting Mght bodies when it 
is rubbed. This pecmiarity was observed 
by Thales of Miletus, B.C. 600-. No progress 
was made, however, in the science, until 
about 1600 A.D., when Dr. Gilbert, of Col- 
chester, discovered that other substances 
also possess the same property. He is there- , 
fore regarded as the founder of the sciences | 
connected with electricity. The first elec- | 



ELE 

trieal machine was made by Otto Guericke, 
of Magdeburg, who flourished between 1602 
and 1686. The following are some of the 
most important dates connected with the 
subject : — 



600. Thales of Miletus observes that amber, 
when rubbed, possesses the property of 
attracting light bodies. 

A.D. 

413. Eustatius mentions that a certain philo- 
sopher emitted sparks while dressing and 
undressing. 

1600. Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, commences a series 
of experiments which prove that other 
bodies besides amber possess the property 
of attracting light bodies. 

1675. Boyle publishes his " Experiments on the 
Oiigin of Electricity." 

1705. Hawksbee notices the electric light pro- 
duced by passing air through mercury in 
a vacuum. 

1709. Hawksbee uses a glass electrical machine. 

1730. Grey classifies all bodies as electrics or non- 
electrics. 

1733. Dufay discovers vitreous and resinous elec- 
tricity. 

1746. The Leyden phial is discovered. Three per- 

sons claim the merit of this discovery ; 
viz., a monk named Kleist, Professor 
Musehenbroech, of Leyden, and a man 
named ('unens. 

1747. July 14. Dr. Watson conveys a shock across 

the Thames. 

1752. June. Dr. Franklin discovers the identity of 

lighti.iDg and the elt-ctric spark. 

1753. Aug. 6. Professor Richman, of St. Petersburg, 

is killed in the prosecution of some expe- 
riments. 
1767. Lane invents the discharging electrometer. 
1773. Mr. Walsh and Dr. Ingenhouz prove the 

electric nature of the shock of the 

torpedo. 
1776. Volta invents the electrophorus. 
1785. Coulomb invents the torsion balance, and 

discovers static electricity. 
1787. Cavendish demonstrates the formation of 

nitric acid, and decomposes atmospheric 

ail, by means of electricity. 
1790. Galvanism is discovered by Galvani. 
1800, Volta discovers Voltaic electricity. 
18U7. Sir Humphry Davy decomposes the fixed 

alkalies by electricity. 
1820. OeKted discovers electro -magnetism, and 

Bohnenberger invents the eiectioscope. 
1822. Dr. Seeberk discovers thermo-electricity. 
1834. Professor AVheatstone experiments on the 

velocity of electricity. 
1837. Professor Jacobi, of St. Petersburg, discovers 

electro-metallurgy. 

1839. The wi'eck of the Jioyal George, after being 

submerged for sixty yeai-s at Spithead, is 
blown up by electricity. 

1840. Mr. Armstrong invents the hydro - electric 

machine. 
1843. Jan. 26. Round Down cliff is destroyed by 

electro-blasting. 
1847. Professor William Thompson publishes his 

theory of electrical images and reflections. 
1851. Ruhmkorif constructs his electro-dynamic 

coU. 
1858. Aug. 5. Telegraphic signals are exchanged 

between England and America. 

Electric Light.— As early as 1802 the 
ChevaMer Bunsen conceived the idea of ob- 
taining light by fixing cones of charcoal to 
the poles of the conductor of a battery, in an 
exhausted glass globe. In 1846 Messrs. 
Greener and Staite patented an electric lamp, 
which was improved by the last-named gen- 
tleman in 1847, and exhibited at Hanover 
315 



ELE 



ELE 



Square Eooms, and in Trafalgar Square, 
London, in 1848. A new system of electric 
illumination was employed "the same year to 
light the theatre in the Palais Eoyal, Paris, 
and this was also exhibited in London with 
great success, Dec. 5 and 7. In 1850 Mr. 
Allman performed experiments at the Poly- 
technic Institution, with an instrument of 
his own invention, the light of which con- 
tinued longer, and was more equable in quahty 
than that of any former apparatus. Staite's 
light was again exhibited at Manchester, 
May 9, 1851. In 1853 Dr. Watson explained a 
process of his own iuTentiou, by which bril- 
Hant Hght was supplied, and costly pigments 
were simultaneously prepared by the same 
instrument, and in 1858 the same gentle- 
man lighted the works of new Westminster 
bridge by means of electricity. The electric 
light was employed in the lighthouse at the 
South Foreland in 1859. Mr. Gassiot in- 
vented an instrument in 1860, in which 
electricity discharged from the induction- 
coil through a spiral carbonic-acid vacuum- 
tube, is made to produce a brilliant white 
light. 

Electeic Loch. — This instrument was 
invented by BoneHi, of Turin, in 1854. In 
1855 it was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition, 
and in 1859 was much improved by M. Fro- 
ment. Faraday lectured upon it at the Eoyal 
Institution, June 8, 1860. 

Electeic Tele&eaph. — The success of 
Dr. Watson's experiments to prove the 
instantaneous transmission of electricity 
through great distances, made in 1747, ori- 
ginated the idea of employing this property 
for purposes of telegraphic communication. 
The first attempt to realize this scheme was 
made by Lesage in 1774, when a series of 
twenty -four -wires was established at Geneva, 
which communicated with an apparatus for 
indicating particular letters when the machine 
was in operation. Modifications of this plan 
were attempted by Betancourt in 1787, by 
Eeiser in 1794, and by Salva in 1796. 
Sommeriag of Munich apphed the voltaic 
battery to telegraphic purposes in 1811, and 
in 1816 Mr. Eonalds, of Hammersmith, in- 
vented an instrument in which pith balls were 
used to point out the letter intended. Oer- 
sted's discovery of electro-magnetism in 1819 
was applied to telegraphic pui-poses by 
Ampere in 1820, his plan being to employ as 
many conducting wires and magnetic needles 
as there are letters; so that each letter being 
under a difi'erent needle, signals might be 
transmitted to a great distance. This pro- 
position was lectured upon in England by 
Eitchie in 1830, and carried into efiect by 
Baron Schilling at St. Petersburg in 1832. 
In 1833 Gauss and Weber attempted to intro- 
duce an apparatus in which a single bar gave all 
the signals, but its mechanism was too deli- 
cate, and its results too uncertain, to render 
it of practical utihty. Cook and Wheatstone's 
first patent for an electric telegraph was 
sealed June 12, 1837, and Professor Morse's 
American instrument, which wrote the 
message it transmitted, was constructed the 

ai6 



same year. Cook and WTieatstone's electro- 
magnetic telegraph was patented Jan. 21, 
18410, and their signal-needle telegraph. 
May 6, 1845. The magneto-electric tele- 
graph was patented by Mr. Henley in 1848. 
(See Submaeine Telegeaphs.) 

Elected - Phtsiologt. — Animal electri- 
city was to some extent known to the ancients, 
as Aristotle (b. c. 384--322) and Pliny 
(a.d. 77) both mention the benumbing 
power of the torpedo, the electrical organs 
! of which were engraved by Lorenzini in 
1678, and the shock of which was proved to 
be electric by Mr. Walsh and Dr. Ingenhouz 
in 1773. Mr. Symmer performed several ! 
interesting experiments on human electricity 
in 1759, by means of silk and worsted stock- 
ings, and in 1786 important discoveries were 
made by Hemmer respecting the same sub- 
ject. Galvani's discoveries in 1790 shed fresh 
Hght on the science, which has since been 
illustrated bv the experiments of Humboldt 
and Gay-Lussac in 1805, of Mr. Todd in 1812 
and 1816, and of Professor Faraday, who 
examined the electricity of the gymnotus in 
1838. Several interesting discoveries have 
also been made by M. Matteucci, who per- 
formed some fine experiments at York in 
1844, and in May 1855 the subject was 
brought before the members of the British 
Institution by some lectures of Dr. Du Bois- 
Eeymond. 

Electeo-tint.— This application of the 
electrotype to the art of engraving was 
invented by Mr. Edward Palmer, who pub- 
lished an account of it in the Philosophical 
Magazine for June, 1840, and patented it 
June 12, 1841. The process was afterwards 
improved by him, and again patented, imder 
the name of glyphography, Jan. 15, 1842. 

Electeo-ttpe. — The art of plating by 
electricity was invented almost simultaneously 
by Mr. Spencer, of Liverpool, and Professor 
Jacobi, of St. Petersburg, in 1837 ; made 
public by the latter, Oct. 5, 1838, and by the 
former, Sept. 12, 1839. Mr. Murray apphed 
blacklead to non-metaUic bodies as a con- 
ducting surface in January, 1840. The 
Messrs. Elkington, of Birmingham, took out 
their patent for gilding, &c., March 25, 1840 ; 
and in the following April the first specimen 
of printing from an electrotype appeared in 
a London periodical. 

Elephaxt (Order of the). — The date of 
the foundation of this celebrated Danish 
order is very uncertain ; some authorities 
referring it to the period of the first crusade 
(1096), others to the reign of Canute VI. 
(1182—1202), and others to that of Chris- 
tian I. (1448—1481). The Danish official 
documents ascribe its foundation to the 
earlier part of the 15th century, and state 
that it was merely renewed by Christian I. 
in 1458. As originally constituted, it was of 
a religious character ; but it became secular 
on the alteration of its statutes by Chris- 
tian v., Dec. 1, 1693. This order, as weUas 
that of the Danebrog (q. v.), is under the 
presidency of a chapter of the royal orders, 
established at Copenhagen June 28, 1808. 



ELE 

The annual special festival of the order is 
celebrated on the lat of January. 

Elephanta Island (Hindostan). — This 
island is remarkable for a huge unwieldy 
statue of an elephant, cut out of the solid 
rock, and for a great temple. The date of 
both curiosities is unknown ; though, from 
their rapid decay since they were first 
examined, it is thought they cannot be of 
very high antiquity. In 1814 the neck and 
head of the elephant dropped ofi"; and in 
1824 only two-thirds of the columns of the 
temple remained in anything like a perfect 
condition. A visitor to the island in 1836 
states that the whole of the elephant, ex- 
cepting three legs and a fragment of the 
fourth, had been at that time destroyed. 

Ei/EPHANTiNE (Egypt). — A small island 
in the Nile, opposite Syene, bears this name. 
It was the last fortified place in the dominions 
of Psammetichus, and the Eomans held it 
for some time. Diocletian built a temple of 
Concord here a.d. 297 : it was destroyed by 
Justinian I. in 531. 

Elephantine Kin&dom (Egypt). — This 
small kingdom, situated on an island in the 
Nile, flourished at a period prior to the age 
of authentic history, and declined about 
B.C. 1450, when its importance was ecHpsed 
by the rising grandeur of Thebes. 

Elephants. — The Hindoos employed 
these animals for military purposes from the 
most remote periods, but they were not 
introduced into the regions west of the 
Indus until about the year B.C. 331, when 
they were used by Darius against Alexander, 
at the battle of Arbela. At the battle of 
Hydaspes, B.C. 327, Porus brought about 
100 elephants into the field, 80 of which fell 
aHve into the hands of the victorious Alex- 
ander. They were introduced into Italy by 
Pyrrhus, who used twenty at the battle of 
Heracleia, B.C. 280; and they were soon 
adopted as an important branch of mihtary 
power by the Carthaginians, who surren- 
dered 104 to the Eomans at the battle of 
Panormus, b.c. 250. In consequence of this 
capture, the Romans also began to use 
elephants, which they employed vrith great 
effect against the barbarous Arverni and 
AUobroges, b.c 121. Towards the close of 
the Roman republic, the use of elephants in 
war was abandoned to the Orientals, to whom 
it has ever since been restricted. 

Eleusinian Mysteries were festivals 
held annually, in September, at Eleusis, a 
town of Attica, in honour of the goddess 
Demeter, or Ceres. According to some 
authorities, they were instituted by Cadmus, 
B.C. 1550; others refer their origin to Erich- 
thonius, B.C. 1494; but the usual opinion is 
that they were commenced by Eumolpus, 
the first hierophant, B.C. 1356. Great se- 
crecy was observed in the celebration of the 
festivals, and it was a capital offence to 
reveal any of the rites. They existed about 
eighteen centuries, and ceased during the 
invasion of Alaric, a.d. 396. They consisted 
of the greater and lesser mysteries. Hales 
says they were brought Irom Egypt to 



ELI 

Attica, about B.C. 1399, by Ereehtheus, and 
that they were ultimately borrowed from the 
Jevrish feast of Tabernacles. 

El&in Marbles. — This splendid collection 
of antique statuary is chiefly composed of 
fragments of the Parthenon at AthenSj 
which was buUt by Pericles about b.c. 448, 
In 1799 Lord Elgin conceived the idea of 
forming such a collection, and in 1800 
he proceeded to Athens, in company with 
several artists, who were permitted by 
the Porte to make drawings of the Acro- 
pohs. In 1801, however, owing to the success 
of British arms in Egypt, the Turkish govern- 
ment granted him permission to " view, 
draw, and model the ancient temples of the 
idols, and the sculptures upon them ; and 
make excavations, and take away any stones 
that might appear interesting to him." In 
this manner he obtained the series of mar- 
bles which now bears his name. Mr. Perceval 
offered to buy them for the nation in 1811, 
but the sum offered (£30,000) was deemed 
insufficient, and the proposal was rejected. 
In 1812 more remains were obtained, and in 
1815 Lord Elgin petitioned the House of 
Commons to secure the collection for the 
national benefit. A select committee was 
appointed, and an act was passed, 56 Geo. III. 
c. 99 (July 1, 1816), by which the marbles 
were purchased for £35,000, and deposited 
in the British Museum. 

Elis (Greece) appears to have been 
originally peopled by Pelasgians, and to 
have been taken by a party of ^tolians 
under Oxylus, B.C. 1104. In the 8th century 
B.C. its inhabitants had extended their con- 
quests as far as the river Neda, and had 
wrested from the Pisatans the presidency of 
the festival of Zeus, at Olympia. This presi- 
dency was, however, restored to Pisa by 
Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, B.C. 747 ; and 
Pantaleon, king of Pisa, celebrated the 
games to the exclusion of the Eleians, B.C. 
644. The Eleians invaded Pisa B.C. 588, and 
were in their turn invaded by the Pisatans, 
B.C. 572; in consequence of which, the Eleians 
razed their city to the ground. A quarrel 
broke out between Sparta and EHs B.C. 421, 
which led to the exclusion of the Spartans 
from the Olympic festival, B.C. 420. The 
Eleians with their allies were defeated by 
the Spartans at the battle of Mantineia, 
B.C. 418 ; and were invaded by Agis B.C. 402, 
and compelled to purchase peace by the 
surrender of several important towns B.C. 
400. They attempted to recover some por- 
tion of the ceded territory B.C. 371, but 
were prevented by the Arcadians, against 
whom they declared war b.c 366, and by 
whom they were defeated b.c 365 and 364. 
In consequence, however, of the Arcadians 
having pillaged the temple of Olympia, so 
strong a feeling was excited against them, 
that they were compelled to restore several 
of their conquests and conclude peace, B.C. 
362. Telesphorus, a general of Antigonus, 
seized the tovra of Elis b.c 312, and at- 
tempted to erect it into an independent 
principality, but it was soon afterwards re- 
317 



ELI 

covered by Ptolemssus. After the capture 
of Corinth, by Mummius, B.C. 146, Elis, with, 
the rest of the Peloponnesus, passed under 
the dominion of Eome. Theodosius abolished 
the Olympic games a.d. 394, thereby des- 
troying the last remnant of the ancient glory 
of the country, which was soon afterwards 
ravaged by Alaric, in 396. It lay to the west 
of Arcadia, and was called the "Holy Land" 
of Greece. 

Elizabetgead (Eussia) was founded by 
the empress Elizabeth a.d. 1754. 

Elizabeth.^ — The only surviving child of 
Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was born at 
Greenwich, Sept. 7, 1533. She ascended the 
Enghsh throne^jS'ov. 17, 1558; was crowned 
at Westminster, Jan. 13, 1559 ; was never 
married, and died at Eichmond, March 24, 
1603. Elizabeth was buried at Westminster, 
April 28, 1603. 

Elizabeth, St. (Orders of). — One for 
females was instituted in Bavaria, a.d. 1766. 
The Eoyal order of St. Elizabeth of Brazil, 
for females, was founded in 1804. 

Elizabetpol, or Kandsag- (Asiatic Eussia), 
was taken by the Seljukian Turks a.d. 1088, 
and by the Mongols in 1235. General Pas- 
kewitch defeated a Persian force here, 
Aug. 8, 1826, and afterwards occupied the 
town. 

Ellandtjn-e (Battle).— Egbert, king of 
Wessex, defeated Beornwulf, king ofMercia, 
with great slaughter, at Ellandune, orEalla's 
MU, A.D. 823. 

Ellisox Galleet. — The late Mr. Eichard 
EUison, of Sudbrook Holme, Lincolnshire, 
having desired that some portion of his col- 
lection of water-colour pictures shoidd be 
given to the nation, his widow presented 
fifty works by leading artists to Kensington 
Museum, in April, 1860, "until a separate 
and permanent building shall be erected for 
the purpose of holding a national collection 
of water-colour paintings." 

Elopeiiext.— By the statute of West- 
minster 2, 13 Edw. I. c. 34 (1285), any wife 
Tolmitarily leaving her husband, forfeited 
for ever all right to dower, unless her husband 
willingly, and without coercion, restored her 
to his favour. 

Elphi:!^ (Ireland). — This see was erected 
about A.D. 450, by St. Patrick, who appointed 
a monk named Asicus the first bishop ; but 
there is no regular succession of prelates tiQ 
1262. The Church Temporalities Act (3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 37 Aug. 14, 1833) directed the 
annexation of this see to that of EHmore, 
which was accomplished in 1841. 

Elsinoee (Denmark). — This place ob- 
tained the privileges of a city a.d. 1425, and 
was mentioned in a treaty ^vith England, as 
entitled to levy the tax known as the Sound 
dues, in 1450. In 1522 it was taken by the 
inhabitants of Lubeck, from whom it was 
recovered by Christian II. in 1535, In 1576 
its population was increased by an immi- 
gration of Dutch colonists, and about 1580 
the celebrated Castle of Cronenberg was 
erected. This fortress was taken by the 
Swedes under Wrangel in 1658, but almost 
318 



EMB 

immediately' evacuated. A treaty was con- 
cluded here between Sweden and the States- 
general, Dec. 9, 1659. In 1801 the British 
fleet under Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson 
forced the passage of the Sound previous to 
the bombardment of Copenhagen, and in 
1807 Admiral Gambler passed the Great 
Belt. Elsinore is celebrated as the scene of 
the tragedy of " Hamlet." 

Elstee (Battle).— Henry IV. was de- 
feated near the Elster, or Elbe, during 
his struggle against Eodolph of Suabia, 
Oct. 13, 1080. Henry was defeated, and his 
rival, Eodolph, was slain in the battle. 
I Ely (Cambridge).— Etheldreda, daughter 
' of Ecgric Anna, king of the East Angles, 
j founded a monastery on this island about 
A.D. 673, which was remodelled by Ethelwold, 
bishop of Winchester, in 970. It subsequently 
became so rich and important, that in the year 
1108 a charter was obtained from Henry I. 
for its erection into a separate diocese, which 
was effected in 1109. Hervens was conse- 
crated its first bishop, July 27, 1109. In 
1837 and 1839 parts of the diocese of Lincoln 
were transferred to Ely. 

Emancipation. — Slavery was abolished 
throughout the British colonies by 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 73 (Aug. 28, 1833). 

Emanuel College (Cambridge). — This 
college was founded a.d. 1584 by Sir Walter 
Mildmay, chancellor of the exchequer and 
privy councillor to Queen EUzabeth. 

Embalming. — This custom originated 
among the Ethiopians, from whom the Egj^- 
tians received it at a very early period. 
It is usually very difficult to ascertain 
the precise age of mummies, but there is 
httle doubt that many of those in our 
museums have been preserved at least 3,000 
years. Mr. Pettigrew mentions one of that 
age which he opened, and found uninjured 
by the lapse of time ; but when he soaked 
out the preservative drugs, the work of pu- 
trefaction immediately commenced. We 
learn from Scripture that Joseph caused 
the body of his father Jacob to be embalmed 
(Gen. 1. 2, 3), b.c. 1689, and also that forty 
days were taken up in the operation. Hero- 
dotus, who flourished b.c. 484, and Diodorus 
Siculus, B.C. 60, have left descriptions of the 
manner in which this process was performed 
by the Egyptians. It was much used by the 
early Christians. St. Augustine says it was 
still practised at the beginning of the 5th 
century a.d. 

Embargo is the prohibition of ships from 
saihng, and the right to impose it may be 
lawfully exercised by the crown in time of 
war. But an embargo laid upon com in 1766 
being opposed to certain statutes, a special 
act (7 Geo. III. c. 7, 1766) was passed to 
indemnify such as had endeavoured to en- 
force it. An embargo was imposed on aU 
Eussian, Swedish, and Danish vessels in 
British ports, Jan. 14, 1801. 

Embden, or Emden (Hanover), the chief 
commercial town of Hanover, was formed 
after the inundation of the Ems, a.d. 1277. An 
African trading company existed here in 1682. 



EMB 



EMI 



It was made a free port in 1751. The Erench 
took it in July, 1757, and evacuated it 
March 19, 1758, at the approach of an 
English squadron. The Erench again ob- 
tained possession in 1761, but were speedily 
expelled. A bank was established here 
Eeb. 1, 1769. Embden came into the 
possession of Holland in 1808, and was 
incorporated with Hanover in 1815. 

EmbekWeeks. — Pope Calixtus I. (a.d . 218- 
223) appointed certain fast-days for imploriug 
the Divine blessing on the fruits of the earth 
and on the ordinations of priests, which were 
celebrated at these times. Erom tbe custom 
of strewing ashes or embers upon the head 
on these occasions, the days were called 
ember days, and the weeks in which they fell, 
ember weeks. They occur four times a year, 
being the Wednesday, Eriday, and Saturday 
after the first Sunday in Lent, after Whit- 
sunday, after Sept. 14 (the Eeast of Holy 
Cross), and after Dec. 13 (the Eeast of 
St. Lucia). 

Embeoideet. — This art is of very ancient 
origin, and is supposed to have been invented 
by the Phrygians. It was practised with 
great success by the women of Sidon, and 
was employed by Moses in the decoration of 
the tabernacle, B.C. 1490 (Exod. xxxv. 35, 
and xxxviii. 23) . A machine was invented 
by M. Heilman, and exhibited in Paris in 
1834, by the aid of which a lady could em- 
broider any design as correctly and quickly 
with one hundred and forty needles as for- 
merly with one. The company of the Em- 
broiderers was incorporated in 1562. 

Emerald. — This gem is- mentioned as one 
of those forming the breastplate of Aaron, 
B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 18); but it is 
uncertain whether the Hebrew word is cor- 
rectly translated. The earliest emeralds 
known were brought from the mountains 
between Ethiopia and Egypt, where exten- 
sive mines were worked by the Ptolemies (b . c . 
306 to B.C. 30) . This gem became very rare 
during the Middle Ages. Only one specimen, 
which adorned the tiara of Pope Julius II, 



(1503 — 1513), was known to have existed 
previous to the discovery of the Peruvian 
mines by Pizarro in 1545. The finest emerald 
in existence was exhibited at the Great 
Exhibition of 1851, and weighs 8 oz. 18 dwt. 

Emesa, or Emissa (Syria), is remarkable 
for a magnificent temple of the sun. Its 
young priest, Bassianus, was raised to the 
imperial dignity a.d. 218, under the name of 
Elagabalus, corrupted into HeHogabalus. He 
was assassinated by the Prastorian guards 
March 10, 222. His mutilated body was 
dragged through the streets of Eome, and 
thrown into the Tiber. Aurelian defeated 
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, near Emesa, 
A.D. 272. The Arabs took Emesa a.d. 635. 
Its modern name is Hems. 

Emigeants. — During the Revolution, 
Erench refugees (emigres) began to leave 
Erance in July, 1789, and soon reached 
the number of 35,000 persons. Napoleon I. 
pubHshed an amnesty in their favour April 26, 
1802, at which time there were no fewer than 
50,000, the greater part of whom returned 
to France. On the restoration of the Bour- 
bons, in 1814, many more returned, and a 
law was passed by the French chambers, 
April 27, 1825, to indemnify them for the 
injury their affairs had sustained during their 
exile. 

Emigeation was placed under the regula- 
tion of a government commission in 1831. It 
was one of the modes of rehef proposed by 
the Poor Law Amendment Act, 4 & 5 Will. IV, 
c. 76, s. 62 (Aug. 14, 1834), and in January, 
1840, was placed under the supervision of 
commissioners, appointed under the royal 
sign manual, as the Land and Emigration 
Board. The conveyance of emigrants from 
the United Kingdom was at first regulated 
by 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 53 (Aug. 31, 1835), which 
was amended by the Passengers Act, 5 & 6 
Vict. c. 107 (Aug. 12, 1842). The recent ex- 
tensive emigration from Ireland commenced 
in 1846. The following table is extracted from 
the twentieth report of the Emigration Com- 
missioners (1860). 



Emigration from the United Kingdom dn/ring the Forty -Jive Tears 
from 1815 to 1859 inclusive. 



Year. 


N. American 
Colonies. 


TTnited States. 


Australia and 
New Zealand. 


Other Places. 


Total. 


1815 


680 


1,209 




192 


2,081 


1816 


3,370 


9,022 




118 


12,510 


1817 


9,797 


10,280 




557 


20,634 


1818 


15,136 


12,429 




222 


27,787 


1819 


23,534 


10,674 




579 


34,787 


1820 


17,921 


6,745 




1,063 


25,729 


1821 


12,955 


4,958 




384 


18,297 


1822 


16,013 


4,137 




279 


20,429 


1823 


11,355 


5,032 




163 


16,550 


1824 


8,774 


5,152 




99 


14,025 


1825 


8,741 


5,551 


*485 


114 


14,891 


1826 


12,818 


7,063 


903 


116 


20,900 


1827 


12,648 


14,526 


715 


114 


28,003 


1828 


12,084 


12,817 


1,056 


135 


26,092 


1829 


13,307 


15,078 


2,016 


197 


31,198 



EMI 



EN"A 



Emigration from the United Kingdom during the Forty -jive Tears 
from 1815 to 1859 inclusive — (continued). 



Tear. 


N. American 
Colonies. 


United States. 


Australia and 
New Zealand. 


Other Places. 


Total. 


1830 


30.574 


24,887 


1,242 


204 


5S,907 


1831 


58,067 


23,418 


1,5B1 


114 


83,160 


1832 


66,339 


32,872 


3,733 


196 


103.140 


1833 


28.808 


29,109 


4,093 


517 


62.527 


1834 


40,060 


33,074 


2,800 


288 


76,222 


1835 


15,573 


26,720 


1,860 


325 


44,478 


1836 


34,226 


37,774 


3.124 


293 


75,417 


1837 


29,884 


36,770 


5.054 


326 


72,034 


1838 


4,577 


14,332 


14,021 


292 


33,222 


1839 


12,658 


33,536 


15,786 


227 


62,207 


1840 


32.293 


40,642 


15,850 


1,958 


90,743 


1841 


38,164 


45,017 


32,625 


2,786 


118,592 


1842 


54,123 


63,852 


8,534 


1.835 


128,344 


1843 


23,.518 


28,335 


3.478 


1,881 


57,212 


1844 


22,924 


43,660 


2,229 


1,873 


70,686 


1845 


31,803 


58.538 


830 


2,330 


93,501 


1846 


43,439 


82.239 


2,347 


1,826 


129,851 


1847 


109,680 


142,154 


4,949 


1,487 


258.270 


1848 


31,065 


188.233 


23,904 


4,887 


248,089 


1849 


41,367 


219,450 


32,191 


6,490 


299,498 


1850 


32,961 


223,078 


16,0:}7 


8,773 


280.849 


1851 


42,605 


267,3-57 


21.-532 


4,472 


335,966 


1852 


32,873 


244,261 


88,881 


3,749 


369.764 


1853 


34,-522 


230.885 


61,401 


3,li9 


329,937 


1854 


43,761 


193 065 


83,237 


3,366 


323,429 


1855 


17,936 


103,414 


52,309 


.3,318 


176,807 


1856 


16,378 


111.837 


44,-584 


3,755 


176,.554 


1857 


21,001 


126,905 


61.248 


3,721 


212.875 


1858 


9,704 


59,716 


39,295 


5,257 


113,972 


1859 
Total .... 


6,689 


70,303 


31,013 


12,427 


l')0,432 


1,186,735 


2,960,706 


683.923 


86,234 


4.917,598 


Average 


annual emigrat 


on from 1 Fron 
1 / For 


1 1815 to 1859 . 




.... 109.279 


the 


United Kingdon 


the ten years ei 


Jding '1859 .■.'.' .'.■.' 


.... 243,958 



EiriJfENCE. — Pope Urban VIII. granted 
this title to cardinals, Jan. 10, 1631. Pre- 
viously they were called ilhistrissimi. This 
title was also granted to ecclesiastical electors 
and to the G-rand Master of Malta. 

Emik, the title borne by the descendants of 
Mohammed, who are also allowed to wear 
green turbans. It was instituted by Fatima, 
daughter of the Prophet, a.d. 650. 

Emlt (Ireland) .■ — This is one of the most 
ancient bishoprics in Ireland, having been 
founded by St. Ailbe, about a.d. 448. In old 
annals it is referred to as " Imleach lubhair." 
Originally it was the metropohtan see of 
Munster ; but in the year 1152 Pope Euge- j 
nius III. rendered it subordinate to Cashel, 
with which see it was incorporated in 1568. 

Empalement. — This is still used as a 
capital punishment by the Turks. It was 
formerly practised in this country on the 
bodies of those who committed suicide, but 
was abohshed by 4 Geo. IV. c. 52, s. 1 (July 8, 
1823). 

Empeeob. — The Eomans distinguished 
their successful generals by the title Impera- 
tor, which was assumed by Julius Csesar on 
his elevation to the perpetual dictatorship, j 
B.C. 46. The succession of Eoman emperors 
320 



dates from Augustus Caesar, B.C. 27, and 
that of the Eastern emperors from Valens, 
A.D. 364. Charlemagne was crowned em- 
peror of the West in 800. The Ottoman 
empire began under Ottoman or Othman I., 
in 1299. The Czar Peter assumed the title 
of Emperor of all the Eussias in 1721, and 
Napoleon I. that of Emperor of the French, 
May 18, 1804, in which year Francis II. of 
Germany adopted the style of Emperor of 
Austria. Brazil became an independent 
empire under Don Pedro IV. in 1825, and 
Souluque was proclaimed emperor of Hayti, 
by the title of Eaustin I., Aug. 24, 1849. 
The present imperial government of France 
began under Napoleon III., Dec. 1, 1852. 

Empirics, a sect of physicians who taught 
that aU knowledge of medical matters must 
be derived from experiment and observation. 
This doctrine was first promulgated by Acron 
of Agrigentum, a Greek physician, who flou- 
rished B.C. 430, but his disciples did not form 
themselves into a separate sect until the time 
of Philinus of Cos, and Serapion of Alexan- 
dria, B.C. 250. 

Enamelling. — The inventor of this art 
is unknown, but the Egyptians, Etruscans, 
and other nations of antiquity practised it 



ENC 

with considerable success. Having fallen 
into disuse, it was revived in Italy during the 
pontificate of Julius II. (a.d. 1503-1513), and 
was much improved by Jean Toutin, a gold- 
smith of Chasteaudun, who invented the art 
of painting with opaque enamel in 1630. 
Enamelled pottery was first made in En- 
gland in 1642. A process for coating the 
interior of iron saucepans, &c. with enamel, 
was patented by Dr. Hickhng in Dec. 1790, 
and improved by Clarke's method, which 
was patented May 25, 1839. 

Elf c^NiA, or " anniversary feasts kept 
in memory of the dedication of churches " 
(Bingham, b. xx. c.viii. s. 1), commenced in the 
time of Constantine I. (a.d. 306—337). They 
were introduced into England by Gregory 
the Great (590 — 604) , who ordered Augustine 
and MeUitus, the first English bishops, "to 
allow the people liberty, on their annual 
feasts of the dedication of their churches, 
to build themselves booths round about the 
church, and there feast and entertain them- 
selves with eating and drinking, in lieu of the 
ancient sacrifices while they were heathens " 
(Bing. b. XX. c. viii. s. 1). Hence arose our 
church-wakes. 

Encaustic PAiifTiNG. — In this art the 
coloui-s are prepared with wax. It was 
anciently practised by Praxiteles, B.C. 360, 
but gradually feU. into disuse until some ex- 
periments were made by Bachelier a.d. 1749. 
The Count Caylus and M. Mignot published a 
description of the results in 1765, but the art 
was not recovered untill785. This was efiected 
by Miss Greenland, afterwards Mrs. Hooker, 
of Eottingdean, Sussex, and the account of 
her proceedings is given in the 10th vol. of 
the Transactions of the Society of Arts, 
1792. 

En-cratites, or Abstaim-ebs, the followers 
of Tatian, an Assyrian, and a disciple of 
Justyn Martyr. He held matter to be the 
source of aU evil, and corrupted Christianity 
by introducing various doctrines of the ori- 
ental philosophers. His followers discarded 
all external comforts, and held wine in such 
abhorrence, that they used water in the Lord' s 
supper. Tatian flourished about a.d. 173. 
His followers were called, in addition to 
Encratites, Tatianists, Apotactites, and 
Hydroparastates. They were also called 
Continents. 

ElfCUMBEKED ESTATES AcT. — In consB- 
quence of thenimabers of encumbered estates 
in Ireland, and the difficulty of disposing of 
them, three commissioners were appointed by 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 77 (July 28, 1849) to superin- 
tend their sale and transfer. By this act, the 
owner or incumbrancer of encumbered land 
of which the lease had run on for at least 
sixty years, was empowered to apply vrithin 
three years to the commissioners for a sale 
(s. 16). The Commissioners' Court in Dublin 
commenced its business Oct. 25, 1849, and 
ceased Aug. 31, 1858, having sold property 
to the amount of £23,161,093. 6s. 7d. A new 
court, to be called the Landed Estates Court, 
Ireland, was appointed by 21 & 22 Vict. 

c. 72, s. 2 (Aug. 2, 1858). An Encumbered 

321 



EN-G 

Estates Act for the West Indies was pro- 
vided by Act 17 & 18 Vict. c. 117 (Aug. 11, 
1854), which was amended by 21 & 22 Vict. 
c. 96. 

EN-CYCLOP.aEDiA. — The earliest encyclopae- 
dia in existence is one in MS. by Alfarabius, a 
philosopher of the school of Bagdad, who 
flourished in the 10th century. The first 
printed work with this title is the Mncyclo- 
pcedia, seu Orbis Disciplinarum, which was 
published at Basel in 1555. The following 
table is a list of the most celebrated Ency- 
clopaedias in the order of their pubhcation : — 



Alsted's Encyclopsedia 1620 

John Han-is's Lexicon Technicum (the 

first English Encyclopsedia) 1706-1710 

Ephraim (Chambers's Cyclopadia 1728 

Barrow's New and Universal Dictionary 

of Arts and Sciences 1751-1754 

Didgrot and D'Alembert's Bncyclop6die 1751-1780 

Encyclopcedia Britannica 1771 

Eucyclopedie Mgthodique 1782-1832 

Kees' Chambers's Cyclopaedia 1788 

Rees' Cyclopsedia 1803-1819 

Conversations-Lexicon 1809 

The Pantalogia 1813 

Encyclopsedia Metropolitana 1817-1845 

Encyclopsedia Americana 1829 

Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopsedia 1829-1846 

Dictionnaire de la Conversation 1831-1852 

Penny Cyclopsedia 1833-1816 

English Cyclopasdia 1854-1861 

Chambers's (W. and K.) Cyclopsedia (in 
progress) 1859 

Endeavour Eiver (Australia). — Capta-'n 
Cook anchored at the mouth of this river, 
July 17, 1770, and remained until Aug. 4, 
when he named it after the ship in which he 
sailed. 

En-dor (Palestine). — Saul consulted the 
sorceress at this village on the eve of the 
battle of Mount Gilboa (1 Sam. xxviii. 7-25), 
B.C. 1055. Saul was defeated, and committed 
suicide (1 Sam. xxxi. 4-6). 

Endosmose, the power possessed by a 
dense fluid of attracting to itself through 
an animal or vegetable membrane any less 
dense fluid, was discovered by M. Du- 
trochet, who published an account of its 
properties in 1826. Endosmose is the term 
appHed to this phenomenon when the attrac- 
tion is from the outside to the inside. In 
the contrary case it is called exosmose. 

Enfield (Middlesex). — The free school 
of this town was endowedA.D. 1413. Enfield 
Chase was disforested in 1779, and an old 
palace in which Edward VI. held his court, 
and his sister, the princess Elizabeth, used 
to reside, was destroyed in 1792. Experi- 
ments to test the powers of small fire-arms 
were conducted here by government in 
1852. 

Enpiei-d Musket. — In consequence of 
experiments made by government in 1852, 
to test the capabilities of various rifle arms, 
the Enfield rifle-musket was adopted in the 
British army in 1853. 

Engagers. — A name given to the duke of 

Hamilton, and other Scottish noblemen, 

who shared the counsels of Charles II. 

during his visit to Scotland in 1650-51. Who- 

X 



ENG 

ever happened to he obnoxious to the Pres- 
byterians, were branded either as Engagers 
or Malignants. 

Engek ( Battle ). — The Anstrians were 
defeated at Engen by the French, May 3, 
1800. . 

Englakd. — This name is derived from 
Angles and lond, signifying land of the 
Angles. Sharon Turner doubts the story 
that the name of England was first given 
to the country at a council summoned at 
Winchester by Egbert, a.d. 829, and con- 
siders that Athelstan may with greater 
propriety be entitled the first king of 
England. 



835. Egbert defeats the Danes and Britons at the 
decisive battle of Hengstone Hill. 

871. Battle of Merton, in which the Danes defeat 
Ethelred I., who, being mortiilly wounded, 
is succeeded by Alfred. 

878. Alfred the Great is compelled by the Danes 
to seek refuge in the island of Athelney. 

890. He publishes his code of laws, by which, 
according to some authorities, trial byjui-y 
was instituted, and England divided into 
parishes. 

896. He institutes the Privy Council. 

937. Athelstan defeats the united forces of the 
Danes, Scots, Irish, and Britons, at the 
battle of Brunanbui-gh, ant reduces all 
England under his authority. He first 
assumes the title of king of Eoglaud. 

946. Mysterious assassination of Edmund the 
Elder. 

959. St. Dunstan flourishes and is made bishop 
of Worcester. 

978. Assassination of Edward the Martyr, by order 
of Elfrida, widow of Edgar, whose son, 
Ethelred II., or the Unready, succeeds to the 
throne. 

1002. Nov. 13. M.assacre of the Danes. 

1003. Sweyn, king of Denmark, lands at Exeter, 

and devotes several years to the task of 
avenging the slaughter of his countrymen, 
and of establishing his own power in 
England. 

1013. SwejTX returns for the last time, compels 

Ethelred U. to seek shelter in Normandy, 
and assumes the title of king of England. 

1014. Death of Sweyu, and recall of Ethelred. 
1017. Canute unites the crowns of England and 

Denmark. 

1042. On the death of Hardicanute, the Saxon 
dynasty is restored in the person of Edward 
the Confessor. 

1051. Eebellion or' Godwin, earl of Kent. 

1066. Oct. 14. Battle of Hastings, which flnaUy 
abolishes the Saxon supremacy, and estab- 
lishes a Norman dynasty, commencing 
with William the Conqueror. 

1069. William 1. 1 avages Noi-thumbria. 

1076. Couniy justices, or conservators of the peace, 
are first appointed. 

10S6. Completion of Domesday Book. 

1096. St. George becomes the patron saint of 
England. 

1120. Prince William, only son of Henry I., is 
drowned with 140 young noblemen, on the 
voyage from Normandy to England. 

1139. Stephen's claim to the English throne 
is disputed by Matilda, daughter of 
Henry I., widow of Henry V., emperor 
of Germany, and wife of Geoffrey Plan- 
tagenet, count of Anjou. She lands at 
Arundel, in Kent, and is joined by the earl 
of Gloucester and 150 knights. 
1141. Feb. 2. Stephen is made prisoner while 
besieging Lincobi. Shortly afterwards 
Matilda is crowned at Winchester. 

1146. Matilda retires to Normandy. 



A.D. 

1153. 



1155. 
1164. 
1170. 

1172. 
1174. 



1194. 
1198. 



12.54. 
12i58. 



1262. 
1265. 



1294. 
1305. 



1312. 
1314. 



1321. 
1327. 



1331. 
1332. 



ENG 



Nov. 7. Stephen and Henry Plantajrenet, 
son of Matilda, conclude a treaty at Win- 
chester, by which Stephen is to enjoy the 
crown dui-ing his life, and Henry is to 
succeed him. 

Dec. 19. Sunday. Coronation of Henry II., 
the first of the Plantagenets, and lineaJ 
descendant of the o'd Saxon sorereigns. 

Thomas Becket is made Lord Chancellor. 

Jan. 25. Constitutions of Clarendon. 

Dec. 29. Tuesday. Thomas Becket is killed 
in Canterbiirv Cathedi-al. 

Submission of Ireland to Henry II. 

July 12. Henry II. does penance at the shrine 
of Thomas Becket. 

England is divided Into six districts, for the 
administratiou of justice, and itinerant 
judges are appointed. 

Sept. 3. Cor.ination of Richard I., which is 
disgraced by a cruel mass.'»cre of the Jews. 
Dec. 11. The king departs for the Cru- 
sades. 

Dec. 20. Richard I. is made prisoner by the 
duke of Austria, who sells him to Henry 
VI., emperor of Gelmany, for a large 
sum. 

Feb. 4. He is ransomed for 150,000 marks, or 
about £300,000 present coinage. 

Sept 20. Battle of Gisors, the watchword on 
which occasion — "Dieu et mon droit"— 
is adopted by Richard I. as the national 
motto. 

April 6. Tuesday. Death of Richard T., in con- 
sequence of an arrow-wound received .it 
the siege of Chalus. He^ is succeeded by 
his brother John. 

John loses Normandy. 

March 23. Pope Innocent III. lajs England 
under an interdict. 

May 15. John suirenders his crown to Pan- 
dulph, the Pope's legate. 

June 15. Signing of Magna Cbarta. 

Jan. 14. Henry III. man-ies Eleanor of 
Provence. 

County representation is instituted by 
Henry III. 

June 11. The Mad Parliament assembles at 
Oxford. 

De Montfort's rebellion. {See Bakohs' Wak.) 

Jan. 20. The first reaular representative 
parliament is. summoned by Siiuon de 
Moutfort, earl of Leicester. 

Edwai-d I. completes the subjugation of 
Wales. 

He is invited to decide the Scottish succes- 
sion. 

Nov. 30. He decides in favour of John Balliol, 
who rendei-B him feudal homage at New- 
castle. 

Guienue is seized by Philip TV. of France. 

Aug. 24. Sir William Wallace is execnted in 
Smithfield. 

June 19. Piers Gavestone is put to death by 
order of the earl of Lancaster. 

Edward II. invades ScotUnd, and is defeated 
by Robert Bi-uce, at Banuockbnm, June 24. 

Banishment of the Spensers. 

Jan. 20 or 21. Deposition of Edward II. 
Sept. 21. He is murdered iu Berkeley C astle. 

Oct. 19. Arrest of Mortimer and the c^neen 
dowager at Nottingham. Nov. 29. Execu- 
tion of Mortimer at Tyburn. 
The art of weavijig woollen cloth is intro- 
duced by seventy Flemish families. 

Edward HI. invades Scotland on behalf of 
Edward Balliol. 

Edward III. invades France. 
Aug. 26. The battle of Crecy. Oct. 12. 
Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham, 
and capture of David Bruce ol Scotland. 

Aug. 4. Capitulation of Calais. 

Order of the Garter instituted. 

The Black Prince invades France, and takes 
King John prisoner at the battle of 
Poitiers, Sept. 9. 



ENG 



A.D. 

1360. May 8. Treaty of Bretigny, by which Ed- 
ward III. renounces his claim to Normandy, 
Maine, Anjou, &c. , accepting in lieu thereof 
the provinces of Gascony and Guienne. 

1362. The English language is substituted for the 
French in the courts of law. 

1377. Wycliffe opposes the pope's supremacy. 

1381. Wat Tyler's insurrection. 

1397. Airest and murder of the duke of Gloucester. 
- 1398. Sei>t. 16. Richard II. banishes the dukes of 
Hereford and Norfolk. 

1399. Sept. 29. Monday. Abdication of Richard II. 
^, 1400. Richard II. is put to death some time in the 
spring. 

1401. Feb. 12. William Sawtre, a Lollard priest, 

is burnt for heresy. Owen Glendower's 
insurrection. 

1402. Rebellion of the Percies. 

1403. July 23. Battle of Shrewsbury, and defeat of 

the rebels. 

1405. The archbishop of York, Lord Mowbray, and 
others, are frustrated in an attempt to 
stir up a rebellion in Northumberland. 

1408. The Percies again rebel. Defeat and death 
of the earl of Nurthumberland, at the 
battle of Bramham Moor, Feb. 19. 
^1414. Lollard insurrection, rmder Lord Cobham. 
V 1415. Aug. 14. Henry V. sets sail for France. 
Sept. 22. He captures Harfleur. Oct. 25. 
Henry V. defeats the French army at the 
battle of Agincourt. 

1420. May 21. Treaty of Troyes, by which Heniy V. 
is declared heir to the French crown. 
June 2. Marriage of Henry V. with the 
princess Catherine of France. 

1426. Oct. Serious disputes commence between 
the Lord Protector Gloucester and the 
bishop of Wiu'hester. 

1431. May 30. Execution at Rouen of Joan of 
/' Arc. 

V 1446. April 22. Marriage of Heniy VI. and Mar- 
garet of Anjou. 

1447. Feb. 23. Mysterious death of the duke of 
Gloucester. 

14.50. Jack Cade's insurrection. 

1455. May 22. Battle of St. Alban's, the first en- 
gagement in the Wars of the Roses. 

1430. July 10. Battle of Northampton, when King 

Henry VI. is made prisoner by the Yorkists. 

Dec. 30. Battle of Wakefield, and death of 

/ the duke of York. 

J 1461. March 4. Henry VI. is deposed by Edward IV. 

March 29. Battle of Towton {q. v.). 

1464. May 1. Private marriage of Edward IV. and 
Lady Elizabeth Grey. May 8. Battle of 
Hexham, .and defeat and flight of Henry. 

1439. Ttie earl of Warwick rebels against Edward. 

1470. Oct. 3. Flight of Edward TV. Oct. 6. Restora- 

tion of Henry VI. 

1471. March 14. Return of Edward IV. April 14. 

Battle of Barnet, and death of the earl of 
Warwick, with whom the hopes of the 
Lancastrians become extinct. May 4. Battle 
of Tewkesbury, where Margaret and her 
son. Prince Henry, are made prisoners, and 
the latter is mtu-dered. June. Mysterious 
death of Henry VI. in the Tower. 
1478. Feb. 18. Death of the duke of Clarence in 
/ the Tower. 

■^ 1483. June 26. The duke of Gloucester usurps the 
throne of his young nephew Edward V., 
and ascends it as Richard TIL Aug. Ed- 
ward V. and the dtike of York are murdered 
in the Tower. 

1485. Aug. 22 Battle of Bosworth Field, and death 

of Richard III., the last sovereign of the 
house of Plantagenet. 

1486. Jan. 18. Marriage of Henry- VII. and Eliza- 

beth, daughter of Edward TV. 

1487. Juue 16. Battle of Stoke, which ends the 

insurrection of Lambert Simnel. 
1492. Oct. 2. Henry VII. invades France, but with- 

di-aws his forces on receiving a ransom of 

745.000 crowns 
1499. Nov. 23. Execution of Perkin Warbeck. 



ENG 



1.509. June 7. Marriageof Henry VII 1. to Catherine 
of Aragon, his brother Arthur's widow. 

1510. Aug. 18. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 

1514. Aug. 5. Rise of Wolsey. He is created arch- 
bishop of York. 

1520. June 7-24. Meeting of Henry VIII. and 

Francis I. of France, on the " Field of the 
Cloth of Gold." 

1521. Oct. 11. Papal bull, conferring on Henry VTIL 

the title of Defender of the Faith. 

1529. Oct. 17. Fall of Wolsey. 

1530. Nov. 29. Death of Wolsey at Leicester. 

1533. Jan. 25. Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn. 

May 23. His former marriage with 
Catherine is declared null and void by 
Cranmer. 

1534. Abolition of the papa) supremacy in England. 

1535. Juue 22. Execution of Bishop Fisher. July 6. 

And of Sir Thomas More. 

1536. May 19. Execution of Anne Bnleyn. May 20. 

Henry VIII. marries Lady Jane Seymour. 

1537. Oi;t. 12. Birth of Edward VI. Oct. 24. Death 

of Jane Seymour. 

1538. Suppression of the monasteries. 

1539. Cruel statute of the " Six Articles," known 

as the Bloody Bill, which denounces burn- 
ing or hiinging against all who deny the 
doctrine of Trausubstantiation, &c. (31 
Hen. VITI. c. 14). 

1540. Jan. 6. Henry VIII. marries Anne of Cleves, 

from whom he is divorced July 9. July 28. 
Execution of Cromwell, earl of Essex. 
Aug. 8. The king marries Lady Catherine 
Howard. 

1542. Feb. 12. Execution of Catherine Howard. 

1543. July 12 Henry VIII. maiTies Catherine Parr. 
1547. Jan. 19. Execution of the earl of Surrey. 

Jan 28 Ded,th of Henry VIII., who is 
succeeded by Edward VI., under the pro- 
tectorship of the duke of Somerset. 
1549. March 20. Execution of Lord Seymour, 
brother of the Lord Protector. June 9. 
An insurrection in favour of papacy breaks 
oiit in the west. Oct. 14. Disgrace of the 
Lord Protector Somerset. 

1552. Jan. 22. Execution of the duke of Somerset. 

1553. July 6. Death of Edward VI. July 10. Pro- 

clamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen. 
July 19. She relinquishes the title, aud 
Mary is proclaimed in London. 

1554. Feb. 7. Suppression of Sir Thomas Wyatt's 

insurrection. Feb. 12. Execution of Lady 
Jane Grey and Lord Guildford Dudley. 
April 11. Execution of Sir T. Wyatt. 
July 25. Marriage of Maiy with Philip II. 
of Spain. Nov. 30. Cardinal Pole pro- 
nounces the country reconciled to the 
Church of Rome. 

1555. Feb. 4. Mary's persecution of the Protestants 

commences with the burning of John 
Rogers. Feb. 9. Hooper is burnt. Oct. 16. 
Martyrdom of Ridley and Latimer. 
1.556. March 21. Burning of Cranmer. 

1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, the last English pos- 

session in France. 

1559. The reformed religion is restored by the Act 

of Uniformity (1 Eliz. c. 2). 
1568. May 17. Maiy, queen of Scots, seeks shelter 

in England, and lands at Workiugton, in 

Cumberland. 
1571. Pope Pius V. endeavours to incite the English 

to rebellion. 
1581. Dec. 1 Execution of Campian, the Jesuit, 

and others, for conspii-acy. 

1586. Sept. 20 aud 21. Execution of Babyngton and 

his accomplices. 

1587. Feb. 8. Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, 

at Fotheringay Castle. 

1588. Repulse of the Spanish Armada {q. v.). 
1598. Tyrone's rebellion in Ireland. 

1601. Feb. 25. Execution of the earl of Essex. 

1603. March 24. Death of Queen Elizabeth, and 
accession of James VI. of Scotland as 
James I., under whom the Scotch aud 
English crowns are united. 

y 2 



E??"G 



1604 Oct. 24. James I. assumes the title of king of 

of Great Britain. 
160.5. Nov. 4. Discovery of the gunpowder plot. 
1606. April 12. The present national flag of England 

is announced by royal proclamation. 

1611. Mav 2. The present English translation ff 

the Bible is completed. May 22. James re- 
plenishes his exchequer by creating and 
selling the title of baronet. 

1612. Nov. 6. Sudden death of Henry, piince of 

Wales. 

1616. April 23. Death of Shakespeare. 

1618. Oct. 29. Execution of Raleigh. 

1621. May 3. Impeachment and disgrace of Lord 
Bacon. 

162.5. June 13. Charles I. marries Princess Henrietta 
Maria, of France. 

1626. April 9. Death of Lord Bacon. 

1628. Aug. 23. Assassination of the duke of Buck- 
ingham by John Feltou. 

3.634. Feb. Punishment of Pi-ynne and others for 
publishing "Histrio Mastix." Oct. 20. 
Writs for the collection of ship-money are 
issued. 

1637. Dec. 6. Trial of John Hampden, which ter- 
minates the following year, June 12, seven 
of the judges deciding in favour of the 
king, and five in favour of Hampden. 

1641. Feb. 26. Parliament annuls the judgment 

against Hampden by 16 Chas. I. c. 14. 
May 12. Execution of the earl of Strafford. 

1642. Jan. 4. The king proceeds to the House of 

Commons, to seize in person five members 
accused of treason. Commencement of 
the civU war. Oct. 23. Battle of Edge- 
hill {g. v.). 

1643. Jui.e 18. Battle of Chalgrave. John 

Hampden receives a wound, of which he 
dies. June 24. Sept. 20. First battle of 
Newbury. Sept. 25. The Solemn League 
and Covenant is approved by both houses 
of parliament. 

1644. July 2. Battle of Mai-ston Moor. Oct. 27. 

Second battle of Newbury. 

1645. Jan. 10. Execution of Archbishop Laud. 

June 14. Battle of Naseby (q. v.). 

1646. May 5. Charles I. seeks protection from the 

Scotch. Sept. 21. They sell him to the par- 
liament for £400,000. 
1847. Jan. 30. The Scotch surrender the king to 
the parliamentary commissionpi-s. 

1648. Dec. 6. "Pride's purge." Colonel Pride ex- 

pels the Presbyterian members of the 
House of Commons. About fifty Inde- 
pendents remain, who are known as the 
Kump Parliament. 

1649. Jan. 20. Trial of Charles I. Jan. 27. He is 

sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Charles I. 
is executed. 

1651. Sept. 3. Battle of Worcester {q. v.). 

1653. April 20. Cromwell dissolves the Long Par- 
liament. Dec.l6. He is made Lord Protector 
of the Commonwealth. 

16.57. AprU 17. De.ith of Admiral Blake. 

1658. Sept. 30. Death of Oliver Cromwell, who is 

succeeded by his son Richard. 

1659. May 13. Richard CromweU resigns the title 

of Lord Protector. 

1660. May 29. The Restoration. 

1662. May 19. The Act of Uniformity (13 & 14 
Chas. II. c. 4). May 20. Marriage of 
Charles II. to Catherine of Braganza. 

1665. The Great Plague. 

1666. Sept. 2 and 3. Wreat Fire of London. 

1667. Dec. 18. Banishment of Lord Clarendon. 
1674. Nov. 8. Death of John Milton. 

1678. Aug. 12. Gates' fictitious " popish plot " is dis- 

closed by Tonge. Oct 17. Discovery of the 
body of Sir Edmundbxiry Godfrey. 

1679. Mav 27. "Habeas Corpus" Act passed (31 

Chas. II. c. 2). 

1680. Dec. 29. Execution of Lord Stafford, the last 

victim of the pretended popish plot. 
1683. June 12. Discovery of the Rye-house plot. 
July 21. Execution of Lord Russell. 
324 



A.D. 

1689. 
1685. 



1602. 
1694. 

1701. 

1707. 

1708. 

1710. 



1713. 
1714. 
1715. 

1716. 

1720. 
1722. 
1737. 



1747. 
1751. 



1756. 
1757. 

1760. 

1761. 

1763. 

1765. 
1771. 
1772. 



ENG 



Dec. 7. Algernon Sydney is beheaded. 

June 20. The duke of Monmouth rebels 
against James II., and is proclaimed king 
at Taunton. July 6. Defeat of Monmoutli 
at the battle of Sedgeuioor. July 15. His 
execution. 

June 30. Acquittal of the seven bishops. 
Dec. 23. Abdication of James II. 

Feb. 13. William III. and Maiy are pro- 
claimed king and queen. 

July 1. Defeat of James II. at the battle of 
the Boyne. 

Commencement of the national debt. 

April 25. The Bank of England is incorporated. 
Dec. 28. Death of Queen Mary. 

Sept. 16. Death of James II., at St. Ger- 
mains. 

Mayl. England and Scotland are united under 
the title of Great Britain. 

Oct. 28. Death of Piince George of Denmark, 
husband of the queen. 

Mar. 23. Dr. Sacheverell is found guilty of high 
crimes and misdemeanours, and sentenced 
to suspension from his pastoral oflBce for 
three yeai-s, and to have his printed 
sermons burnt by the common hang- 
man. 

April 11. By the treaty of Utrecht, England 
acquires Gibraltar, Minorca, Nova Scotiii, 
Newfoundland, and Hud-.on's Bay. 
Aug. 1. Death of Queen Anne, and accession 
of the Hanoverian family, in the perooa 
of George I. 

Sept. 6. Rebellion in Scotland, in favour of 
the Pretender, breaks out under the earl 
of Mai-. Dec. 22. The Chevalier lands at 
Peterhead. 

Feb. 24. Execution of the earl of Derwent- 
water and Viscount Kenmure. 

Sept. 29. The South Sea bubble bursts. 

June 16. Death of the duke of Marlborough. 

George II. quarrels with his son Frederick, 
prince of Wales. Nov. 20. Death of Queen 
Caroline. 

June 16. BatUe of Dettingen, which is the 
last fight in which an English sovereign 
was personally engaged. 

July 25. The Young Pretender lands at 
Moidart, in Inveuess- shire. Sept. 17. He 
establishes himself at Holyrood House, 
Edinburgh. Sept. 21. He gains the battle 
of Prestonpans Dec. 4. His army pene- 
trates into England as far as Derby. 

Jan. 18. Prince Charles Edward gains the 
battle of Falkirk. April 16. He is totally 
defeated at CuUoden. Aug. 10. Executious 
of Kilmarnock and Balmerino. 

Aoril 9. Execution of Lord Lovat. 

March 20. Death of Frederick Louis, prince 
of Wales. 

Sept. 3. The New Style is introduced into 
Great Britain, Sept. 3 being accounted the 
14th. 

May 1. Commencent of the Seven Years' 
war. 

March 14. Execution of Admiral Bjnng. 
June 23. Battle of Plassey, which reduces 
Bengal under English dominion. 

Conquest of Canada. Oct. 25. George II. 
dies, and is succeeded by his grandson, 
George III. 

Sei)t. 8. George III. marries the Princess Char- 
lotte Sophia, of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Sept. 
22. Their coronation. Oct. 5. Tne elder Pitt 
resigns the office of secretary of state. 

Feb. 10. By the peace of Paris, England 
acquires Canada and Florida, and an end 
is put to the Seven Yeai-s' war. April 30. 
Arrest of Mr. Wilkes. 

March 22. The American Stamp Act is passed. 
Dec. 30. Death of the Pretender, at Rome. 

May 8. Establishment of the right to report 
parliamentary debates. 

April 1. Royal Mai-riage Act passed (12 Geo. 
IIL c. 2). 



ENG 



1773. Commencement of the American revolt. 

1778. April 7. Lord Chatham is seized -with a 
fit while speaking against the American 
■war in the House of Lords. May 11. He 
dies. 

1780. June 2-7. Lord George Gordon's anti-popeiy 

riots. 

1781. Feb. 8. Lord George Gordon is tried, and 

acquitted. 

1782. Nov. 30. A provisional treaty, acknowledging 

the independence of the United States, 
is signed at Paris. Dec. 5. The separa- 
tion is annouuced by the king in his 
speech on opening parliament. 
1786. Aug. 2. Margaret Ivicholson, a maniac, 
attempts the king's life. 

1788. Feb. 13. Burke opens the impeachment of 

Warren Hastings before the House of 
Lords. March 3. Death of Prince Charles 
Edward, the Young Pretender, at Rome. 
Nov. 19. The public are informed of the 
mental indisposition of the king. 

1789. Feb. 19. Recovery of the king, and abandon- 

ment of the regency bill. April 23. Public 
thanksgiving throughout the kingdom, in 
consequence. 

1793. Feb. 11. War is declared against France. 

1794. May 23. Suspension of the " Habeas Corpus" 

Act. Oct. 28 to Dec. 5. Trial of Hardy, 
Home Tooke, and Thelwall, who are ac- 
quited. 

1795. April 8. The prince of Wales marries Caroline 

of Brunswick. April 23. Acquittal of 
Warren Hastings. 

1796. Jan. 7. Birth of the Princess Charlotte, 

daughter of the prince of Wales. 

1797. Feb. 20. Commercial panic. Feb. 27. The 

Bank of England stops payment. July 29. 
Death of Edmund Burke. 

1798. April 20. The " Habeas Corpus" Act is again 

suspended. May. A rebellion breaks out in 
Ireland. Aug. 1. Battle of the Kile {q. v.). 

1800. May 15. James Hadfield fires at the king in 
Drury-Lane Theatre. 

ISOl. Jan. 1. Legislative union of Great Britain 
and Ireland. April 2. Battle of Copen- 
hagen {q. v.). April 19. The " Habeas Cor- 
pus" Act is again suspended. 

1802. March 25. Tne treaty of Amiens is concltided. 

1803. May 18. War against France renewed, in con- 

sequence of Napoleon's asgressions. 

1805. Oct. 21. Death of Lord Nelson at the battle 

of Trafalgar {g. v.). 

1806. Jan. 23. Death of Mr. Pitt. April 29-Jtme 12. 

Trial and acquittal of Lord Melville. 
May 29. A privy council appointed to 
examine the charges against the princess 
of Wales. {See Delicate Iits'estigatiok.) 
Sept. 13. Death of Mr. Fox. 

1807. March 23. Abolition of the slave-trade. 

1809. Jan. 27 -March 17. Impeachment and ac- 

quittal of the duke of York. Oct. 25. 
Celebration throughout the kingdom of 
the jubilee of George III.'s reign. Nov. 25. 
Disastrous result of the Walcheren expe- 
dition. 

1810. April 6. Arrest of Sir Francis Burdett. A 

riot is occasioned by an attempt to rescue 
him. June 21. He is set at liberty. Nov. 2. 
Death of the Princess Amelia, which so 
affects the king, that his reason is again 
shaken. 

1811. Feb. 5. The regency of the prince of Wales 

commences. Nov. 14, &c. Luddite riots in 
the Midland covmiies. 

1812. May 11. Assassination of Mr. Perceval, the 

premier, by Bellingham. June 18. The 
United States declare - war against En- 
gland. 
1814. May 30. Peace with France is restored by the 
treaty of Paris. June 7. The emperor of Rus- 
sia and the king of Prussia visit England. 
Dec. 24. The treaty of Ghent is signed, by 
which peace is concluded with the United 
States. 



ENG 



1815. Modification of the duties on com. June 18- 

Battle of Waterloo (q. v.). 

1816. May 2. Marriage of the Princess Charlotte 

and Prince Leopold of ^axe-Coburg. July 7. 
Death of Sheridan. Dec. 2. Serious riots 
in London, which originate at a meeting 
held in Spa Fields. 

1817. Jan. 28. The Prince Regent's life is attempted. 

Feb. 4. The " CTreen Bag" inquiry com- 
mences. (Spe Green BAfi.) Feb. 24. Suspen- 
sion of the " Habeas Corpus" Act. Sept. 22. 
Partial resumption of cash payments by 
the Bank of England. Nov. 6. Death of 
the Princess Charlotte. 

1818. July 11. Marriages of the duke of Clarence, 

afterwards William IV., with the Princess 
Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, and of the 
duke of Kent with Victoiia Maria Louisa, 
daughter of the duke of Saxe-Coburg of 
Saalfeld. Nov. 17. Death of Queen 
Chajlotte, 

1819. May 24. Birth of Queen Victoria. Aug. 16. 

Monster reform meeting in St. Peter's 
Fields, Manchester. It is dispersed by the 
military, and the affair is known as the 
battle of Peterloo. 

1820. Jan. 23. Death of the duke of Kent. Jan. 29. 

Death of George III., aged 81. May 1. 
Execution of Thistlewood and his asso- 
ciates for participation in the Cato-street 
conspii'acy. Aug. 19 to Nov. 10. Trial of 
Queen Caroline. 

1821. July 19. Coronation of George IV. Aug. 7. 

Death of Queen Caroline. Aug. 14. Riots 
on the occasion of her funeral procession to 
Harwich. The Bank resumes cash payments. 

1824. AprU 19. Lord Byron dies at Missolonghi, in 

Greece. 

1825. Dec. Commercial panics. 

1827. Jan. 5. Death of the duke of York. Aug. 8. 
Death of George Canning, premier. 

1829. April 13. The Roman Catholic Emancipation 

Bill is passed (10 Geo. IV. c. 7). Nov. 5. 
Political panic in London. 

1830. Jime 26. Death of George IV. Sept. 15. 

Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool 
Railway, at which Mr. Huskisson, M.P., 
is kUled. 

1831. Sept. 9. Coronation of William IV. and 

Adelaide. Oct. 8. Reform riots in the 
Midland counties. Oct. 26. The cholera 
first appears in England at Sunderland. 

1832. June 7. Passing of the Reform Bill (2 Will. IV. 

c. 45). June 19. The king is assaulted by 
Collins, at Ascot races. Sept. 21. Death of 
Sir Walter Scott. 

1833. Aug. 28. Act for the abolition of slavery in 

the British colonies passed, and £20,000 ,000 
voted to tne planters as indemnity (3 & 4 
Wm. IV. c. 73). 

1834. Aug. 1. The act for abolishing colonial slavery 

comes into operation. 

1835. Sept. 9. The Municipal Corporations Act is 

passed (5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76). 

1837. June 30. Death of Wniiam IV. 

1838. June 28. Coronation of Queen Victoria. The 

People's Charter is drawn up, and pub- 
lished this year. 

1839. March. The Chinese war commences. {See 

China.) 

1840. Jan. 10. The penny postage comes into opera- 

tion. Feb 10. Marriage of the Queen and 
Prince Albert of Saxe-Gotha. Jtme 10. 
The Queen's life is attempted by Edward 
Oxford. Nov. 21. Bii-th of the Princess 
Royal. 

1841. Nov. 9. Bii-th of the prince of Wales 

1842. Jan. 24. Visit of the king of Prussia. May 30. 

John Francis attempts to shojt the Queen. 
June 22. The income-tax is levied (5 & 6 
Vict, c 35). July 3. John WilHam Bean 
presents a pistol at the Queen. 

1843. April 21. Death of the duke of Sussex. 

Sept. 2 to 7. The Queen visits Louis Philippe, 
at the Chateau d'Eu. 

325 



ENG 



1844. June 1 The emperor of Russia and king of 

Saxony visit England. Oct. 6. Visit of 
Louis Philippe, the fiist occasion on which 
a Freiich sovereign landed in England on 
a faiendly mission. 

1845. Aug. 9. The Queen Tisits Germany. Nov. 30. 

The railway mania reaches its highest 
point. 
1S46. March. Eailway panic. June 26. The corn- 
laws are repealed by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22. 

1848. April 10. A moiister Chartist meeting is held 

on KenniDgton Common, London, to pre- 
sent to parliament a petition signed by 
nearly 2,000,000 pei-sons. 

1849. May 19. William Hamilton fires at the Queen. 

Aug. 1. The Queen embarks for Ireland. 
Lee. 2. Death of Adelaide, queen dowager. 

1850. May 27. Robert Pate assaults tbe Queen with 

a stick. July 2. Death of Sir Robert 
Peel. July 8. Death of the duke of Cam- 
brii^'ge. Aug. 21. The Q'leen visits Belgium. 
SppT. 30. The pope pubii-^hes a bull esta- 
blishing a Roman Catholic hierarchy in 
Eiigland. | 

1851. MarcU 30. The census of the United Kingdom | 

is taken, i-nd the poptilation returned at i 
'27,6'c7,7iil persons. May 1. Opening of the | 
Great Exhibition in Hyde Park. 

1852. Sept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. | 

Not. 18. His public funeral takes place at | 
an expense of £12,000. I 

1853. June 16. Visit of the king and queen of 

Hanover to England. 

1854. March 11. The Queen reviews the Baltic 

fleet at Spithead. March 12. Treaty of 
aUiacce between Great Britain, France, 
aud Turkey, signed at Constantinople. 
March 28. War is dtclared against Russia, 
April 21). Fast-day in consequence of the 
war. June 2. Tne king of Port> gal visits 
England. June 10. Opening of the Crystal 
Palace at Sydenham by the Queen. Oct. 1. 
General thanksgiving observed throughout 
the kingdom, in consequence of the abun- 
dant harvest. 

1855. Jan. 29. Parliament orders an inquiry into 

the conduct of the war, which occasions 
the resignation of the Aberdeen minis- 
try. Feb. 20. Death of Joseph Hvime. 
Feb. 23. Sebastopul Committee appointed. 
March 21. General fa^t-day, in conse- 
quence of the war. April 16 to 21. Visit 
of the emperor and empress of the French. 
May 18. Public distribution of Crimean 
medals, by her Majesty, in St. Jaraess 
Park. June 24 (Suodaj). Riots in Hyde 
Park, in consequence of popular opposition 
to the Sunday Trading Bill. June 28. 
Death of Lord Raglan. July 1. Visit of 
the king of the Belgians. Aug. 18 to 27. 
The Queen visits the emperor of the French. 
Sept. 10. News ai-rives of the fall of Sebas- 
topol. Sept. 15. Visit of Prince Frederick 
of Prussia. Sept. 30. General thanksgiving 
for the fall of Sebastopol. Nov. 30. Visit 
of the king of Sardinia. 

1856. Jan. 17. Announcement made that Russia 

accepts the conditions of peace. March 30. 
A treaty of peace between Russia and 
the allies is signed at Paris. April 28. 
Peace is officially proclaimed. May 4. 
General thanksgiving, in consequence of 
the peace. May 29. Public celebration of 
the peace. Oct. Commencement of war 
with China. (SeeCsisA.) Nov. 1. War with 
Persia (q. v.). 

1857. March 4. A treaty of peace with Persia is signed 

at Paris. AprU 11. First telegi-aphic intel- 
ligence of the Indian miittny. April 30. 
Death of the duchess of Gloucester. May 5. 
Opening of the Art Treasures Exhibition 
at Manchester. May 30. Visit of the Grand 
Duke Constantine of Russia. June 26. 
D''=tribution of Victoria crosses, by her 
Majesty, in Hyde Park. 



El^G 






1357. Aug. 25. Meeting at the Mansion House, 

raise a relief fund for the sufferers by the 
Indian mutiny. Similar meetings are 
afterwards held throughout the country. 
Nov. 12. Suspension of the Bank Chaver 
Act, in consequence of the commercial 
crisis. 

1858. Jan. 25. Marriage of the Piincess Royal to 
Pi-iuce Frederick William of Pru>sia. 
Feb. 8. Lord Palmerston introduces the 
Conspiracy to Mui-der BUI, in consequence 
of the attempted assassination of Louis 
Napoleon by Orsini, &c Feb. 19. It is 
rejected by the Commons, in consequence 
of which the Palmerston ca^iinet resigns. 
June 15. The Queen visits Biimingham 
{q. v.). June 28. Property qualification of 
members of parliament a'lclished by 21 
Vict. c. 26. July 23. Jewish Disabilities 
Bill passed (21 & 22 Vict. c. 49). Aug. 2. Aci; 
for the better government of India passed 
(21 & 22 Vict. c. 106). Aug. 4. The Queen 
visits Cherbnurg (q. v.). Sept. 6. The 
Queen visits Leeds, to open the new 
Town-haU Nov. 1. Royal proclamation 
throughout India, announcing the in- 
corporation of that country with the 
British empire. 

1859. May 1. General thanksgiving, in consequence 

of the suppression of the Indian mutiny. 
Oct. 17. The prince of Wales becomes a 
student at Oxford. Nuv. Many volui.teer 
rifle cori-s are formed about this time. 
Dec. 28. Death of Lord Macaulay. 

1860. Jan. 23. The commercial tieaty with France is 

signed at Paris. March 7. The Queen holds a 
lerSe for othcers of the volunteer rifle coi-ps. 
June 23. The Queen re views 18,000 volunteers 
in Hyde Park. July 2. Important failures in 
the leather trade. Nov. 15. The prin« e of 
Wales returns fiom his visit to America. 
(.See Caijada and Uirrna) States.) 

1861. March 16. Death of the duchcss of Kent. 

April 8. The census is taken. Aug. 9. The 
marriage contract between the Prince.'^s 
Alice and Prince Louis nf Hesse is signed 
at Osborne. Aug. 25. Fatal accidei.t iu 
Clayton tunnel, on the Brighton railroad. 
Sept. 2. Fatal collision on the Hampstead 
Junction railroad. Sept. 16. Post-oflice 
savings' banks opened. Oct. 31. Middle 
Temple librai-y inaugurated by the prince 
of Wales. 



SOVEEEIGNS OP ENGLAND. 



I 



i 



A.D. 

Egbert 827 

EthelwtOf Feb. 837 

Ethelbald II 857 

Ethelbert 860 

Ethelred 1 866 

Alfred the Great . . 871 
fidwai-d I., The El- 
der Oct. 901 

Athelstan 925 

Edmund 1 940 

Edred 946 

Edwy 955 

Edgar 957 



A.D. 

Edward II., the 

Martyr 975 

Ethelred ir 979 

Sweyn 1013 

Canute the Great . . 1014 
Ethelred II. (again) 1014 
Edmund Ironside . . 1016 

Canute (again) 1017 

Harold 1 1035 

Haidicanute 1040 

Edwani the Con- 
fessor 1043 

Harold II 1066 



i 



A.D. A.D. 

WiUiam L Dec. 25, 1086 I Henry L . . Aug. 5, 1100 
William II. Sep. 26, 1087 | Stephen .... Dec. 26, 1135 



PLANTAGENEIS. 



A.D. 

Henry IL . . Dec. 19, 1154 
Richard I. . .Sept. 3, 1189 

John May 27, 1199 

Henry in. Oct. 28, 1216 



Edward L . .Nov. 20, 1272 
Edward n. July 8, 1307 
Edward III. Jan. 25, 1327 
Richard II. June 22, 1377 



ENG 



H0T7SE OF ZASCASrSR. 



A.D. A.D. 

Henry IV. Sept. 30, 1399 I Henry VL. .Sept. 1. 1422 
Hemy V. . .May 21, 1413 | 



HOUSE OF YORK. 



A-D- 

Edward IV.March 4, 1461 
Edward V. April 9, 1483 



A.D. 

Kichard WL June26, 1483 



HOUSE OF TDBOR. 

A.D. A.D. 

Henry VII. Aug. 22, 148-5 I Mary Jtdy 6, 1553 

Henry V liL Apr. 22, 1509 Elizabeth . . Nov. 17, 1558 
Edward VI. Jan. 28, 1547 | 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

A.D. A.D. 

James I. March 24, 1603 I James II. . .Feb. 6, 1685 

Charles I. March 27, 1625 WilUam III. and 

Interregnum | Mary Feb. 13, 1689 

Charles U. Jan. 30, 1649 ( Anne . . . .March 8, 1702 
Restoration May 29, 1660 | 



HOUSE OF HAifOVER. 



George I. . .Aug. 1, 1714 I William IV. June26, 1830 

George II. June 11, 1727 | Victoria ( Vivat 

George III. Oct. 25, 1760 1 Kegina ! ) June 20, 1837 
George IV. Jan. 29, 1820 I 



THE EOTAI, FAMILY OF GREAT BPOTACf. 

The Queen. Alexandrina Victoria, bom May 24, 

1819 ; married Feb. 10, 1840, to her cousin. 
The Prince Consort. Albert Francis Augustus 

Charles Emanuel, duke of Saxe-Coburg and 

Gotha, bom Aug. 26, 1819. 
Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Princess Eoyal, 

bom Nov. 21, 1840 ; married, Jan. 25, 1858, to 

Prince Frederick WiUiam, of Prussia. 
Albert Edward, prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 

1841. 
Alice Maud Mary, bom April 25, 1843. 
Alfred Ernest Albert, bom Aug. 6, 1844. 
Helena Augusta Victoria, bom May 25, 1846. 
Louisa Caroline Alberta, bom March 18, 1848. 
Arthur Wniiam Patrick Albert, bom May 1, 18.50. 
Leopold George Duncan Albert, bom April 7, 1853. 
Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, bom April 14, 

1857. 

ROYAL PRDfCES AND PRINCESSES. 

George Frederick, duke of Cumberland and king 

of Hanover, bom May 27, 1819 ; married, i 

Feb. 18, 1843, to Mary Alexandrina, daughter of ' 

the duke of Saxe-Altenburg. 
George William, duke of Camoridge, bom March 

26, 1819. 
Augusta Caroline, bom July 19, 1822; manied, 

June 28, 1843, the hereaitary grand-duke of 

Meoklenburg-Strelitz. 
Mary Adelaide (Pi-jncess Mary of Cambridge), 

Nov. 27, 1833. 

England, ISTe-w. {See New England.) 
Englefield (Battle), or "The Field of 
the Angles," near Reading, celebrated as 
the scene of a disastrous defeat of the Danes 
by the Britons, led by Ethelwulf, ealdorman 
of Berkshire, a.d. 871. 

English Language. — HaU'am (Introd. to 
Lit., pt. 1, c. 1, s. 47) says: — "Nothing can 
be more difficult than to determine, except 
by an arbitrary line, the commencement of 
the Enghsh language." The Saxon Chro- 
nicle was continued tiU the death of Stephen 



ENG 

in 1154, though its language lost somewhat 
of its original purity during its later years. 
Layamon's translation of the French Brut 
romance, completed about 1200, exhibits 
further digressions from the primitive Saxon 
tongue; and some metrical hves of saints 
which were written about the year 1250, may 
be called the earhest specimens of Enghsh. 
The first dated document in the language 
is a proclamation of Henry III. of the 
year 1258, and the earhest Enghsh book is 
Sir John Mandeville's travels, written in 
1356. By 36 Edw. III. e. 15 (1362), plead- 
ings in courts of law were ordered to be in 
Enghsh, and in 1536 the language was intro- 
duced into Ireland. The use of Enghsh in 
aU proceedings in Enghsh and Scotch law 
courts was rendered compulsory by 4 Geo. 
IL c. 26 (1731). 

Engkaving was practised at a very early 
date by the Egyptians, who used wooden 
stamps engraved with hieroglyphics for the 
purpose of marking their bricks. It is 
first mentioned by Moses, B.C. 1491 (Exod. 
xxviu. 9), where we read the Divine com- 
mand to "take two onyx stones, and grave 
on them the names of the children of Israel." 
Its revival in Europe dates from about the 
loth century. Engraving on diamonds is 
said to have been invented in 1500, though 
some refuse it an earher origin than 1564. 
Mezzotint engraving was invented by Colonel 
von Siegen, about 1643 ; engraving in colours 
by J. C. Le Blond, about 1725; in imitation 
of pencil, by Gihes des Marteaux, in 1756 ; 
and aquatinta engraving by Le Prince, 
about 1762. The property of en^avings 
was vested in the designer for fourteen 
years by 8 Geo. II. c. 13 (1735) ; which was 
amended by 7 Geo. III. c. 38 (1767). These 
acts proving ineffectual, persons infringing 
them were made hable to damages and 
double costs by 17 Geo. III. c. 57 (1777), 
and the provisions of aU three were extended 
to Ireland by 6 & 7 WiQ. IV. c. 59 (Aug. 13, 
1836). Copyright was apphed to foreign 
engravings by 7 & 8 Yict. c. 12 (May 10, 
1844) ; and the various statutes on the 
subject were explained by the Copyright 
Amendment Act, 15 & 16 Vict. c. 12 (May 
28, 1852). 

Engeating on Coppee is said to have 
been practised in Germany about a.d. 
1450. The invention is also claimed for the 
Itahan goldsmith Maso Finiguerra in 1460, 
though no plate exists of earher date than 
1461. Andrea Mantegna (1430—1506) pro- 
duced many fine works in this branch of art. 

Engraving on Steel. — Some early prints 
by Albert Durer, dated 1515 and 1516, are 
beheved to be impressions from steel plates. 
This metal, however, was very rarely em- 
ployed by engravers : only one specimen, 
executed by Mr. J. T. Smith in 1805, being 
known until 1818, when Mr. C. Warren exhi- 
bited an impression from a soft steel plate 
to the Society of Arts. Bank notes are now 
printed by tms means. 

Engeating on Wood was practised by 
the Chinese as early as B.C. 1120. The pre- 



'ENK 

cise date of its introduction into Europe is 
unknown. Some authorities state that a 
series of woodcuts illustrative of the career 
of Alexander the Great, was engraved by 
the two Cunio in 1285. This story is, how- 
ever, very doubtful; and, perhaps, the origin 
of the art may be traced to the wooden 
blocks used by notaries for stamping mono- 
grams in the 13th centuiy, and to the en- 
graved playing-cards which appeared in 
France about 1340. The earhest woodcut 
in existence represents St. Christopher with 
the infant Saviour, and is dated 1423. Many 
block-books exist of about the year 1430, 
but the art was not brought to great per- 
fection tiU the commencement of the 16th 
century. Albert Durer (1471 — 1523) ; Lucas 
of Leyden (1494^1533) ; Holbein, whose 
"Dance of Death" (q.v.) appeared at Lvons 
in 1538; Gerard Audran (1640—1703); 
WooUet ( 1735 — 1785 ) ; Thomas Bewick 
(1753—1828) ; Nesbit, bom in 1775 ; and 
Harvey, born in 1796, rank foremost among 
wood-engravers. 

Enkioping- (Battle). — At this place 
Albert I., king of Sweden, in 1365, defeated 
Haco of Norway, who had been elected king 
of Sweden m 1363. 

EifLiSTME>fT. — The enhstment of British 
subjects to serve in foreign armies was pro- 
hibited by 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (July 3, 1819). 
By 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 24 (Aug. 21, 1835), 
enlistment of sailors was hmited to five years ; 
and by 10 & 11 Yict. c. 37 (June 21, 1847), 
military service was restricted to ten years in 
the infantry, and twelve years in the cavalry, 
artillery, and marines. 

Eni^iskillen (Ireland) was not a 
place of much importance when taken by 
the Enghsh, a.d. 1602. In 1612 it was erected 
into a corporate town, and subsequently 
became an important asylum for the Pro- 
testants of Ulster. The inhabitants pro- 
claimed William and Mary, March 11, 1689; 
and, mustering to the number of 2,500 men, 
defeated 6,000 Jacobites under Macarthy, 
Lord Moncashel, at Newton Butler, July 30. 
The vohmteers who gained this battle and 
otherwise distinguished themselves in the 
war of the E evolution, are the origin of the 
Enniskillen dragoons. In 1776 the town 
gave its name to a viscount, who was made 
earl of Enniskillen in 1789. 

Enoch (Book of).— The original version 
of this apocryphal work, written in Chaldee 
or Hebrew, is lost, as well as the Greek 
translation. In 1821 Dr. Lawrence trans- 
lated the Ethiopic version, brought from 
Abyssinia by the traveller Bruce, at the 
end of the 18th century. Dr. Davidson 
supposed it to have been written about 
B.C. 40. 

Entail. — Wharton defines an estate-tail 
as " a freehold of inheritance, limited to a 
person and the heirs of his body general or 
special, male or female." The custom of 
confining the succession to property in this 
manner resulted from the desire of the nobi- 
hty to retain their possessions in their own 
families. It was commenced by the second 
328 



EPH 

statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. c. 1 
(1285) . Owing to the inefficacy of attainders 
of treason when estates were protected by- 
entails, they were evaded in 1472 by a deci- 
sion that common recoveries should consti- 
tute a bar to an entaU. By 26 Hen. VIII. 
c. 13 (1534), high treason confiscates entailed 
property to the crown ; and by 21 James I. 
c. 19, s. 12 (1623), entailed estates were per- 
mitted to be sold in cases of bankruptcy. 
This latter act was repealed by 6 Geo. IV, 
c. 16, s. 65 (May 2, 1825), which was again 
supplanted by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 74, ss. 55 — 65 
(Aug. 28, 1833), and 12 & 13 Vict. e. 106, 
s. 208 (Aug. 1,1849). Leases made by tenants 
in tail are regulated by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 120 
(July 29, 1856). 

Entomology. — Aldrovandus published a 
history of insectsin a.d. 1604, and Mouffet his 
"Theatrum Insectorum" in 1634; but no 
good description existed till the appearance 
of Swammerdam's " General History of In- 
sects," in 1669. In 1710 Ray's " Methodus 
Insectorum" was pubhshed, and in 1735 
Linnaeus announced his classification. La- 
treiUe's " Precis des Caracteres des Insectes" 
appeared in 1797. The French Soci^te 
Eutomologique was estabhshed in 1832, and 
the Entomological Society of London in 
1833. 

Entelop-es. — The practice of using enve- 
lopes for letters is supposed to have originated 
in France. Le Sage mentions them in " Gil 
Bias." An envelope attached to a letter, 
dated May 16, 1696, was found in the State 
Paper Office. Envelopes were not intro- 
duced for letters sent through the post till 
after 1839, as up to that period it was cus- 
tomary to charge double postage on paper 
inclosed in another paper. The penny 
postage system commenced Jan. 10, 1840; 
but the use of envelopes did not become 
general until May 6, 1840, when stamped 
and adhesive envelopes were introduced. In 
1841 about half the letters which passed 
through the Post-office were in envelopes, 
and in 1850 300 out of every 336 were thus 
protected. HiU and De la Eue's ingenious 
machine for folding envelopes was patented 
March 17, 1845. 

EoLODicoN. — This musical instrument was 
invented by Eschenbach, in 1815, and an 
account of it was published at Leipsie in 
1820. 

EooA, or MiDDLEBUBG (South Pacific), 
the most eastern of the Friendly Isles, was 
discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, who 
gave it the name of Middleburg, Jan. 19, 
1643. 

Ephesus (Asia Minor) was founded at a 
very early date, and first inhabited by the 
Carians and Leleges. It was burnt by the 
A m azons B.C. 1141, and rebuilt by the lonians, 
who entered Asia Minor under the leadership 
of Androclus, son of Codrus, B.C. 1045. Croe- 
sus, king of Lydia, seized Ephesus B.C. 559, 
and the temple of Artemis or Diana was 
erected B.C. 552. Ephesus surrendered to 
Cyrus B.C. 544, and remained under the Per- 
sian yoke until B.C. 501, when, with other 



EPH 

Ionian cities, it revolted, and regained its 
independence. The Athenian and Eretrian 
fleets remained here previous to their assault 
on Sardis, B.C. 499, and the Spartan general 
Lysander estabUshed his head-quarters in the 
city, and defeated the Athenians in a sea-fight 
fought in its vicinity, B.C. 407. The temple 
was burnt by an incendiary, B.C. 356, on the 
same day on which Alexander the Great was 
born. Its re-erection occupied 220 years, 
and the new bxiilding was regarded by the 
ancients as one of the seven wonders of the 
world. Ephesus was destroyed by an inun- 
dation B.C. 322 ; but Lysimachus rebuilt it 
on a more elevated site b.c. 300. The Romans 
gave this city to the king of Pergamum, B.C. 
190, and on the formation of their province of 
Asia in B.C. 129, erected it into the capital. 
It was reduced to ruins by an earthquake 
A.D. 17. St. Paul preached here a.d. 56, and 
made so many converts that a riot was stirred 
up in 59 by Demetrius, the silversmith, in 
consequence of the decreased demand for 
silver shrines for the goddess Diana (Acts xix. 
23-41). Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians was 
written in 61, and in 65 he ordained Timothy 
to be first bishop of the diocese. Ephesus 
was one of the seven churches of Asia. The 
temple of Diana was destroyed by the Goths, 
A.D. 262, and on the occasion of the third 
general council, in 431, the city was the scene 
of disgraceful ecclesiastical riots. Councils 
were held here in 196 ; 245 ; 401 ; 431, June 
22 to July 31 (the third General Council) ; 
449, and 476. 

Ephoei, magistrates instituted in Sparta 
by Theopompus, b.c. 757. They were five in 
number. Thirlwall (vol. i. c. ix. p. 4<07) 
says of them : — "The royal dignity was forced 
on all occasions to bow to them ; and as they 
could control the proceedings of the kings 
by their orders, could fine them for slight 
oflfences at their discretion, and could throw 
them into prison to await a trial on graver 
charges, so they alone, among aU the Spar- 
tans, kept their seats while the kings were 
passing, whereas it was not thought beneath 
the majesty of the kings to rise in honour of 
the ephors, and it was their acknowledged 
duty to attend, at least on the third summons, 
before the ephoral tribunal." 

Epictteeans. — This sect of philosophers 
was founded by Epicurus of Samos, who was 
bom B.C. 342. He estabhshed a school at 
Athens b.c. 306, and continued to teach 
until his death, which occurred B.C. 270. 
He inaintained that happiness is the object 
of hfe, a,ndthat it consists in the recollection 
or anticipation of sensual pleasures ; and as 
a future state would interfere with his doc- 
trines on this subject, he denied its existence 
altogether. 

Epidatjkus (Greece). — A congress con- 
voked at this town, Dec. 15, 1831, proclaimed 
the independence of Greece in 1822. 

Epigrams were originally inscriptions 
upon tombstones, on ofierings to the gods, 
&c., and were written by Arclulochus, who 
flourished B.C. 688, and Simonides, B.C. 500. 
The Latin poet Martial (a.d. 43—104) is 



EPI 

considered to have excelled all other writers 
in this species of composition. 

Epiphant.— This feast, celebrated Jan. 6, 
is said by Bingham (b. xi. c. vi. s. 7), to com- 
memorate "the day on which Christ was 
baptized and manifested to the world." It 
was first observed by the Gnostic followers of 
BasUides of Alexandria, who flourished about 
A.D. 125, and does not appear to have been 
celebrated by the church at large tiU long 
afterwards, as it is excluded from the list of 
feasts given by Origen (230) . Its observance 
as a separate feast commenced a.d. 813. 

Epirus (Greece) was originally peopled by 
Pelasgians, but very little is known of its 
early history. 



B.C. 

1170. 
340.' 



276. 
274. 

273. 

272. 

219. 

167. 



Arrival of Neoptolemus, or Pyrrims, son of 

Achilles. 
The Corinthians found the city of Ambracia. 
Accession of Alexander I., uucle to Alexander 

the Great. 
Alexander falls in battle in Italy. 
Pyrrhus, the greatest sovereign of Epirus 

establishes himself on the throne. 
He makes war against Demetrius, king of 

Macedonia. 
Demetrius invades Epirus. 
PyiThus invades Macedonia, and is expelled 

by Demetrius. 
Pyrrhus again invades Macedonia, where he 

reigns, conjointly with Lysimachus, for 

about seven months. 
Pyrrhus invades Italy, and gains a splendid 

victory over the Piomans. 
He gains the battle of Asculum, and conquers 

Sicily. 
He again invades Italy. 
He is defeated by the Romans, under Curiiis 

Dentatus, who expels him from Italy. 
He wrests Macedonia from Autigonus 

Gonatus. 
He is killed at Argos, by a tile thrown from 

a house-top. 
The Epirotes unite with Philip V. of Macedon. 

against the .^tolians. 
iEmilius Paulus destroys seventy towns of 

Epirus, and carries away 150,000 of the 

inhabitants as slaves. 
Augustus founds the city of Nicopolis, which 

becomes the Koman capital of Epirus. 

The Despotat of Epirus is founded by 

Michael I. 
Epirus is conquered by Stephen Duscian, 

king of Sei-via. 
It is invaded by Charles Tocco, count of 

Cephalonia, and duke of Leucadia. 
The Turks take Joannina and ^tolia. 
Epirus is annexed to the Ottoman empire. 
Jan. 28. The Epirotes rise in insurrection. 

June 18. The rebellion is suppressed. 



Epitaphs. — Pettigrew says of the custom 
of placing inscriptions upon tombs, that 
"the Egyptians may lay claim to be the 
earhest recorders of this description, by the 
writing of their names, their descent, their 
functions. See., upon their sarcophagi and 
coffins." Numerous epitaphs are found on 
Greek and Roman tombs, but the Saxons 
and Danes have left few memorials of this 
kind. Some interesting inscriptions of the 
latter part of the 7th century have, however, 
been discovered at Hartlepool. Epitaphs 
did not become general in England till the 
11th century, when they were written in 
Latin, and chiefly inscribed upon the tombs 
329 



1431. 
1466. 

1854. 



EPI 

of kings and ecclesiastical dignitaries. In tlie 
12th century Leonine verses were very gen- 
eral. French epitaphs were not used in 
France till the 13th century ; they were 
afterwards introduced into England^ where 
they continued in use till the 15th, after 
which time English epitaphs became general. 

Epithalamia, or Hxmes-eal HxMifS, 
composed to be chanted at weddings. 
Sappho, who flourished B.C. 596, and Stesi- 
chorus, B.C. 560, are celebrated for the 
beauty of their productions of this kind. 

Epsom (Surrey). — The mineral springs 
from which Epsom salts are extracted were 
discovered A. D. 1618. The parish church was 
rebuilt in 1824. 

Epitlowes. — Three priests appointed by 
the pontifices to superintend the feasts in 
the sacred games. They were instituted 
B.C. 196, andinthetuneof Sylla(B.c.88 — 79) 
were increased in number to seven. 

Equator. (See Ecuadoe.) 

ERASTiAJfS, the name given to those who 
adopted the views of Thomas Lieber, or 
Erastus, a German physician and divine, who 
was born a.d. 1523, and died in 1583. They 
formed a separate party ia the Assembly of 
Divines in 1643, and unsuccessfully advocated 
their peculiar views respecting the exclu- 
sively persuasive authority of the pastoral 
office, and the consequent impropriety of 
ecclesiastical excommunications, &c. 

Eepuet (Prussian Saxony), founded in 
the 5th centui'y, was, in the time of Charle- 
magne, one of the most important commer- 
cial towns of Germany. Its university was 
founded a.d. 1392, and is celebrated as having 
numbered Martin Luther among its students 
in 1501. In 1664 the town was taken by 
the French, who ceded it to the elector of 
Mayence in 1667. In 1803 it was annexed 
to Prussia, but was again taken by the 
French imder Murat, Oct. 15, 1806, when 
14,000 Prussians, including Marshal MoUen- 
dorf and the prince of Orange, were made 
prisoners. Isapoleon Bonaparte and the 
emperor Alexander of Eussia had an in- 
terview here, Sept. 27, 1808. It result- 
ed in a letter which they addressed to 
George III., Oct. 12, desiring him to accede 
to offers of peace. A reply was sent Oct. 28, 
to the effect that England could only 
treat in concert with Sweden and Spain. 
Erfurt was restored to Prussia Jan. 6, 1814. 
Its university was suppressed in 1816. A 
German parliament assembled here March 
20, 1850. 

Eeicsson's Patek-t. — A smaU vessel built 
to test the capabilities of Mr. Ericsson's 
screw propeller, first patented in 1833, in an 
experimental trip on the Thames, May 25, 
1837, towed a ship of above 600 tons, at the 
rate of 4^ knots per hour, against the tide. 
In 1851 Mr. Ericsson changed the form of 
his engine and buUt another vessel of 1,000 
tons, named after the inventor, to be propelled 
by hot air instead of steam. In her trial 
trip, in 1853, she is said to have equalled 
Mr. Ericsson's expectations; but she ulti- 
mately proved a failure, and never crossed 



ESC 

the Atlantic, for which she was specially 
designed. In 1855 the caloric engine was 
taken out of the Ericsson, and steam-engines 
were substituted. 

Eeie Canal, commenced a.d, 1817, was 
completed in 1824. 

Eelangem" (Bavaria). — The new town 
was foimded a.d. 1686 and its Protestant 
university in 1743. 

Eemia (Knights of). — This order of 
knights was instituted by Francis I., duke of 
Britanny, a.d. 1450. The order became 
extinct when Britanny was annexed to 
France in 1532. 

Eeeoad, or Eeouad (Hindostan). — The 
Enghsh reduced Erroad a.d. 1768, and Hyder 
Ah recovered it soon after. They regained 
possession in 1790, but it was again wrested 
from them the' same year by Tippoo Saib. 
It was, however, ceded to the East-India 
Company in 1799. 

Eeyx (Sicily) . — This city, near Drepanum, 
was celebrated for a temple of Venus, of 
which .(Eneas was said to be the founder. 
The Carthaginians were defeated by the 
Syracusans in a sea-fight off Eryx, b.c. 406. 
It maintained several sieges, was taken by 
Pyrrhus b.c. 277, and was destroyed by 
Hanulcar, who removed the inhabitants 
to Drepanum, b.c. 260. The town was after- 
wards restored, and was warmly contested 
between the Eomans and Carthaginians, 

Eezeeoum: (Asiatic Turkey). — This city 
was founded by Theodosius II. a.d. 415, 
and passed under the authority of the Sel- 
juks during the 11th century. In 1241 it 
was taken by the Mongols, by whom the 
inhabitants were either massacred or sold 
into slavery, and in 1517 it was seized by the 
Turks. A treaty of peace was concluded 
here between Persia and Turkey, July 28, 
1823. The city was taken by the Russians 
under Count Paskiewitch, July 9, 1829. It 
was destroyed by an earthquake, which 
lasted from June 11 to July 17, 1859. 

Escheats. — Stephens (Com. b, ii. pt. 1, 
c. 12) says of the word escheat, that it is 
" originally French or Norman, in which 
language it signifies chance or accident ; but 
with us it is applied to the case where the 
tenant of lands in fee dies without having 
ahened them in his lifetime, or disposed of 
them by his last wiU and testament, and 
leaves no heir behind him to take them by 
descent, so that they result back, by a kind 
of reversion, to the original grantor or lord 
of the fee." By 13 & 14 Yict. c. 60 (Aug. 5, 
1850), beneficiaries and mortgagors were 
protected from the ordinary law of escheat 
in the event of a trustee or mortgagee dying 
heirless and intestate. 

EscHENDTJK (Battle) .—Ethelred, with his 

brother Alfred, defeated the Danes in a 

great battle at Eschendun, or Eschedun, 

meaning "the hiU of the ash," a.d. 871. 

Some authorities believe Aston, in Berks, 

and others Ashendon, in Bucks, is meant. 

j EscoEiAL. — This ancient palace of the 

'• kings of Spain was erected by Phihp II., in 

J consequence of a vow made during the battle 



ESQ 

of St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557, that he would, 
if victorious, found a church, a monastery, 
and a palace. The thi-ee are said to be 
combined in the Escorial, dedicated to St. 
Lorenzo, on whose day the vow was made. 
In honour of the martyrdom of the saint, 
who was broiled to death Aug. 10, 261, the 
ground plan of the new edifice was designed 
m form of a gridiron. The first stone was 
laid April 23, 1563, and the building was 
completed Sept. 13, 1584. The library was 
added about 1580. A subterranean passage 
connecting the palace with an adjoining vil- 
lage, was added in 1770, for use during the 
hurricanes of winter, which are of astonishing 
fury. A French force under La Houssaye 
sacked the Escorial in December, 1808, 
and carried away a large quantity of valu- 
ables. 

EsQTJiMEAUx. — A tribe of savages, who are 
supposed to have been identical vdth the 
modern Esquimeaux, appeared in West 
Greenland a.d. 1349, and destroyed several 
of the Norwegian settlers. In 1733 the 
Esquimeaux were visited by some Moravian 
Brethren, who established a mission in 
Labrador in 1752 ; but the missionaries 
were compelled to return, in consequence 
of the ill-feeling of the natives. A second 
attempt, made in 1764, proved more suc- 
cessful. Hearne discovered Esquimeaux 
near the Polar Sea in 1772, and MacKenzie 
in 1789. 

EsQiriEE. — This title is of considerable 
antiquity, and, like armiger, scutifer, scuta- 
rius, and ecuyer, is derived from the shield, 
and other portions of the knight's arms 
which the esquire used to carry. Selden 
states that it was first used to express the 
next rank below a knight, about a.d. 850, 
and it is said to have been applied to other 
persons than attendants upon knights as 
early as 1245. 

Essays and Eeviews. — This volume, 
which created much controversy, was pub- 
lished in 1860, and quickly went through 
several editions. It contained the following 
essays: — "The Education of the World." 
By Frederick Temple, D.D. — " Bunsen's 
Biblical Researches." By Eowland Williams, 
D.D.— " On the Study of the Evidences of 
Christianity." By Baden PoweU, M.A. — 
"Stances Historiques de Geneve." — "The 
National Church." By Henry Bristow Wil- 
son, B.D. — "On the Mosaic Cosmogony," 
By C. W. Goodwin, M.A.— "Tendencies of 
EeHgious Thought in England, 1688—1750." 
By Mark Pattison, B.D.— "On the Inter- 

Sretation of Scripture." By Benjamin 
owett, M.A. 

EssECK, or EszEK (Austria), the capital 
of Slavonia, is bmlt on the site of the ancient 
Mursia or Mursa. The Turks defeated the 
Germans in a great battle at this place in 
1537. The fortress, commenced a.d, 1712, 
was completed in 1719. 

EssENES, or EssENiANS. — A sect of as- 
cetics which sprung up amongst the Jews 
after the return from the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. They were also called Therapeutse. 



EST 

Some writers are of opinion that John the 
Baptist belonged to this sect. 

EssEQUiBO (South America). — Pinzon dis- 
covered this river A.D. 1499, and in 1580 the 
Dutch formed a settlement on its banks. 
This was captured by the Enghsh in 1796. 
It was restored to the Dutch in 1802. Hav- 
ing been recaptured Sept. 20, 1803, it was 
finally ceded to England by the convention 
signed with the Netherlands Aug. 13, 1814. 
(See British Guiana, Demeeaea, &c.) 

Essex (England) .—At the time of the Eo- 
man invasion, this county was in the posses- 
sion of the Trinobantes. Erchenwin, a.d. 527, 
estabhshed the Saxon kingdom of the name, 
which comprised Middlesex and part of 
Hertfordshire, and continued in existence 
until its incorporation with Wessex in 823. 
In 1381 the inhabitants rebelled under Wat 
Tyler to oppose the poll-tax ; and, in 1659, 
Mr. Thomas Fanshaw incited them to rise 
in behalf of Charles II. Previous to 1832 
Essex returned two members to parliament, 
but the number was then increased to four. 
The earldom of Essex was created by Queen 
Elizabeth in favour of Walter Devereux in 
1572. 

Essex CoifSPiEACT. — Eobert Devereux, 
second earl of Essex, having shown great 
want of judgment in his administration of 
Irish aifairs during his government in 1599, 
suddenly returned to England without orders, 
in September, and was confined to his own 
house, and denied the privileges of his rank 
and functions in consequence. He was 
restored to freedom, but not to royal favour, 
Aug. 26, 1600, and was induced by his secre- 
tary CufFe to conspire to remove his enemies 
from the royal councils. On Sunday, the 
8th of February, 1601, he detained several 
of the council who were sent to question 
him, and was proclaimed a traitor, and com- 
pelled to surrender, after several lives had 
been lost in his defence. He and the earl of 
Southampton were arraigned for high treason, 
Feb. 19, and found gmlty. Essex was exe- 
cuted on Tower HiU, Feb. 25. 

EsTAPiES ( France ) . — Peace between 
France and England was concluded at this 
town Sept. 3, 1492. 

EsTE (House of). — In a Latin history of 
this house by Pignon, its origin is carried 
back as far as a.d. 418. Its most direct an- 
cestor is Albert Azzo II., who was born 
about 996. In 1071, Guelph IV. established 
his authority in Bavaria, and thus foimded 
the German branch of the fanaily, and in 1176 
Azzo V. acquired Ferrara by marriage, 
and thus became chief of the Guelphs of 
Venetia. The town of Este was destroyed 
by Ezzelin in 1247. 

EsTHOiriA, or Estland (Eussia). — This 
province, conquered by the Danes a.d. 1220, 
was sold by Denmark to the Teutonic 
Knights in 1346, and was given up to Sweden 
by the peace of Oliva, May 3, 1660. Peter 
the Great captured it in 1710, and it was 
ceded to Eussia by the treaty of Nystadt, 
Aug. 30, 1721. It is sometimes called the 
province of Eevel (q. v.). 

331 



EST 

EsTEEMOZ (Battle). — The Portuguese 
defeated the Spaniards at this strongly-for- 
tified town, in Portugal, a.d. 1663. 

Etaitpes (France). — Clotaire II. was 
defeated near this ancient town, a.d. 604. 
The Northmen pillaged Etampes in 911. It 
suffered greatly during the religious wars. 

EiCHiifG. — the inventor of this art is not 
known, but it was very early practised by 
Albert Durer, whose print of the " Canon," 
A.D. 1518, is perhaps the first example of 
its employment. Parmegiano, who died 
in 1540, is regarded by some as the inrentor 
of etching. Henry Sehwanhard discovered 
the art of etching on glass a.d. 1670. 

ETHAifDUiTE (Battle).— Alfred defeated 
the Danes at Ethandune, supposed to be 
Eddington, near Westbury, a.d. 878. 

Ethee is thought to have been known in 
some form to Paracelsus, who flourished 
A.D. 1520 — 1541. Basil Valentine obtained 
it in the 14th century by distilling alcohol 
and sulphuric acid, and in 16S1 nitric ether ; 
was discovered by Kunkel. In Middleton' s ' 
"Women beware Women," printed in 1657, ' 
the following passage occurs : — 

" I'll imitate the pities of old svu-geons 
To this lost limb ; who, ere they show their axt. 
Cast one asleep, then cut the diseased pai-t." 

A ct iv. gc. 1. 

Its preparation was, however, forgotten, until 
rediscovered by iN'avier in 1742. Mtric ether 
was first analyzed by BouUay and Dumas in 
1828. Hydratic, or, as it is incorrectly termed, 
sulphuric ether, was discovered by Gay-Lus- 
sac in 1734, and acetic ether by the Count de 
Lauragnais in 1759. Muriatic ether was 
first obtained by Gehlen in 1804, cenanthic 
ether by Liebig and Pelouze in 1836, and 
real sulphuric ether by WetheriU in 1S48. 
Ethiopia (Africa), the Cush of the Scrip- 
tures. The term was apphed to the exten- 
sive territories between the Eed Sea and the 
Atlantic, and in a more restricted sense to the 
kingdom of Meroe, 

B.C. 

161.5. The Ethiopians establish themselves to the 

south of Egypt. 
/ 941. Terah, king of Ethiopia, is defeated by Asa, 

at Mareshah. 
769. Sebichns, or So, leads an immense army into 

Egypt, where he establishes an Ethiopian 

dynasty. 
710. Tiihakah, king of Ethiopia, marches to the 

assistance of Hezekiah against Sennacheiib, 

hut returns, in consequence of the miia- 

culous destruction of the Assyrian army. 
630. A great migration of warriors from Egypt to 

Ethiopia takes place. 
600. Ethiopia is invaded by Psanmiis, king of 

Egypt. 
524. Cambyses leads an army of 50,000 men into 

Ethiopia, all of whom are bui-ied beneath 

the burning sands of the desert. 
225. Ptolemy Euergetes I. extends his power in 

Ethiopia. 
22. Candace, queen of Ethiopia, is defeated by 

Petronius. 

Ethn-qlogt. — TMs science, which treats 
of the various races of mankind, owes its 
origin to the researches of Thunmann, 



ETR 

Schlaezer, Buhle, Klaproth, De Sacy, Eit- 
ter, &c. A society for its pursuit Avas 
estabhshed at Paris in 1839, and the Ethno- 
logical Society of London was founded by 
Dr. Ejng in 1843. 

Etox College (Buckinghamshire) was 
founded by Henry YI., as the " CoUege of 
the Blessed Marie of Eton by Wyndesore," 
Sept. 12, 1440. The charter was confirmed 
by act of parhament at Westminster, May 4, 
1441. The original foundation was a provost, 
ten priests, four clerks, six choristers, twenty- 
five poor grammar-scholars, and a master to 
teach them, and the hke number of poor 
men. It now consists of a provost, seven 
feUows, two conducts, seven clerks, seventy 
king's scholars, ten lay clerks, ten choristers, 
and a number of inferior officers and ser- 
vants. The duke of Newcastle founded and 
endowed three scholarships of the annual 
value of £50 each in 1829, and Prince Albert 
instituted the annual prize of £50 for pro- 
moting the study of modern languages in 
1842. 

Eton- Montem. — This triennial procession 
of the scholars of Eton CoUege is thus de- 
scribed by Lyson (Magna Britannia, i. 557) : — 
"The chief object of the celebrity is to col- 
lect money for salt, as the j)hrase is, from aU 
persons present, and it is exacted even from 
passengers travelling the road. The scholars 
who collect the money are called salt-bearers, 
and are dressed in rich silk habits. . . . This 
ceremony has been frequently honoured with 
the presence of his majesty (George III.) and 
the royal family, whose hberal contributions, 
added to those of many of the nobility and 
others who have been educated at Eton and 
purposely attend the meeting, have so far 
augmented the collections, that it has been 
known to amount to more than £800. The 
sum so collected is given to the senior scholar 
who is going off to Cambridge, for his sup- 
port at the university." The date of the 
institution of this practice is not known, but 
it is of very early origin. At first it was 
celebrated on the 6th of December; but 
in 1758 it was transferred to Whit-Tuesday. 
The ceremony was finally abohshed May 25, 
1847. 

Etetjeia. — Bvthe 5th article of the treaty 
of LuneviUe, Feb. 9, 1801, the duchy of 
Tuscany was raised into the kingdom of 
Etntria, and bestowed upon Louis, son of 
the duke of Parma, who began to exercise 
authority July 21 in the same year. Napo- 
leon I. suppressed this kingdom, adding it 
to the kingdom of Italy in 1807. 

Eteueia (Staffordshire). — This vUlage, 
manufactory, and mansion, were founded by 
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, the eminent im- 
prover of British pottery, in 1771. His death 
occurred here in 1795. 

Etedeia, or TusciA (Italy), the modern 
Tuscany. 



800. The EtiTiscans settle in Campania. 

538. They unite with the Carthaginians in an ex- 
pedition against the PhocEean coloniats of 
Corsica. 



EU 



522. They attack Cumae. 

506. Defeat of Porsenna at Aricia, by the Greeks 

and Komans. 
474. Hieron of Syi-acuse defeats an Etruscan fleet. 
453. The Syracusans ravage the coasts of Etruria. 
396. The Komans capture Veu. 
384. Dionysius of Syracuse invades Etruria. 
351. The Etrus-cans conclude a forty years' truce 

with the Romans. 
310. Ou the expiration of the truce, they sustain a 

serious defeat at the Vadiainnian Lake. 
295. They are again defeated at Sentinum, in 

Umbria. 
283. The Romans are again victorious at the Vadi- 

monian Lake. 
265. Etruria is finally reduced to a Roman pro- 
vince. 
89. The Etruscans receive the Roman franchise. 
41. Etruscan nationality is extinguished by the 

capture of Perugia. 

EtT (France) . — This town was burned by 
Louis XI. to save it from the English, a.d. 
1475, and was nevei* restored. In 1578 the 
duke of Guise rebuilt the castle, which 
Louis Philippe improTcd and extended in 

1821. Here the monarch received Queen 
Victoria and Prince Albert, Sept. 2, 1843. 
A series of grand entertainments were given, 
and the royal guests returned to England 
Sept. 7, 1843. 

EuBCEA (^gean Sea). — This island was 
invaded by the Athenians, who defeated the 
inhabitants of its chief city, Chalcis, and 
estabhshed a colony of 4,000 of their own 
countrymen, B.C. 506. The city of Eretria 
was destroyed by the Persians b.c. 490, and 
the island soon afterwards became subject 
to the Athenians. It revolted b.c. 445 and 
411, and was in each case speedily reduced 
to tranqmUity ; but after the battle of Chse- 
roneia, b.c. 338, it was seized by Phihp of 
Macedon, whose descendants retained pos- 
session of it till the Romans restored it to 
independence, b.c. 194. An insurrection 
against the Turks broke out in Euboea in 

1822. [See Negeopont.) 

Etjchabist. {See Suppeb of the Loed.) 

EucHiTES, or MESSAiiAiirs. — This sect, 
says Bingham (Antiq. iv. b. xi. c. 2, s. 5), 
«' were so called from the Greek word svxV) 
prayer, and Messalians from the Syriac 
word metsalach, which is much of the same 
signification, because they resolved all reli- 
gion into prayer," They arose in the 4th 
century. 

Eugubian, or EtTGTJBiifB Tables. — These 
tablets of brass were dug up between Cor- 
tona and Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium, a.d. 
1444. The number of the tablets is seven, 
of which five contain Umbric inscriptions 
mixed with Etruscan, and two contain Latin 
inscriptions. They are generally ascribed 
to the 4th century B.C. 

EuxoiiiA^-s.— The followers of Eunomius, 
who was made bishop of Cyzicus a.d. 360, 
were so called. They adopted the extreme 
tenets of Arianism. Theodosius I. published 
edicts against them in 394, by which they 
were forbidden to appoint bishops, and were 
declared incapable of inheriting property or 
making a will. 

EuPATOEiAj or KosLov (Crimea), the 



EVA 

ancient PompeiopoUs. The mosque of 
Devlet-Ghiri-Khan was built a.d. 1552. 
This town was taken by the Russians in 
1726 and 1771. On the commencement 
of the Crimean war, it was occupied by 
the allied forces, Sept. 14, 1854, who re- 
pelled an attack of the Cossacks, Oct. 11. 
Omer Pasha defended it against a Russian 
force under General Chruleff, Feb. 17, 1855, 
and it was finally restored to the Russians 
May 31, 1856. 

EuBOPE. — The Phoenicians founded colo- 
nies in Europe between the 12th and 8th 
centuries B.C. The earhest notice of this 
quarter of the globe is foimd in the writings 
of the Greeks, who began to form settle- 
ments in the south of Europe in the 6th 
century B.C. 

ErETMEDOif (Battle). — Near this river of 
Asia Minor, Cimon, sonof Mihtiades, defeated 
I a Persian fleet of 350 vessels, 200 of which 
; he captured, B.C. 466. He also encountered 
the land forces of the Persians on the banks 
I of this river later the same day, and com- 
I pletely routed them. 

I Eustace, St. (Battle). — The rebels were 
i defeated at this place, in Lower Canada, 
I Dec. 14, 1837. The insurgents laid down 

their arms, and their leaders took to flight. 

; EusTATixjs, St. ( West Indies), one of 

] the Leeward islands, was colonized early 

in the 17th century by the Dutch, to 

whom it now belongs. It was taken and 

retaken several times during the 17th and 

18th centuries. Admiral Rodnev cap- 

' tured it Feb. 3, 1781. The French took 

it Nov. 26 in the same year. The English 

regained possession, and the island was 

finally transferred to the Dutch by the con- 

i vention with Great Britain, signed at London 

; Aug. 13, 1814. 

I EuTAW Spein-gs (Battle) . — The Americans 
j were defeated by the English in a severely- 
I contested action at Eutaw Springs, in South 
I Carolina, Sept. 8, 1781. The American army 
j consisted of 4,000 men, and the English 
force was greatly superior in point of ntun- 
bers. 

Etjttchians, the disciples of Eutyches, 

abbot of Constantinople, who began to pul - 

i Ush his views respecting the nature of Christ 

j A.D. 446. He taught that after his incarna- 

I tion the Saviour only possessed one nature, 

I compoimded of Godhead and manhood. This 

doctrine was condemned by the council of 

Constantinople in 448, and Eutyches was 

deprived of his office ; but the council of 

Ephesus in 449 declared him orthodox, and 

reinstated him in his dignity. His doctrines 

were, however, again condemned by the 

fourth general council, held at Chalcedon 

Oct. 8, 451. 

Evangelical Alliance. — ^A conference 
was held at Liverpool in October, 1845, to 
consider the possibility of imiting all branches 
of the Christian church into one grand con- 
federacy. Two meetings were held at the 
same town on the 16th of December following, 
to consider the proposed alliance, and a con- 
ference, composed of members from aU parts 
333 



EVA 



EXC 



of the United Kingdom and several foreign 
countries, met at Freemasons' Hall, London, 
under the presidency of Sir Culling Eardley 
Smith, Aug. 19 to Sept. 2, 1846, when nine 
propositions were adopted as the basis of the 
union. 

Evangelists. — This term, formerly applied 
to all writers or preachers of the G-ospel, 
is now generally confined to the writers of 
the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, 
and John. Matthew's gospel is assigned 
by different authorities to various dates 
between a.d. 38 and a.d. 64; Mark's to 
A.D.65; Luke's to a.d, 63; and John's to 
A.D. 97. 

Evesham (Battle). — Near this town, 
in Worcestershire, Prince Edward, after- 
wards Edward I. defeated the Enghsh barons 
under De Montfort, and released his father 
Henry III., who had been kept in captivity 
since the battle of Lewes. De Montfort and 
his son Henry were both killed in the battle, 
which was fought Aug. 4, 1265. {See Baeons' 
War.) 

Evil Mat-Dat. (/See APPBE^'■TICES.) 

ExAECH.— An officer first appointed by 
Justinian I. as the representative in peace and 
war of the emperor of the Eomans, a.d. 553. 
Narses, the first exarch, administered the 
entire kingdom of Italy, but the jurisdiction 
of his successors in the office was limited to 
the province of Eavenna (q. v.). 

Exchange. (5'ce Burse.) 

Exchequer (Comptroller-General of the) . 
—On the suppression of the offices of auditor, 
tellers of the exchequer, and clerk of the 
pells, by 4Will. IV. e. 15, s. 1 (May 22, 1834), 
the same act provided for the discharge of 
their respective functions by creating a 
comptroller-general, with a regular staff of 
clerks and assistants. 

Exchequer (Court of).— This court was 
appointed by William I. a.d. 1079, to take 
cognizance of matters connected with the 
revenue. It also exercised jurisdiction over 
common-plea suits until a separate court was 
erected for their decision by Magna Charta, 
in 1215. (/See Common Pleas.) The name 
was derived from the table at which its sittings 
were held, which is described as " a four- 
cornered board, about ten feet long and five 
feet broad, fitted in manner of a table to sit 
about ; on every side whereof is a standing 
ledge, or border, four fingers broad. Upon 
this board is laid a cloth, bought in Easter 
term, which is of a black colour, rowed with 
strekes, distant about a foot or a span." On 
the squares of this chequered cloth counters 
were placed, to assist in making the needful 
computations. Barons of the exchequer were 
first appointed July 6, 1234, and chief barons 
March 8, 1312. By 9 Edw. III. st. 1, e. 5 
(1335), justices of assize, &c. were ordered 
to send aU their records to this court annu- 
ally at Miehaehnas, and by 31 Edw. III. st. 1, 
c. 12 (1357), the lord chancellor and lord 
treasurer were authorized to examine its 
erroneous judgments. (See Exchequee 
Chambee.) By 5 Vict, e, 5, s. 1 (Oct. 6, 
1841), the jurisdiction of the exchequer was 



transferred to the court of Chancery. The 
office of cursitor baron of the exchequer was 
abohshed by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 86 (July 29, 
1856), and the practice and procedure on 
the revenue side of the court was amended 
by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 21, s. 9, et seq. (Aug. 13, 
1859). By 6 Anne, c. 26 (1707), a court of 
exchequer was estabhshed in Scotland, which 
was abohshed by 2 & 3 Will. IV. e, 54 
(June 23, 1832). 



CHIEF BABONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 



1312. 
1329. 
1329. 
1337. 
1344. 
1345. 
1345. 
1350. 
1362. 
1365. 
1374. 
1375. 
1380. 



1400. 
1413. 
1419. 
1423. 
1436. 
1448. 
1462. 
1471. 
1479. 
1483. 
148«. 
1513. 
1522. 
1526. 
1529. 
1545. 
1552. 
1553. 
1558. 
1559. 
1.577. 
1577. 
1578. 
1593. 
1604 
1607. 
1625. 
1631. 
1644. 
1648. 
1655. 
1658. 
1660. 



1671. 
1676. 



1695. 
1714. 
1716. 
1722. 
1723. 
1725. 
1726. 
1730. 
1738. 
1740. 
1742. 
3772. 
1777. 
1787. 
1793. 



March 8. Walter de Norwich. 

Feb. 22. John de Stonore. 

Dec. 19. Henry le Scrope. 

March 20. Robert de Sadinpton. 

July 2. William de Sharesbiill.! 

Nov. 10. John de Stonford. 

Dec. 8. Robert de Sadington (again). 

Apiil 7. Gervase de WUtord. 

Feb. 12. WiUiam de Skipwith. 

Oct. 29. Thomas de Lovielowe. 

Feb. 3. William Tank. 

Nov. 12. He'.ry de Asty. 

Dec. 6. Robert de f lessington. 

Nov. 5. John Gary. 

April 24 Thomas Pynchebek. 

May 12. John Cassy. 

Nov. 15. John Cokayn. 

May 2. William Lasiugby. 

Nov. 4. William Babiugton. 

May 5 John Juvu. 

Feb. 9. John Fray. 

May 2. Peter Arderue. 

Sept. 10. Sir Richard Illingworth. 

May 22. Sir Thomas Ui-swyke. 

April 3. Sir William Nottingham. 

June 15. Humphrey Starkey. 

Oct. 29. William Hody. 

Jan. 8. John Scott. 

Feb. 8. John Fitz-.Tames. 

Jan. 24. Richard Broke. 

May 12. Richard Lyster. 

Nov. 11. Roger Cholmley. 

May 21. Henry Bradshaw. 

Sept. 1. David Brook. 

March 2. Clement Heigbam. 

Jan. 22. Sir Edward Saunders. 

Jan. 24 Sir Robert Bell. 

Oct. 12. Sir John JeflErey. 

Nov. 17. Sir Roger Manwood. 

Sir William Periram. 

Oct. 27. Sir Thomas Fleming. 

June 25. Six Lawrence Tanfield. 

May 10. Sir John Walter. 

Jan. 10. Sir Humphrey Davenport. 

Jan. 25. Sir Richard Lane. 

Oct. 12. John Wilde. 

May 28. WiUiam Steele. 

June 26. Sir Thomas Widdringtou. 

Jan. 17. John WUde (again). 

Juuel. Sir Orlando Bridgman. 

Nov. 7. Matthew Hale. 

May 23. Sir Edward Turner. 

April 12. William Montague. 

April 21. Sir Edward Atkins. 

AprU 17. Sir Robert Atkyns. 

June 10. Sir Edward Wai-d. 

Nov. 20. Sir- Samuel Dodd. 

June 10. Sir Thomas Bury. 

May 4 Sir James Montague. 

Nov. 16. Sir Robert Eyi-e. 

June 1. Sir Jeffrey Gilbert. 

Oct. 22. Sir Thomas Peugelley. 

April 28. Sir James Reynolds. 

July 8. Sir John Comyns. 

Nov. 28. Sir Edmund Probyn. 

Dec. 4. Sir Thomas Parker. 

Oct. 28. Sir Sidney Stafford Smythe. 

Nov. 29. Sir John Skynner. 

Jan. 26. Sir James I^re. 

Feb. 14 Sir Archibald Macdonald. 



EXC 



1814. Sir Alexander Thompson. 

1817. April 22. Sir KicUard Eichards. 

1824. Jan. 31. Sii- William Alexander. 

1831. John, Baron Lyndhurst. 

1834. Dec. Sir James Scarlett, afterwards Baron 

Abinger. 
1844. Sir Frederick Pollock, 



CHIEF BAEONS FOR lEELAITI), SINCE THE 

EEVOLITTIOir. 
A.D. 



1703. 
1706, 
1707, 
1714, 
1715. 
1722. 
1725. 
1730. 
1741. 
1757. 
1766. 
1777. 

1782 



1838. 
1840. 
1846. 



Dec. 5. Sir John Hely. 

May 10. Robert Doyne. 

Dec. 27. Nehemiah Donnellan. 

June 25. Kichard Freeman. 

June 12. Robert Kochfort. 

Oct. 14. Joseph Deane. 

June 16. Geffrey Gilbert. 

June 9. Bernard Hale. 

Sept. 2. Thomas Dalton. 

Sept. 29. Thomas Marlay 

Dec. 21. John Bowes. 

March 11. Edward WUles. 

Sept. 5. Anthony Foster. 

July 3. James Dennis, afterwards Baron 

Tracton. 
July 2. Walter Hussey Burgh. 
Nov. 29. Barry Yelverton, afterwards Viscount 

Avonmore. 
Oct. 5. standish O'Grady, afterwards Viscount 

Guillamore. 
Jan. 6. Henry Joy. 
July 20. Stephen Woulfe. 
Feb. 11. Maziere Brady. 
Sept. 1. David Richard Pigot. 



ExcHEQUEE (Tellers of the).— These offi- 
cers existed as early as a.d. 1189, in which 
year they were ten in number, though they 
were afterwards reduced to four. Thev were 
aboHshed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 15, s. 1 (May 22, 
1834). 

ExcHEQXJEE Bills first appeared a.d, 
1696, since which time they have been 
issued annually. Their first circulation by 
the Bant of England was in 1706, Double- 
day (".Financial History of England," p. 77) 
defines them as "nothing more than pro- 
missory notes due at certain dates, and 
bearing interest, issued by government when 
in want of money." 

ExcHEQTJEE Chambee. — TMs court was 
erected by 31 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 12 (1357), to 
discuss questions which other courts find 
doubtful, and to serve as a tribunal of appeal 
from the court of Exchequer. By 27 Eliz. 
c. 8 (1585), its jurisdiction was extended over 
erroneous judgments in the court of King's 
Bench, and it was confirmed and further 
regulated by 31 Ehz. c. 1 (1589). The con- 
stitution of this court was again altered 
by 11 Geo. lY. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70, s. 8 
(July 23, 1830). 

Excise, or a duty levied upon articles of 
consumption, produced within the state in 
which the tax is levied, was introduced at 
Eome by Augustus, after the civil wars, B.C. 
28. Gibbon says it seldom exceeded one 
per cent, that it was temporarily reduced one 
half by Tiberius, after the annexation of 
Cappadoeia, a.d. 15, and that it was alto- 
gether abolished by CaJigula (a.d. 37 — 41). 
An attempt, made in 1626, to introduce 
excise duties into England, proved unsuc- 
cessful. The Long Parliament levied the first 



EXC 

excise duties in England, May 16, 1643. 
Wines, ale, beer, cider, perry, and tobacco 
were the articles taxed. By 12 Charles II. 
c. 24 (1660), excise duties were levied as part 
of the revenues of the crown. The malt 
duty was first levied in 1695. A large num- 
ber of articles on which excise was formerly 
levied are now exempted. The old Excise 
Office was built on the site of Gresham 
College in 1774. In 1823, the Irish and 
Scotch Boards of Excise were incorporated 
with the Enghsh establishment. The Board 
of Excise was incorporated vrith that of 
Stamps and Taxes, under the name of 
Board of Inland Eevenue, by 12 Vict. c. 1 
(Feb. 27, 1849). 

Exclusion Bill. — The first Exclusion bill 
committed in the House of Commons, May 
21, 1679, by 207 against 128, was lost by the 
dissolution of that parliament, May 27. A 
second measure " for securing the Protestant 
religion by disabling James, duke of York, 
to inherit the imperial crown of this realm," 
passed the House of Commons Nov. 11, 
1680; and was rejected in the House of 
Lords, on the motion for its first reading, 
ISTov. 15. Charles II. sent a message to the 
Commons, refusing to pass a biU of exclu- 
sion, Jan. 7, 1681. In the new parhament 
summoned to meet at Oxford, March 21, 
1681, the Commons ordered, March 28, 
that the bill for excluding James, duke 
of York, was to be read a third time the 
next day. Charles II. at once dissolved 
the parliament, stating, "as we are not 
likely to have a good end, when the divi- 
sions at the beginning are such." 

Excommunication-, as an ecclesiastical 
punishment, is of two kinds, the major or 
greater, and the less. The major excommu- 
cation is also called anathema (g-. u.). The 
lesser excommunication consisted in exclu- 
ding persons from the participation of the 
Eucharist, and prayers of the faithful. The 
following are the most celebrated instances 
in which excommunication has been pro- 
nounced by the popes. When levied against 
an entire state, it is termed an interdict. 



535. Baroniiis asserts that Agapetus threatened to 
put France under an interdict, b-cause of 
a murder committed by King Olotatre. 
This account is rejected as a fable. 
998. Gregoiy V. excommunicates Robert, king of 
France. 

1077. Gregory VIT. excommunicates the emperor 
Henry IV. {See Caitossa.) 

1160. Interdicts are said, by some authorities, to 
have become frequent from the time of 
Alexander III. 

1208. March 23. Innocent III. places England 
under an interdict, which is removed 
Dec. 6, 1213. 

1227. Gregory IX. excommunicates the emperor 
Fi-ederick II. The excommunication is 
repeated in 1228, and the ban is removed 
in 1229. 

1239. Gregory IX. again excommunicates the em- 
peror Frederick II. 

1245. July 17. The emperor Frederick II. is ex- 
communicated at the 13th General CouncU 
at Lyons. 

1510. Julius II. excommunicates Louis Xn. of 
France. 



EXC 



A.D. 

1538. Dec. 17. Paul III. publishes a bull, dated 
Aug. 31, 1535, excommunicating and de- 
posing Henry VIII. of England. 

1.559. Paul IV. denies the right of Elizabeth to the 
English crown. 

1570. April 25. Pius V. publishes a bull declaring 
Elizabeth of England an usurper. 

1860. March 29. Pius IX. excommunicates all 
pei-sons concerned in the rebellion, inva- 
sion, and usurpation of the Romagna. 
This seutence includes Napoleon III. and 
Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia.! 

ExcTTESiON" Teaiks Were first started in 
England on Easter-Monday, April 8, 1844. 



EXE 

Executions. — In 1039 the executioner is 
mentioned as a person of exalted rank, and 
even now the sheriff is nominally the finisher 
of the law by virtue of his office. Harrison's 
" Description of Great Britain," printed in 
1577, states that 72,000 rogues and thieves 
suffered death in the reign of Henry VIII. 
that is, about 2,000 a year. By 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 31, s. 4 (June 27, 1828), the tune for the 
execution of a murderer was fixed for the 
next day but one from that on which he 
received sentence. This was repealed by 
6 & 7 Will. IV. c.30 (July 14, 1836). 



Place of Execution. 



1700. Aug. 22 

1701. May 23 
1716. Feb. 24 
1718. May 21 
1724. Nov. 16 
1739. April 10 

1746. Aug. 18 

1747. April 9 

1759. Aug. 16 

1760. May 5 

1761. April 4 
1761. Dec. 15 
1767. Sept. 14 
1774. Nov. 30 

1776. Jan. 17 

1777. June 27 
1779. April 19 
1781. April 2 
1795. Aug. 3 
1797. June 30 

1797. Dec. 11 

1798. June 7 
1800. April 

1802. Jan. 28 

1803. Jan. 18 
1803. Feb. 21 
1803. Sept. 3 
1803. Sept. 20 

1806. AprU 8 

1807. Feb. 23 

1808. March 7 
1808. Oct. 2 

1811. June 24 

1812. May 18 

1813. Aug. 22 
1813. Sept. 18 



1815. April 8 

1816. Aug. 29 

1817. March 12 
1817. July 

1817. Nov. 7 

1818. Aug. 3 

r 

1820. May 1^ 



1820. July 31 

1821. July 18 

1823. July 28 

1824. Jan. 9 

1824. Nov. 30 

1825. June 20 

1826. March 20 

1827. Jan. 2 
1827. Jan. 26 



Eev. T. Hunter 

Captain Kidd 

Lord Derwentwater 

John Price, the hangman 

John Sheppard 

Richard Tuipin 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino . . 

T ord Lovat 

Eugene Aram 

Lord Ferrers 

Theodore Gardelle 

John M'Naughton 

Mrs. Brownrigg 

John Rann,rt/?«« Sixteen-string Jack 

Daniel and Robert Perreau 

Rev. Dr. Dodd 

Rev. James Hackman 

John Donellan 

Lewis Jeremiah Abershaw 

Richard Parker 

Mrs. Phipoe 

James O'Coigley 

Richard Ferguson, alias Galloping ") 

Dick / 

Joseph Wall, Esq 

George Foster 

Colonel Despard and others 

John Hatfield 

Robei-t Emmett 

Richard Patch 

Haggerty and HoUoway 

Thomas Simmons 

Major Campbell 

R. Armitage and C. Thomas 

John Belltngham 

Philip Nicholson 

Michael M'llvena 

Joseph Blackburn, Esq 

Jeremiah Grant 

John Cashman 

Patrick Devan 

Jeremiah Brandreth, &c 

Charles Hussey 

Thistlewood "] 

Ings I 

Brunt ^ 

Davidson 

Tidd J 

James Nesbett 

David Haggart 

Philip Stoflfel and Charles Keppel . . 

John Thurtell 

Henry Fauntleroy 

William Probert 

John Diggles 

Charles T. White 

John Peele 



Murder 

Piracy 

High treason 

Murder 

House-breaking 

Horse-stealing 

High treason 

Ditto 

Murder 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Highway robbery 

Forgery 

Ditto 

Murder 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Mutiny 

Murder 

High treason 

Highway robbeiy 

Murder 

Ditto 

High treason 

Forgery 

High treason 

Murder 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto (duel) 

Forgery 

Murder 

Ditto 

Unlawfully perform- 1 
ing the marriage > 

ceremony ; 

Forgery 

Burglaiy 

Felony 

Murder 

High treason 

Murder 

1 

High treason, Cato I 

Street conspiracy . . f 

Murder 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Forgery 

Horse-stealing 

Mui-der 

Arson 

Forgery 



Edinburgh. 
Execution Dock. 
Tower Hill. 
Bunhill Row. 
Tyburn. 
York. 
Tower HiU. 

Ditto. 
York. 
Tyburn. 
Haymarket. 
Strabaue. 
Tybum. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 
Warwick. 

Kennington Common. 
The Sandwich, oflf 

Sheerness. 
Newgate. 

Pennenden Heath. 
Aylesbury. 
Old Bailey. 

Ditto. 

Horsemonger Lane. 
Carlisle. 
Dublin. 

Horsemonger Lane. 
Old Bailey.* 
Hei-tford. 
Armagh. 
Old BaUey. 

Ditto. 
Pennenden Heath. 



York. 

Maryborough. 
Skinner Street. 
WUd Goose Lodge, 

Ireland. 
Derby. 
Pennenden Heath. 



Old BaUey. 



Pennenden Heath. 
Edinburgh. 
Horsemonger Lane. 
Hertford. 
Old BaUey. 
Ditto. 

Manchester. 
Old Bailey. 
Pennenden Heath. 



* At this execution more than forty people lost their lives from the excessive crowding. 





EXE 


EXE 




Date. 


Name. 


Crime. 


Place of Execution. 


1827. Sept. 1 

1828. Aug. 11 
1828. Dec. 8 


Joshua Slade 


Murder ... 


Huntingdon. 
Bury St. Edmunds. 
Old Bailey. 
Edinburgh. 
Old BaUey. 
Monmouth. 
Hor.-emonger Lane. 
Chelmsford. 
Pennenden Heath. 

Ditto. 
Old Bailpy. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 
Leicester. 

Horsemonger Lane. 
Bristol. 
Old BaUey. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Shrewsbury. 
Old BaUey. 
Dublin. 
Old Bailey. 
Stafford. 
Nottingham.* 
Old Bailey. 
Aylesbury. 
Old BaUey. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 
Norwich. 
Derby. 

Bury St. Edmunds. 
York. 
Norwich. 
Lewes. 

Horsemonger Lane. 
Newcastle. 
Chelmsford. 
Edinburgh. 
Monaghan. 
Old BaUey. 

Ditto. 
Stafford. 
York. 
Old BaUey. 
Maidstone. 

Ditto. 

Chelmsford. 
Cardiff. 
Liverpool. 
Old BaUey. 
WiHcn. 
Paisley. 
Old BaUey. 

Ditto. 
Twuton. 
Liverpool. 
Horsemonger Laae. 
Old BaUey. 
Taunton. 
Chester. 
Maidstone. 






Ditto 

Forgery 

Murder 




Joseph Hvmton 




1829. April 13 

1829. April 29 

1830. Jan. 11 
1830. Aug. 2 

1830. Dec. 24 

1831. July 29 

1831. Dec. 5 

1832. Jan. 8 
1832. July 9 
1832. Aug. 10 
1834 Nov 25 








Ditto 






Burglary 

Murder 




Captain Moir .... 




H. and W. Packman and J. Dyke . . 










Bishop and Williams 


Ditto 




Elizabeth Ross 


Ditto 

Murder and arson 

Murder 

Ditto 




James Cook 

Mosele.y and Garside 




1835. April 15 
1837. March 7 
1837. May 2 


Ditto . .. 












Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Attempted murder .. 








1840. July 6 

1841. Api-il 3 

1841. Nov. 15 

1842. Feb. 5 
1842. July 4 
1844 Jan 13 


P. B. Coui-voisier 

JosiahMister 




John Delahunt 

Cooper 

Sarah Westwood 


Ditto 




Ditto 




1844. Aug. 7 
1845 March 24 










Ditto 












1845. April 28 
tfidH Timp 9 


Thomas Hocker 


Ditto 

Ditto . 












Ditto 

Ditto 




1846. April 4 

1847. April 1 
1847. ApiH 17 
;i848. Jan. 8 
1849. Apiil 21 
1849. Aug. 21 


Samuel Yarham. 




Catharine Foster 


Ditto 






Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto . . . 








Mary Anne Geering 




Ditto 

Ditto ... 




1850. Aug. 24 


Patrick Foi'bes 






Ditto 




1854. Jan. 25 
1854. April 9 








Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 








1856 March 31 


William Bonsfield 










1856. Aug. 9 


William Dove 


Ditto 


















1857. July 6 
1857. July 23 
1857. July 25 
1857. Sept. 11 
1857 Nov 16 




Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 




Michael Crawley 
















Ditto 

Ditto 




1858 Jan 14 










Ditto 




1858. April 26 
1858. Aug. 24 






Thomas B Bucknell 


Ditto 

Ditto 

D tto 








1860. Sept. 4 


William G. Youngman 








1861. Api-il 5 
1861. Aug. 27 
1861. Sept. 19 


The brothers Wedmore 


Ditto 

Attempt to murder .. 
Murder 




Martin Doyle 













* Twelve persons were killed, and upwards of twenty serio\isly injured, from the excessive 
crowding at this execution. 



ExECTJTOEs were appointed in Greece and 
Eome. They are often mentioned in Anglo- 
Saxon wills. Mention is made in the Eotuli 
Pari, of the executors of the wiU of Bishop 
John of Kyrkeby, a.b. 1290. 

ExETEB (Devonshire). — This city is pro- 
bably one of the oldest in England, some 
authorities ascribing its foundation to Cori- 
nseus, nephew of the mythic Brutus, b.c. 
1100, while others state that it was built by 
Vespasian a.d. 49. But as it was anciently 
337 



called by British names, such as Pancair, the 
chief city ; Caer-Iso, the city of the Iso or 
Exe ; and Caer-Kydh, the city of the red 
soil, it was most probably settled by the 
Britons previous to the Koman invasion. 

B.C. 

54. Eougemont Castle is said to have been founded 
by JiUius Caesar this year. 

A.D. 

633. Penda, king of Mercia. besieges Exeter. 
868. Ethelred founds a monastery here; 



EXE 



876. The Danes winter in Exeter. 

894. Alfred compels the Danes to raise the siege of 

the city. 
918. Edward the Elder holds a witenagemot at 

Exeter. 
932. Athelstan founds a monastery. 
1003. It is totally destroyed by Sweyn, king of 

Denmark. 
1050. Edward the Confessor and his queen Edith 

visit Exeter, and found a cathedral. 
1067. The inhabitants rebel against WUliam the 
Conqueror, who besieges and takes the 
city. 
1112. The cathedral is founded by Bishop Warle- 

wast. 
1140. The city surrenders to King Stephen, after a 
siege of three months, during (^hich the 
cathedral was demolished. 
1200. The city is incorporated. 

1239. The priory of St. John the Baptist is founded. 
1250. A bridge is built over the Exe. 
1280. Bishop Linvil rebuilds the cathedral. 
1286. Edward I. and his queen hold their Christmas 

revels here. 
1354. The first recorder is elected. 
1357. The inhabitants entertain the Black Prince 
and King John of France, after the battle 
of Poitiers. 
1463. Nine aldermen are appointed by Edward IV. 
1469. Exeter is besieged by the Yorkists, under Sir 

Hugh Cotu-tt-nay. 
1497. Perkin Warbeck lays siege to Exeter. 
1536. Aug. 3. Exeter is erected into a separate 

county. 
1549. July 2. It is besieged by the Cornish rebels, 
who are compelled to withdraw Aug. 6, 
which day is still observed as an annual 
festival. 
1555. The tlrst chamber:ain of the city is elected. 
1588. Elizabeth grants the city "Semper fidelis" 
as its m.tto, for its fidelity during the 
Spanish invasion. 
1593. The Guildhall is erocted. 
1643. Sept. 5. The royalists, under Prince Maurice, 

take Exeter. 
1646. April 9. The city surrenders to Sir Thomas 

Fairfax. 
1688. Nov. 8. William TIT. makes his public entry 

into Exeter. 
1696. William III. establishes a mint here. 
1725. The Topsham canal is completed. 
1738. Oct. 18. The duke of Marlborough reviews 

the troops here. 
1770. A new bridge is commenced, which is de- 
stroyed by a flood in 1775. 
1773. The castle is partially demolished, and the 

assize-hall built. 
1778. Exe bridge is opened. 
1789. Aug. George TIT. visits Exeter. 
1796. The gaol is buUt. 

1801. St. Thomas's Lunatic Asylum is founded. 
1807. The Bridewell is founded. 
1813. The Devon and Exeter Institution is founded. 
1817. Exeter is first lighted with gas. 

1819. The city prison is erected. 

1820. The Royal Subscription-rooms are built. 

1821. The public baths are opened. 

1825. The Mechanics' Institute is established. 

1835. TheWestern market i s buUt, the Athenaeum in- 
stituted, and the water-works are completed, 

1838. July. The Eastern market is opened. 

3844. May 1. The Bristol and Exeter railway is 
opened. 

1847. The Polytechnic Institution is founded. 

April 27. A destructive fire occurs. May 14. 
A seriuus food riot takes place. 

1848. May 5. The South Devon railway is opened. 

1849. The post-office is erected. 

ExETEB (See of). — On the erection of the 
see of Winchester, a.d. 660, its ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction extended over all the west of 
England; but in 705 Devon and Cornwall 
were formed into the separate diocese of 



EXH 

Sherborne. In 909 Edward the Elder created 
the sees of Wells, Cornwall, and Devonshire, 
the two latter of which were united in 
1040, and in 1050 the see was transferred 
from Crediton to Exeter. The SciUy Isles 
were declared within this diocese July 30, 
1838, 

ExETEE Change (London) is mentioned 
as a recent erection by De Laune in "The 
Present State of London, &c.," published in 
1681. It was designed for the use of mil- 
liners, hosiers, &c. ; but did not answer; in 
consequence of which it was subsequently 
used as a menagerie by Mr. Cross. The 
elephant " Chunee " was shot here in March, 
1826, and the old building was pulled down 
in 1829. New Exeter Change, otherwise 
Wellington Arcade, was completed in 1845, 
from the designs of Mr. Sydney Smirke. 

Exeteb College (Oxford).— This college 
was founded a.d. 1314, by Walter of Staple- 
don, bishop of Exeter, by whom it was called 
Stapledon Hall. Two new fellowships for 
the diocese of Salisbury were added in 
1404 by Edmimd Stafford, bishop of Exeter, 
from whom the college received its present 
name, and in 1565 Sir WiUiam Petre added 
eight fellowships. Charles I. founded a 
fellowship for the islands of Jersey and 
Guernsey in 1636, and in 1770 Mrs. Shiers 
bequeathed certain rents, which were devoted 
to the purpose of forming two additional fel- 
lowships for Hereford and Surrey. These 
arrangements were amended by 17 & 18 Vict, 
c. 81 (Aug. 7, 1854). 

Exeter Hall (London). — This building 
was erected in the Strand by Gandy Deering, 
during the years 1830 and 1831. It was in- 
tended for public meetings on religious and 
charitable matters ; but has since been used 
as a concert-room for sacred music. A series 
of Sunday evening services was commenced 
here by clergymen of the Church of England, 
under the sanction of the bishop of London, 
May 24, 1857 ; but it was discontinued in 
consequence of the opposition of the in- 
cumbent of the parish, Nov. 6. The Dis- 
senters commenced a similar course Nov. 22. 
A very large meeting of the Sons of the 
Phoenix, a body of teetotallers, formed 
into societies called lodges, like those of 
benefit societies, was held here Nov. 9, 
1859. 

Exhibition. — The idea of collecting ob- 
jects of iadustrial manufacture first occurred 
to the marquis d'Aveze, a.d. 1797; but he 
was imable to carry it out until 1798, when he 
opened what is termed in France an " expo- 
sition" of French goods. The undertaking 
proved so successful that the idea was adopted 
by the French government, and sumlar col- 
lections were exhibited in 1801, 1802, 1806, 
1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, and since then every 
five years. A similar exhibition was onened 
at Ghent in 1820, at BerHn in 1834, and at 
Vienna iu 1835. This led to the idea of a 
' general exhibition, in which different nations 
! appeared as competitors. The first on this 
extended scale was the Great Exhibition 
I {q. v.), held in London in 1851. 



EXI 

A.D. A.D. 

At Cork 1852 1 At Calcutta . .... 18.>5 

At Dulilin 1853 At Manchester .... ia57 

At Paris 1855 | At Florence 1801 

Exiles (Battle). — The Austrians and Sar- 
dinians defeated the French and Spaniards 
at this place, near Mont Cenis, July 19, 1747. 
The French republican army failed in an 
attack upon the fort of Exiles in 1794. 

Exodus of the Israehtes from Egypt 
occurred, according to the best authorities, 
B.C. 1491. The Exodus, the second of the 
five books of Moses, contains a full account of 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. 

ExoEciSTS, or persons who professed to 
possess the art of expelling evil spirits, existed 
in very ancient times, both among heathen 
and Christian nations. They were constituted 
an order in the Church towards the end of 
the 3rd century, when exorcism was added 
to baptism. 

ExTKEME Ukction. — This ceremony of 
anointing persons on the point of death with 
oil, originated in the 7th century. In the 
10th century the clergy contended that if it did 
not benefit the body it was of great service 
to the soul, and this doctrine was generally 
accepted in the 12th century. Eugenius IV., 
at the council of Florence (a.d. 1439—1442), 
decreed it to be a sacrament. This was con- 
firmed by the council of Trent (1545—1563). 

Eylatt (Battle). — Napoleon I. defeated 
the Eussian army under Benningsen at this 
Prussian town, Feb. 8, 1807. The action was 
commenced by Augereau, whose division was 
defeated with immense slaughter ; but ISTapo- 
leon coming to the rescue, the fortunes of 
the day were retrieved, and the Eussians 
compelled to retire to Konigsberg. The 
loss of life was unusually great, though 
from the discrepancy in the reports it is 
difficult to arrive at a positive conclusion. 
Alison (ch. xliv. s. 74) says: "On the side 
of the Eussians twenty-five thousand had 
fallen, of whom above seven thousand were 
already no more ; on that of the French 
upwards of thirty thousand were killed or 
wounded, and nearly ten thousand had left 
their colours, under pretence of attending 
to the wounded, and did not make their 
appearance for several days afterwards." 



Fabiano, St. (Battle).— John of Anjou, 
during his invasion of JSTaples, defeated Alex- 
ander Sforza and the count of Urbino, the 

fenerals of Ferdinand I., in a hotly-contested 
attle at St. Fabiano, July 1, 1460. 
Factory.— The first fire-proof cotton 
factory was erected at Belper by the Messrs. 
Strutt in 1797. By the Factorv Act (3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 103, Aug. 29, 1833), persons 
under eighteen years of age, and women, 
were prohibited from working more than 
twelve hours a day ; and the employment of 
children imder nine years was altogether 
abohshed. This Act was amended by 7 & 8 
Vict. c. 15 (June 6, 1844), which ordered 



FAX 

that all machinery should be guarded to 
prevent accidents ; that eight, not nine, 
yea,rs should be the earliest age at which 
children could work in factories ; that their 
hours of labour should not exceed six 
hours and a half a day ; and that they 
should attend school daily. These acts 
were amended by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 29 
(June 8, 1847), and by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 54 
(Aug. 5, 1850). 

Faenza (Italy), the ancient Faventia, 
was the scene of the defeat of Carbo and 
Norbanus by MeteUus, b.c. 82. It sub- 
mitted to the emperor Frederick II. a.d. 
1162. Frederick III. captured it, after an 
obstinate siege, in 1240. Eodolph I. con- 
firmed the pope in its possession in 1275. 
The Bolognese seized it in 1282, and its 
walls were restored in 1286. Caesar Borgia 
wrested it from the Manfredi in 1501, and 
it soon after passed into the possession 
of Venice (1504). The papal aTithorities 
recovered it in 1509, and it submitted to 
the French in 1512. It was, however, 
restored to the popes, and was annexed to 
the kingdom of Sardinia in 1859. 

F^sxTL^ (Italy), the modern Fiesole, 
was devastated during the social war, b.c. 
90 and 89. Belisarius captured it after a 
long siege a.d. 539, and the Florentines are 
said to have destroyed it a.d. 1010. 

Faielop Oak (Essex). — This celebrated 
oak, which formerly existed in Hainault 
Forest, was so old that, according to Mr. 
GUpin, " the traditions of the country traced 
it halfway up the Christian tera." About 
the year 1728, Mr. Day, of Wapping, com- 
menced the custom of dining here every 
year with a party of friends. Other parties 
j joined him in these annual picnics, until at 
I length the company became so numerous that 
I the gathering assumed the character of a 
j regular fair, recurring the first Friday in 
I July. Mr. Day died in 1767, and was 
j buried in a cofim made of wood from his 
favourite oak. In 1805 the tree was acci- 
I dentally set on fire. The trunk and most 
j of the principal branches were seriously 
injured, and in 1820 it was blown down. 
The trunk of this celebrated oak measured 
36 feet in girth, and its branches covered an 
area of 300 feet in circumference. 

Faiks were established in Italy about 
A.D. 500, and at Aix-la-Chapelle and Troyes 
about 800. Alfred the Great introduced 
them into England in 886, and in 960 they 
were estabhshed in Flanders. Fairs for the 
sale of slaves were common throughout 
Germany and the north of Europe about 
1000 ; and in 1071 they were encouraged in 
England by Wfiliam the Conqueror. By 
2 Edw. III. c. 15 (1328) , it was enacted that 
the duration of fairs shoiild always be declared 
at their commencement ; and by 5 Edw. III. 
c. 5 (1331), any trader carrying on business 
after the stipulated time was to forfeit 
double the value of the goods sold. Dis- 
putes at fairs were adjusted at the courts 
of Pie-poudre, or dusty-foot, which were 
regulated by 17 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1477). The 
z 2 



FAI 



PAN 



time for holding fairs was specified by 27 
Hen. VI. c. 5 (1443), whieli prohibited them 
on certatn feast-days, and on all Sundays 
except the four in harrest time. This ex- 
ception was repealed by 13 Vict. c. 23 
(June 10, 1850). 

Faisans. — Thisisland, in the river Bidassoa, 
that separates France from Spain, was the 
scene of conferences for peace between 
Philip IV. and Louis XIV. ia 1659. The 
result was the peace of the Pyrenees, signed 
Nov. 7, 1659. From this circumstance the 
place was also called the Isle of the Con- 
ferences. 

Faith awd Chaeitt (Knights of). — 
Estabhshed in France, to suppress public 
robberies, about a.d. 1230. They were 
approved by Gregory IX. 

Falaise (France). — Celebrated as the 
ancient seat of the dukes of Normandy. 
WiUiam I. was bom here a.d. 1027, and a 
statue was erected to his memory Oct. 26, 
1851. Falaise received its charter from 
Philip Augustus in 1207. Prince Arthur was 
imprisoned at Falaise, whence he was re- 
moved to Eouen in 1202. 

Falczi, or Peuth (Peace of) . — Peter the 
Great having invaded Moldavia, a.d. 1711, 
with a force of 38,000 men, was surrounded 
by a Turkish army of 200,000 men at Falczi, 
on the Pruth, and reduced to despair. The 
empress Catherine, who was with him, re- 
stored his confidence, and negotiations were 
commenced between the two powers, which 
resulted in the signing of this peace, July 10, 
1711. Its chief conditions were the sur- 
render by the czar of the fortress of Azof, 
the dismantling of his newly-built castles 
near the Turkish frontier, and an engage- 
ment on his part not to interfere ia the 
affairs of Poland or of the Cossacks. 

Falebii (Italy). — Its inhabitants joined 
the Fidenates and Veientes against Home, 
B.C. 437. CamiUus took the city B.C. 394. 
They made war against Eome B.C. 356 and 
B.C. 293. The city was taken and destroyed 
by the Eomans b.c. 241. 

Falebkian Wine, so called from Falemus 
Ager, the district in which it was produced. 
This district was ravaged by the Carthaginians 
B.C. 217. Some writers suppose that a town 
named Faleria once existed in this part, 
though no evidence of the fact has been 
adduced. The best Falemian wine was that 
produced at the village of Faustianum. 

Falkiopikg (Battle).— Margaret, queen of 
Norway and Denmark, called the Semiramis 
of the "North, defeated Albert of Sweden at 
this place a.d. 1389. 

Falkibk (Battles). — The Scottish army 
under Sir WiUiam Wallace was surprised by 
the Enghsh, under Edward I., in the forest 
of Falkirk, in Stirlingshire, July 22, 1298. As 
Wallace was doubtful of the fidelity of some 
of his troops, he wished to avoid an action ; 
but finding it impossible, he chose an advan- 
tageous position. Just as the two armies 
joined, his heavy cavalry fled without striking 
a blow, and he was completely defeated, with 
the loss of at least 15,000 men. The royalist 



forces, tmder General Hawley, were defeated 
at Falkirk Muir by the Scotch, under Prince 
Charles Edward, Jan. 17, 1746. The EngHsh 
loss amounted to less than 400 in killed and 
wounded, and that of the Scotch to about 120. 
Falkland Islands (South Atlantic Ocean). 
— Although it is sometimes asserted that 
these islands were descried by Amerigo 
Vespucci, A.D. 1502, they were in truth 
discovered by Davis, a.d. 1592. In 1594, 
Hawkins explored their northern shores, 
and in 1690 they were visited by Strong, who 
anchored in Falkland Sound, to which he 
gave its name. M. de Bougainville arrived 
here Feb. 3, 1764, and planted a French 
settlement March 17 ; and Commodore Byron 
discovered Port Egmont in 1766, and took 
possession of the country by the name of 
Falkland's Islands. In 1767 the French 
ceded their claim to the Spaniards, who 
expelled the British in 1770, but were com- 
pelled to admit their right to the sovereignty 
of the islands by treaty, Jan. 22, 1771. As 
no attempts were made to establish an 
Enghsh settlement, the republic of Buenos 
Ayres planted a colony at Port Louis In 1820. 
This was destroyed by the Americans in 
1831, and in 1S33 was erected into a British 
station. In 1840 the government sent out a 
colony to Port Louis. It was removed to 
another situation in 1844. 

Falmouth (Cornwall) was originally called 
Smithick. In 1613, Sir John KiUigrew 
formed the project of erecting a town here, 
which received its charter and present name 
from Charles II. in 1661. In 1670, Sir Peter 
KUhgrew built a new quay, which greatly 
added to the commercial importance of the 
town ; and in 1688 its prosperity was increased 
by the establishment of the post-office packet 
to Lisbon and the West Indies. The hospital 
for disabled seamen was founded in 1750, 
and the gaol in 1831. Queen Victoria visited 
Falmouth Aug. 28, 1843. 

Famagosta, or Fama&tjsta. — ^This town, 
in the island of Cyprus, was taken by the 
Genoese a,d. 1373, and by the Turks Aug. 1, 
1571. 

Famaks (Battle). — The allied army at- 
tacked the intrenched camp of the French 
at Famars, near Valenciennes, May 23, 1793. 
The French, who suffered considerably, re- 
tired during the night. 

FAauLY Compact, between the Bour- 
bons of France and Spain (Louis XV. 
and Charles III.), was concluded at Paris, 
Aug. 15, 1761. It was, in fact, a defensive 
and offensive aUiance between France and 
Spain. Ferdinand FV., king of Naples, ac- 
ceded to the aUiance. 

Familt of Love. {See Agap.zemone.) 

Famines. {See Index.) 

Fan. — Pharaoh is represented surrounded 
by his fan-bearers on the walls of the tombs 
of Thebes. Fans of peacock's feathers were 
made in Greece in the 5th century B.C., and are 
mentioned in one of the tragedies of Euripides. 
The custom of using fans was introduced into 
England during the reign of Henry VIII., 
and in 1523 they were carried in winter as 



FAN 

well as in summer. The ladies had prodigious 
fans, with handles half a yard long, and with 
these they often administered correction to 
their daughters. During the 16th and 17th 
centuries they were used by gentlemen. Sir 
Edward Coke rode the circuit with one of 
these large fans. Folding fans were ratro- 
dueed in the beginning of the 17th century. 

Fang (Battle). — The Alemanni defeated 
the Eomans near this town, the ancient 
Fanum Fortunae, in Umbria, a.d. 270. 

Fakce. — One of the earliest extant is in 
German, called the " Apotheosis of Pope 
Joan," and was written about a.d. 1480. The 
French farce of "Maitre Patehn" was first 
printed in 1490. 

Faemers-Genebai,, or Fermiers Gene- 
EAUX. — This company, which farmed cer- 
tain branches of the revenue in France 
under the old monarchy, was formed 
A.D- 1728, The system was abolished in 
1789. 

Farnham (Surrey). — In 860 this town was 
bestowed upon the bishops of Winchester 
by Ethelbald, king of Wessex, and in 893 
Alfred defeated the Danes in its neighbour- 
hood. Waverley Abbey was built by Gtfford, 
bishop of Winchester, in 1128. The castle, 
which was founded by Henry de Blois, bishop 
of Winchester (1129—1171), was taken by 
Louis the dauphin in 1216, and demolished 
by Henry III. In December, 1642, it was 
seized by the Parliamentary forces and again 
destroyed ; but Bishop Morley commenced 
its re-erection in 1662. Farnham is cele- 
brated as the birthplace of William Cobbett, 
March, 1762. Until about 1790 it exercised 
the rights of a borough. 

Farnovians.— The followers of Stanislaus 
Farnowski (Famovius), who separated from 
the Unitarians a.d. 1568. The sect became 
extinct on the death of Farnowski in 1615. 

Faroe, or Feeoe Islands (North Sea). — 
This group, discovered by the Norwegians 
between a.d. 858 — 868, now belongs to Den- 
mark. 

FAREiNGDOir Market (London) . — The 
corporation were empowered by act of par- 
liament in 1824, to remove the Fleet Market 
{q. V.) and erect a new one in its place. This 
was opened Nov. 20, 1829, under the name of 
Farriagdon Market. 

Farthing. — This coin existed among the 
Anglo-Saxons, though no specimen remains. 
Farthings were first coined roimd a.d. 1210, 
when King John ordered a large number to 
be struck for use in England and Ireland. 
In 1279 they were called Lundrenses, and 
\mtil the reign of Edward VI. were made of 
silver. The want of a small coinage sub- 
sequently led to the manufacture and issue, 
by private persons, of leaden farthing tokens, 
which were suppressed by a royal procla- 
mation, May 19, 1613. A few copper farthings 
were struck in 1665, but they were not 
issued tUl 1672. Tin farthings were coined 
by WiUiam II. and Mary in 1690, Half- 
farthings were first struck in 1843. 

Farthingale, or Verdingale. — This 
hooped petticoat, to which the modern cri- 



FEA 

• noline bears a strong resemblance, was 
introduced into England in the reign of 
Ehzabeth. It was superseded by the hoop, 
which went out of fashion about 1820. 
I Fasts. — Moses fasted forty days and forty 
nights on Mount Horeb (Exodus xxiv. 18, 
and Deut. ix. 9),b.c. 1491, and abstinence 
was one rule for observing the day of atone- 
ment (Lev. xxiii. 26-32), B.C. 1490. In con- 
sequence of the preaching of Jonah, the king 
I of Nineveh proclaimed a solemn fast for 
I both man and beast (Jonah iii. 5-9), B.C. 787, 
i and Joel ordered a fast, in which even un- 
i weaned infants should participate (Joel ii. 
j 15-17), B.C. 787. Our Saviour fasted forty 
days and forty nights (Matt. iv. 2), a.d. 26, 
' and Barnabas and Saul were ordained to the 
' ministry with fasting (Acts xui. 2), a.d. 45, 
Mosheim, writing ot the first century, says : 
' "Of any solemn public fasts, except only on 
the anniversary day of Christ's crucifixion, 
there is no mention in the most ancient times. 
Gradually, however, stated days of fasting 
were introduced; first by custom, after- 
wards by legal sanction. Whether any- 
thing of this nature occurred in the first cen- 
tury, and what days were devoted to fasting, 
we have not the means of deciding." The 
custom of fasting every Wednesday and 
Friday became general about 111, and the 
Quadragesimal fast, or Lent {q. v.), was 
appointed about 136. The custom of holding 
special fasts was introduced before 173, and 
the fasting system in general was fully 
estabhshed in 222. — For important special 
fasts, see England. 

Fatimites. {See Shiites.) 
Fatal (Atlantic), one of the Azores, was 
captured by Sir Walter Kaleigh a.d. 1597. 

Feasts and Festivals. — The principal 
feasts of the ancient Jews were the Passover, 
instituted B.C. 1491 (Exod. xii. 43-49) ; 
the feast of Weeks or Pentecost, b.c. 1491 
(Exod. xxxiv. 22) ; of Trumpets, B.C. 1490 
(Lev. xxiii. 24-25) ; of Tabernacles, B.C. 1490 
(Lev. xxiii. 39-43) ; and the Jubilee, B.C. 1490 
(Lev. XXV. 10-13). The love-feasts of the 
primitive Christians were instituted about 
A.D. 35 ; and Easter, Ascension, and Whit- 
suntide are believed to have been observed 
since 68. Mamertus, bishop of Vienne, 
instituted the solemn processions called 
Eogations in 469 ; the feast of the Purifi- 
cation was established about 526. Boni- 
face IV. instituted the festival of AH Saints 
in 611, and the Greek Church founded the 
festival of Orthodoxy in 842. Urban IV. 
instituted the feast of Corpus Domini, in 
favour of the doctrine of transubstantiation, 
in 1264, and Boniface VIII. founded jubilees 
in 1300. The festival of the Holy Trinity 
was first observed in 1320, that of the Spear 
and Nails in 1354, and the feast of the Visi- 
tation in 1389. The council of Basel con- 
firmed the festival of the Inomaculate Con- 
ception in 1431, and the feast of the Trans- 
figuration was generally observed in 1456, 
though it was founded much earlier. In 1643 
Urban VIII. published abuU to diminish the 
number of festivals, and in 1745 Benedict 
341 



FEA 



PER 



XIV. sanctioned the celebration of the 
feast of the Seven Joys of the Virgin Mary. 

Feathers. — Sir H. N. Nicolas is of 
opinion that the prince of Wales' feathers 
and the mottoes, " Ich Dien" and " Sou- 
mont" were derived from the house of 
Hainault, possibly from the comte of Ostre- 
vant, the appanage of the eldest sons of the 
counts of that province. 

Febkuaet, the second month of the 
year, was, with January, added to the 
calendar about B.C. 700, by Numa, who 
placed January at the beginning, and Feb- 
ruary at the end of the year. The decemvirs 
placed February next to January, B.C. 452. 
Its name is supposed to be derived from the 
ancient Eomau festival Februa. 

Feciaies. — The heralds of ancient Rome, 
whose duty it was to declare war and pro- 
claim peace. On the occasion of a dispute 
with another power, they made three appeals, 
with an interval of ten days between each, 
and if the matter was not then adjusted, they 
declared war by throwing a bloody javelin 
into the enemy's territory. They were in- 
stituted by JSTuma Pompilius (b.c. 716 — 673), 
and received a code and laws from Ancus 
Martius (b.c. 640—616). 

Feejee, or Fiji Islands (Pacific), were 
discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman in 164^3, 
and named by him Prince William's Islands. 
They have been the scene of some success- 
ful missionary labours during the present 
century. 

Fehebellin- (Battle).— The Swedes were 
defeated by the Germans at this place, in 
Brandenburg, a.d. 1675. 

Feldkikch. — The French, under Massena 
and Ovidinot, failed in several attempts to 
wrest this town, in the Grisons, from the 
Austrians, in March, 1799. It fell into the 
hands of the French in 1800. 

Feiicing. — In consequence of the dis- 
orders perpetrated by proficients in this art 
in the reign of Edward I., aU the fencmg- 
schools in London were ordered to be closed 
by 13 Edw. I. st. 5 (1285). The old system 
of cutting in fencing was supplanted by the 
rapier-thrust in Italy before 1553, and the 
new method was introduced into England 
in 1578. 

Feee-Champenoise (Battle).— The Aus- 
trians, under Prince Schwartzenberg, at- 
tacked and defeated the French divisions of 
marshals Marmont, Mortier, and Arrighi, 
at this place, in France, March 25, 1314. The 
French loss amounted to 5,000 kiUed and 
10,000 prisoners, among whom were the gene- 
rals Pachtod and Aruey. 

Fekentinum (Italy). — The Volscians took 
refuge in this to'wn after their defeat by the 
Romans, B.C. 413. It was afterwards given 
to the Hernicians. The Romans captured it 
B.C. 361, and Hannibal ravaged the territory 
B.C. 211. The modern town, called Feren- 
tino, was the scene of a meeting between 
the emperor Frederick II., Pope Hono- 
rius III., and other rulers, in March, a.d. 
1223, in favour of the fifth crusade. 

Feei.<e Latik je.— An annual festival held 
343 



in commemoration of the union of the peo- 
ples of Latium. It was celebrated in March, 
May, or June, and consisted of the offering 
of sacrifices to Jupiter by aU the tribes of the 
alliance. Some authors state that Tarquin 
the Proud founded this festival (b.c 534— 
510) ; others consider it of earlier origin. 
At first it lasted one day ; on the expulsion 
of the kings, B.C. 510, a second day was 
added to commemorate the event, and a 
third was afterwards added. 

Fernando Po (Bight of Benin) was 
discovered a.d. 1471, by the Portuguese, who 
ceded it to Spain in 1778. The Spaniards 
abandoned it, and the English formed a set- 
tlement in 1827. They retired in 1834, and 
the Spaniards again took possession in 1844, 
calling the island Puei'to de Isabel. 

Ferns (See of). — This Irish bishopric was 
founded about a.d. 598 by St. Edan. Its 
earlier prelates were styled archbishops of 
Leinster. In 1600 the see of Leighlin was 
annexed to Ferns. By 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 37 
(Aug. 14, 1833), the sees of Ferns and 
LeighUn were to be added to Ossory on 
their next avoidance, which took place on 
the death of Bishop Elrington in 1835. 

Ferozeshah (Battle). -^Lord Gough de- 
feated the Sikhs at this village, in Lahore, 
Dec. 21 and 22, 1845. The British force 
consisted of 16,700 men and 69 guns, and the 
Sikhs mustered about 50,0(30 men, with 108 
pieces of cannon, of which nearly all were 
captured. The Enghsh lost 2,415 in killed 
and wounded during the two days. 

Ferraua (Italy). — This town was foimded 
in the 5th century, and fortified about a.d. 
585. It was made a bishopric in 661, and an 
archbishopric in 1735. In 1067 it became a 
free city, joined the Lombard League against 
the emperor Frederick I., in 1175, and 
soon after passed under the sway of the 
house of Este. Venice seized Ferrara in 
1308, and Clement V. claimed it as a fief of 
the Church in 1309. The Este family regained 
possession, and Ferrara was made a duchy 
by Paul II., April IJ., 1471, and was anne.\ed 
to the papal dominions in 1597. It surren- 
dered to the French June 19, 1796, was 
retaken by the allies May 24, 1799, and was 
once more resigned to France by the treaty 
of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. Restored to the 
pope in 1814-15, its inhabitants revolted in 
1860, and Ferrara became part of the new 
Itahan kingdom. It was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake in November, 1570. The 
cathedral was founded in 1135, the university 
in 1390, and the hbrary in 1740. Treaties of 
peace were concluded here in 1428 and 1433. 
A council was held here Jan. 10, 1433. The 
last sitting took place Jan. 10, 1439. 

Ferrars's Arrest. — Mr. George Ferrara, 
M.P. for Plymouth, had become security for 
a man, who failed to pay at the appointed 
time. The creditor consequently brought 
an action against Ferrars, who was arrested 
by the officers of the city of London, and 
imprisoned in the Compter. The Speaker 
laid the matter before the House of Commons, 
and they despatched the sergeant-at-arms 



FEB 

into the city to demand the release of the 
prisoner. A scuflfle ensued, in which the 
sheriffs and city constables took part with 
the municipal authorities ; and the sergeant, 
after having broken the mace in his efforts 
to defend himself, was compelled to retreat. 
The Commons next proceeded in a body to 
the House of Lords, where the judges declared 
the arrest illegal, and pronounced it a very 
great case of contempt. The sergeant was 
again sent to the prison, this time the officials 
offering no resistance, and Mr. Ferrars was 
released from captivity. At eight o'clock 
the following morning, March 28, 1542, the 
sheriffs, and other persons concerned, ap- 
peared at the bar of the House, and the 
sheriffs and creditor were committed to the 
Tower, the clerk of the Compter to a place 
known as " Little Ease," and the constables 
who had attacked the sergeant • to Newgate. 
They were, however, released at the inter- 
cession of the mayor on the 30th, and in 
April the king expressed his approbation of 
the steps the House had taken. 

Feeeol (Spain). — An Enghsh fleet assailed 
this seaport, without success, Aug. 25, 1800. 
It was blockaded by a British fleet in 1805 ; 
and Sir Robert Calder, with fifteen sail of 
the Une, defeated the French and Spanish 
fleet, consisting of twenty sail of the line, 
seven frigates, and two Drigs, off Ferrol, 
July 22, 1805, Marshal Soult captured it in 
1809. 

Festivals. [See Feasts and Festivals.) 

Fethanlea, or Fketheen (Battle). — 
Ceaulin defeated the Britons at this place, 
near Stroud, in Gloucestershire, a.d. 584. 

Feudal Laws. — Alexander Severus (a.d. 
222— 235) and Probus (276—282) gave grants 
of land to their soldiers on condition that 
they and their heirs should do military 
service for them. The custom was after- 
wards imitated by the Lombards and other 
northern nations, by whom it was introduced 
into civilized Europe. The oldest codes of 
laws founded on the feudal principle are the 
Salic law, which was promulgated by the 
Salians or Franks about the year 481 ; the 
code of the Lombards commenced about 
646 ; and the Capitularies published in 817. 
It is believed some such system was intro- 
duced into England by the Saxons, but it 
was not till after the Norman Conquest in 
1066 that it attained its fuU operation in this 
country. It was introduced into Scotland 
by Malcohn II. in 1008. The "Liber Feudo- 
rum " was compiled by the emperor Frede- 
rick I. in 1170, and is regarded as the chief 
authority as to the feudal law of the con- 
tinent. The " Coutumier de Normandie " was 
composed about 1229. The system was 
discouraged in France in 1470, limited in 
England in 1495, and finally abolished by 
12Chas. II. c. 24(1660). . 

Feuillants. — This name was given to a 
rehgious order founded by Jean de la Bar- 
riere, at Feuillant, in Languedoc, in 1577, and 
sanctioned by Sixtus V. in 1588. In 1587 
it established itself in Paris, and in 1630 a 
separationtook place between the Feuillants 



FIF 

of France and those of Italy. During the 
Revolution, a club that assembled in the old 
convent of the Feuillants (1791), was named 
after them. A ministry composed of their 
leaders assumed power in June, 1792. The 
Jacobins conspired against them, and the 
Feuillant Club was closed in July, 1792. 

Fez, or Fas (Africa), the capital of a 
kingdom of the same name, was founded by 
Edris, A.D. 829. His dynasty lasted till 907. 
Fez became subject to Morocco in 1550. 

Fezzan (Africa), the ancient Pha- 
zania, the country of the Garamantes, 
became subject to the Turks a.d, 1842. 

Fiden^ (Italy) was captured B.C. 496 by 
the Romans, with whom its inhabitants were 
frequently engaged in war. Fidense was 
taken and plundered b.c. 426, and its in- 
habitants were sold as slaves. The amphi- 
theatre fell during an exhibition, a.d. 27 when 
50,000 persons were kiUed or wounded. Its 
site is occupied by Castel Giubileo. 

Fief.— Ducange (iii. p. 433) states that the 
word fief, as applied to a possession held by a 
tenant of a superior, was not used until the 
year 884, in the reign of Charles the Fat. {See 
Feudal Laws.) 

Field of MIakch, or Field of Mat. — 
This name was given to assemblies of the 
Frankish people which were held in France 
under the Merovingian kings, every year in 
the month of March. They have been called 
Parliaments of the Champ de Mars. The 
people assembled in arms on these occasions. 
Pepin the Younger, after his accession to the 
throne (a.d. 747), revived this national as- 
sembly, changing the time of meeting from 
March to May. Charlemagne also convoked 
them. Sheppard ("Fall of Rome and Rise of 
the New Nationalities," sect, ix.) remarks : 
"Of these assembhes the chroniclers enume- 
rate thirty -five between the years 770 and 813. 
That convoked in spring, and styled * the 
field of May,' alone had the privilege of 
passing laws, and in it the third estate, or 
the people, were associated with the clergy 
and nobles." 

Field of the Cloth of Gold. — Henry 
VIII. of England and Francis I. of France held 
interviews between Guisnes and Ardres, near 
Calais, Jime 7 to 24, 1520. Such was the 
magnificence displayed, that the place of 
their meeting was caUed the Field of the 
Cloth of Gold. 

FiEEY Chambee, or Chambee Aedbnte. — 
The name given to a French tribunal usually 
convoked for the punishment of heresy. 
Francis I. established a Fiery Chamber in 
1535. In 1679 it was employed to inquire 
into the reports of poisoning cases that were 
circulated on the trial of the Marchioness 
BrinviUiers, and its operations soon after 



Fifth Monaecht Men. — A sect of ultra- 
republicans who appeared in England a.d. 
1645, and taught that Christ was about to re- 
appear on earth, and establish a new universal 
monarchy. In 1653 they held weekly meetings 
in London, at which they denounced Cromwell 
as " the man of sin," " the old dragon," and 
343 



FIG 

" the dissemblingest perjured Tillain in the 
world ;" in consequence of which he put a stop 
to their preaching. They reappeared, how- 
ever, at the Restoration, and stirred up a riot, 
in which several hves were lost, Jan. 6, 1661. 
This fanatical attempt to establish their fifth 
monarchy proved their ruin, as the more 
orderly sects of Puritans immediately de- 
nounced them and their views as equally 
dangerous. 

Fig-tee E. — The common fig-tree was 
brought to England before a.d. 1548; and 
the Botany Bay fig-tree from New South 
Wales in 1789. Cardinal Pole is said to have 
planted fig-trees at Lambeth, during the 
reign of Henry VIII. 

FiGTTEEAS (Spain). — The citadel was built 
by Ferdinand VI. (1746—1759). The French 
captiired it I^ov. 24, 1794. It was several 
times contested, and having agaiu fallen into 
the hands of the French in 1808, was restored 
by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 

FiLBEET. — This fruit, said to have received 
its name from Philibert, a king of France, 
originally brought from Pontus into Italy, 
was introduced into England about a.d. 
1612. 

File-cutting Machines. — Various in- 
struments for the manufacture of files have 
from time to time been invented, of which 
Duverger's in 1699, Fardonet's in 1725, 
Thiout's in 1740, Brachat and Germain's in 
1756 and 1778, Eaoul's in 1800, Ericsson's in 
1836, and Sir J. Robinson's, improved by 
Johnson, CammeU, and Co., in 1843, are the 
most important. In February, 1860, Mr. Tho- 
mas Greenwood, of Leeds, read a paper at 
the Institution of Civil Engineers, in which 
he described an efficient, well-working ma- 
chine, invented by M. Bernot, of Paris, which 
he stated would perform its work at an eighth 
of the expense of previous machines. 

Filibustee. — The correct spelling of this 
word, a corruption of the English term free- 
booter, is flibustier. It was apphed to the 
bucaneers of the 16th century, and to lawless 
bands from the United States, who assailed 
Cuba in 1850 and 1851, and various parts of 
Central America in 1857 and other years. 

FiLTEE. — The unglazed earthenware for 
filtering was patented by Mrs. Hempel of 
Chelsea in 1791. Mr. Peacock patented his 
ascending filter in 1791, and in 1856 Mr. H. M. 
Witt conducted some important experiments 
at the Chelsea Waterworks, which added 
considerably to the knowledge of the best 
materials for filtering-beds, &e. 

Fines and Eecoveeies. — The practice of 
evading the laws of entail by means of fines 
and recoveries was introduced in the reign 
of Edward IV., and sanctioned and regulated 
by 4 Hen. VII. c. 24 (1487). They were 
abohshed by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. e. 74 (Aug. 28, 
1833), which ordered no more to be levied 
or suffered after Dec. 31, 1833. 

Finland (Europe). — Erie IX., king of 
Sweden, obtained a footing in Finland about 
A.D. 1157, when he compelled the Finns to 
embrace Christianity. Peter the Great 
seized it in 1714, It was restored, again 
344 



FIR 

taken, and finally ceded to Russia by the 
peace of Frederickshamm, Sept. 17, 1809. 

FiOEENziroLA ( Battle ). — Berenger was 
defeated at this place, near Piacenza, by 
EodolphlL, king of Burgundy, a.d. 923. 

FiEE-AEMS, as distinguished from artillery 
and cannon (q. v.), originated about the year 
1364, when 500 hand-cannon were made at 
Perouse, or Perugia. Hand-guns were used 
at the siege of Arras in 1414, and of Lucca 
in 1430. Tubes for firing gunpowder, held 
in the hand, and termed Scorpions, appeared 
in England in 1440, and in 1471, 300 Flemings, 
armed with hand-guns, each of which re- 
quired two men to manage, accompanied 
Edward IV. when he landed at Ravensburgh. 
A corps of harquebusiers was formed in 1476, 
and in 1510 the Swiss had a troop of 500 
cavalry, armed with fire-arms, active in Italy. 
The wheel-lock pistol was common in 
Germany in 1512. In consequence of the 
employment of fight fire-arms at the battle 
of Pavia, in 1524, the Spaniards defeated 
Francis I. of France. Muskets were first 
used by the duke of Alva against the 
Flemings in 1567, and were introduced into 
the French army in 1573. The earhest 
mention of a flint arm is dated 1588, and the 
earliest specimen of this kind of weapon is 
of the year 1614. The fire-lock came into 
use about 1669, and the fusil was adopted in 
the French army in 1671. A brass fire-arm, 
called the fancy gun, in the shape of a walk- 
ing-cane, and which might be used either as 
a gun or pistol, was invented in 1712, but was 
never generally adopted. The harpoon gun 
was invented in 1731. The Rev. A. J. Forsyth 
took out his patent for igniting gunpowder 
on the percussion principle, April 11, 1807. 
AU fire-arms were ordered to be proved 
before use by 53 Geo. III. c. 115 (July 10, 
1813), which was amended by 55 Geo. III. 
c. 59 (May 12, 1815). Percussion-cap guns 
were adopted in the French army in 1830, 
and the Enfield rifle musket in the English 
armyin 1853. The present small-arms of the 
British service, as regulated in 1854, are, the 
percussion musket, pattern 1842 ; the Victoria 
carbine ; the regulation rifle musket, pattern 
1851 ; the Enfield rifle musket, pattern 1853 j 
and the artillery carbine, pattern 1853.. 

FiEE Beigade. — Each of the fire insu- 
rance companies of London had a separate 
establishment of fire-engines until 1825, 
when the Union, the Sun, and the Royal 
Exchange companies united their fire-engine 
establishments. Other companies joined 
from time to time, and in 1833 a new asso- 
ciation, including all the principal fire-in- 
surance companies, was formed. This, con- 
stituting the Fire-brigade, is managed by a 
committee. 

FiEE-ENGiNE. — Ctesibius, who flourished 
B.C. 250, is beheved to have invented a 
species of fire-engine. Instruments for ex- 
tinguishing fires are first mentioned in the 
accounts for the city of Augsburg a.d. 1518, 
but no distinct description of a machine of 
the kind exists till Hautsch of Nuremberg 
constructed his engine, about 1657. In 1672, 



FIR 

Jan Vanderheide introduced the flexible hose, 
an d in 1699 Duperrier received a patent for 
making fire-engines for France. Newsham's 
engine was patented about 1700; and Leu- 
pold added the air-chamber in 1720. In 1792 
Mr. C. Simpson patented an improved form 
of Newsham's machine ; and in 1793 Mr. 
Joseph Bramah took out a patent for an 
engine on the vibratory principle. A steam 
fire-engine was invented by Mr. Braithwaite 
in 1830, and in 1832 the insurance companies 
adopted the engine now in use. 

FiKE-ESCAPE. — Various ingenious contri- 
vances to enable people to escape in cases of 
conflagration, have been from time to time 
invented. The Academy of Sciences at Paris, 
in 1761, expressed their approbation of 
M. Varcourt's invention for this purpose. 
The fire-escape which served as the basis for 
those used in London, was invented by Mr. 
John Davies in 1809, After having under- 
gone several improvements, they were in 1836 
brought into general use by the Society for 
the Protection of Life from Fire. There 
are now above 70 of these useful machines 
stationed in difierent parts of the metropohs. 

Fire-lock came into use, according to 
Merrick, a.d. 1669. 

Fires. {See Index.) 

Fire - ships, fiUed with combustibles, 
were used amongst ancient nations. Mention 
of them is made in the 13th century. Fire- 
ships were launched against the Spanish 
armada in Calais roads, Sunday, July 28, 
1588 (0. S.). In the English navy-hst for 
1710, five of these vessels formed part of the 
naval defences of the kingdom. 

Fireworks. — The art of pyrotechny was 
brought to great perfection by the Chinese 
and Hindoos long before it was known in 
Europe. From a passage in Claudian, who 
wrote . in the 4th century, it appears that 
the Romans celebrated triumphs, &c. by 
exhibitions of moving fires, though, of course, 
their ignorance of gunpowder rendered 
their efforts very Hmited. In 1258 the king 
of Delhi sent 3,000 carriages of fireworks 
to the ambassadors of Halaku, They were 
scarcely known in England till the reign of 
Elizabeth; but in the time of Charles I. they 
became common. By 9 & 10 WiU. III. c. 7 
(1697), the throwing or firing off of squibs, 
serpents, or other fireworks, was declared 
a common nuisance, punishable by fine. 
The chief improvements in the construction 
of fireworks for ornamental purposes were 

made by Ruggieri about the year 1743. 

The following are some of the most remark- 
able exhibitions of fireworks ; — 



1697. Nov. 16. On the occasion of the entry of 
William III. into London, after the peace 
of Eyswick, £12,000 were expended in fire- 
works. 

1748. Nov. 23. A grand display at London, to cele- 
brate the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1770. May 31. One at Paris, on the occasion of 
the marriage of Louis XVI. and Marie 
Antoinette. A panic arose, in consequence 
of some fire falliug amongst the crowd, 
and 3,000 persons were killed or wounded. 
712 bodies were afterwards found. 



FIT 



1814. Aug. 1. At London, to celebrate the general 

peace. 
1831. Sept. 8. At London, on the coronation of 

William IV. 
1856. May 29. At London, on the conclusion of 

peace with Russia. 

Fiest-Frtjits. {See Annates.) 

First Praters. — A right exercised by 
Rodolph of Habsburg (a.d. 1273—1291) and 
his successors, which empowered the em- 
peror, on his accession to the throne, to 
nominate a priest to a benefice in every 
immediate chapter and abbey in Germany. 

Fisheries were established among the 
Arabians about B.C. 1800, and the practice 
of salting fish was common in Egypt B.C. 
1350. The Scotch carried on thriving 
fisheries about a.d. 1040, and an important 
herring-fishery was estabhshed at Schonen 
in 1204. The London fishmongers were 
placed under the direction of the Lord 
Mayor in 13S4, the salt-fishmongers incor- 
porated in 1433 ; and by 1482 the English 
fisheries formed a considerable portion of 
the national wealth. By 24 Hen. VIII. c. 4 
(1532), hemp and flax were ordered to be 
sown for the manufacture of fishing-nets; 
and by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1533), the fishing 
towns of the east coast were brought under 
statutory regulation. In 1553 Spain agreed 
to pay an annual sum of £1,000 for leave to 
fish on the Irish coasts, and strangers were 
prohibited from fishing in our seas by a 
proclamation of Charles I. in 1636. In 1635 
the Dutch paid £30,000 for the privilege of 
using the English fisheries ; and in 1656 
Sweden obtained liberty to employ 1,000 
vessels in British waters. The Company of 
the Royal Fishery of England was estabhshed 
in 1677, but proved a failure. The Free 
British Fishery Corporation was established 
in 1750. The Society of Arts devised a 
machine for conveying fresh fish to London 
in 1761, and Parhament granted £2,500 to 
further the scheme in 1764. The British 
Society of Fisheries was estabhshed in 1786, 
the Northumberland Fishery Society in 1789, 
and the Irish Fishery Commission in 1819. 
A convention fixing the limits of oyster and 
other fisheries on the coasts of Great Britain 
and France, was signed at Paris Aug. 2, 
1839. 

Fishguard (Wales). — A French force of 
1,400 men landed near this town Feb. 22, 
1797, and surrendered Feb. 24, 

Fishmongers. — Mention of the fish- 
mongers of London occurs as early as a.d, 
1290. They originally formed two com- 
panies, namely, the Stock Fishmongers and 
the Salt Fislunongers, and were united in 
one company a.d. 1536. Their ancient arms 
were confirmed in 1575. Before they were 
united, they possessed no less than six halls. 
The new Fishmongers' Hall was completed, 
in 1835. 

FiTzwiLiiAM MtrsETTM (Cambridge). — 

Richard, Viscount FitzwiUiam, who died 

Feb. 5, 1816, bequeathed his collection of 

books, paintings, &c., and the interest of 

345 



FIU 

£100,000, for the purpose of establishing a I 
museum at Cambridge. The building was ! 
commenced by George Basevi, Nov. 2, 1837, I 
and continued tiU 1847, when operations ! 
were suspended for a time, to allow time for j 
the accumulation of sufficient funds to carry | 
out the design. 

F 1X7 ME (JHyria).— This seaport, in the 
possession of Austria, was made a free port 
A.D. 1722. 

Five HuifDEED (Council of the). — The 
French Convention in 1795 vested the legis- 
lative power in. two councils, that of the 
Ancients (q.v.) and that of the Five Hundred. 
To the latter was intrusted the sole right of 
originating laws. This council was violently 
dissolved by Ilfapoleon Bonaparte, Nov. 10, 
1799. 

Five-Mile Act.— This act (17 Charles II. 
c. 2, 1665) prohibited Dissenters who refused 
to take the oath of non-resistance, from 
approaching within five miles of any corpora- 
tion where they had preached since the Act 
of Oblivion (12 Charles 11. c. 11, 1660), under 
a penalty of £40. Nonconformists who con- 
sented to sign the declaration attached to the 
act for disabling papists from sitting in either 
house of parliament (30 Charles II. st. 2, 
c. 1, 1677), were relieved from this restriction 
by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1688). 

Fladexheim (Ba14;le).— Eodolph of 
Swabia defeated the emperor Henry IV. 
near this town, in Thuringia, a.d. 1080. 

Flagellants, or Whippees. — Many per- 
sons in Italy, holding no peculiar doctrines, 
formed themselves into processions, and 
inflicted chastisement upon themselves as 
they marched along, a.d. 1260. Milman 
(Latin Christianity, vol. v. b. xi. ch. 2) says 
they " seemed to rise almost simultaneously 
in different parts of Italy. They began in 
Perugia. The penitential frenzy seized 
Eome : it spread through every city, Guelph 
and Ghibellitie crossed the Alps, and invaded 
Germany and France." It was a purely 
rehgious movement, which had been pre- 
ceded in 1251 by that of the Pastoureaux 
(the Shepherds) in Flanders and in France. 
Clement VII. anathematized the new flagel- 
lants who sprung up early in the 14th 
century. An attempt to revive these prac- 
tices was made in Thuringia and other parts 
of Germany, a.d. 1414. Conrad, the leader 
of the sect in Thuringia, with many others, 
suffered at the stake. Flagellation was 
much practised amongst the early monks. 

Flag of Tkuce. — The Eussians fired upon 
a flag of truce at Odessa, April 6, 1854, and 
at Hango, June 5, 1855. 

Flags. — The earhest flags were suspended 
from two corners like a square sail. They 
were used by the Greeks as naval ensigns 
from the earhest period of their history. 
The present style of flag was introduced into 
Europe by the Moors when they entered 
Spain, A.D. 711. The embroidery of flags 
afforded occupation to the ladies of the 
Middle Ages ; thus the celebrated raven stan- 
dard of the Danes, which was captured by 
the English in 878, was said to have been 
346 



FLA 

worked by the three sisters of Hubba, The 
renowned carrocium, or car-standard, of the 
ItaUans was invented at Milan about the 

?rear 1040. Flags were first attached to 
ances during the 11th and 12th centuries, 
and were distinguished by varions badges by 
the crusaders in 1188. For a long period 
the dragon was the national badge of the 
Enghsh. It was used by Harold at Hastings, 
by Eichard I. in 1191, and by Henry III. in 
1264. Edward III. blazoned his banners 
vrith the arms of England and France quar- 
terly in 1340. The Dutch yielded the honour 
of the flag to England in 1673. The flag- 
officers now in the pay of the English navy 
are the admiral, vice-admiral, and rear- 
admiral, of the white, red, and blue. 

FLAMiNiAif Wat. — The Flaminia Via at 
Eome was constructed by Caius Flaminius 
B.C. 221. This road terminated at Ariminum. 

Flammock's Eebellion. — In consequence 
of a tax levied to meet the expense of the 
Scottish wars of Henry VII., the Comishmen 
rose in rebellion under Thomas Flammock, a 
lawyer, and Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, of 
Bodmin. They marched towards London, 
and at Wells were headed by Lord Audley. 
On arriving at Winchester, they compelled 
their leaders to conduct them to Kent, 
expecting to be joined by many natives of 
that county, and encamped on Blackheath, 
where the king resolved to give them battle. 
An engagement ensued, June 22, 1497, in 
which the rebels were defeated, and 2,000 of 
their number slain. Lord Audley was be- 
headed on Tower-hill, and Flammock and 
Joseph drawn, hanged, and quartered at 
Tyburn, June 28. 

Flandees is beUeved to have been covered 
by the sea in ancient times. In 793 it was 
erected into a county, and in 802 was colonized 
by a Saxon tribe. It was annexed to France 
in 843, passed under the government of 
counts in 862, and acquired celebrity as a 
centre of woollen manufacture about 960. 
In 1100 a terrible inundation forced many 
families into exile, and thus led to the 
estabhshment of a Flemish settlement in 
Cumberland, and subsequently, in 1112, in 
Wales. The first commercial treaty between 
Flanders and England was concluded in 1274 ; 
but in 1309 disagreements broke out between 
the two countries, which, in 1322, led to open 
war. Peace was restored in 1325, and in 
1369 the country was annexed to Burgundy 
by marriage. The insurrection of the 
" White Hats " broke out in 1378, and the 
covmtry remained in a very unsettled state tiU 
the accession of Phihp II., the Bold, in 1364. 
In 1477 Flanders passed into the possession 
of the house of Austria, in consequence of 
the marriage of the duchess Mary with the 
archduke MaximUian, and in 1556 the country 
was annexed to Spain. In 1581 the Flemings 
asserted their independence, and the country 
was more or less engaged in wars with Spain 
till the conclusion ot the peace of the Pyre- 
nees, Nov. 7, 1659. In 1668 many of the 
inhabitants emigrated to England, and in 
1680 some parts of the country were seized 



FLA 

by Louis XIY. of France. By the peace of 
Kadstadt, March 6, 1714, it formed part of 
Germany, and Dutch Flanders was annexed 
to France by the treaty signed at the Hague 
May 16, 1795. {See Bel&ium and the 
Netherlands.) 

Fi/ANDEiANS, or Flemings, were a branch 
of the Anabaptists. They arose in the 16th 
centiu-y, and rebaptized not only those who 
had received baptism in other denomiaations 
in their childhood or infancy, but also such 
as had received it when adults. 

Flannel. — Various kinds were introduced 
into this country in the reign of Charles II. 
{See Woollen Manupactuees.) 

Flax. — The culture and manufacture of 
flax, carried on in Egypt about B.C. 1706, 
were introduced from thence into Tyre B.C. 
588. The manufacture was in operation in 
England a.d. 1189, and the business was 
practised in Scotland in 1210. By 24- 
Hen. VIII. 0. 4 (1533), the culture of flax 
in England was made imperative, and in 1703 
a bounty was paid on fiax imported from the 
American colonies. A duty of \d. per cwfc. 
was imposed upon imported flax by 5 & 6 
Vict. c. 47 (July 9, 1842), which was re- 
moved by 8 Vict. c. 12 (May 8, 1845). {See 
Linen.) 

Fleet Maeket (London) . — ^A market for 
meat and vegetables was established in the 
centre of the present Farringdon Street, and 
exactly over the Fleet Ditch, Sept. 30, 1737. 
It was removed to its present site, and called 
Farringdon Market, Nov. 20, 1829. 

Fleet Mabeiages. — One of the most 
glaring abuses of the Fleet prison was the 
illegal performance of the marriage ceremony 
by clergymen confined witliin its precincts 
for debt. The earhest recorded instance of 
these marriages is in the year 1674. They 
were suppressed by the Marriage Act 
(26 Geo. II. c. 33, 1753), which took effect 
March 25, 1754. The register books of the 
Fleet marriages were purchased by govern- 
ment in 1821. 

Fleet Peison (London) was built on the 
east side of Fleet ditch, in the first year of 
the reign of Eichard I., and became a prison 
for debtors in 1640. It was burnt dovm in the 
great fire of 1666, and again in Lord George 
Gordon's riots in 1780. It was rebuilt in 
1781-2. By the act for consolidating the 
King's Bench, Fleet, and Marshalsea 
prisons (5 Viet. c. 22, May 31, 1842), this 
prison was abolished, and in consequence 
was pulled down in 1844. In 1845 the site 
was purchased by the Corporation of London 
for £25,000, and the outer walls were re- 
moved Feb. 20, 1846. 

Fleetwood ( Lancashire ) . — This port 
was laid out by Sir Hesketh Fleetwood, Bart., 
in 1836. It takes its name from the founder. 

F L e u E u s ( Battles ) . -^ Several severe 
actions have been fought near this town, 
in Belgium. The first was between the 
Spanish (Roman) Cathohc League under 
Gonzales de Cordova, and the Germans of 
the Protestant Union, Aug. 30, 1622. Marshal 
Luxemburg defeated the prince of Waldeck 



FLO 

here July 1, 1690. The prince of Saxe-Coburg 
and the Austrians were defeated by the 
army of the French repubhc under Marshal 
Jourdan, who employed a balloon to examine 
the position of the enemy, Jime 26, 1794. 
The engagement commenced early in the 
morning, and was continued without definite 
result till the evening, when the French were 
reinforced by a detachment of artfilery, which 
enabled them to secure the victory. The num- 
ber of killed in this battle has not been posi- 
tively ascertained : in the official report to 
the Convention it was stated at upwards of 
10,000. Napoleon I. defeated the allies under 
Blucher here, June 16, 1815. This engage^ 
ment is also called the battle of Ligny. 

Floating Batteeies. — The Chevalier 
D'Arcon constructed ten large floating 
batteries, which were employed by the 
French at the siege of Gibraltar a.d. 1782. 
They were of prodigous strength, and were 
deemed impregnable ; but the red-hot shot 
of the English proved too formidable, and 
all of them were destroyed during the siege. 
The construction of floating batteries as a 
regular branch of the Enghsh navy has been 
lately discussed, and various experiments 
have been tried to ascertain their efficiency. 
A commission for examining into the subject 
assembled Oct. 10, 1859, and published a 
report containing many suggestions as to 
the conditions necessary for insuring 
success. 

Flodden Field (Battle). — James IV., 
king of Scotland, was defeated and slain by 
the English army under the command of 
the earl of Surrey, at this place, near Cold- 
stream, in Northumberland, Sept. 9, 1513. 
The Scottish force amounted to 50,000 men, 
while the earl of Surrey only mustered 
about 26,000. 

Floeales Ludi, or Floealia. — This 
festival, in honour of Flora, was first held 
at Eome B.C. 238. It lasted from April 28 to 
May 2. Having been discontinued on accoimt 
of its immorafity, it was restored b.c. 173. 

Floe AL Hall (London), adjoining the new 
Covent-Garden Theatre, was opened with a 
Volimteer ball, March 7, 1860. The first sea- 
son that it was used for the sale of flowers 
commenced in May, and terminated August, 
1861. 

Flobence (Italy), the ancient Florentia, 
the capital of Tuscany {q.v.). A Roman 
colony was established here by SyUa about 
B.C. 80. Radagaisus besieged it a.d. 405, 
and the city, reduced to the last extremity, 
was relieved by Stihcho, who overwhelmed 
the assailants. Totila having destroyed Flo- 
rence A.D. 541, it was restored by Charle- 
magne. It became an independent republic 
about 1198, and was long the prey of various 
factions. Cosmo de' Medici founded the 
university 1433, and his family gradually 
became powerful. Alexander de' Medici was 
appointed governor for life, Oct. 28, 1530, 
and Cosmo de' Medici was made grand-duke 
of Tuscany Sept. 1, 1569. A revolution took 
place at Florence, April 27, 1859. The people 
voted in favour of annexation to Sardinia, 
347 



FLO 

March 11 and 12, 1860. A general council 
of the Greeks and Latins transferred its 
sittings from Terrara to Florence in 1439, 
when the act of union between the Greeks 
and Latins was subscribed, and the council 
was transferred to Eome in 1442. Councils 
were held at Florence in 1055, 1105, and 1409. 
The acadenay of Delia Crusca was founded 
in 1582. A treaty of peace between Napo- 
leon Bonaparte and the king of the Two 
SicUies was concluded at Florence, March 
28, 1801. 

Floees (Atlantic). — One of the Azores 
(q.v.). An island sometimes called Eude, 
in the Indian Archipelago, is also known by 
this name. 

Florida (ISTorth America) was discovered 
by Sebastian Cabot, a.d. 1497. Juan Ponce 
de Leon re-discovered it on Palm -Sunday 
(called in Spanish, Pasqua Florida), April 4, 
1512 ; whence its name. The Spaniards 
failed in an attempt to colonize it in 1521, 
and the French Calvinists sent an expedi- 
tion in 1562. The new settlers were assailed 
and defeated by a Spanish force, Sept. 4, 
1565. Florida "was ceded to Great Bri- 
tain in exchange for Havana, in 1763. The 
Spaniards took it in 1781, and were guaran- 
teed in the possession of the same by the 
peace of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. By a treaty 
concluded between Spain and the United 
States, Oct. 24, 1820, Florida passed into 
the possession of the latter. A constitution 
was adopted in 1833, and it was made 
a state March 3, 1845. It was one of the 
states that seceded in 1860. The tract of 
country formerly known by the name of 
Florida was of much greater extent than 
the present state. 

Florin. — This coin is said to have been 
first issued at Florence, whence its name, 
A.D. 1252, and in the 14th and loth centuries 
was current over all Europe. English silver 
florins, valued at two shillings, were declared 
by proclamation, in 1852, to be current and 
lawful money of the United Kingdom. 

Floriniani. — The followers of Florinus, 
the pupil of Polycarp. They formed an 
obscure Gnostic sect in the 2nd century. 

Flowers. — "There has been a class of 
men," says Disraeli, " whose patriotic affec- 
tion, or whose general benevolence, has been 
usually defrauded of the gratitude their 
country owes them: these have been the 
introducers of new flowers, new plants, and 
new roots, into Europe." 



FLO 



Flowers, Plants, &c. 



Acacia, or loeust-tree 

Alaterniis 

Allspice 

Anemone (hortensis) 

Ditto (poppy) 

Aniseed-tree 

Ash (flowering) 

Auricula 

348 



Intrnduced into 
Englaud from 



N. America. 
S. Birrope . 
Carolina . . . 
Holland ... 
Levant... . 
I Florida . . . 



Switzerland 



Beforel640 
„ 1629 
1726 
1596 
1596 
1766 
1710 

Beforel597 



Flowers, Plants, &c. 


Introduced into 
England from 


Date. 


Azalea (Indian 1 

Azarule 


China 

S. Europe 

India 

Ditto 

Canaiy Island 

Hungary 

S. Europe .... 
Chili.... 


A.D. 

In 1808 
Be for el 640 




In 1596 


Basil 




Bell-flower (Canary) .. 
Broom (Butcher's) .... 

Ditto (Spanish) 

Calceolaria 


1696 

Beforel596 

„ 1548 

1823 


Camellia 


China 

Vii-ginia 

Mexico 

Poland 

New Spain .... 

Sicily 

Africa 

India 

New Holland.. 
Canai-y Islands 

Ditto 

N. America . . 

Spain 

Italy 


1811 


Cardinal-flower 

Ditto (splendid) .... 


1629 
1814 
1.597 


Castor-oilplant 

Ceanothus (Wue) 


1562 
1818 


Christ's thorn 

Chi-ysanthemum(Chi- 1 

_"ese) j 

Clary 


1596 
1764 
1560 


Clematis (awned) 

Convolvulus (Canary) 
Ditto imany-flowei-ed) 
Creeper (Virginian).... 
Dahlia 


1812 
1690 
1779 
Beforel629 
1789 


Double rocket 


15!t7 


New Holland.. 

Cai)e 

New Zealand.. 
Cape 


1803 


Echium(large-flowered) 
Edwardsia (ditto) .... 
Everlasting (giant) .... 

Ditto (great-flowered) 

Fernbush (sweet) 

Foxglove (Canai-y) 

Ditto (Madeira) 

Fuchsia (=carlet) 

Ditto (tree) 


1787 
1772 
1793 


Ditto 

N. America. . . . 
t:auary Islands 

Matleira 

Chili 


1781 
1714 
1698 
1777 
1788 


Mexico 

Cape ... . 


1823 


Gazania (great-flow'red) 


1755 


Japan 

New S. "Wales 

Ditto 

New Holland.. 
N.America.... 


1783 


Gompholobium (great-) 

flowered) j 

G oodenia(largeflow'red ) 
Hakea (many-flowered) 
Hawthorn (American) 

Heath (ardent) 

Ditto (bell-flowered).. 

Ditto (fragrant) 

Ditto (great-flowered) 
Ditto (pearl-flowered) 

Ditto (perfumed) 

Ditto (tremulous) 

Hellebore 


1803 

1802 

1803 

Beforel683 


Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Ditto 


1791 
1803 
1775 
1775 
1804 
1789 
1596 


Hollyhock 


Beforel564 


Honey-flower (great) . . 

Honeysuckle (African ") 

fly) / 

Ditto (<-hinese) 

Ditto (Japan) 

Ditto (trumpet) 

Hyacinth 


1688 


Ditto 

China 

Japan 

N.America.... 

China 

Spain 

Persia 

Circassia 

East Indies .... 

Madeira 

Austiia 

S. Europe .... 

Persia | 

New 8. Wales 


1752 
1806 
1806 
1656 
Beforel596 




1788 


Iris (Spanish) 

Ditto (Pei-sian) 


1596 

1629 

Beforel548 


Ditto (Catalonian).... 
Ditto (yeUow Indian) 


1629 

1656 

Beforel596 




„ 1568 


Lilac 


Temp. 


Lily (gigantic) 

Liparia (globe-flowered) 

Lupine (tree) 

Magnolia (purple) .... 

Ditto (swamp) 

Mandrake 


Hen. VIIL 

1800 
1794 


China 

N. America. . . . 

S. Europe 

Africa 

Cape 


1793 
1790 
1668 
1.562 


Mignonette . 


1752 


Milk -wort (great- 1 

flowered) J" 

Ditto (showy) 

Monsonia (large- "1 
flowered) / 


1713 


Ditto 

Ditto 


1814 
1774 



■FLU 



Flowers, Plants, &c. 


Introduced into 
England from 


Date. 


Myrtle (candleberry) .. 
Ditto (woolly-leaved) 
Oleander (sweet- ) 

scented) J 

Oleaster 


N. America . . 
China 

East Indies .... 
S. Europe . . : 

China 

BrazU 

N. Caledonia . . 

Brazil 

Candia 

Levant 

Gibraltar 

China 

S. Fiance 

China 

Italy 


A.D. 

1699 

1776 

1683 

Beforel576 


Olive (sweet-scented) . . 

Passion-flower 

Dittp (orange) 

Petunia 


1771 
3699 
1792 
1823 


Ptak (tree) 


1820 


Eanunculus 


1596 


Ehododendron 


1763 
1789 


Ditto (damask) 

Ditto (Japan) 

Ditto (moss) 


Beforel.573 
1793 
1596 


Ditto (Proveuce) 

Ditto (white) 

Ditto (without thorns) 

Ditto (yellow) 

Rosemaiy 

Sage (blue, African) . . 

Ditto (golden, ditto) .. 

Ditto (Mexican) 

Sassafras-tree 

Savin 


1596 


N. America . . 

Levant 

S. Europe .... 


1597 
17-26 
1629 
Beforel548 
1731 


Ditto 

Mexico 

N. America . . 
S. Europe .... 


1731 

1724 

Beforel633 

„ 1548 


Selago (clustered- ) 
flowered) J 


1774 


Syria 


1597 


Snowdrop-tree 

Squill 


Carolina 

N.America.... 

Ditto 

New Zealand . . 

Florida 

N.America.... 

Vienna 

Buenos Ayres 
Guiana 
China 


1756 
1648 


St. Peter's Wort 

Tea (mountain) 

Ditto (New Zealand).. 

Ditto (South Sea) .... 

Tnimpet-flower 

Tulip 

Verbena (Melindres) .. 

Victoria Regia 

"Wax-tree 


1730 
Beforel762 
1772 
1700 
1640 
Beforel577 
1827 
1837 
1794 



FtTTSHiNG, or ViissiNGEK (Holland). — 
The inhabitants of this fortified town, on the 
island of Walcheren, threw off the Spanish 
yoke A.D. 1572. The French took Flushing 
in 1795. It was ceded to France by the king 
of HoUand, Nov. 11, 1807, and formaUy 
annexed by a decree pubHshed Jan. 21, 1808. 
The English having captured it Aug. 16, 1809, 
destroyed the works and retired in Novem- 
ber. (See Walcheeeit Expedition.) It 
again fell into the hands of the French, 
who surrendered it by the treaty of Paris 
in 1814: 

Flute. — This instrument was in use in 
very early times, and several kinds are de- 



scribed in the " Harmonic UniverseUe " by 
Father Mersenne, pubUshed at Paris in 
1636. 

Fluxions. — This department of mathema- 
tical science was invented by Sir Isaac New- 
ton A.D. 1665. He described it in a letter of 
Dec. 10, 1672, and published a description in 
1704. The first work on the subject was 
pubUshed by John Harris, M.A., in 1702. 
Leibnitz pubhshed his method of the dif- 
ferential calculus in 1684, and a, long contro- 
versy resulted as to whether he had borrowed 
the idea from Newton's former discovery. 
Eecent disclosures, however, clear hiTin from 
the imputation of plagiarism. 

FoGGiA (Italy).— Manfred defeated the 



fon 

troops at this place a.d. 1254. Its 
thic cathedral was destroyed by an earth- 
quake in 1731. 

FoKSHANi (European Turkey). — A congress 
for the settlement of peace between Turkey 
and Eussia assembled at this town a.d. 1772, 
and broke up in September, without effecting 
the desired object. The Eussians gaiaed a 
victory over the Turks at Fokshani, July 31, 
1789. 

FoLiGNO (Italy).; — An armistice between 
Napoleon Bonaparte and the king of the Two 
SicUies was concluded at Foligno Feb, 18, 
1801. It led to the treaty of Florence. 

Font, or Baptisteet, was, according to 
Bingham, for many ages, a distinct place 
from the body of the church. The same 
author remarks : " The baptistery, properly 
speaking, was the whole house or building 
in which the font stood, and where all the 
ceremonies of baptism were performed ; but 
the font was only the fountain or pool of 
water, wherein persons were immersed or 
baptized." Fonts were erected inside the 
chiirches in the 6th century. 

FoNTAiNEBLEAU (France) . — ^A royal palace 
existed here as early as a.d. 999, and a chapel 
in honour of the Virgin was foimded by 
Louis VII. in 1169. Louis IX. established 
the convent of the Holy Trinity in 1230. In 
1518 it was much improved by Francis I., 
who established the library and great garden 
in 1530. The celebrated conference between 
the Eoman CathoHcs and the Huguenots 
assembled here in May, 1600. Henry IV. 
formed the park in 1607. A treaty of 
aUiance between France and Sweden was 
signed here Sept. 24, 1661, and peace con- 
cluded with Denmark Sept. 2, 1679. A 
treaty of union and alliance with Spain 
was signed Oct. 25, 1748 ; the preliminaries 
for a peace between Great Britain, France, 
and Spain, Nov. 3, 1762, and a definitive 
treaty of peace between the emperor of 
Germany and HoUand, Nov. 8, 1785. Napo- 
leon I. concluded a treaty of peace with Spain 
here Oct. 27, 1807, and bade adieu to the 
Old Guard previous to his retirement to 
Elba, AprU. 20, 1814. The marriage of the 
duke of Orleans with the Princess Helen of 
Mecklenburg was celebrated here May 30, 
1837. Louis PhiUppe restored the castle 
1837—1840. 

Fontaine Fean9aise (Battle).— In this 
battle Henry IV. of France defeated the 
Spaniards, June 5, 1595. 

Fontaeabia, or Puente-eabia (Spain).— 
This ancient town was very strongly forti- 
fied. A conference was held here between 
Henry IV. of Castile and Louis IX. of France, 
A.D. 1463. The French captured it in 1794. 
It was taken by the royal troops during 
the civU war in Spain, May 18, 1837. 

FoNTENAT (Battle).— Fought June 25, 
A.D. 841, on this plain, in Auxerre, between 
the three sons and the grandson of Louis I. 
(the Pious), king of France. The emperor 
Lothaire I., who had joined his nephew Pepin, 
gained a victory, which did not, however, 
prove decisive. 
^ 349 



FOX 

FoNTENOT (Battle). — The French, under 
Marshal Saxe, defeated the allied army at 
this village near Tournay, in Belgium, 
April 30 (O. S.), 1745. The French army 
amounted to 76,000 men in a position 
defended by 220 pieces of artillery, whilst 
the alhed forces consisted of 50,000 men, of 
whom about 28,000 were English and Hano- 
■verians. The Enghsh carried everything 
before them, but the Dutch took to flight. 
The victory was in a great measure due . 
to a charge made by the Irish brigade, led 
by Lord Clare. 

Fo NTE VEATTLT { Order of ) . — This order 
of monks and nuns was founded by Robert 
d'Arbrissel, who erected a monasterv at 
Fontevrault a.d. 1099. In 1106 it received 
the sanction of Pope Pascal II., and in 1113 
was rendered independent of episcopal jui-is- 
dietion. Some monks of the order esta- 
blished themselves in England by invitation 
of Henry II. in 1177. It was reformed in 
1507 by the abbess Renee of Bourbon. 

FoNTHiLL Abbey (Wiltshire). — This 
magnificent mansion, built from the designs 
of'Mr. James Wyatt, was foimded by William 
Beekford, Esq., M.P., in 1796. Warner says 
that in it " expense has reached its utmost 
limits in furniture and ornaments; every 
room is a gold-mine, and every apartment a 
picture-gallery." The cost of the building 
was £240,000," and in 1807 the proprietor fixed 
his residence here. In 1822 the house was 
sold, and in 1823 the pictiu-es, statues, &c., 
were disposed of by an auction, which con- 
tinued for 41 days." The grand tower fell 
in Dee. 21, 1825, and irreparably injured 
the building, which was consequently sold in 
lots, and converted into a private villa, a 
eioth-factory, &c. 

Fools. (See .Testes. ) 

Fools (Feast of) . — This festival, supposed 
to be derived from the Saturnalia of the 
Romans, was celebrated in France on the 
1st of January, before a.d. 1230, audit lasted 
till the Reformation. It reached England in 
1240, and was abohshed about the end of 

the 14th century. The Feast of Asses 

was celebrated at Beauvais about the same 
time. An annual fair held in the Broad 
Gate, Lincoln, Sept. 14, is called Fools' 
Fair. 

FoEBES Mackenzie's Act.— The act for 
the better regulation of public-houses in 
Scotland (16 & 17 Tict. c. 67, Aug. 15, 1853), 
permitted grocers to obtain certificates 
for the sale of beer, spirits, &c., by retail, 
not to be consumed on the premises. It was 
originated by W. Forbes Mackenzie, M.P. 
for Liverpool, from whom it received its 
name. 

Foreign EiayiSTMEifT Act. — The enhst- 
ment of British subjects to serve in foreign 
armies was prohibited by 59 Geo. III. c. 69 
(July 3, 1819). This act was temporarily 
suspended by an order in council of June 10, 
1835, which permitted the Spanish govern- 
ment to raise a body of 10,000 mercenaries 
in Great Britain. 

FoEEi&N Legion. — The name given to 
350 



FOR 

regiments composed entirely of foreigners, 
who in various wars have served under the 
English flag. About 9,0t»0 Hessians arrived at 
Chatham in May, 1756, to resist an expected 
invasion by the French, and in Jvme, 1798, 
soldiers of the same nation were sent to 
Ireland to subdue the rebels. By 18 Tict. c. 2 
(Dec. 23, 1854), permission was granted for 
the enhstment of foreigners to serve in 
separate corps during the Russian war, and 
for one year after the conclusion of peace. 
A regiment was consequently formed, com- 
posed chiefly of Germans and Swiss, who 
formed a camp at Shornchffe, near Dover, 
where they were reviewed by the queen and 
the prince" consort, Aug. 9, 1855. 

Foreign Orders. — According to regu- 
lations issued by the Foreign Office, May 10, 
1855, and published in the London Gazette 
May 11, no British sultject may accept a 
foreign order, or wear the insignia thereof, 
■without having previously obtained her 
Majesty's permission, signified by a warrant 
under her sign manual. 

Forestalling is the name given to the 
offence of buviug merchandise on its way to 
market, or persuading persons not to offer 
their wares for sale, or to increase the price 
of their goods. By 25 Edw. III. c. 3 (1350), 
persons convicted of it were liable to forfeit 
the things forestalled, or two years' im- 
prisonment. Many subsequent acts were 
passed for its suppression, the most import- 
ant being 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 14 (1552), all 
of which were repealed by 7 & 8 Vict, c. 24 
(July 4, 1844). ' 

Forests. — " The forests in England," says 
Coke, "sixty-nine in number, except the 
New Forest, in Hampshire, erected by Wil- 
liam I., and Hampton Court Forest by 
Henry VIII. and by authoritj' of parlia- 
ment, are so ancient as no record or history 
doth make any mention of their history or 
beginning." The larger number of these 
forests have now entirely disappeared. 
Courts for levying amercements for offences 
against the forest laws have not been held 
since 1632. The surveyor-general of the 
land revenues of the crown, and the sur- 
veyor-general of woods and forests, &c., were 
united under a board, called Commissioners 
of Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues, 
by 50 Geo. III. c. 65 (June 9, 1810). By 
2 Wm. IV. c. 1, passed Feb. 13, 1832, the 
surveyor-general of works and buildings was 
united with the board, then named Commis- 
sioners of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues, 
Works, and Buildings. 

Forests (Charter) .—Magna Charta, which 
was signed by King John, June 15, 1215, 
contained several articles relating to forests, 
which were afterwards thrown into a separate 
charter, known as the Charta de Foresta, 
by Hem-y III., in September or November, 
1217. it was confirmed bv Henry III., 
Feb. 10, 1225, and by statute 25 Edw. I. c. 1 
(1297). 

Forfarshire steamer was wrecked on 
one of the Fame Islands, Sept. 6, 1838. on 
the voyage from HuU to Dundee, Grace, 



1 

I 



FOR 

ciaughter of William Darling, keeper of 
the lighthouse, induced her father to assist 
her in rowing a small boat through the heavy 
sea, to the scene of the disaster, and succeeded 
in saving nine persons. This was accom- 
plished on the morning of Sept. 7. The 
fame of this brave action brought numerous 
visitors to Grace Darling's lonely home, and 
aconsiderable sum of money was given to her. 
Consumption proved fatal to her Oct. 20, 
1842. 

FoEGEBT. — The laws respecting this crime 
were very indefinite untH the passing of 
SEliz. c. 14 (1562), which rendered forgers 
liable to pay double costs and damages ; to be 
set in the pillory, and have their ears cut off, 
and nostrils slit and seared ; to forfeit to the 
crown all their revenues of lands and tene- 
ments, and to suffer imprisonment for life. 
In 1634 it was made a capital offence, and in 
1722 to forge letters of attorney for the 
transfer of stock was made felony, without 
benefit of clergy, by 8 Geo. I. c. 22. AH 
capital forgeries were collected into one act 
by 11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 66 (July 23, 
1830), which was amended by 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
e. 123 (Aug. 16, 1832), whereby the sentence 
was commuted into transportation for life, 
except in the case of forgery of wills and 
powers of attorney. Capital punishment 
was abolished in all cases, and transporta- 
tion substituted, by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 84 
(July 17, 1837). The greatest number of 
executions for forgery in one year occurred 
in 1818, when twenty-four convicts suffered. 
The first execution for forgery took place 
June 4, 1732, and the last Dec. 31, 1829. 

FoKK. — The use of the fork was, according 
to Beckmann, first known in Italy towards 
the end of the 15th century. In France, 
forks at court were entirely new towards 
the end of the 16th century. Thomas 
Coryat, who saw forks in Italy in 1608, 
introduced them into England. His tour, 
entitled "Crudities," &c., was published 
in 1611. 

FoELi (Italy), the ancient Forum Livii, 
suffered greatly during the wars amongst the 
petty princes of Italy. The French took it 
in 1797 ; but it was restored to the pope in 
1815. It is the seat of a bishop. 

FoEMl Paxjpeeis.— By 11 Hen. VII. e. 12 
(1494), any poor person having due cause for 
action, was provided with writs, according 
to the nature of his case, and with eoimsel 
and attorney, gratis. By 2 Geo. II. c. 28, 
s. 8 (1729), persons arrested on charges 
relating to the customs were entitled to the 
benefit of this statute, provided they could 
swear that their property, exclusive of their 
wearing apparel, did not amount to £5. 
Suitors in divorce and matrimonial causes 
are enabled to sue in forma pauperis, by 
20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, s. 54 (Aug. 28, 1857). 
_ FoEMi&NT (Battle).— The English were 
defeated at this place, in France, vrith the 
loss of 3,000 men, April 18, 1450. 

FoEMOSA. — This island, off the coast of 
China, was not known to the Chinese till 
early in the 15th century. The Dutch 



FOS 

settlement, founded in 1634, was destroyed 
by some Chinese rebels, who ruled the island 
until they were expelled by the Chinese 
government, about 1683. 

FoET Eeie (North America) was evacu- 
ated by the Enghsh in 1814. An Enghsh 
force, 2,000 strong, assailed the American 
garrison and army, consisting of 3,500 men, 
Aug. 15, 1814. Owing to some want of 
punctuality in the arrival of two of the 
attacking columns, the success achieved by 
the first could not be maintained. The 
Anaericans having made a sortie, Aug. 20, 
in which they were repulsed with great 
slaughter, blew up their works and retired, 
Nov. 5, 1814. 

FoETiFiCATiON. — The earliest fortification 
was probably the wall with which Cain 
surrounded the city of Enoch (Gen. iv. 17), 
B.C. 3875. The art was brought to great 
perfection in Babylon and Nineveh, the 
former of which cities was defended by a 
wall 100 feet high and 32 thick. Bastions 
were introduced by the Itahans in the 14th 
or 15th century, the oldest extant being at 
Verona, built in 1523, and at Antwerp in 
1545. The first writer on fortification was 
Albert Durer, whose work appeared in 1527. 
The covered way was first described by 
Tartaglia in 1554. Errard de Bois-le-due 
pubhshed a work on flank fortification in 
1594, which was much improved by Antoine 
de Ville in 1629. Great improvements were 
introduced in 1645, by the Count de Pagan ; 
and the mareschal de Vauban, who flourished 
1633 — 1707, left numerous works, of which 
the treatise Be I'AUaque et de la Defense 
des Places, was published in 1737. The 
best work on subterranean fortification was 
published by M. Monze in 1804. 

FoET Pitt (North America) . — The French 
built Fort Du Quesne a.d. 1755. Having 
been abandoned by them, it fell into the 
hands of Brigadier Forbes, at the head of 
an English force, Nov. 24, 1758. The British 
standard was erected on the fort, the name 
of which was changed to Fort Pitt, in honour 
of the minister. 

FoET St. David (Hindostan) . — A factory 
was established here by the English a.d. 1689. 
Count Lally captured the fort, then the 
strongest place the English possessed in 
India, June 1, 1758, when the fortifications 
were destroyed. 

Foetune-Tellees.— By 17 Geo. II. c. 5, 
s. 2 (1743), every person professing to tell 
fortunes by palmistry, or otherwise, was 
adjudged a rogue and vagabond, and by 
5 Geo. IV. c. 83, s. 4 (June 21, 1824), was ren- 
dered Mable to imprisonment in the house 
of correction for a period not exceeding 
three calendar months. 

FoETTM Teebonii (Battle).— Near this 
small town in Mcesia, the Roman emperor 
Decius and his son were slain, and their 
army defeated by the Goths, a.d. 251. 
Gibbon says the Roman army was irrevo- 
cably lost in a morass, and that the body of 
the emperor could not l)e found. 

FossALTA (Battle). — Prince Enzio, 
351 



FOT 

natural son of the emperor Frederick II., | 
at the head of the Ghibelline forces, was 1 
defeated and made prisoner at Fossalta, j 
near Bologna, May 26, 1249. He was kept | 
in captivity at Bologna till his death, which [ 
occurred in 1272. j 

FoTHEEiNGAY Castle ( Northampton- j 
shire) was founded soon after the Norman ; 
Conquest, by Simon St. Liz, second earl 
of Northampton, and rebuilt by Edmimd j 
of Langley, duke of York (a.d. 1345—1400). j 
Eichard III. was born here, Oct. 21, 1450, 
and the castle is famous as the scene of the 
trial of Mary, queen of Scots, Oct. 11 to 14 
(after which it was conducted at West- 
minster), 1586, and of her execution, Feb. 8, 
1587. It was dismantled by James I. in 
1604. 

FoTTiTDLiNG Hospitals, for the reception 
of children abandoned by their parents, 
existed imder the Eoman empire. A found- 
ling hospital existed at Angers, in France, in 
the 7th, and at Treves, in Germany, in the 
8th century, A similar institution was 
established at Milan a.d. 787. The 
Hospital of the Holy Ghost, for a similar 
purpose, was established at MontpeUier in 
1180. It was confirmed by Innocent III. in 
1198, and settled at Eome in 1201. An 
hospital of the Holy Ghost existed at Ein- 
beck before 1274, and one at Nuremberg, 
commenced in 1333, was completed in 1341. 
A foundling hospital was estabUshed at 
Florence in 1316, and at Venice in 1380. The 

freat foundling hospital at Paris was esta- 
hshed in 1620. The first proposal for a 
foundling hospital in England was made in 
1687. Captain Thomas Coram obtained a 
charter for the Foundhng Hospital of London 
in 1739. The present building, commenced 
in 1742, was opened June 2, 1756. 

Fountains, for pubhc uses, existed in 
many Greek and Eoman cities. Hero of 
Alexandria, who flourished B.C. 150, invented 
an artificial fountain, the principle of which 
is stiU employed in some places to drain 
mines. Among the most celebrated foun- 
tains may be classed the Fontana PaoUna, 
constructed in 1612, and the Fontana di 
Trevi, 1735, at Eome ; the Fontana dell' 
Atlante, 1532, the Fontana ScapeUata, 1541, 
and the Fontana del Sebeto, 1590, at Naples ; 
the Fontaine des Innocents, 1551, the Fon- 
taine des Capuchins, 1713, the Chateau 
d'Eau, 1811, the Fontaine Louvois, about 
1840, and the Fontaine Molifere, 1844, at 
Paris. The only fountains in London of any 
note are those in Trafalgar Square, which 
were erected in 1845. The fountains at the 
Crystal Palace were first displayed in opera- 
tion June 18, 1856. 

Foxglove. — The Canary foxglove was 
introduced into England from the Canary 
Isles A.D. 1698, and the Madeira foxglove 
from Madeira in 1777. 

Fox-hunting. — The first public mention 
of this sport is in the reign of Eichard II. 
(1377—1399), who granted a charter to the 
abbot of Peterborough, in which he is per- 
mitted to hunt the fox. The sport did not 
352 



FRA 

become general in England till about the 
year 1680. 

Feaga (Spain). — Alfonso I., king of Ara- 
gon, besieged this city a.d. 1133. A great bat- 
tle was fought near the city, between the Chris- 
tian and the Moorish hosts, July 17, 1134. The 
Christians were defeated, and the place of the 
battle was called the Field of Mourning. Al- 
fonso I. is said to have died of grief, July 25. 

Feancavilla (Sicily). — The Spaniards 
defeated the Austrians at this town, near 
the river Cantara, June 20, 1719. It-suf- 
fered greatly from the effects of an earth- 
quake in 1734. 

France formed part of the ancient GaUia. 
It received the name of France from the 
Franks, a German tribe which invaded Gaul 



The empire of the Franks In GJaul commences 

under Pharamond. 
The Visigoths obtain possessions in the 

country. 
Attila, king of the Huns, is defeated at the 

battle of Chalons. 
CloTia reigns in Belglc Gaul. 
He defeats Siagrius at the battle of Soissong. 
He marries Clotilda, daughter of the king of 

Burgundy, and a Christian. 
Clovis defeats the Alemanni in the battle of 

Tolbiac, and becomes a Chri^tiall. 
He defeats the Visigoths at Vougl6, near 

Poitiers, and establishes the seat of hi* 

government at Paris, where he founds the 

church of St. Peter and St. Paul. 
The Salic law is introduct-d Death of 

Clovis, who divides his territories between 

his four sons. 
Clodomir, king of Orleans, is killed by the 

Burguudians. 
Thuringia is reduced to subjection. 
The Burgundians lose their independence. 
Clotaire becomes si le monarch. 
The inheritance of Clotaire is divided between 

his three sons. 
Sigebei-t, king of Austrasia, is assassinated by 

Frfid6gonde, wife of Chilperic, king of 

Soissons 
Chilperic is assassinated by FrfedSgoiide. 
The treaty of Andelot is signed, which lays 

the foundation of the feudal system. 
Queen Brunehaut is put to death, by order of 

aotaire II. i 

Clotaire II. cedes Austrasia to his son 

Dagobert. 
On the death of Sigebert II., Grimoald, mayor 

of Austrasia, attempts to secure the throne 

for his son, but is defeated by Clovis II. 
Ebrouin, the last defender of the Mero- 
vingians, is assassinated. 
Pepin d'Herista' overthrows the Merovingians 

at the battle of Testry. 
Charles Martel succeeds Pepin d'Heristal, and 

reduces the Alemanni, the Bavarians, and 

the Thuringiaus, to subjection. 
Charles Martel defeats tne Saracens at 

Poitlei-s. 
He completes the conquest of Provence. 
Carlomau retires to a monastery, and leaves 

Pepin le Eref sole actual ruler of France, 

thouah the title of king still belongs to 

Childeric m. 
Pepin deposes Childeric, and assumes royal 

authority. 
Charlemagne commences the conquest of 

Saxony. 
He conquers Lombardy. 
The battle of Eoncevalles is fought, at which 

Roland, the hero of chivalry, is killed. 
Charlemagne subdues the Avars. 
Dec. 25. He is crowned emperor of the West. 



FEA 



822. Louis le D6bonnaire does penance for the 

murder of his nephew Bernard. 
830. He is imprisoned in a convent by his sons. 
841. The battle of Fantanet is fought, between the 
Germans on the one side, and the Neu- 
strians, Aquitainiaus, Bur^undians, and 
i^oven^aux, ou the other. 
843. By the treaty of Verdun, the empire of 
Charlemagne is divided into three por- 
tions, one of which is the modern kingdom 
of France. 
848. Britanoy becomes an independent kingdom. 
877. Charles xhe Bald signs the charter of Kiersy. 
879. Boson is proclaimed king of Provence. 
888. The Northmen attack jpaiis, which is de- 
fended by Eudes. 
91'2. Charles the Simple cedes Normandy to Rollo. 
929. Charles dies in captivity in the castle of 

Peronne. 
938. Louis IV. suppresses an insurrection, headed 

by Hugh, count of Paris. 
978. Lotaire loses Lorraine. 
1002. Robert II. inherits Burgundy. 
1032. Henry I. cedes Burgundy to his brother 

Robert. 
1119. Louis VI. calls the commtmes to arms under 

their feudal lords. 
1152. Louis VII. divorces his wife Eleanor. 
1186. The provinces of Amiens, Vermandois, and 

Valois, are obtained. 
1191. Artois is annexed to France. 
1213. The Albigenses are defeated at the battle of 
Muiat, and their ally, the king of Aragon, 
is slain. 
1214 Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at 

Bovlnes, nr Bouvines (<?.».). 
1230. Louis IX. (St. Louis) is taken prisoner by the 

Saracens, at Masourah. 
1258. Bordeaux and the duchy of Guieune are ced'-d 
to England ; and the king of Aragon cedes 
Lauguedoc and Provence to France. 
1266. Sicily is conquered by Charles of Anjou. 
1270. Louis IX. dies of the plague at Tunis. 
1272. The first French patent of nobUity is con- 
ferred upon Raoiil, the king's goldsmith. 
1282. The Sicilian vespers (q. v.). 
1299. A daughter of Philip the Fair marries a son 
of Edward I. of England, which leads to the 
subsequent claim of the English monarchs 
to the French crown. 
1302. PhUip quarrels with Pope Boniface VIII., and 

summons the first states-general. 
1304 The rising influence of the commonalty re- 
tards the progress of chivalry. 

1307. The Templai s are suppressed in France. 

1308. Clement V. takes up his abode at Avignon. 
1337. War breaks out with Flanders. 

134]. Britanny becomes the theatre of civil strife. 

1346. Edward III. invades France, and wins the 

battle of Crecy (q. v.). 

1347. The English take Calais. 

1349. Philip VI. acquires Montpellier and Dauphiny 
by pui-chase. 

1356. John is taken prisoner by the Black Prince, 
at Poitiers (q. v.). 

1358. The dauphin suppresses an attempted revolu- 
tion of the Jacquerie. 

1360. The treaty of Bretigny (q. v.). 

1392. Charles VI. is seized with insanity. 

1407. John, duke of Burgundy, assassinates the 
duke of Orleans, brother of the king. 

1415. Hemy V. invades France, and gains the 
battle of Asincourt (q. v.). 

1419. The duke of Burgundy is assassinated on the 

bridge of Montereau. 

1420. By the treaty of Troyes, Henry V. is acknow- 

ledged heir to the throne of France. 
1422. Henry VI. is crowned king tff England and 

France at Paris. 
1429. May 8. Joan of Arc ra'ses the siege of 

Orleans. June 18. She defeats the English 

at the battle of Patay. 
1431. May 30. Joan of Arc is burnt at Rouen, as a 

sorceress. 
1435. The treaty of Arras (q. v.). 

353 ' 



1437, 
1440. 
1450, 



1475. 
1494. 
1493. 
1499. 
1508. 

1511. 

1513. 

1514. 

1515. 



1.521. 
1.525. 



1.532. 

1540. 



1544. 
1545. 



1546. 
1548. 



1552. 
1555. 



1566. 
1567. 



1572. 
1576. 



FRA 



France is ravaged by plague and famine. 

The insurrection of La Pragaerie. 

The English lose Cherbourg, Falaise, Caen, 

Haifleur, and Rouen. April 18. The English 

are defeated, with great loss, at the battle 

of Foi-mingny. 
The League of the Public Good is organized 

against Louis XL 
Edward IV. of England invades France. 
Charles VIII. invades and conquers Naples. 
The French lose Naples. 
The Fi-euch seize MUau. 
Louis XII. joins the league of Cambray 

against Venice. 
Pope Julius 11. forms the Holy League 

against France. 
The English invade Picardy. Aug. 16. The 

battle of the Spurs is fought. 
Oct. 9. Louis XII. manies Mary, sister of 

Henry VIII. 
Sept. 13 and 14. Francis I. defeats the Swiss 

and Milanese at Marignano. 
The Field of the Cloth of Gold (q. v.). 
Francis I. loses the Milanese and Genoa. 
Feb. 25. Francis I. is defeated, and made 

prisoner by the Spanish imperialists at 

Pavia. Persecution of the Protestants 

commences. 
March 18. Francis is released from captivity. 
The peace of Cambray, or la Faix des Dames, 

is signed, and confirms Charles V. in the 

possession of Artois and French Flanders. 
A royal printing-press is established, and 

private presses are forbidden. 
Britanny is finally annexe i to France. 
Dec. Charles V. is entertained by Francis I. 

at Paris. 
July. Henry VIII. invades France with 30,000 

men. 
The Vaudois are persecuted, with shocking 

barbarity, twenty towns and villages being 

burnt, and the inhabitants massacred. 
June 7. Peace is concluded with England. 
Aug. 13. The dauphin is aflaanced to Mary, 

queen of Scots. 
The duke of Guise defends Metz against the 

emperor Charles V. 
May 23. An alliance is agreed upon with 

Rome. 
The English lose Calais, their last possession 

in France. 
Civil wars commence between the Huguenots 

and papists. March 1. Massacre of the 

Protestants at Vassy. Dec. 19. Guise 

defeats the Huguenots, under Conde, at 

the battle of Dreux. 
Feb. 18. The duke of Guise is killed at the 

siege of Orleans. March 19. Peace is re- 
stored for a time by the treaty of Amboise. 
An alliance for the extirpation of heresy is 

concluded with Spain. 
Nov. 10. The Roman Catholics gain the battle 

of St. Denis, at which Montmorency is 

mortally wounded. 
March 13. The Huguenots are defeated at 

Jamac. Oct. 3. And at Moncontour. 
Aug. 15. Toleration is established by the peace 

of St. Germain. 
Aug. 24. The massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
The Roman Catholic Holy League is founded 

by the duke of Guise. 
The war of the Lovers commences. 
Religious civil war again breaks out. 
Oct. 20. Henry of Navarre defeats the 

Roman Catholics at the battle of Couti-as. 
March 5. Death of Cond6. May 7. The 

leaguers are defeated at Senlis. Dec. 23. 

The duke of Guise is assassinated at 



1589. Aug. 1. Henry III. is assassinated by Jacques 

Clement. Sept. 21. Hemy IV. wins the 
battle of Arques. 

1590. March 4. Henry FV. defeats the leaguers at 

Ivty. 
1593. July 25. Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic. 



PRA 



Sept. 17. Henry IV. receives, the papal abso- 
lution. 

AprU 13. Henry TV. promulgates the Edict of 
Nantes, which establishes the Eoman 
Catholic faith, but tolerates Protestantism. 

By the trt-aty of Lyons, Henry IV. acquires 
Bresse, Bugei, and Val-Eomei. 

The dukes of Brion and Bouillon conspire 
against Henry IV. 

The Loire overflows its banks, and occasions 
much destruction. 

May 14. Henry IV. is assassinated by Eavaillac. 
He is succeeded by his young son, Louis 
XIII., under the regency of Maiy de 
Medicis. 

Oct. 26. The States-general meet for the last 
time. 

Nov. 22. Marriage of Louis XIII. and Anne 
of Austria. 

May 3. MaiT de Medicis is imprisoned in the 
castle of Blois. 

Navarre is annexed to France. 

Kichelieu is made a member of the 
council. 

Richelieu is appointed minister of finance. 

The Huguenots rise in rebellion, but are 
reduced to submission by the duke of 
Montmorency. 

France is ravageii by plague. 

RicheUeu triumphs over the duke of Orleans 
and his other <-nemies. 

The Academic Franijaise is established by 
Eichelieu. 

Sept. 5. Bii-th of Louis XIV. 

July 3. Death of Mary de Medicis. Dec. 4. 
Death of Kichelieu. 

May 14. Accession of Louis XIV., under the 
regency of the queen-mother, Anne. Car- 
dinal Mazarin is foreign mini-ter. 

The civil war of the Frondeurs and Mazarins 



A.D. 

1595. 



1601. 
1602. 



1614 

1615. 

1617. 

1620. 
1622. 

1624. 
1625. 

1629. 
1631. 

1635. 

1638. 
1642. 

1643. 



1652. Mazarin is banished to Sedan, by a vote of 

the parliament. The Fronde sedition ter- 
minates. 

1653. March 29. Mazarin returns in triumph to 

Paris. 

1655. Fi-ance is divided into thirty -two genei-al 
in tendencies. 

1659. By the peace of the Pyrenees, France is con- 
firmed in the posse>sion of Roussillon, 
Cerdagne, Alsace, and Piguerol. 

1661. March 9. Death of Canllnal Mazarin, after 
which the king flinpeuses with a prime 
minister, aud Colbert is appoiuted minister 
of finance. 

1667. Louis XIV. declares war against Spain, and 

invadi-s Belgium. 

1668. Louis XIV. surrenders Franche-Comt6, and 

acquires Lille, Tournay, and other towns in 
Flanders. 

1672. Louis XrV. declares war against Holland. 

1678. Sept. 17. By the peace of Nimeguen, France 
obtains Franche-Comt^, and several im- 
portant towns, together with Freiburg, in 
Germany. 

1681. Strasburg, and Casale, in Lombardy, are an- 
nexed to France. 

1683. Pept. 6. Death of Colbert. 

1684. Louis XIV. is privately married to Madame 

de Maintenon about this vear. 

1685. Oct. 22. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 
1689. War is declared with England. 

1695. Thecurrency isaltered, a capitation tax levied, 
and patents of nobility sold, to supply the 
deficiencies of the exchequer. 

1697. Sept. 20. Peace is restored by the treaty of 
Ryswick. 

170L Sept. 7. The grand alliance is formed against 
France, and the war of the Spanish suc- 
cetsion commences. 

1704 Au^. 13. The French are defeated by Marl- 
borough, at Blenheim. 

1706. May 12. The Freuch are defeated at Ea- 
millies. 

1709. A severe fiamine occurs throughout France. 
354 



FRA 



1713. April 11. By the treaty of Utrecht, France 

cedes to England Newfoundland and Hud- 
sou's Bay. 

1714. Lettres de cachet become general. 

1715. Sept. 1. Death of Louis XIV., who is suc- 

ceeded by his great-grandson, Louis XV., 
under the regency of the duke of Orleans. 

1716. John Law establishes the Mississippi Bank. 
1720. The Mississippi scheme proves a failtire. 
1722. Oct. 25. Coronation of Louis XV. 

1725. Sept. 4. Louis XV. marries Maria Luziuska, 

daughter of Stanislaus, king of Poland. 
1733. Louis XV. declares war against Austria, on 

behalf of his lather - in - law, the king of 

Poland. 
1739. A severe famine occurs in France. 
1743. June 16 (O.S ). George II. defeats the French 

at the battle of Dettingen. 
1746. Ma<1ame P.impadour attains great influence 

over the king. 
1748. Oct. :7 (O.S.). The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Dec. 10. The young Pretender is expelled 

from France. 

1756. France enters into alliance with Austria 

against England, and the Seven Years' war 
commences. 

1757. Damiens attempts the king's life. March 28. 

He is executed with shocking barbarity. 

1762. The Jesuits are secularized, ana their property 

confiscated. 

1763. Feb. 10. By the peace of Paris, France cedes 

Canada and Nova Scotia to England. 
1764 Death of Madame Pompadour, aud abolition 

of the order of the Je>uits. 
1766. Lorraine is united to France. 

1768. C!or.-ica is uuited to France. 

1769. Madame du Barri becomes the king's mis- 

tress. 

1770. May 30. Marriage of the dauphin aud Marie 

Antoinette. 

1771. The parliament is banished, and six "superior 

courts " are established in its stead. 
1774 May 10. Death of Louis XV., who is succeeded 
by his grandson, Louis XVI. Dec. 12. The 
parliament is re-established. 

1776. May 12. Ttirgot is dismissed rrom ofiice. 

1777. July 2. Necker becomes minister of finance. 

1778. Louis XVI. declares war against England, in 

aid of the North-American colonies. 

1779. An army of 40.000 men is assembled in 

Britaniiy lor the inviision of England. 

1780. Torture is abolished. 

1781. May 23. Resignation of Necker. 

1783. Sept. 3. The peace of Versailles puts an end 

to the war with England. 
178-5. The diamond necklace afiair (q.v.). The 

guillotine is introduced. 

1787. Feb. 22. The Assembly of Notables meets. 

I he king and parliament disagree respect- 
ing the collection of taxes. 

1788. Necker is recalled. Nov. 9. The second As- 

sembly of the Notables meets. 

1789. May 5. The States-general assemble at Ver- 

sailles. June 17. The States-general assmne 
the title of the National Assembly. July 14 
The Bastille is stormed and destroyed. 
Aug. 13. The Assembly adopts the decla- 
ration of the " Rights of Man." Oct. 
5 and 6. The i)eople attack the palace at 
Versailles, !.nd compel the king and queen 
to go to Paris. Oct. 16. The title " king of 
France " is altered to ' ' king of the French." 
Nov. 2. The property of the clergy is con- 
fiscated. Dec 22. France is divided into 
eighty-three departments. 

1790. Feb. 4 The king and queen visit the Assembly, 

and agree to the revolution. March 16. 
Lettres de cachet are abolished. June 20. 
Hereditary nobility and titles of honour 
are abolished. July 14 The king swears 
fidelity to the new constitution at the 
fete in the Champ de Mare. Sept. 4 Final 
dismissal and flight of Necker. Nov. 27. 
The Assembly publishes decrees for the 
humiliation of the clergy. 



FRA 



A.I>. 

1791. March 18. Territorial primngeniture is abo- 

lished. April 2. Death of Mirabeau. 
June 20. The rrjyal family escape froin 
Paris by night, but are arrested at Varennes, 
June 22. June 25. They are imprisoned in 
the Tuileries. Sept. 14. Louis XVI. assents 
to the National Constitution. Sept. 29. 
Dissolution of the constituent National 
Assembly. Oct. 1. The Legislative Assem- 
bly meets. 

1792. April 20. War is declared against Austria. 

June 20. The mob attack the Tuileries. 
June. Prussia, Austria, and Holland unite 
against France. Aug. 10. The mob storm 
the Tuileries, massacre the Swiss guards, 
and imprison the royal family in the 
Temple. Sept. 2 to 5. The royalist prisoners 
iu Paris, amounting to about 5.000, are 
massacred, the princess de Lamballe being 
of the number. Sept. 20. The National 
Convention assembles, and abolishes roy- 
alty. Sept. 22. The PYench republic is 
founded. Nov. 12. The debate en the trial 
of the king is opened in the Convention, 
and concludes Dec. 3. Dec. 15. Flanders is 
annexed to France. 

1793. Jan. 19. Louis XVI. is sentenced to death. 

Jan. 21. He is executed. Feb. 1. War is 
declai-ed against England, Spain, and 
Holland. March 10. The royalists of La 
Vendue rise in insun ectiou. March 25. 
Robespierre and his coUengues are invested 
with dictatorial authority. May 31. The 
Reign of Terror commences. July 13. 
Charlotte Corday Hssassinates Marat. 
Aug. 23. Napoleon first distinguishes himJ 
self at the siege of Toulon. Oct. 14. Trial 
of the queen. Oct. 16. She is executed. 
Nov. 6. PhUip Egalit6, duke of Orleans, 
is beheaded. Nov. 8. Madame Roland is 
beheaded. Nov. 24. The revolutionary 
calendar is adopted by the Convention. 
Dec. 12. The uisiurection in La Vendue is 



1794. March 24. The leaders of the Cordeliers Club 

are executed. April 5. Danton and his col- 
leagues are guillotined. May 10. Madame Eli- 
zabeth, sister of Louis XVI., is executed. 
June 7. Robespierre celebrates the festival 
of the God of Nature, and acts as high 
pries'.. July 27. The revolution of the 
»th Thermidor, and fall of Robespierre. 
July 28. Robespierre, St. Just, and seventy 
of their partisans, are guillotined, which 
terminates the Reign of Ttrror. Sept. 8. 
The National Convention orders the closing 
of the Jacobin clubs. 

1795. April 5. Peace is concluded with Prussia at 

Basel. June 9. Louis XVII. dies in prison 
in the Temple. Oct. 5. A rebellion of 
30,000 royalists against the Convention 
is suppressed by Napoleon Bonaparte. 
Oct. 28. The CouncU of the Ancients 
and of the Five Hundred hold their 
first meetings. The Directory is esta- 
blished. 

1796. April 9. Napoleon commences his Italian 

victories. Nov. 15-17. He completes the 
conquest of Italy at the battle of 
Areola. 

1797. May 20. Pichegru heads a conspiracy to re- 

store the Bourbons. Sept. 4. A revolution 
in favour of the Directory takes place in 
Paris. Dec. 10. Napoleon returns to Paris, 
where he is received with magnificent fStes 
as " the Pacificator." 

1798. Jan. 4. All English merchandise in France 

is confiscated. May 20. Napoleon embai-ks 
for Egypt. 

1799. June 22. England, Russia, Germany, Turkey, 

Portugal, and Naples, form the second 
coalition against France. Nov. 10. The 
Directory is dissolved, and the consular 
government established. Dec. 13. Napoleon 
is chosen first consul. 
355 



FRA 



1800. June 14. Napoleon gains the battle of Ma- 

rengo (q. v.). Dec. 24. His life is attempted 
by means of an infernal machine. 

1801. Feb. 9. The tre-ity of LunevUle restores 

peace with Austria. Sept. 11. The Roman 
Catholic religion is re-ebtablished. Oct. 8. 
Peace with Russia. Oct. 9. Peace with 
Turkey. 

1802. March 25. Peace with England is restored by 

the treaty of Amiens. May 18. The Legion 
of Honour is instituted. Aug. 2. Bona- 
parte is appointed first consul for life. 

1803. March 13. Bonaparte publicly insults Lord 

Whitworth, the English ambassador. 
May 16. War is declared against England. 

1804. Jan. 15. A new civil code is adopted. Feb. 16. 

The Georges conspiracy is discovered. 
March 20. Execution oftheduked'Enghein. 
May 18. Napoleon is proclaimed emperor 
of the French. Dec. 2. He is crowned 
by the pope at Notre Dame. 

1805. May 26. Napoleon I. is crowned king of Italy 

at Milan. June 4. Genoa is annexed to 
France. Aug. 9. England, Russia, Naples, 
and Austria, form the third coalition 
against Pi-auc. Sept. 26. The French 
iTivade Germany. Oct. 21. The French 
fleet is nearly annihilated at Trafalgiir 
(q.v.). Dec. 2. Napoleon I. gains the battle 
of Austerlitz. Dec. 26. The Venetian states 
and Dalmatia are annexed to France by the 
treatv of Presburg. 

1806. July 12. The Confederation of the Rhine is 

formed. Oct. 6. England, Russia, Prussia, 
and Saxony, form the fourth coalition 
against France. Oct. 8. Prussia de>-lares 
war. Oct. 14. Napoleon I. gains the battle 
of Jena (q. v.). 

1807. Feb. 8. The French are victorious at Eylau 

(q. v.). June 26. Napoleon I. has an interview 
with the emperor of Russia. July 9. The 
peace of Tilsit is signed. 

1808. May 5. Charles TV., king of Spain, is com- 

pelled to abdicate in favour of Napoleon, 
which leads to the Peninsular war. (See 
Spain.) 

1809. April 6. England and Austria form the fifth 

coalition against France. June 10. Napo- 
leon I. is excommunicated. Oct. 14. Peace 
with Austria is restored by the treaty of 
Vienna. Dec. 15. Napoleon I. is divorced 
from liis wife Josephine. 

1810. April 1. Napoleon I. marries Maria Louisa, 

daughter of the emperor of Austria. 
July 9. Holland is incorporated with the 
French empire. 

1811. March 20. The empress gives birth to a son, 

who receives the title of king of Borne. 

1812. June 22 to Dec. 19. Napoleon's disastrous 

invasion of Russia. (See Russia.) 

1813. March 16. Russia and Pi-ussia form the sixth 

coalition against France. Oct. 7. Wel- 
lington crosses the Bidasoa, and enters 
France. Dec. 31. Napoleon I. dissolves the 
Legislative Council. 

1814. March 30. Paris sui-renders to the allies. 

April 4. Napoleon I. abdicates in favour of 
his son. May 3. The B.mrhons are restored 
in the person of Louis XVIII. May 4. 
N^.poleon I. aiTives in Elba. 

1815. March 1. Napoleon I. suddenly returns from 

Klba, and lands at Cannes, with 1,000 men. 
March 15. Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, 
and Russia, form a new alliance against 
Napoleon. March 19. Louis XVIII. leaves 
Paris. March 29. Napuleon I. abolishes the 
slave trade. Junel. Napoleon I. promulgates 
a new constitution. June 12. He leaves 
Paris to take the command of his forces. 
June 15. He invades Belgium. June 18. 
And is totally overthrown at the battle of 
Waterloo (q. v. ). June 22. He again ab- 
dicates iu favour of his son. July 3. He 
attempts to embaik for America. July 6. 
Louis XVIII. returns to Paris. 

2 A 2 



1815. 



1324 

1827. 

1829. 
1830. 



1833, 
18:i4 
1835 



18:?9, 
1840. 



ERA 



July 1.5. Napoleon I. seeks refuge with Captain 
Maitland, of the BeUerophon. Aug. 8. He 
is ti'ansferred to the Xorfhu-inberJand, at 
Torbay, and seut to St. Helena. Oct. 16. 
He arrives at St. Helena. Dec. 7. Execution 
of Marshal STey. 

Jan. 12. The allied sovereigns issue a decree, 
excluding the family of Bonaparte for 
ever from the throne of France. 

Feb. 13. The duke de Berri is assassinated. 

May 5. Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at 
St. Helena. 

Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII., who is s-ac- 
ceeded by his brother, Charles X. 

April 30. The National Guard is disbanded. 
Nov, 5. The Chamber of Deputies is dis- 
solved, and sevenry-six new peers created. 

Aug. 8. The Polignac administration com- 
nienses. 

3Iay 19. The Chamber of Deputies is dis- 
solved. July 2.5. Royal ordinances are 
issued respecting the system of electing 
the Chamber of Deputies. They are pub- 
lished in the Monitsur of the 26th, and 
create great dissatisfaction. July '27. 
The streets are barricaded, and the revolu- 
tion comiaences. July 28. Pai-is is de- 
clared in a state of siege, and the fighting 
continues till the 30th. July 31. The royal 
family flee from St, Cloud, and the duke of 
Orleans accepts the lieutenaucy-generaUhip 
of the kingdom, Aug. 2. Charles X. an- 
nounces his abdication. Aug. 7. The crown 
is offered to the duke of Orleans, who 
ascends the thi-one as Louis Philippe I. 
Aug. 17. Charles X.seeltsrefnge in England. 
Dec. 21. The Chamber of Peers pronounces 
a sentence of imprisonment for life agjiinat 
the prince of Polignac and some other mem- 
bers of his ministry. 

Feb. 14 and 15. Riots in Palis, Feb. 26. The 
criminal law is reformed. July 31. A law 
is passed to prohibit the assembling of the 
National Guard, unless by authority. 
Dec. 28. The hereditaiy peerage decree is 
repealed. 

March 28. The cholera appears in Paris, and 
rages in France with terrific fury for 
several months. July 22. Death of the duke 
of Eeichstadt, son of Napoleon Bonaparte 
and Maria Louisa, at Schonbrunn. Nov. 19. 
The king's life is attempted. 

Aug. 14. The Court of Delegates is abolished. 

May 20. Death of Lafayette. 

July 28. Marshal Mortier and others are 
assassinated with an infernal muichine by 
Fieschi, whose object was to kUl the 
king. 

June 25. Louis Alibaud attempts the king's 
life. Oct. 29. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 
afterwards the emperor Napoleon III., 
attempts to create an tusurrection at 
Strasburg. Nov. 6. Death of Charles X., 
the ex-king. Nov. 23. Prince Polienac is 
released from prison. Dec. 27. Meunier 
attempts the king's life. 

May 9. An amnesty for political offenders is 
published. 

May 17. Death of Talleyrand. July 12. War 
with Mexic"^. 

May 11. An insurrection occurs in Paris. 
. March 1. Thiers becomes minister of foreign 
affaii-s. May 12. The Chambers order the 
removal of the remains of ]S apoleon I. from 
St.. Helena to France. Aug. 6. Louis Nai)o- 
leon makes a descent upon Boulogne. Oct. 6. 
Louis Napoleon is sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life. Oct. 15. The king's life is at- 
tempted by Darm&s. Oct. 29. M. Guizot 
accepts the portfolio of foreign affairs. 
Dec. 15. The remains of Napoleon I. are 
solemnly re-iiiterred in the H6tel des Inva- 



1841. Sept. 13. Attempted 
due d'Aumale. 
356 



assassination of the 



A.D. 

1842. 



1844. 
I&i6. 



1847. 
1848, 



FEA 



July 13. Death of the duke of Orleans, heir 
to the throne, in consequence of a fall from 
his carriage. 

Sept. 2—7. The Queen of England visits 
the French royal family at the Chateau 
d'En. 

Sept. 6. Peace with Morocco. 

Apiil 16. Lecompte makes an attempt upon 
the king's life. May 25. Louis Napoleon 
escapes from the fortress of Ham. July 29. 
Joseph Henri attempts the king's life. 
Oct. 16, &c. Fearful inundations of the 
Loire and Khone destroy an lmmen:e 
amount of proi>erty. 

Dec. 18. Death of Maria Louisa, widow of 
Napoleon Bonap.-u-te, Dec. 21, Abd-el- 
Kader is surrendered to the French, 

Feb. 21. A great reform banquet is prohibited 
by proclamation on the eve of its celebi-a- 
tion. Feb. 22, &c. The Revolmiou com- 
mences, Paris being in a state of frightful 
anarchy. Feb. 24. Lonis Philippe abdi- 
cates, and, with his family, escapes from 
Paris. Feb. 26. A republic is proclaimed. 
March 3. The ex-king and queen arrive 
at Newhaveu. March 4. The victims of 
the revolution are buried with great public 
solemnity. May 4. The National Assembly 
is opened. May 7. The government is 
intrusted to an executive commission, 
elected by the National Assembly. May 15. 
The mob attack the National Assembly. 
May 30. Louis Philippe and his family 
are condemned to perpetual banishment. 
June 13. Louis Napoleon is elected a mem- 
ber of the National Assembly. June 23. 
The Red Republicans rise in insurrection 
in Paris. June 24. Pai-is is declared in a 
state of siege, and all executive power is 
intrusted to General Cavaignac. June 25. 
The left bank of the Seine is cleai-ed of the 
insurgents. June 26. The archbishop of 
Paris is mortally wotmded while adminis- 
tering consolation to the dying, and com- 
parative order is at length restored. 
June 28. General Cavaignac is made pre- 
sident of the Council. July 6. Solemn 
funeral of the victims of the late insur- 
rection. Sept. 26. Louis Napoleon takes 
his seat for the department of I'Yonue iu 
the National Assembly. Oct. 19. Paris 
is delivered from its state of siege. Nov. 12. 

» The Constitution is solemnly published 
in I'aris, and throughout France. Hec. 20. 
Louis Napoleon is declared the president- 
elect of the French republic. 

Jan. 29. An intended insurrection of the Red 
Republicans is prevented. Aug. 22. The 
Universal Peace Congress assembles at 
Paris. 

May 16. The French ambassador is recalled 
from England. Aug. 26. The ex-king, 
Louis Phmppe, dies at Claremont, in 
England. 

Jan. 10. General Changamier loses the com- 
mand of the National Guard. Sept. 27. 
Telegraph communication is established 
with England. Oct. 19. Death of the 
duchess d'AngoulSme, daughter of Louis 
XVI. and Marie Antoinette. Nov. 4. The 
president proposes to restore uuiversiil 
suffi-age. Kov. 13. The National Asseinbly 
reject the president's proposition. Nov. 26. 
Death of Mai-sbal Soult. Dec. 2. The 
coup-d'6tat. The president dissolves the 
Legislative Assembly, establishes universal 
suffrage, proposes the election of a presi- 
dent for ten years, and declares Paris in 
a state of siege. Thiei-s, Changamier, Ca- 
vaignac, Lamoricifire, and about 180 of 
the National Assembly, are arrested. Dec. 12. 
The president aj^points a consultative coin- 
mission. Dec. 20 and 21. Voting for the 
election of a president for ten years takes 
place throughout France. 



FEA 



IS5-2. Jan. L The Moniteur announces the result 
of the votes to be that the nation desires 
louis Napoleon to continue the govern- 
ment on the principles he laid down 
Dec. 2, 1851. He is accordingly installed 
at Notre Dame, and takes up his official 
residence in the Tuileries. Jan. 7. The 
motto ■' Liberty, Fraternity, Egalit^." is 
ordered to be erased throughout France. 
Jan. 9. Generals Changamier, LamoriciSre, 
and others, are set at liberty in Belgium, 
•with instructions not to return to France. 
Jan. 10. Eighty-three members of the late 
Legislative Assembly are banished, and 575 
persons are transported to Cayenne for 
having opposed the coup-d'etat. Jan, 15. 
The prince presi'ient promulgates a new 
constitution. Jan. 23. The property of 
the Orleans famUy is annexed to the 
state. Jan. 25. Titles of nobility are re- 
stored. Feb. 3. The official statement as 
to the election of deputies to the Legislative 
Assembly is published in the Moniteur. 
Feb. 17. The prince president abolishes 
aU national holidays, except the birthday 
of the emperor Napoleon (Aug. 15). 
March 28, The departments are released 
from martial law. March 29. The legis- 
lative chambers assemble. March 30. A 
presidential decree authorizes the erection 
of a permanent Crystal Palace in Paris. 
May 10. The prince president distributes 
eagles to the army. July 1. A plot for the 
assassination of the president is discovered 
at Paris. July 19. The prince president 
visits Strasburg. Aug. 8. Thiers and 
othtr exiles are permitted to retirm to 
France, Sept. 13. The senate petition" 
for the re-estabUshment of the " hereditary 
sovereign power in the Bonaparte family." 
Sept. 19. The prince presiuent visits Lyons 
to inaug^urate a statue of the emperor 
Napoleon. Sept. 23. The police at Mar- 
seilles seize an infernal machine designed 
to destroy the prince president. Sept. 27. 
The prince president visits Toulon, and 
orders the enlargement of the fortifications. 
Oct. 7. He visits Bordeaux. Oct. 16. 
He releases Abd-el-Kader. Nov. 4 He 
announces his intention of restoring the 
empire. Nov. 7. The senate calls upon the 
president to assume the title of emperor. 
Nov. 12. A protest from the count de 
Chambord against the empire appears in 
the Paris papers. Nov. 21 and 22. The 
votes of the nation are taken as to the 
restoration of the empire. Dec. 1. The 
Corps LSgislatif declares the result of the 
voting :— Ayes, 7,864,189; noes, 253,145; 
null, 63,32(>. The prince president accepts 
the empire, and assumes the title of 
Napoleon IIL Dec. 2. He is proclaimed 
in Paris. 

1853. Jan. 29. The emperor manles Eug6nie de 

Montijo, duchess of Teba. Feb. 4 The 
Moniteur announces the pardon of 4,312 
political offenders. Aug. 21. The emperor 
and empress visit Dieppe. Oct. 2. Denth 
of Frangois Arago. Nov. 7. Thirty-three 
persons are tried on the charge of plotiimr 
to assassinate the emperor : ten of the 
accused are transported for life, and the 
rest sentenced to various imprisonments. 
Nov. 20. The two branches ot the Bouibons 
are reconciled. 

1854. Feb 6. The Kussian ambassador leaves Paris. 

March 12, A treaty of allinnce with 
England and Turkey is signed at Constan- 
tinople. March 27. iTauce declares war 
against Russia. July 12. The emperor 
reviews the troops at Boulogne. Sept. 3. 
The emperor visits Bouiogne, where he 
entertains the kings of Belgium and 
Portugal, and Prince Albert. ^Sept, 29. 
Death of Marshal &t. Ainaud, 



FRA 



AprU 17—21, The emperor and empress visit 
England. April 28, Pianori tires at tbn 
emperor. May 15. Opening of the Paris 
exhibition. Aug, 18 — 27. The Queen and 
Prince Albert visit France. Sept. 8. Belle- 
marre attempts the emperor's life. Dec. 29. 
The Imperial Guard enter Paris. 

March 16. Birth of the prince imi)erial, in 
conseyuence of which the emptror par- 
dons more than 1,000 political offenders, 
March 30. Peace is concluded with Russia. 
June 1. Disastrous inundations occur in 
the south of France, 

Jan, 3. Assassination of the archbishop of 
Paris. March 5. A conference assembles 
at Paris to settle the Keufchatel difficulty. 
(See Necfchateu) April 20. The grand- 
duke Constantine of Ruesia visits the 
emperor. July 16. Death of Beranger. 
Aug. 7. The Italians. Tibaldi, GriUi, and 
Bartolotti, are tried for plotting against the 
lifeof the emperor. Aug. 8. Theemperorand 
empress visit England, Sept. 15. The em- 
I)eror meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- 
gardt. Oct. 28. Death of General Cavaignac 

Jam. 14. Oi-sini, Pieri, Rudio, Gomez, and 
others, fail in an attempt to atsassinate the 
emperor and empress with hand-grenades. 
Both were uninjured, but five persons in 
the crowd were killed, and sixty woxmded. 
Feb. 1. The emperor appoints the empress 
r-gent in the event of his death during the 
minority of the prtuce imperiaL Feb. 24. 
Numerous arrests take place in consequence 
of an apprehended insurrection. Feb. 25. 
Orsini, &c., are tried at Paris : Orsini, 
Fieri, and Rudio are condemned to die. 
March 13. Execution of Oisiui and Pieri, 
Rudio receives a commutation of sentence. 
April 15. Marshal Pelissier, duke of 
Malakhoff, arrives in London as French 
ambassador. May 22 to Aug. 19. A con- 
ference meets at Paris to adjust the organi- 
zation of the Danubian principalities. Aug, 
4 MUd 5. Queen Victoria meets the emperor 
at Cherbourg (q. v.). Oct. 9. A treaty cf 
friendship is concluded with Japan. Nov. 2. 
Death of Count Esterhazy. Nov. 24 Trial 
and condemnation of the count de Monta- 
lembert. Dec. 21. The count is partially 
acquitted by the court of appeal, 

Jan. 1, The emperor addresses some ominous 
words to the Austrian ambassador. Jan. 30. 
Marriage of Prince Napoleon and the 
Princess CiotUde of Savoy. AprU 23. The 
French army leaves Paris for Italy May 2. 
The French ambassador quits Vienna. 
May 3. The emperor declares war against 
Austria. May 4. The Austrian ambas- 
sador leaves Paris. May 10. The emperor 
leaves Paris to assume the command of the 
army in Italy, the empress having been 
appointed regent dui-ing his absence. 
May 20. The French and Sardinians gain 
the battle of Montebello. May 30. They 
triumph at Palestro. June 4. At Magenta. 
June 8. At Malegnano. The emperor en- 
ters Milan the same day. June 24 The 
Austrians are defeated at Solferino. July 8. 
An armistice is agreed upon. July 11. The 
emperors of France and Austria meet at 
ViUafranca, and conclude the preliminax-its 
of a treaty of peace the next day. July 16. 
The emperor returns to Paris. Aug. 14. 
Tlie army recently engaged in Italy makes 
its solemn entiy into Paris. Aug. 16. The 
emijeror publishes an amnesty tc. French- 
men in imprisonment or exile for political 
offences. Nov. 10. The treaty of Zurich 
is signed. Dec. 31. In a letter to the 
pope, the emperor insists upon the ces- 
sion of the Romagna. 

Jan. 5. The emperor annomiees his intention 
of relieving commerce iionx many existing 
restrictions. 

357 



FKA 



I860. Jan. 'Xi. The treaty of commerce with Great 
Britain is si^ed at Paris. Jan. 29. VCnivers, 
the oi-gaii of the Ultramontane pai-ty, is sup- 
pressed hy the emiieror. Feb. 2.5. In a des- 
patCM to the French ambassador at Turin, 
the anjiexation of Savoy and Nice to France 
is sixiken of as gec^raphically necessary. 
March 10. Publication of the commejcial 
treaty with England. March 21. The 
emperor receives a deputation from Savoy. 
March 24. The treaty of cession of Savoy 
and Nice is signed at Turin. .Tune 14. 
The French government takes formal pos- 
sesi>ion of the ceded provinces. June 24. 
Death of Prince Jerome Napoleon Bona- 
parte. Aug. 4. A French force is sent to 
Syria to protect the Christians against the 
Mohammedans. Aug. 2.5. The emperor 
writes to Count PersigDV, French embas- 
sador in London, to repudiate any hostile 
designs against England. Nov. 14. The 
empress visits England privately. 

1S61. Feb. 2. A treaty is signed at Paris with the 
prince of Monaco, for the cession o' Men- 
tone and Roquebrune to France. Feb. 15. 
The pamphlet " Fi-ance, Kome, and ItAly," 
is published. March 7. A treaty of 
botindary is concluded with Sardinia. 
Apiil 6. A treaty for the protection of 
literary and artistic property is concluded 
with Eussia. April 29. A cummercial 
treaty is concluded with Tm-key. May 1. 
A treaty of commerce, and for the protec- 
tion of literary and artistic property, is 
concluded with Belgium. Jvme 11. The 
iloniteur announces the intention of 
France to preserve strict neutrality in the 
American civil war. June 23. The em- 
peror recognizes Tictor Emanuel of Sar- 
dinia as king of Italy. 



SOVEKEIGNS OF FRANCE. 



FEA 





MEP.OVI>-GLLSS. 


A.T>. 




418. Pharamond. 


428. 


Clodinn. 


447. 


Merovseus. 


4-58. 


Childeric I. 


481. 


Clovis. 



("Thierry I. (Austrasia or Metz). 
-,, J Clodomir (Orleans). 
^^^- 1 Childebert I. (Paris). 

LClotaire I. (Soissors or Neustria). 
534 Theodebert I. (iletz). 
.548. Theodebald (Metz). 
558. Clotaire I. (king of all France). 

rCaribert (Paris). 
-^, J &ontran (Orleans and Burgundy). 
^^- 1 Chilperic I. (Soissons). 

LSieebert (Austrasia). 
575. Childebert II. (Au^'trasia). 
593. Ditto (Btu-gundy). 

584. Clotaire n. (Soissons). 
613. Ditto (king of all France). 

.„. rThierryll. (Burgundy). 
'^'•^- \ 1 heodebert II. (Austrasia.). 
28. Dagobert I. 
„.^ f Sigebert II. (Austrasia). 
oao. -^ QjQyjg jj (Soissons and Burgundy). 
656. Clovis II. (king of all Fi-ance). 
»»„ f Clotaire III. (Soissons and Burgundy). 
**"•(. Childeric TI. (Austrasia). 
670. Childeric II. (king of aU France). 
_„ f Dagobert II. (AustrasL-i). 
D/.1. j Thierry III. (Soissons and Burgundy). 
691. Clovis III. (Neustria and Burgundy). 
695. Childebert III. ., 
711. Dagobert III. 
71.5. Chilneric TI. 

717. Clotaire TV. „ „ 

720. Thierry IV. 

737. TntejTegnum „ „ 

742. Childeric III. „ „ 

358 





CAROLDfCIAHS. 


A.D. 




752. 


Pepin the Short. 


768. 


Charlemagne. 


814. 


Louis I., le Dfibonnaire. 


840. 


Charies II., the Bald. 


877. 


Louis IL, the Stammerer. 


879. 


Louis III. and Carloman. 


882. 


Carloman (alone). 


884. 


Charles the Fat (emperor). 


887. 


Eudes. 


89a 


Charles m., the Simple. 


922 


Robert. 


923. 


Eodolph, or Raoul. 


9:}6. 


Louis IV., d'outremer. 


954. 


Lotaire. 


984. 


Louis v., le FainSant, or Indolent. 




C.\PEnAl.-S. 


A.D. 




987. 


Hugh Capet. 


996. 


Robert. 


1031. 


Henry I. 


1060. 


PhiUp L 


1108. 


Louis VI., the Fat. 


1137. 


Louis VII., the Y^ung. 


1180. 


Philip II. (Augustus). 


1223. 


Louis VIIL, the Lion. 


1226. 


Louis IX. (St. Louis). 


1270. 


PhUip III., the Bold. 


1285. 


Philip rv^., the Fair. 


1314. 


Louis X., the Headstrong (Hutin). 


1316. 


John I. 


1316. 


PhUip v., the Long. 


1322. Charles VII., the Fair. 




HOtrSK OF VAL0I3. 


A.D. 




1328. 


Philip VL, de Valois. 


i:i50. 


John IL, the Good. 


1364. 


Charles V., the Wise. 


1380. 


Charles VI. 


1422. 


Charles VII. 


1461. 


Louis XL 


1483. 


Ch.-.rles VIIL 


1498. 


Louis XII. 


1515. 


Frnncis I. 


1547 


Henry IX. 


1559 


Francis IT. 


1.560 


Charles IX. 


1374. Henry III. 



1 



HOtJSE OF BOrRBOlT. 
A.D. 

1589. Henry IV. 

1610. Louis XTIL, the Just. 

164;J. Ix)uis XIV., le Grand. 

1715. Louis XV., the Well beloved. 

1774. Lonis XVI. 

1793. Louis XVIL (merely nominally a king). 



THE EEPUBLIC. 



1792. 
179.5. 
1799. 



A.D. 

1804. 
1814. 
1815. 



Convention. 
Direct© y. 
Cousulatt-. 



THE EMFIRE. 



Napoleon I. 

I ouis XVni. (king). 

Napoleon (a^ain). 



HOTTSE OF BOTJKBOiT AGAIX. 



Louis XVIIL 
Charles X. 



HOUSE OF ORUEANS. 



Louis Philippe L 
Republic. 



THE KSCPIKE KKTORFD. 

Napoleon III. (Charles LooL ). 



FEA 

FsAKCHE-CoMTB (France) . — This ancient 
province, conquered by the Franks a.d. 534, 
formed part of the duchy of Burgundy. It 
was bestowed on Philip II. of Spain on his 
marriage with Isabella, daughter of Henry II. 
of France, in 1559. Louis XIV. conquered it 
in 1668 and in 1674, and it was ceded to France 
by Spain, by the treaty of Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 
1678. 

Fkanchise. — A royal privilege, or branch 
of the king's prerogative, subsisting in the 
hands of a subject, was of various kinds, and 
existed from a very early date. Charlemagne 
made capitulars, a.d. 779, securing the fran- 
chise of churches. By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429) 
the franchise was conferred upon forty-shilling 
freeholders. 

Franciscans, called also Grey or Minor 
Friars, were mendicant friars, founded by 
St. Francis, a.d. 1208. Pope Innocent III. 
in 1210, the council of the Lateran in 1215, 
and Honorius III. in 1223, approved the 
order. The first general chapter of the 
order was held at Assisi in 1216. In 1228 a 
dispute, which lasted till 1259, arose between 
the Dominicans and the Franciscans, con- 
cerning the dignity and preference of their 
respective orders. Gregory X. made it one 
of the four orders, to which he reduced the 
mendicants in 1274. The Franciscans came 
to England in 1219. 

Fbanekee (Holland). — The imiversity, 
founded in this town a.d. 1585, was converted 
into an Athenaeum in 1815. 

FEAWKENHAUSEif (Battle). — Miinzer and 
his followers, who raised an insurrection in 
Thuringia, were defeated at this town, in 
Germany, a.d. 1525. The old town was de- 
stroyed by fire in 1833. 

Feankenthal (Germany) was founded 
by some Flemish Protestants, a.d. 1562. It 
has been frequently assailed. The French 
captured it iu 1792. The Austrians took it 
2S"ov. 12, 1795. 

Fran KEOET (T^Torth Ajnerica) , the capital 
of the state of Kentucky, was founded in 1786, 
and made the seat of government in 1792. 

Feankfoet-on-the-Maine ( Germany ), 
was founded by the Franks in the 5th 
century. Charlemagne had a palace in this 
city, which was surrounded with walls by 
Louis I., A.D. 838. It was made the capital 
of the Eastern Franks in 843. Frederick II. 
was elected at Frankfort in 1152. From 
that time it became the place of election 
for the emperors, and the Golden Bull con- 
firmed it in the possession of the privilege 
in 1536. Frankfort was made a free city in 
1154. Frederick of Prussia signed a treaty 
with the Empire, France, and Sweden, 
at this city. May 13, 1744. The French cap- 
tured it Jan. 2, 1759, and again in 179:i ; 
but the Prussians wrested it from them 
Dec. 2 in the same year. It was bombarded 
by the French July 12, and surrendered 
July 16, 1796. It formed part of the Con- 
federation of the Ehine in 1806. Napoleon 
Bonaparte erected Frankfort, and some of ■ 
the surrounding territory, into a duchy in j 
1810. By the congress of Vienna, in 1815, i 



FEA 

it was made one of the four free cities of 
Germany, and the seat of the Germanic diet. 
It was made a free port in 1831. The Con- 
stituent Assembly, elected in 1848, held its 
sittings at Frankfort. They were transferred 
to Stuttgardt, May 30, 1849. Councils were 
held here a.d. 794, 853, 1001, 1007 (Feb. 2), 
1234, and 1409. 

Fbankeoet-on-the-Oder (Prussia). — 
Three periodical fairs, instituted at this town 
a.d. 1253, are much frequented. Its uni- 
versity, founded in 1506, was removed to 
Breslau in 1811. The Eussians and Austrians 
took Frankfort Aug. 3, 1759 ; the Prussians, 
however, regained possession Aug. 12. 

Franking. — The privilege of receiving and 
sending letters free of postage was claimed 
by the House of Commons a.d. 1660. A 
warrant was soon after issued to the post- 
master-general, granting the privilege to the 
weight of two ounces. This was confirmed 
by 4 Geo. III. c. 24 (1764). The privilege 
of franking was regulated by acts passed in 
1764, 1765, and 1795, and by 1 Vict. c. 35 
(July 12, 1837) . By the third clause of 2 & 3 
Vict. c. 52 (Aug. 17, 1839), the Treasury 
had power to suspend the privilege of frank- 
ing, which ceased altogether on the intro- 
duction of the penny postage, Jan. 10, 
1840. 

Franklin's Expeditions. — Sir John 
FrankMnmade three expeditions to the Arctic 
regions previous to that in the Erebus and 
Terror. As heutenant in command of the 
Trent, he, in company with Captain Buchan 
of the Dorothea, left England for Spitzbergen 
April 25, 1818. They arrived at their des- 
tination May 26, and returned to England 
the following October. On the 23rd of May, 
1819, Captain Franklin sailed from Graves- 
end for America, in order to conduct a 
land expedition in search of the north-west 
passage. He set out in sledges from the 
Hudson's Bay Company's station at Cum- 
berland House, Jan. 19, 1820, and arrived 
at "Winter Lake Aug. 20, whce he remained 
during the severe weather ten months. On 
July 21, 1821, the party embarked on the 
Polar Sea, and Aug. 22 they commenced 

their return journey to England. Captain 

Franklin sailed from Liverpool to undertake 
a second land expedition, Feb. 16, 1825, and 
arrived at Fort Chipewyan in July. The 
party separated into two divisions, July 3, 
1826, but reunited Sept. 21, and the expe- 
dition returned to England Sept. 26, 1827. 
He received the honour of knightood, 

April 20, 1829. Sir John Frankhn's last 

expedition in the Erebus and Terror sailed 
from Sheerness May 26, 1845. The last 
despatch home was written July 12, and the 
ships were seen for the last time by the 
Prince of Wales whaler, July 26. From 
information afterwards collected by Captain 
M'Chntock, of the Fox, an account of whose 
expedition is appended, it appears that 
the two ships were beset with ice Sept. 12, 
1846. On the 24th of May, 1847, a party of 
six men under Lieutenant Gore left the ships, 
at which time all was going on weU. bir 
359 



FKA 

John Franklin died the 11th of June 
following, and the ships were abandoned 
April 22, 1848. The officers and crew, in 
number 105 men, landed April 25, and on 
the 26th they intended to start for Back's 
Fish Eiver. This is the latest inteUigence 
obtained respecting this ill-fated expedition. 

]S"o anxiety was felt respecting the vessels 

until the close of 1847, but numerous expedi- 
tions were subsequently despatched, an ac- 
count of which is given in the following table. 
The case of Sir John Franklin, and his officers 
and crew, was officially pronounced hope- 
less, and their names were removed from 
the "Navy List," March 13, 1854. 



1848. Jan. 1. The Plover, Commander Moore, sails 
from Sheerness, with orders to proceed to 
Behring's Strait, and meet the Herald,, 
Captain Kellett. She leaches the Sand- 
wich Islands Aug. 22, and is joined by the 
Herald at Chamisso Island, July 15, 1849. 
The two ships are joined by the Nancy 
Dawson yacht, July 18, and despatch a 
boat expedition, under Lieutenant PuUen, 
July 25.— 18-50. Aug. 5. They see the In- 
vestigator. The Herald returu ed to England 
in 1851 ; and the Plover, after long arctic 
service, was sold, at San Francisco, not 
being seaworthy, Nov. 9, 1854, the crew 
arriving in England April 8, 1855. 

1848. March 25. Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae 
leave Liverpool to conduct a land-expedi- 
tion. They arrive at New York April 10, 
and enter the estuary of the Mackenzie 
river Aug. 3. Dr. Rae was despatched, witli 
a party of eight men, to attempt to reach 
Wollaston Lauil, May 1, 1849 ; but in con- 
sequence of excessive ice, he was unable to 
accomplish this object. Sir John Rich- 
ardson arrived at Liverpool Nov. 6, 1849 ; 
and in May, 1851, Dr. Rae succeeded in 
exploring the shores of Wollaston. On the 
21st of August he discovered a fragment 
of a flagstaff, supposed to have belonged to 
the missing party ; and in 1852 he returned 
to Englaua. 

1848. Jxme 12. Sir James Hops {Enterprise) and 
Captain Bird (Investigator) leave England. 
They fail in an attempt to get to the west- 
ward of Leopold Island, and return to 
Englaad Nov. 3, 1849. 

1«49. May 16. The North Star, Mr. Saundei-s, 
master, sails with provisions for Barrow's 
Strait. He returns to Eugland Sept. 28 
1850. 

1350. Jan. 10. The Enterprise and Investigator, 
under Captains CoUinson and M'Clure, sail 
from the Thames, and leave Plymouth 
Jan. 20. April 19. The two vessels are 
parted by stress of weather. July 29. The 
Investigator crosses the Arctic circle. 
Aug. 5. The Investigator is seen by the 
Plover. Aug. 29. The Enterprise is com- 
pelled by the ice to steer southward, and 
winter at Hong-kong. Sept. 7. M'Clure 
takes possession of Baring Island. Oct. 26. 
He discovers the north-west passage". 
July 10, 1851. The Enterprise leaves Port 
Clarence for the North. Sept. 26, 1852. 
She reaches Cambridge Bay, Wollaston 
Land, and winters there.— 1853. April 6. 
Lieutenant Pim, of the Resolute, brings 
assistance to the Investigator, which is 
abandoned the following June 3, the crew 
being received on board the Resolute a.nd. 
Intrepid.— 1854. April 14. The crew of the 
Investigator proceed on foot to Beechey 
Island. Sept. 6. They reach Disco, on the 
coast of Greenland, and arrive in England 
Sept. 28. The Enterprise returns May 6. 
1855. 



FEA 



1850. April 13. Captain Penny, of the Lady 
FranUin, and Captain Stewart, of the 
SojJhia, sail from Aberdeen. They return 
in Sept. 1851. 

1850. April 20. Sir- John Ross, in the FtUx, and 
Commander Phillips, in the Mary, sail 
from Loch Regan, the expense of the extJe- 
dition being defrayed by public subscrip- 
tion. They return Sept. 25, 1851. 

1850. May 4. Captain Austin's expedition sails from 
Greeuhithe. It consists of the Resolute, 
Captain Austin ; tne Assistance, Captain 
Ommaney ; the Intrepid, Lieutenant 
Osboru ; and the Pioneer, Lieutenant 
Cator. The Resolute and Assistance re- 
tm-n to England in the latter part of 
September, 1851. 

1850. May 23. The American expedition, the 
Advance a.ndi the /fwcitc, under lieutenant 
De Haven and Dr. Kane, sails from New 
York. The expense of this undertaking 
was sustained by Mr. Griunell, a wealthy 
American merchant. They fell in with 
some relics of the Erebus and Terror, 



1850. June 5. The Prince Albert, Captain Forsyth, 

sails from Aberdeen. Lady Franklin hav- 
ing equipped the expedition. It retm-us 
Oct. 1. 

1851. May 22. The Prince Albert is again fitted up 

by Lady Franklin, and siiils from Aberdeen, 
under the command of Mr. Kennedy and 
Lieutenant Bellot, of the French navy. 
After wintering in Prince Regent's Inlet, 
they return Oct. 9, 1852. 

1851. Sept. 27. Lieutenant Pim proposed to conduct 

an expe ition through Siberia to the mouth 
of the river Kolyma, and to explore the 
north coasts of Asia; but the idea was 
ab.mdoned iu consequence of the repre- 
sentations of the Ru.-sian government 

1852. April l.j. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, 

viz., the Assistance, Sii' E. Belcher; the 
Resolute, Captain Kellett ; the North Star, 
CaiJtaiu PuUen ; the Intrepid, Captain 
M'Cliutock; and the Pioneer, Cai/taiu 
Osborn, sailed from Woolwich, with the 
double object of searching or the Franklin 
expedition and for the Enterprise and 
Investigator, which had been absent since 
18.50. They arrive at their- winter 
quarters, in Northumberland Sound, 
Aug. 18. The Resolute and hitrepid 
were abandoned May 14, 1854, and the 
Assistance and Pioneer Aug. 25 ; the 
whole of the officers and crews being 
transferred to the North Star. Sir E. 
Belcher and Captain Kellett returned to 
England in the PJicenix, which arrived 
Sept. 28. The Resolute was discovered 
drifting in the ice, by Captain Buddiuirton, 
of the U.S. whaler George -Henry, Sept. 
10, 1855. The British government having 
relinquished all claim to the vessel, il was 
purchased by Congress for 40,000 dollars, 
and feut as a present to the Queen. She 
reached Spithead, under the care of Cap- 
tain Hartstein, of the U.S. navy, by whom 
she was foimally presented to her Majesty, 
Dec. 16, 1856. 

1852. July 4. The Isabel, Captain Inglefield, saUs 

from Woolwich. She explores 600 miles 
of new coast without success, and returns 
Nov. 4. 

1853. Apiil 8. The Isabel again saUs for Behring's 

Strait, under Mr. Kennedy, late of the 
Prince Albert. She reaches Valparaiso, 
where the officer and crew disagree, and the 
expedition is abandoned. 
1853. May 19. The Phcenix, Captain Inglefield, and 
Lieutenant Bellot as a volunteer, and the 
Breadalbane transport, saU from Sheerness. 
They reach Beechey Island Aug. 8 ; Lieu- 
tenant Bellot meets his death by accident 



FEA 



18a3. Aug. 18. The expedition returns Oct. 4, with 
news of Sir Edward Belcher's expedition 
and of the missing Investi%gator. 

1853. May 30. The American ship Advance, com- 

manded by Dr. Kane, sails from New York. 
She returns Oct. 11, 1855. 

1854. May 6. The Phasnix, Captain Inglefield, again 

sails to Beechey Island. She retiirns to Cork 
Sept. 28, with Sir Edward Belcher and 
Captain Kellett on board. 

1855. June 1. The United States despatch the 

Release and Arctic, under Lieutenant 
Hartstein, in aid of Dr. Kane's expedit- 
ion. 

1857. July 2. Lady Franklin despatches the steam 
yacht Fox, Captain M'Clintock, from Aber- 
deen. She reaches Beechey Island Aug. 11, 
1858, and the crew divide into two parties, 
one of which is commanded by Captain 
M'Clintock and the other by Lieutenant 
Hobson, April 2. 1859. Mr. Hobson dis- 
covered the record of the fate of the 
Franklin expedition in a cairn at Point 
Victory, May 6 ; and the vessel com- 
menced her homeward voyage Aug. 9, 
arriving at Portsmouth Sept. 21. 

1860. May 29. Mr. Hall, of Cincinnati, sails from 
New London, Connecticut, U.S., with the 
Intention of searching to the north of 
Fury and Hecla Strait for fui-tiier traces 
of the Franklin expedition. 

1860. July 7. Dr. Hayes starts from America for 
Smith's Sound. 



Fkawk-pledgt). — On the establishment of 
decennaries by Alfred the Great, about a.d. 
890, each member was required to pledge 
his word for the right conduct of all ffis 
feilow-members. This pledge was called 
frank-pledge. Courts for the view of frank- 
pledge were held annuahy, and regulated 
by the statute for view of frank-pledge, 
ISEdw. II. (1325). 

Feanks. — This tribe was formed about 
A.D. 240 by the Chauci, Cherusci, and Catti, 
who dwelt on the banks of the Lower Ehine 
and the Weser, and united under the title of 
Franks, or free men. They invaded Gaul in 
256, and for twelve years ravaged that 
country and Spain, extending their incur- 
sions as far as the opposite continent of 
Africa. Probus drove them back into their 
native marshes in 277 ; but their influence 
gradually increased, and after the death of 
Constantine, in 337, they constituted a 
powerful faction at the imperial court. In 
358 they again invaded Gaul, and were 
defeated by Juhan, who permitted them to 
estabUsh a colony in Brabant, or Taxandria. 
In 418 they again invaded Gaul, where, 
under their leader Pharamond, they founded 
the modern kingdom of France. {See 
France.) 

Frascati (Italy). — This town was founded 
near the ancient Tusculum, destroyed a.d. 
1191. The church of San Eocco was built 
in 1309, and the new cathedral in 1700. The 
first bishop of the see was consecrated a.d. 
269. 

Featbicelli, or Little -Beetheen, a 
branch of the Franciscans that arose in 
Italy towards the end of the 13th century. 
They were, according to Milman, bound to 
the Ccelestinians by the closest ties. By 
some authors they have been confounded 



FEE 

with the Beghards, to whom the name 
FratriceUi, oi FratercaH, was apphed as a 
term of reproach. 

Fraudulent Trustees Act.— By 20 & 21 
Vict. c. 54 (Aug. 17, 1857), trustees or 
bankers who fraudulently dispose of pro- 
perty, or keep false accounts, or wiltully 
destroy books or other documents, or pub- 
lish false statements, are declared guilty of 
misdemeanour, and rendered liable to penal 
servitude for three years. The provisions 
of the act were not extended to Scotland. 

Fraustadt (Battle) . — The Swedes defeated 
an allied German and Eussian army at 
Fraustadt Feb. 12, 1705. 

Feedeeicia (Jutland). — This town was 
founded by Frederick III. of Denmark, a.d. 
1615. The Danes defeated the Sleswig in- 
surgents near this fortress. May 3, 1849. 

Feedeeickshall, or Fredeeickshald 
(Norway). — Charles XII. of Sweden was 
killed whilst besieging the castle of Frederick- 
stein, in this town, Dec. 11, 1718. The 
death of the king led to the immediate 
raising of the siege. 

Feedeeigkshamm (Finland). — The Eus- 
sians wrested this fortress from the Swedes 
A.D. 1742. Gustavus III. of Sweden, who 
failed in an attempt to capture it in 1788, 
stormed its defences, destroyed the docks, 
timber, and stores, in 1790. A treaty of 
peace between Eussia and Sweden was con- 
cluded at this town Sept. 17, 1809. 

Feee Chuech oe Scotland. — In con- 
sequence of the opposition of a large por- 
tion of the Scotch to the right of patrons to 
nominate whom they pleased to vacant 
livings, a large body seceded from the Kirk, 
May 18, 1843, and founded the Free Church 
of Scotland. At first the infant church 
endured much privation, in consequence of 
the general opposition of the landed pro- 
prietors to the movement ; but a subscrip- 
tion of £366,719. 14s. Zd. was raised, and on 
the meeting of the General Assembly in May, 
1844, the society was declared in a very 
prosperous condition. In 1845 £100,000 
were collected for the erection of manses for 
the seceding clergy ; and in 1846 a coUege 
was founded by Dr. Chalmers, who died in 
1847. In 1853 there were about 850 Free 
Church congregations in Scotland. 

Free Companies. — Bands of discharged 
soldiers, who ravaged France after the con- 
clusion of the peace of Bretigny, May 8, 
1360. Bertrand du Gueschn, born in Britanny 
A,D. 1314, put himself at their head, and led 
them against Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, 
whom he dethroned in 1365, placing Henry, 
count of Trastamara, on the throne. Edward 
the Black Prince recalled the free companies, 
defeated Henry at Najara, April 3, 1367, and 
restored Peter the Cruel, who was, however, 
defeated March 14, 1369, and slain by Henry 
of Trastamara March 23, 

Freeholders were exempted from dis- 
trainment on account of their freeholds by 
52 Hen. II. c. 22 (1267) ; and they were 
protected from the councils of the lords, 
which had usurped the functions of the law 
361 



PEE 

of the land, by 15 Eieh. II. c. 12 (1391). By 
8 Hen. VI. c. 7 (1429), electors for parliament 
were compelled to possess land to the amount 
of forty shillings per annum, and 19 Geo. II. 
0. 28 (1746), rendered a similar qualification 
necessary in the case of electors of boroughs. 
Electors in Ireland are obhged to possess a 
freehold estate of £10 a year, by 10 Geo. IV. 
0.8 (April 13, 1829). 

Feeemantle (Australia). — This town, on 
Swan river, was founded in 1830. 

Feeemasonrt. — The members of this 
order claim for it the highest antiquity; 
some asserting that it is coeval with the 
human race, and was introduced into Egypt 
by Mizraim, grandson of Noah ; others that 
it originated at the building of Solomon's 
temple, B.C. 1011 ; and others that it 
arose from the Eleusinian mysteries (q.v.). 
The Rev. G. Ohver, in his " Antiquities of 
Freemasonry," styles St. John the grand 
patron of the order. England was almost 
the first country to encourage modem Free- 
masonry, it having been introduced about 
A.D. 676. The grand lodge at York was 
formed in 926, and the members of the 
fraternity are beheved to have contributed 
materially to the erection of the beautiful 
Gothic cathedrals of the Middle Ages. In 
1140 the order appeared in Scotland ; and in 
1424 it was prohibited in England by 3 Hen. 
VI. e. 1. It is supposed to have been 
introduced into France during the 16th 
century. The grand lodge of England was 
founded in 1717, and in 1734 a misunder- 
standing arose between it and the grand 
lodge of York, which resulted in a division 
of the order. The first French lodge was 
formed in 1725 ; in 1729 the order was 
introduced mto the East Indies, and in 

1730 into America. The grand lodge of 
Ireland was also estabhshed in 1730. In j 

1731 a lodge was erected at the Hague ; in 
1735 the first German lodge was instituted ; 
in 1736 the grand lodge of Scotland was 
established, and a lodge founded at the 
Cape of Good Hope ; in 1738 one was , 
planted at Brunswick ; and in 1749 the j 
order appeared in Bohemia. The pope 
published a bull of excommunication against | 
Freemasons in 1738. The meetings of the ; 
order were sanctioned by 39 Geo. III. c. 79, j 
ss. 5—7 (July 12, 1799), and by 57 Geo. III. ! 
c. 19, s. 26 (March 31, 1817). Freemasons' i 
Hall, London, was founded May 1, 1775, | 
and opened May 23, 1776. The tavern was 
erected in 1786, and the charity for female 
children established in 1788. 

Feeemasons' Hall (London) was opened 
May 23, 1776. 

Free-Will Islands (Pacific), three in 
number, were discovered by Carteret a.d. 
1767. 

Fregosi. (See Adoeni.) 

Freibeeg (Saxony). — The discovery of 
silver-mines in the neighbourhood during 
the 12th century, raised this city into impor- 
tance. It was long the residence of the 
Saxon princes. The Mining Academy was 
opened in 1767. Frederick II. of Prussia j 



FEB 

defeated the Austrian and Saxon army near 
this town in 1745. (See Hohenfeeibeeg.) 

Feeibtjeg, Feeybueg, or Feibueg 
(Switzerland). — The capital of a canton of 
the same name, was built a.d. 1179. Frei- 
burg became a sovereign canton in 1481. 
The form of government was remodelled in 
1830. The canton joined the Sonderbund in 
May, 1846, and the town was taken by the 
confederate troops Nov. 13, 1847. The 
suspension-bridge was erected in 1834. This 
town must not be confounded with a place 
of the same name in Baden. 

Fee JUS (France) , the ancient Forum Julii, 
was made the seat of a Roman colony by 
Julius Csesar. A Roman navy was, under the 
emperors, stationed at this port. An action 
between a French squadron and some 
Enghsh ships took place near Frejus Bay, 
July 13, 1795, when three English vessels 
sutfered some damage, and the French 74, 
the Alcide, took fire. Napoleon disembarked 
at this port Oct. 9, 1799, on his return from 
Egypt. He arrived here April 27, 1814, 
and embarked the following day for Elba. 

French America. — The French possess 
a portion of Guiana, Guadaloupe, Mar- 
tinique, and some smaller islands in 
America. 

Feench Language. — The French lan- 
guage is, according to Hallam, one of the 
principal of " many dialects deviating from 
each other in the gradual corruption of the 
Latin, once universally spoken by the sub- 
jects of Rome in her western provinces." 
Latin seems to have been the vulgar tongue 
as late as about a.d. 670 ; but by the middle 
of the 8th century, a rustic dialect was esta- 
bhshed, which was ordered to be used in the 
explanation of homiUes, by the council of 
Tours, in 813. The earUest written record of 
this language is the oath of Louis of Germany 
and Charles the Bald, in 842. The earhest 
poem extant in this dialect is a fragment on 
Boetius, supposed to have been written about 
1000. French became the language of the 
Enghsh court after the Conquest, in 1066, 
but its use in law pleadings was discontinued 
in 1362. 

Frenchtown (Canada), having been seized 
by the Americans, Jan. 22, 1813, was re- 
captured by General Proctor Jan. 24. The 
Americans, who had lost 300 men, surren- 
dered prisoners of war. 

Fresco Painting was practised by the 
Egyptians and the Greeks at a very early 
period. The art was revived in Italy during 
the 14th century, and carried to great per- 
fection. Having fallen into disuse, it was 
restored by some Germans in 1816. 

Feetheen (Battle). — Ceauhn's brother 
Cutha was killed in a battle with the 
Britons at this place, near Stroud, in 
Gloucestershire, a.d. 584. Ceauhn gained 
the victory, and committed great ravages. 

Fretville. — A treaty was concluded be- 
tween Henry II. of England and Louis VII. 
of France at this town, between Chartres 
and Tours, July 21, 1170. Becket, who was 
in the neighbourhood, held a conference 



FRI 

with Henry II., with whom he was reconciled 
July 22, 1170. 

Feiars Observant, Franciscans, who 
pretended to follow the rules of their founder 
more strictly than others, arose in the 13th 
century. They received permission to hve 
detached from the rest of the brethren a.d. 
1368. 

Friday, the sixth day of the week, is said 
to be named after Frea, or Friga, the wife 
of Odin, in Scandinavian mythology. 

Friedland (Battle). — The French, com- 
manded by Napoleon I., defeated the Rus- 
sian and Prussian army in a great battle at 
this town, on the Alle, in Prussia, Jime 14, 
1807. 

Friedwald treaty was concluded be- 
tween France and the Protestant princes of 
Germany, Oct. 5, 1551. 

Friendly Islands (Pacific), also called 
Tongan Islands, consisting of three groups, 
containing more than 150 islands, were dis- 
covered by Tasman, in January, 1643. Captain 
Cook gave them the name of the Friendly 
Islands in 1773, on account of the kind 
reception which he experienced from the 
inhabitants. Missionaries were first sent to 
these islands in 1797. {See Ton&a.) 

Friendly Societies. — These institutions 
are of very early origin, and were general 
among the Anglo-Saxons, though the date 
at which they originated is not known. One 
was founded in London in 1715, which was, 
perhaps, the earliest modern friendly society, 
and they soon made such progress that 
16,000 societies are said to have existed 
between June 19, 1829, and Sept. 30, 1852. 
They were first brought under legislative 
control by 33 Geo. HI. c. 54 (June 21, 
1793), which is known as Mr. Rose's Act. 
Many statutes were subsequently enacted. 
They were all repealed by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 63 
(July 23, 1855), and 21 & 22 Vict. e. 101 
(Aug. 2, 1858), which are the laws now in 
force respecting friendly societies. 

Friends oe God arose in the 14th cen- 
tury in Germany and Switzerland. Mihnan 
(Lat. Christ, b. xiv. ch. 7) describes them 
thus : — " In aU the great cities rose a secret 
unorganized brotherhood, bound together 
only by silent unfelt sympathies, — the Friends 
of God. This appellation was a secession, a 
tacit revolt, an assumption of superiority. 
God was not to be worshipped in the church 
alone, with the clergy alone, with the monks 
alone, in the ritual, even in the sacraments ; 
he was within, in the heart, in the life. 
This, and kindred brotherhoods, embraced 
all orders, — priests, monks, friars, nobles, 
burghers, peasants. They had their pro- 
phets and prophetesses ; above all, their 
preachers." 

Friends of the People. — An association 
under this name was formed in London in 
the spring of 1792. Its object was to obtain 
a reform m the representation of the people, 
and it included amongst its members, ac- 
cording to a contemporary authority, some 
of "the most conspicuous characters, among 
the merchants and literary men, throughout 



FRU 

the kingdom." A debate on the subject 
followed in the House of Commons, April 30, 
1792. A similar society was formed in 
Edinburgh. 

Friesland, or East Friesland (Han- 
over). — This territory, occupied by the 
ancient Frisians, was divided into East and 
West Friesland in the 13th century. It 
became a fief of the empire in 1657. Prussia 
obtained possession in 1744. It was wrested 
from her by France, and transferred to 
Holland in 1807. In 1810 it was made a 
province of France. The French were ex- 
pelled by the allied armies in 1813, and 
East Friesland was allotted to Hanover in 
1815. 

Friesland, or Vriesland (Holland), 
called West Friesland, to distinguish it from 
a province of the same name in Germany, 
forms part of the country occupied by the 
ancient Frisians. It was made one of the 
United Provinces a.d. 1581, and became 
a province of Holland in 1609. 

Feobisher Strait was discovered by 
Sir Martin Frobisher, Aug. 11, 1576. 

Frondeues and Mazarins. — The arbi- 
trary acts of Mazarin provoked opposition in 
France, and those who supported the min- 
ister were called Mazarins, and those who 
supported the Parhaments who opposed him 
were called Frondeurs, or Shngers. The name 
by which they were compared to the scholars, 
who fought with sHngs in the ditches of Paris, 
and took to flight on the approach of the 
watch, was given to them in derision. The 
struggle between these parties led to civil 
strife, called the war of the Fronde, which 
lasted from 1648 to 1652. 

Frozen Ocean. — This term is applied to 
the Polar Seas. In 1636 the Russians 
ascertained that they washed the northern 
shores of Asia. Wrangel explored the hinits 
of the Frozen Ocean in 1821. 

Fruit. — The following table contains a 
hst of the principal fruits, and the date of 
their introduction into this country. 



Almond-tree 

Apple (Chinese) 

JDitto (custard) 

Ditto (osage) 

Apricot 

Cherry 

Ditto (Chinese) 

Ditto (Flemish, or ") 
Kentish) j 

Ditto (Cornelian) . . . . 

Ditto (Tartarian) 

Currant (hawthorn) . . 

Egg-plant 

Fig 

Ditto (Botany Bay) . . 

Lemon 

Lime (American) ... . . 
Melon (musk) 

Ditto (water) 

Mulberry (common) . . 

Ditto (paper) 



Introduced into 
England from 



Barhary 

China 

N. America . . 
Ditto 

China 

Flanders | 

Austria 

Russia 

Canada 

Africa 

Italy 

N. S. Wales . . 

N. America . . . . 

Jamaica 

Italy 

Ditto 

Japan 



In 1548 

„ 1780 

„ 1736 

„ 1818 

„ 1524 

About 200 

1819 

Temp. 

Hen. V in. 

In 1596 

„ 1794 

„ 1705 

„ 1597 

„ 1525 

„ 1789 

Beforel648 

„ 1752 

In 1570 

,. 1597 

Beforel548 

„ 1751 



■6ti6 



FUC 



Mulberry (red) 

Ditto (white) 

Nectiirine , 

Olive 

Ditto (Cape) , 

Ditto (laurel -leaved), 
Bitto (sweet-scented) 
Ditto (wave-leaved) , 

Orange 

Ditto (mock) 

Peach 

Pears 

Ppar (snowy) 

Pineapple 

Plums 

Plum (date) 

Ditto (Pishamin) . . . 

Pomegranate 

Quince (common) 

Ditto (Japan) 

Easpbeny (floweiing) . 

Ditto (Virginian) . . . 
Strawberry (Chili) . . . 

Ditto (Oriental) . . . . 

Tomato 

Vine 

Walnut (black) 

Ditto (common) 



Introduced into 
England from 



N. America. 
China 



Cape of Good 



Madeira 
China . . 
Cape . . . • 



In 1648 



„ 1730 : 

„ 1784 ! 

„ 1771 I 

„ 1730 

„ 1595 
Betbrel5<l6 

In 1562 



S. Eui-ope .... 

Persia 

Imported by 

the Romans 
N. America.. .. 
W. Indies .... 
France & Italy 

Barbary 

N. America 

Spain 

Ausfria 

Japan 

N. America 

Ditto 

France 

Levant 

S. America .... 
By the Komans 

N. America :Beforelh'29 

France In 1562 



Beforel746 
In 1657 

BeforelSOO 
„ 1596 
„ 1629 
„ 1548 
„ 1.573 
„ 1796 
„ 1700 



In 



Fuchsia. — The fuchsia was first noticed 
by Fuehs a.d. 1501. The scarlet fuchsia 
was introduced from Chili in 1788, the 
slender fuchsia fi'om the same place in 1822, 
and the tree fuchsia from Mexico in 1823. 
There are many varieties of this American 
plant. 

FuEJTTES DE On^oeo (Battle). — Several 
actions took place between the French and 
Enghsh near this town, in Spain, iu the year 
1811. Here Wellington, with 32,000 foot 
and 1,200 horse, defeated Massena at the 
head of 40,000 foot and 5,000 horse, May 3, 
1811. Massena renewed the attack May 5, 
and after a gallant struggle was compelled 
to retire. 

Fu ESSE If, (Peace,) between Maria 
Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector 
of Bavaria, was concluded at the insti- 
gation of the English government, April 
22, 1745. The elector renounced his pre- 
tensions to the Austrian succession, and 
Maria Theresa relinquished her claims to 
Bavaria. 

FuGGEES. — This family of merchants, 
who resided at Augsburg, amassed great 
wealth in their trade with India and many 
parts of Europe, in the 15th and 16th cen- 
turies. Charles T. made them counts in 
1-530. Some members of the family were 
distinguished for their encouragement of 
literature. They estabhshed Kbraries and 
charitable institutions. 

Fugitive Slave Bilx-. — By this act, which 
passed the Amevicsm. Congress in 1850, 
fugitive slaves who had escaped into another 
state, were to be restored to their o^-ners, 
their testimony was not to be admissible, 
and any assistance shown them in their flight, 



FUN 

or opposition offered to their arrest, was 
declared penal. 

FuHCHAK (China). — One of the five ports 
thrown open to foreign trade by the treaty 
of Nankin, signed Aug. 29, 1842. 

FuLDA (Hesse-Cassel). — An abbey founded 
here a.d. 7-44, by St. Boniface, obtained great 
privileges and was made a bishopric in 1752. 
Fulda, ^\-ith its territory, was erected into a 
principaHty by the prince of Nassau-Orange 
in 1803. Napoleon I. annexed it to the 
grand-duchy of Frankfort in 1810. It was 
divided in 1814, and ceded to Hesse-Cassel 
in 1815. 

FuLFORD (Battle). — Edwin and Morcar 
were defeated at this place, near York, by 
the Norwegians, under Harold Hardrada, 
king of Norway, and Tostig, Sept. 20, 1066. 

FuiHAM (Middlesex) belonged to the see 
of London as early as a.d. 691. The bisliop's 
palace was erected during the reign of 
Henry VII., and the gardens began to 
acquire celebrity in 1650. Sir WiUiam 
Powell's almshouses were founded in 1680, 
the bridge to Putney was built in 1729, the 
Starch -green almshouses were erected in 
1812, and the new almshouses in 1834. 

Funds.— The funding system appears to 
have originated at Venice, where it was 
estabhshed as early as a.d. 1172. In 1600 
it was introduced into Holland, in 1672 into 
France byLouvois, and in 1689 into England. 
In this country the legal per-centage was at 
first six per cent. ; but by 12 Anne, st. 2, c.l6 
(2713), it was reduced to five per cent. The 
legal restriction to five per cent, for interest 
was abolished by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). 



1716. 
1726. 
1747. 
17.51. 
1758. 
1701. 
1762. 
1771. 
1796. 
1818. 



1823. 

1824. 
1830. 
1844. 
1853. 



The sinking-fund is established. 

Bank annuities are created. 

Three per cent, reduced annuities. 

Three per cent, consols. 

Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities. 

Long annuities are created. 

Four per cent, consols. 

New three-and-a-half per cent, annuities. 

Five per cent, annuities. 

Three-and-a-half per cents. 

The five per cents, are reduced to four per 

cents. 
The " dead weight" annuity created. It will 

expire in 1867. 
Reduced three-and-a-half per cents. 
New five per cent, annuities. 
New annuities. 
New annuities at two-and-a-half per cent., 

and new three-and-a-half per cent, an- 

nmties. 
The long annuities expire. 



FuNEEAL GrAMES. — The Greeks and 
Eomans frequently celebrated the funeral 
obsequies of persons of distinction by races, 
processions, dramatic representations, and 
gladiatorial combats. The practice was of 
ancient origin, as Homer commemorates the 
games celei)rated by AchiUes in honour of 
Patroclus. The " Adelphi" of Terence was 
first performed at the funeral of Lucius 
.^mihus Paulus, B c. 160. 

Funerals. —The first people who cele- 
brated funerals with special ceremonies are 



PUE 

supposed to have been the Egyptians, from 
whom the custom was imported into Greece 
by Cecrops, about b.c. 1556. The pi-aetice 
of delivering orations over the bodies of 
eminent persons is one of great antiquity, 
and is probably alluded to in the lamenta- 
tion of David over Saul and Jonathan 
(2 Sam. i. 17—27), B.C. 1055. The custom 
was introduced into Greece by Solon, and 
Pericles delivered a famous harangue in 
honour of the Athenian victims of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, B.C. 431. The first Eoman 
lady honoured with an oration was Po- 
pilia. Nero pronounced one over his wife, 
Poppsea, A.D. 65. The ancient Christians 
always interred their dead, in opposition 
to the heathen, who practised incremation, 
though they also adopted the custom of 
sepulture before the year 420. Speaking 
of funerals among the primitive Christians, 
Bingham says (xxiii. ii. s. 6, c. 3, 1), "JSTo 
act of charity was more magnified by the 
ancients than this of burying the dead ; and 
therefore they many times ventured upon it 
even with the hazard of their Kves." The 
Eomish custom of burying the Eucharist 
with the dead originated about the year 814. 
The custom of burying the dead with a 
monk's cowl over the head was discontinued 
in 1530. Funeral feasts were so common, 
that they were forbidden in 1569, to prevent 
the increase of plague. The following emi- 
nent persons have been honoured with public 
funerals : — George Monk, duke of Albe- 
marle, April 30, 1670 ; the duke of Eutland, 
Nov. 17, 1787 ; Lord Nelson, Jan. 9, 1806 ; 
Mr. Pitt, Feb. 22, 1806 ; Mr. Fox, Oct. 10, 
1806; Mr. Sheridan, July 13, 1816; Mr. 
Canning, Aug. 16, 1827 ; and the duke of 
Wellington, Nov. 18, 1852. 

FuENEAUX IsLAiTDS (Bass's Strait) were 
discovered by Captain Furneaux, on Friday, 
March 19, 1773. 

PuERtrcKABAD (Hindostan). — This terri- 
tory was ceded to the East-India Company 
June 4, 1802. Holkar's army was defeated 
by Lord Lake, at the fortified town of Fur- 
ruckabad, Nov. 17, 1804. 

Furs.— Beckmann says that furs are not 
often mentioned as articles of clotiiing in the 
Scriptures . They were kn own to the Eomans 
in the 2nd century. Honorius forbade the 
use of furs in Eome, a.d. 397. This order 
was renewed in 399 and 416. A Norwegian 
ship brought furs to England, as merchan- 
dise, in 878. Furs were dyed as early as the 
12th century ; and about this time the clergy 
were forbidden to use them by decree of a 
coimcil. In 1336, Edward III. enacted that 
no person who did not possess a yearly in- 
come of one hundred pounds should be per- 
mitted to wear them. The fur trade grew 
into importance in the beginning of the 17th 
century. (See Hudson's Bat Company.) 

FuTTEGHUE (Hindostau)'.— The native 
troops stationed here displayed much in- 
subordination June 3 and 10, 1857. Some of 
the Enghsh took to their boats, and pro- 
ceeded down the Ganges, June 10. Those 
that remained defended the fort with great ■ 



GAL 

gallantry until July 4, when they also sought 
refuge in their boats. Both parties were 
inhumanly massacred by Nana Sahib. 

Ftzabad (Hindostan) . — This city, founded 
A.D . 1740, was soon afterwards made the capital 
of Oude. Lucknow obtained this distinction 
in 1775 ; from which tinie Fyzabad has declined 
in importance. The native troops stationed 
at Fyzabad rebelled June 8, 1857. 



o. 

Gab ALA (Gahlee). — Herod the Great 
(B.C. 40 — A.D. 6) fortified this city, supposed 
to be the same as Gamala. 

Gabelle. — Philip of Valois established 
this tax, which secured the monopoly in salt 
throughout France, by an ordinance dated 
March 20, 1340. The people, both in town 
and country, opposed the gabelle, and it was 
repealed by the States-general in 1356. It 
was restored by Charles V. (1364—1380), and 
ultimately abohshed by the Assembly, May 10, 
1790. 

Gabinian Law, introducing the ballot in 
the election of magistrates at Eome, was pro- 
posed by Gabinius, b.c 139. 

Gadaea (Palestine). — This strong city, 
captiu-ed by Antiochus, was restored by 
Pompey. Vespasian took it, slaughtered all 
the adult population, and conunitted it to the 
flames, a.d. 68. 

Gadebusch (Battle). — The Swedes de- 
feated a Danish and Saxon army near this 
town, in Mecklenburg, a.d. 1712. 

Gaeta (Italy), the ancient Caieta, was a 
port of some importance in eai'ly times, and 
after the destruction of Formise by the Sara- 
cens in the 9th century, attained great pros- 
perity. For a long period its form of govern- 
ment was repubUcan. It was made a duchy 
A.D. 572. Alfonso V. of Aragon captured 
it in 1435, and annexed it to the crown of 
Naples. It has sustained many sieges. The 
Spaniards took it Jan. 1, 1504; the Au- 
strians in September, 1707; and the Spaniards 
Aug. 7, 1734. The French seized it Jan. 4, 
1799. It was v^ested from them by the 
English, Oct. 31 in the same year. The 
French recovered possession, after a despe- 
rate struggle, July 18, 1806. Pope Pius IX. 
took refuge here Nov. 24, 1848. A revolution 
having broken out at Naples, the king, 
Francis II., fled to Gaeta, Sept. 7, I860. 
It was besieged by the Sardinian army and 
surrendered Feb. 14, 1861. 

GAGGiNa BiLii. — This term was applied to 
the bills for preserving his majesty's person 
and government against treasonable and 
seditious practices and attempts, and for the 
suppression of seditious meetings and assem- 
bhes, 36 Geo. III. cc. 7 & 8 (Dec. 18, 1795), 
and also to the act for more efiectually pre- 
venting seditious assemblies, 60 Geo. III. c 6 
(Dec. 24, 1819). 

Gaianites. — This branch of the Euty- 
chians received this appellation from their 
leader, Gaian, bishop of Alexandria, a.d. 537. 

Galacz, or Galatz (Moldavia), was made 
365 



GAL 

a free port in 1834. The Eussians assembled 
10,000 men, and collected a park of artillery, 
numbering 120 guns, at this place, in Decem- 
ber, 1853. They crossed to attack the Txirks, 
Jan. 12, and again in March, 1854. 

Galapagos (Pacific). — This group of is- 
lands was discovered by a whaling ship 
towards the end of the 18th century. The 
Spaniards formed a settlement on the island 
of La Floriana in 1832. In 1854 they were 
ceded to the United States by the repubhc of 
Ecuador. 

Galata, or Peea. — The Genoese estab- 
lished themselves in this suburb of Constan- 
tinople a. d. 1261. They maintaiaed several 
contests with the Greeks, who were sup- 
ported by the Venetians ; and by a treaty, j 
signed May 6, 1352, the Venetians and 
Catalans were for ever banished, and a mo- 
nopoly of the trade was secured to the 



Galatia, or Galllo-Gejecia (Asia 
Minor). — This ancient kingdom was founded 
by the Gauls after their defeat at Delphi, 
B.C. 279. They crossed the Hellespont B.C. 
278, and received a grant of land from 
Nicomedes I., king of Bithynia, in return 
for the assistance they rendered him against | 
his brother Zyboetes. They subsequently j 
waged war with Antiochus Soter, king of | 
Syria, who is said to have iaUen in a battle 
fought with them B.C. 261, and they also [ 
assisted at the battle of Raphia, B.C. 217. 
Their power in Asia was hmited to Galatia 
by Attains, king of Pergamus, who reigned 
from B.C. 241 to B.C. 197, and opposed a 
successful resistance to their growing power. ! 
Prusias I., king of Bithynia, defeated them 
in a great battle fought B.C. 216. Galatia 
was invaded by the Romans under Cn. ' 
Manhus, B.C. 189, and the inhabitants were 
treated with great severity, according to 
some authorities, as many as 40,000 of their j 
nation dying in battle. Mithridates murdered I 
all the Galatian tetrarchs, with their women ; 
and children, B.C. 86, to prevent them from 
deserting to SyUa. Mark Antony conferred ; 
the kingdom on Amyntas, king of Pisidia, 
B.C. 36, and it was made a Roman province ' 
by Augustus b.c. 25. Galatia was twice 
visited by the apostle Paul, a.d. 51 or 53 
(Acts xvi. 6), and in 56 (Acts xviti. 23). j 

Galatians, (Epistle to the,) was written 1 
by the apostle Paul, about a.d. 52. Various 
dates, between a.d. 48 and 58, have been 
assigned for its production, and bibhcal 
critics are at variance whether it was written 
at Ephesus, Corinth, or in Macedonia. 

Galenists. — In 1664 the Flemings of 
Amsterdam spHt into two parties, — the 
Galenists and the Apostoolians, named after 
two preachers, Galenus Abrahams de Haan, 
and Samuel Apostool. Mosheim remarks . 
"The Galenists are equally ready, with the 
Arminians, to admit all sorts of persons into 
their church, who call themselves Christians ; 
and they are the only Anabaptists (in Hol- 
land) who refuse to be called Mennonites. 
The Apostoolians admit none to membership 
who do not profess to believe the doctrines 



GAL 

contained in the pubhc formula of their 

rehgion." The followers of Galen (a.d. 

130 — 200), the great authority in medical 
science, are called Galenists. 

Galicia (Austria). — An Austrian province, 
which once formed part of Poland. On the 
first partition of Poland in 1772, Galicia was 
divided into two provinces, called East and 
West, the former being annexed to Austria, 
The Austrians invaded West Galicia in Oct. 

1793, and it was annexed to their empire in 

1794. It was made part of the grand-duchy 
of Warsaw in 1809, and recovered by Austria 
in 1815. An insurrection, which was speedily 
suppressed, broke out in Galicia Feb. 19 and 
20, 1846. 

Galicia (Spain). — The Vandals made 
themselves masters of this territory a.d. 411. 
It became the subject of frequent contests, 
and was taken by the Moors in 713. Pelago 
expelled the Moors in 721, and after under- 
going various vicissitudes, Galicia was an- 
nexed to Leon in 913. Almansor invaded it 
in 993. It was made a separate kingdom in 
1065, but its king was expelled in 1071 , and his 
territories were annexed to Castile in 1073. 
It was ruled by its own counts untU 1475. 
It was subdivided into four provinces in 
1822. 

Galil.s:ans. — This ancient Jewish sect 
was named after Judas the Gaulonite. They 
resisted the Roman tax estabhshed by 
Quirinus, and rebelled at various intervals, 
till Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus, 
Sept. 8, A.D. 70. Eleazar, the grandson of 
Judas, after the capture of Jerusalem, re- 
tired with 960 followers to a strong fortress, 
where they were exterminated. 

Galilee (Palestine). — From this, the 
most northern of the three divisions of 
Palestine, Christ and his disciples were 
called Gahleans (Matt. xxvi. 69, and Mark 
xiv. 70), a.d. 30. 

Galleys. — The Corinthian triremes, or gal- 
leys with three rows of oars, were first con- 
structed b.c. 786, or B.C. 703. The dromones, 
or Ught galleys of the Byzantine empire, had 
two tiers of oars. During the Middle Ages, 
galleys with one bank of oars were used by 
the Venetians and Genoese,by whom they were 
introduced into France, about the reign of 
Charles VI. (1380—1422). The first docu- 
ment referring to the punishment of the 
galleys, is an ordinance of the French par- 
fiament, dated 1532 ; but criminals were 
most probably condemned to row in them at 
an earher period. In 1564, the minimum 
duration of punishment at the galleys was 
limited to ten years. The office of captain 
of the gaUevs was abolished by an ordinance 
of Louis XV., of Sept. 27, 1748, when the 
slaves were removed to work in the docks 
and arsenals. The present emperor of the 
French had a splendid galley constructed, 
after the model of those of the ancient 
Romans, in 1861. 

Gallipoli (Turkey), the ancient CaUi- 
polis, was seized by the Catalans a.d. 1303, 
and, fortified by them, resisted the troops of 
the Greek emperor. The walls were shat- 



GAL 

tered by an earthquake, and, in 1357, fell 
into the hands of the Turks, who restored 
the fortifications. Gibbon calls it the key 
of the Hellespont. The French landed here 
March 30, and the English April 5, 1854; 
and, by April 21, the aUied forces amounted 
to 27,000 men. An advance to Varna was 
made in May. There was another Callipohs 
in Sicily. 

Gallo (Peru) . — This island was discovered 
by Euiz, a.d. 1526. Pizarro took refuge here 
in 1527. 

Gai-lows, and Gibbet. — Fosbroke says 
that the Koman furca took the form of our 
gallows when Constantine I. abolished cruci- 
fixion, A.D. 324. The ancient gallows in 
England were provided with hooks. The 
triangular gallows occurs in the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth. In the 14th century, an 
Italian lord erected a gallows before the 
door of his house, and repaired it every 
year. Gibbets, on which the bodies of 
crimials were hung in chains, were first 
erected in the 17th century. All the gibbets 
in the Edgeware Road were cut down 
April 3, 1763. The last gibbets in England 
were erected near South Shields for an 
execution which took place Aug. 6, 1832; 
and at Leicester, for an execution, Satur- 
day, Aug. 11, 1832. The former was removed 
in 1832, and the latter in 1856. A piece of an 
old gibbet might be seen, in 1856, at the 
corner of Ditchling Common, Sussex. It 
was called "Jacob's Post," from the name 
of a Jew who was hung in chains here 
Aug. 31, 1734, for a barbarous murder. 

Gall, St. (Switzerland). — This canton 
was formed a.d. 1798, by the union of the ter- 
ritories of the abbot of St. Gall with the 
free town of St. Gall, and other districts. 
The town of St. Gall grew up around a cell 
formed by St. Gall, or Gallus, in the begin- 
ning of the 7th centuiy. An abbey, erected 
soon after, was celebrated in the 9th century 
for its school. The abbey was destroyed by 
the Magyars in the 10th century. St. Gall 
became a free town at the Reformation, and 
the abbey was secularized in 1805. 

Galvanism. — ^The earhest notice of this 
branch of electrical science was made by 
Sulzer, who mentioned the peculiar sensa- 
tion arising from a piece of silver and a piece 
of lead in contact with each other and the 
tongue, in 1762. In 1791, Galvani published 
the discovery he had made a short time pre- 
vious, that the limbs of a dead frog were 
convulsed when touched by a dissecting-knife, 
and submitted to an electric spark simulta- 
neously ; and, in 1793, Volta broached the 
contact theory of galvanism. Aldini pro- 
duced powerful galvanic convulsions on the 
head of a recently killed ox, in 1796 ; and in 
1800 Volta announced the discovery of the 
voltaic pile, which was successfully applied 
to the decomposition of water by Messrs. 
Nicholson & Carlisle, May 2 in the same 
year. Aldini performed some galvanic ex- 
periments on the body of an executed crimi- 
nal, in 1803, by which he produced violent 
muscular contortions ; and, in 1805, Behrens 



GAL 

constructed a dry pile of 80 pans of zinc, 
copper, and gilded paper. Sir Hmnphiy 
Davy decomposed potash, and produced 
potassium by galvanism, Oct. 6, 1807 ; and 
in 1809 Mr. Children constructed a battery 
of sufficient power to fuse platinum, diamond, 
and other very hard substances. De Luc's 
pile of tinned iron and gilded paper was 
made in 1810; and Zamboni's pile of paper 
disks, covered on one side with tin and on 
the other with peroxide of manganese, in 
1812. Ritter's secondary pile was constructed 
the same year, which was also memorable for 
the first application of galvanism to blasting 
purposes. Sir Humphry Davy discovered 
the galvanic arc in 1813 ; Dr. Wollaston 
constructed his thimble battery, and used 
it to fuse platinum wire, in 1815 ; and 
Dr. Ure perlbrmed some curious experi- 
ments on the body of a recently executed 
criminal in 1818. Ampere exhibited his gal- 
vanometer to the Royal Academy, Sept. 18, 
1820. Other instruments for measuring gal- 
vanism were produced by Schweigger in 1820, 
Professor Cimiming in 1821, De la Rive in 
1824, Ritchie in 1830, and Joule in 1843. 
Galvanism was applied by Sir Humphry 
Davy to the protection of tlie copper sheath- 
ing of ships from the effects of water in 
1824. Ohm's formulae, relating to the quan- 
tity of the galvanic current, were published 
in 1827 ; and, in 1829, Becquerel constructed 
his double-fluid battery. Sturgeon's cast- 
iron single-fluid battery was invented about 
1830; Daniell's "constant" battery, and 
Mulhn's sustaining battery, in 1836; Grove's 
battery in 1839, Jacobi's and Smee's in 
1840; Bunsen's and Robe's batteries, and 
Grove's gas battery, in 1842. Faraday 
proved that the producing power of a bat- 
tery depends on the size of the plates, in 
1834 ; and Wheatstone invented his chrono- 
scope, an instrument in which galvanism is 
employed for the measurement of very small 
intervals of time, in 1840. 

Galwat (Ireland) called the " City of the 
Tribes," was fortified A.D. 1124, and the walls 
were erected in 1270. Richard II. granted it 
a charter of incorporation, and it became 
celebrated for maritime enterprise in the 
17th century. Galway surrendered to the 
ParHamentary forces, July 10, 1651, and 
General Ginkel captured it July 21, 1691. 
All traces of the walls had been removed by 
1779. The railroad to Dubhn was opened 
Aug. 1, 1851. The church of St. Mcholas 
was founded in 1320, the west bridge was 
built in 1442, and the Royal College was 
founded in 1484. Queen's College was 
opened in November, 1849. Riots caused by 
Gavazzi's attempts to preach, occurred 
March 29, 1859. The Galway line of steamers 
to America was founded by J. O. Lever, 
M.P., who despatched the Indian Empire 
from this port June 19, 1858. A postal con- 
tract was made with the government Oct. 22, 
1858, and one of the mail steamers performed 
the passage from Cape Race in 4 day s, 23 hours . 
Owing to an alleged breach of the contract, 
the subsidy was withdrawn May 15, 1861. 



GAM 

G-AMBiA (Africa). — This name is given to 
a British colony consisting of several trading 
stations on the river Grambia. It was gua- 
ranteed to England by the tenth article of the 
treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 17S3. 

Gambieh Islands (Pacific), called also the 
Mangareva group, were discovered by the mis- 
sionary ship Buff, in 1797, and named after 
Lord Gambier. They were surveyed in 1826. 

Gambling, or Gaming. — The passion for 
play has in all ages been common among the 
wealthy and unemployed, and frequently 
even among the poorer classes. Tacitus 
mentions the excess to which it was carried 
by the ancient Gennans, who frequently 
staked their freedom on the hazard of the 
die, and suifered themselves to be sold as 
slaves, to liquidate their gaming debts. Jus- 
tinian's Code (a.d. 528) contains several enact- 
ments for its suppression. The IJomans 
were immoderately addicted to it in the latter 
days of the Eepubhc and the Empire. The 
practice was introduced very early into 
England. The first statute directed against 
it (33 Hen. YIII. c. 9, 151.1), prohi- 
bited the keeping of gaming-houses under 
a penalty of 40«. per day, and the fre- 
quenting of such places under forfeiture of 
6s. Sd. By 16 Charles II. c. 7 (1664), any 
person winning money by fraud, cozenage, 
or deceit, was to forfeit treble the value of 
his gains, and by 9 Anne, c. 1-4 (1710), any 
one who had lost at one sitting, and paid, 
the sum often pounds, might sue the winner, 
and recover the same wit h treble its value, 
and the costs of the suit. The game of 
passage, and all other games played with 
dice, except backgammon, were prohibited 
by 13 Geo. II. c. 19 (1740), and gaming- 
house-keepers were subjected to imprison- 
ment with hard labour, bv 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 
(Aug. 5, 1822). Previous to 1838, the French 
government restricted the right of keeping 
gaming-houses in Paris to one company, but 
the Chamber of Deputies discontinued their 
liceuse that year, and it has not since been 
revived. The pohce are entitled to enter 
aU gaming-houses, and arrest the frequenters 
by 2 &3 Vict, c.47, s. 4S (Aug. 17, 1839), and 
most of the, former statutes on the subject 
were consolidated, repealed, or amended by 
8 & 9 Vict. c. 109 (Aug. 8, 1845), which is 
now the principal statute respecting gaming. 
Betting-offices were suppressed by 16 & 17 
Viet. c. 119 (Aug. 20, 1853), and the oppo- 
sition of constables in their efforts to enter 
a house was made proof that the said house 
is a common gaming-house, by 17 & 18 Vict, 
c. 38 (July 24, 1854). 

Game-Laws. — The Theodosian Code, pub- 
lished A.D. 438, imposed severe restriction 
on the himting and slaughter of game, 
which term was then limited to ferocious 
animals ; wild fowl, hares, &c., being at 
the disposal of any one desirous of 
taking them. The game-laws of England 
originated in the desire of the Norman 
nobihty to preserve a stock of animals of 
the chase for their exclusive pleasure. The 
first statute on the subject is 13 Kich. II. 



GAE 

St. 1, c. 13 (13S9), which restricted the use 
of hunting-dogs or implements to laymen 
holding laud of forty shillings per annum 
and upwards, and to priests of not less than 
ten pounds a year. Pish were first pro- 
tected from poachers by 31 Hen. VlII. c. 3 
(1539), and the appointment of gamekeepers 
was authorized by 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 25 
(1670). Certificates for the killing of game 
were first granted, under a duty, by 24 Geo. 
III. c. 43 (1784), which act was amended by 
25 Geo. III. c. 50 (1785). The laws respect- 
ing game in England were amended and 
consolidated by 1 & 2 WiU. IV. c. 32 
(Oct. 5, 1831), and in Scotland the principal 
statute on the subject is 2 & 3 WOl. IV. 
c. 68 (July 7, 1832). The shooting of hares 
without certificate by occupiers and owners 
of inclosed lands was legahzed by 11 & 12 
Vict. c. 29 (July 22, 1848) . 

Games. — The games of the ancients were 
mostly of a religious nature, serving as 
important institutions for the promotion of 
harmony and social miion. The education 
of the ancient Britons chiefly consisted in 
proficiency in the following games : — The 
hfting of great weights, running, leaping, 
swimming, wrestling, riding, archery, sword- 
play, two-handed sword exercise, spear exer- 
cise, coursing, fishing, fowling, music, and 
heraldry. 

Gamitt. — This musical scale was known 
previous to the 11th century, as the monk 
Guido d'Arezzo, who flourished a.d. 1022, 
mentions it as having been in use before 
his time. 

Ganges (Hindostan). — The Bengal gov- 
ernment sent an expedition to explore the 
Ganges a.d. 1808. A canal for irrigating the 
valley between the Ganges and the Jumna 
was opened April 8, 1854, and considerable 
advantages have been already derived from 
the same. 

Gaol Chaplains existed in some places 
in the 18th century, and were made universal 
by 4 Geo. IV. c. 64, s. 28 (July 10, 1823). 
By this act the nomination was placed in the 
hands of the justices assembled in general or 
quarter sessions, who might appoint one 
chaplain to two gaols when they were suffi- 
ciently near each other. They were obhged 
to receive the license of the bishop, previous 
to assuming their oifice, to perform divine 
service on Sunday, Christmas-day, and 
Good Friday, and to keep a journal of all 
their transactions with the prisoners for the 
inspection of the justices. 

Gaedening. — The art of gardening was 
conmion among the Persians and B abyloni ans, 
and was in high estimation with the Jews. 
The Greeks received the art from the 
Persians, and imparted it to the Eomans, 
who planted gardens of great extent and 
beauty. LucuEus, who flourished about 
B.C. 109 — 55, was particularly famous for 
the magnificence of his gardens, and Pliny, 
A.D, 24—79, also carried the art of gardening 
to considerable perfection. Gardening was re- 
revived by Charlemagne in the 9th century, 
and is said to have been carried to some per- 



GAR 

fection in England in the reign of Henry II. 
(1154 — 1189) . The earliest attempt to elevate 
gardening into a refined art in this country 
18 believed to have been made in the arrange- 
ment of the grounds at Nonsuch, which 
vrere planned about 1540. The Horticultural 
Society was estabhshed in 1804, and the 
Botanical Society in 1839. 

GrABiGLiANO (Battle). — Gronsalvo of Cor- 
dova, at the head of a Spanish army, de- 
feated the French near the river Garighano, 
the ancient Liris, in Italy, Friday, Dec. 29, 
1503. This has been called the rout of the 
Garigliano. 

Garotte. — ^When this punishment is in- 
flicted, the prisoner is placed in a chair with 
a high back, to which his head is fastened by 
an iron clasp. This incloses his neck, and is 
fastened to the back of the chair by a screw, 
which, being turned several times, strangles 
the victim and breaks his neck. It was 
practised in a more primitive mode in Spain 
and its colonies in the 16th century. The 
term garotting has of late years been apphed 
in this country to a mode of strangulation 
adopted by thieves in robbery on the 
highway. 

Garter (Order of the) . — ^KingEdwardlll., 
wishing to emulate the example of the re- 
nowned Arthur, and found an order of 
chivalry which should become as famous as 
the Round Table, issued letters, Jan. 1, 1344, 
in which he invited knights of aU nations to 
take part in a grand tournament to be 
celebrated at Windsor on Monday, Jan. 18. 
According to Selden, the order of the Garter 
was founded April 23, 1344; but Ashmole 
considers it to have originated in 1349 or 
1350. The companions were not chosen tiU 
July, 1346, and Sir Harris Nicolas is of 
opinion that Ihe order was not definitely 
established until the latter part of 1347. 
The earliest dehvery of mantles to the 
knights was in September, 1351, and in 
May, 1418, the office of Garter King of 
Arms was created. The collar and George 
of the order were granted by Henry VII. 
about 1497, and new statutes were adopted 
in 1522. The star was granted by Charles I. 
in 1626. The order of the Garter was re- 
constituted Jan. 17, 1805, and made to consist 
of the sovereign and twenty -five knights 
companions, with such hneal descendants of 
George III. as may be elected, and the 
prince of Wales. 

Gas. — A burning spring in the collieries of 
Wigan, Lancashire, which was noticed by 
Mr. Shirley A.n. 1659, was doubtless nothing 
more than ignited gas, although it was not so 
understood at the time. In 1726 Dr. Hales 
ascertained by experiment the quantity of 
inflammable air evolved from coal, and in 
1733 Sir James Lowther sent specimens of 
the air to the Royal Society, who used it for 
experiments. In 1739 the Rev. J. Clayton 
published an account of his experiments on 
the distillation of coal, which had extended 
over a long period of years, and in 1792 
Mr. Murdoch, of Redruth, Cornwall, con- 
ceived the project of applying gas to purposes 



GAT 

of artificial illimiination. The first gas-works 
were erected by him at Boulton & Watt's 
Soho foundry in 1798, and at the peace 
rejoicings in 1802 the Ught was publicly 
exhibited at that establishment with great 
success. The first emplojTnent of gas in 
Paris also occurred in 1802. In 1803 the 
new light was adopted by Mr. Winsor in 
the Lyceum Theatre, and in 1804 Mr. Mur- 
doch erected gas-works on a grand scale at 
Messrs. Philhps & Lee's cotton-miU, Man- 
chester. Gas was used to light PaU MaU in 
1807. The London and Westminster Gas- 
light Company was incorporated in 1810, 
and Westminster Bridge was hghted by gas 
Dec. 31, 1813, and in 1816 its use became 
general throughout Londop, The London 
Gas-light Company was established in 1833. 
Gas was introduced at Sydney, in Aus- 
traha, in 1841. In December, 1851, a 
stream of natural gas was discovered at 
Chat Moss, on the Manchester and Liverpool 

Railway. Gas was obtained from oil and 

resin by Messrs. Taylor in 1815, and an 
improved method for its production was 
patented by Messrs. Laming & Evans, 

April 23, 1850. Water-gas is also the 

subject of several patents, the chief of 
which are Donovan's, dated 1830; Lowe's, 
1832 ; Manby's, 1839 ; Val Marino's, 1839 ; 
Radley's, 1845; Lowe's, 1846; and White's, 
1847. The sale of gas in the metropolis is 
regulated by 23 & 24 Vict. cc. 125 & 146 
(Aug. 28, 1860). 

Gascony (France) . — An ancient province, 
that nearly corresponded to the Aquitania 
of Caesar, received this name from the Vas- 
cones, or Gascones, a Spanish people who 
settled here at an early period. They were 
subdued by the Franks, a.d. 602. Gascony 
for a time formed part of Aquitaine, and on 
the union of the latter with the French 
monarchy, in 867, the duchy of Gascony 
continued independent. It passed under 
Enghsh rule in 1152, and became the sub- 
ject of frequent contests between England 
and France, until finally annexed to the 
latter in 1453. In the chronicles of the time 
the terms Gascony and Guienne are used as 
though they were synonymous. They were, 
however, distinct provinces. Auch was the 
chief town of Gascony. 

Gas-meters were invented by Clegg in 
1815, and improved and patented in 1816. 
The dry gas-meter was patented by Malam 
in 1820. Defries' dry meter was patented 
in 1844. 

Gateshead (Durham) . — ^A monastery was 
established at this place some time before 
653. In 1068 William the Conqueror gained 
a great victory at Gateshead Fell, in the 
neighbourhood, over Malcolm II. of Scot- 
land, who had espoused the cause of Edgar 
Atheling. The church was destroyed by 
&ce May 14, 1080, and in 1164 Bishop Pud- 
sey gave the burgesses the hberty of his 
forests in the vicinity of the town. St. Ed- 
mund's Hospital was founded before 1248, 
and restored by James I. in 1610 ; and in 1695 
the government of the town was vested in 



GAU 

two stewards, who were elected by the 
borough-holder and freemen. Gateshead 
was enfranchised by the Eeform Bill in 1832, 
and returns one member to parhament. A 
terrible fire, which broke out in a worsted 
manufactory at midnight, Oct. 5, 1854, 
and afterwards extended to a bond ware- 
house, where large quantities of gunpowder 
and other explosive materials were stored, 
resulted in the death of about fifty per- 
sons, and in the serious injury of many 
more. The flames extended over the Tyne 
to Newcastle, and the total value of 
the property destroyed was estimated at 
£1,000,000. 
Gatjgamei-a (Battle). (^See Aebela.) 
Gatj&ikg was practised in this country 
as early as 1272. By 27 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 8 
(1353), all wines imported into this country 
were ordered to be gauged by the king's 
gangers, under penalty of forfeiture and 
imprisonment in case of neglect. 

Gaul. — This ancient country was divided 
by the Romans into Cisalpine and Transal- 
pine Gaul, the former signifying the coim- 
tries of Forth Italy, on the Roman side of the 
Alps, and the latter the territory beyond the 
Alps, now called France. 



600. A colony of Phocseans from Asia Minor found 
Massilia, or Massalia, the present Mar- 
seilles. 

506. The Gauls invade North Italy, and drive the 
Etniscans before them. 

391. The Gauls again invade Etmria. 

390. Under their leader Brennus they take Rome. 

349. The Gauls attack the Venetians. 

299. They again invade Rome. 

295. The Romans defeat them at Sentinum. 

285. They defeat the Romans at Arretium. 

283. The Romans gain a great victory over them. 

279. The Gauls invade Greece. 

222. The Romans form the province of Cisalpine 
Gaul. 

218. The Gauls assist Hannibal. 

191. Scipio Nasica defeats the Boil of C!isalpine 
Gaul. 

186. An army of 12,000 men from Transalpine 
Gaul migrates into Venetia, but is com- 
pelled to return by the Romans. 

154 The Massaliots invite the assistance of the 
Romans against the Ligurians. 

122. The Romans found Aquse Sextise, or Aix, 
their first settlement north of the Alps. 

121. The Romans invade the land of the Allobroges, 
a Gallic people occupying the territory 
between the Rhone and the Jsdre, and 
utterly defeat them. 

118. The Bomans found Narbo Marcius, or Nar- 
bonne, which secures them the mastery of 
the province. 

112. The Cimbri from Transalpine Gaul invade 
Italy. 

101. Cisalpine Gaul is invaded by the Cimbri, who 

are defeated by Marius and Catullus. 

58. Julius Caesar invades Gaul for the first time, 

and defeats the Germans and Helvetii. 
52. The Gauls rebel from the Roman yoke. 
51. Csesar completes the conquest of GavU by the 
capture of Uxellodunum, and erects the 
whole countiy into a Roman province. 
43. Cisalpine Gaul ceases to have separate gover- 
nors, and is incorporated with Italy. 
39. The TJbii are removed into Gaul. 
27. Augustus organizes the government of Gaul, 
and visits the province. 

A.D. 

21. The Gauls rebel under Julius Flonis and 
Julius Sacrovir. 
370 



GAZ 



68. The Gauls rebel against Nero. 

120. The emperor Hadaian visits Gaul. 

177. The Christians in Gaul are subjected to cruel 
persecutions. 

213 Caracalla visits Gaul. 

234. Severus suppresses a revolt of the Ghiuls. 

238. The Fi-anks make their first appearance in 
GauL 

250. Seven Christian missionaries are sent into 
Gaul. 

255. Gallienus opposes the Franks in GauL 

258 to 265. Postumus governs Gaul. 

277. Probus commands in Gaul, and di^feats the 
Prankish and Burgundian marauders. 

280. The culture of the vine is introduced. 

287. Jan. 1. Maximian defeats the Gauls, and esta- 
blishes large colonies of Franks in their 
territory the following year. 

296. Constantius defeats the Gauls at Langres and 
Viiidonissa. 

306. Constantine defeats the Fi-anks in Gaul. 

330. Gaul gives its name to one of the foiir pre- 
fectures of the empii'e, and compi-it.es Gaul, 
Hispania, and Britannia. 

341. The Franks are again contending with the 
imperial forces in Gaul. 

35-5. The barbarians again ravage Gaul. 

357. Julian marches to the rescue of the province, 
defeats the Alemanni at Strasbm-g, and 
winters in Paris. 

360. Julian is proclaimed emperor at Paris. 

365. Ihe Alemanni resume their inroads. 

371. The Franks and Alemanni are expelled from 
Ciaul and Rhsetia by Theodosius. 

377. The Alemanni again ravage Gaul, and are 
expelled by Richomer. 

383. Gaul is ceded to Maximus. 

406. The Vandals, Burgundians, and other bai- 
barian tribes invade Ga\il. 

412. Jovinus revolts in Gaul. 

419. The Goths obtain Toulouse and the south- 
west parts of Gaul. 

451. Attila invades Gaul with 500,000 Huns. The 
Huns are defeated by the Romans, Visi- 
goths, and Franks, vmder Aetius, at 
Ch aions-sur-Mame. 

455. The Britons plant a colony in Gaul, whicll 
afterwards becomes Britanny. 

464. .figidius, last Roman governor of Gaul, dies. 

470. Euric attempts to usurp the supreme au- 
thority. 

473. Julius Nepos cedes Auvergne to the Visigoths. 

476. The Roman empii-e in the West is overthrown , 
and Gaul passes under the dominion of the 
Fi-anks, from whom it is henceforth called 
France {q.v.). 

Gauze. — This light fabric is said to have 
received its name from Gaza, in Palestine, 
where it was first made at an early period. 
The manufacture of silk gauze was intro- 
duced at Paisley a.d. 1760. A tax of from 
two pence to four pence per yard was placed 
upon it in 1784. 

Gavelkind. — This tenure, limited to the 
county of Kent, was the common tenure of 
the Anglo-Saxons. Its chief distinction is 
the division of the property of an intestate 
father equally among his sons, or, in default 
of male issue, among his daughters. It was 
abohshed in Wales by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. 
c. 26, s. 91 (1543). 

Gawelghue (Hindostan). — This strong 
fortress was taken by Sir Arthur Wellesley 
Dee. 15, 1803. 

Gaza (Palestine), the ancient capital of 
the Philistines, is mentioned Gen. x. 19 (b.c. 
2218) . It was the scene of Samson's triumph 
and death (Judges xvi. 30), B.C. 1117, and 
was taken by Alexander the Great, after a 



GAZ 

long and arduous siege, B.C. 332. Ptolemy 
defeated Demetrius in its neighbourhood 
B.C. 312, and Ptolemy Philopator used it as 
a depot for military stores B.C. 217. It was 
destroyed by Antiochus B.C. 198, was after- 
wards rebuilt, and was selected by the 
emperor Hadrian as the seat of a fair for 
the sale of Jewish captives a.d. 119. Gaza 
was a bishopric of the primitive church, 
and, according to some authorities, the first 
bishop was Philemon, to whom Paul ad- 
dressed his epistle iu 62. The first of whom 
any certain date is known was Asclepas, 
who was deposed at the council of Antioch 
in 331. A council was held here in 541. 
Gaza was taken by the sultan Saladin in 
1170, and was the scene of a victory gained 
by the Carismians over the united armies 
of the Christians and Ayoubites in 1243. 
Napoleon took it during his campaign in 
Egypt in March, 1799. 

Gazette. — The pubhcation of the official 
gazette, which commenced at Oxford in 
1665, was afterwards removed to the me- 
tropolis, and it was called the London 
Gazette. 

GEELON& (Australia) , the capital of Grant 
county, Victoria, was formally claimed as a 
possession of the English crown by John 
Batman in 1835, and founded on the har- 
bour of Corio in 1837. Its importance dates 
from the gold discoveries of 1851. 

Gel A (Sicily). — This city, on the river 
Gela or Gelas, was founded by a joint colony 
of Cretans and Ehodians, B.C. 690. Its 
inhabitants sent out a colony which founded 
Agrigentimi b.c. 582. Cleander obtained 
despotic power b.c 505, and ruled till B.C. 
498, when he was succeeded by his brother 
Hippocrates, who died b.c. 491. His suc- 
cessor Gelon was followed by his brother 
Hiero, B.C. 478, and from this time Gela 
rapidly deehned. The Carthaginians cap- 
tured Gela B.C. 405; whereupon the majority 
of the inhabitants abandoned the city. They 
returned, and Gela once more became pros- 
perous. Phintias, despot of Agrigentum, 
removed the inhabitants to Phintias, and 
demohshed Gela, B.C. 280. 

Gelal^ean u3Era, instituted by Malek 
Shah, one of whose titles was Gelaleddin, 
• Glory of the Faith,' conmienced March 14, 
1079. 

GEMAtTEES (Battle) .—The Swedes defeated 
the Kussians at Gemauers, or Gemauers- 
hof, July 28, 1705. 

Gembloues (Battle). — Don John of 
Austria defeated the Netherlanders with 
great slaughter at this place, nine miles from 
Namur, Jan. 31, 1578. 

Gems have been held in high estimation 
from the most remote antiquity. The Hindoo 
poem of Ramajana, which is said to date 
from a period of 2,000years B.C., mentions 
them, and they were employed in the con- 
struction of Aaron's breastplate, B.C. 1491 
(Exod. xxviii. 15-29). They were also much 
prized by the Egyptians, Persians, and PhcB- 
nicians, and the historical records of the 
Mexicans and Peruviana establish the an- 
371 



GEN 

tiquity of gems as ornaments in the Western 
hemisphere. The Romans carried the admi- 
ration of gems to such an excess, that in a.d. 
460 it was found necessary to pass a law 
prohibiting their use in the harness of 
their horses. On the decline of the Ro- 
man empire, the demand for gems abated ; 
but it revived in the 12th centviry, and 
reached its culminating point in this country 
during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and 
James I. 

Gen daemeeie, a name given to a 
chosen corps of cavalry in the old French 
monarchy. It was formed by Charles VII. 
in 1439, but was not known as the gendar- 
merie till the 16th century. The gendarmerie 
of the guard was enrolled by Hemy IV. 
in 1609, and suppressed in 1787. It was, 
however, restored in 1791, and regulated by 
ordinances issued April 17, 1797, and Oct. 29, 
1820. 

Gekeeal. — This title, which originated in 
France, was first conferred upon the com- 
mander of the royal army about the middle 
of the 15th century. The title of captain- 
general occurs in a list of the Enghsh army 
which served at St. Quentin, a.d. 1557. In 
1620 and 1639 the commander of our army 
bore the title of lord general. 

General Assembly, composed of laity 
and clergy, is the Convocation of the Church 
of Scotland. The first was held a.d. 1561. 
James I. suppressed it, and it was restored 
at the Revolution. The Free Church, on their 
separation in 1843, estabhshed an indepen- 
dent General Assembly. 

Geneeal Councils. — The Anglican 
Church, in common with the Universal 
Church, acknowledges only the first six, 
and the Greek Church the first eight of 
the twenty general councils recognized by 
Rome. 



325. June 19 to Aug. 25. Council of Nicsea, or 
Nice, in Bithynia, was summoned by Cou- 
stantine 1. against Arius. 
381. May to July 30. Council of Cunstantinople, 

against heretics. 
431. June 22 to July 31. Council of Ephesus, 

against Nestor and Pelagius. 
451. Council of Chalcedon, which justified Flavian 

and anathematized Dioscorus. 
553. May 4 to June 2. Councd of Constantinople, 

against the heresies of Origen. 
680. Nov. 7 to Sept. 16, 681. Council of Constan- 
tinople, against the Monothelites. 
787. Sept. 24 to Oct. 23. Council of Nicasa, or 
Ni«e, which anathematized the Iconoclasts, 
and restored image-worship. 
869. Oct. 5 to Feb. 28, 870. Council of Constan- 
tinople, which deposed Phociua, and re- 
stored Ignatius. 
1123. March 18 to Api-il 5. Council of Lateran, on 

discipline. 
1139. April 20. Council of Lateran, for the reunion. 

of the Church. 
1179. March 5 to 19. Council of Lateran, on disci- 
pline. 
1215. Nov. 11 to 30. Council of Lateran, against the 

Albigenses, &c. 
1245. June 28 to July 17. Council of Lyons, which 

deposed Fi-ederick II. of Germany. 
1274. May 7 to July 17. Council of Lyons, which 
published ordinances respecting the eltc- 
tion of bishops, &c., and reunited the Greek 
and Latin churches. 

2 B 2 



GEN 



1311. Oct. 16 to May 6, 1312. CouncU of Vienne, in 
Dauphiny, where the pope published the 
suppression of the Templars. 

1414 Kov. 16 to April 22, 1418. CMuncil of Constance, 
■which deposed Pope John XXIU., and 
condemned John Huss to the stake. 

1431. July 23 to May, 1443. CouncU of Ba?el, for the 
reimiou of the Greek and Latin chuiches. 

1439. Feb. 29 to April 23, 1442. Council of Florence, 
for the reunion of the churches. 

1512. May 3 to March 16, 1517. CoudqU of Lateran. 

1545. Dec. 13 to Dec. 3, 1563. CouncU of Ti-ent, 
agaiust the heresies of Luther, Zumglius, 
and Calvin, and for the reformation of 
manners. 

G-Bi>rEEALissiMO.— Cardinal Eichelieu is 
said to have been the first person to bear 
this title, which he did on taking the com- 
mand of a French army in Italy, a.d. 1629. 

GrENEEAi/ Waeeants, not Specifying any 
particular persons, were declared illegal, 
Friday, May 6, 1763. John Wilkes had been 
arrested on a general warrant, Saturday, 
April 30, 1763. Having obtained an ac- 
quittal, he brought forward the subject in 
the House of Commons, and commenced an 
action against Eobert Wood, under-secretary 
of state, for having seized his papers. This 
was tried Dec. 6, 1763, and resulted in a 
verdict in favour of John Wilkes, with 
£1,000 damages. 

Geneva (Switzerland) is mentioned by 
Caesar as a town of the Allobroges, B.C. 58. 



200 (about). Geneva is made a bishopric. 

426. Geneva is taken by the Burgundians, who 

make it their capital. 
5H. It is seized by the Franks. 

1285. The citizens conclude an alliauee with the 
count of Savoy. 

1387. Bi-hop F*bri grMits the town a charter. 

1417. It is rendered subject to the duke of Savoy. 

1499. Louis XII. and PhUibert II., duke of Savoy, 
sign a treaty at Geneva. 

1515. Nov. 7. Francis I. and eight of the Swiss 
cantons conclude a treaty at Geneva. The 
other cantons accede to it in 1516. 

1519. The inhabitants conclude a treaty with Frei- 
burg and Berne. 

1524. The Genevese shake off the yoke of Savoy. 

1-535. The Calvinists expel the bishop, who retii'es 
to Annecy, in Savoy. 

1536. Calvin settles here. Geneva becomes a re- 
public in alliance with Berne. 

1553. Michael Servetus is burnt, at Geneva, for 
heresy. 

1584. It forms an alliance with the Swiss cantons. 

1602. The duke of Savoy faUs in an attempt to 

etfefit its capture. 

1603. Henry IV., of France, acknowledges its inde- 

pendence 

1712. A general assembly is convened, but without 
important results. 

1738. The republic adopts a regular constitution. 

1770. An insuriection is suporessed. 

1781. Delay in the publicatioi' of a new code of laws 
creates great dissatisfaction. 

1788. March. A rebellion breaks out, and the inha- 
bitants admit foreign troops into the city. 
Sept. One thousand of the inhabitants 
petition the Irish government for per- 
mission to settle in Ireland, which is 
granted, and 50,000i. are voted to enable 
them to do so. 

1783. July. A deputation arrives in Waterford to 
found New Geneva ; but after 30,000?. have 
been expended, the whole scheme is sud- 
denly abandoBsd. 
372 



GEN 



1789. The inhabitants compel the magistrates to 
extend their privUeges. 

1794. July. A revolution takes place, and the gen- 
try are executed, exUed, or imprisoned. 

1798. AprU. Geneva is annexed to the French 
republic. 

1814. Geneva is restored to Switzerland, of which 
it becomes a c-mton. 

1834. Feb. 5. Some Polish refugees excite the lower 
ordei-s of Geneva to aid them in a rebellion 
against the Sardinians. 

1846. It is disturbed by insui-gents, who obtain an 
alteration of the constitution, which be- 
comes more democratic. 

1849. The fortifications are destroyed. 

1860. March 30. A band of from fifty to eighty 
persons set out from GJeneva in order to 
plant the Swiss flag at Thonon and Evian. 
They are arrested, and carried back to 
Geneva. 

Genevieve, St. (Missouri), was founded 
in 1755. 

Gennet (Order of). — This, the first order 
of chivalry estabhshed in France, was 
founded by Charles of Aquitaine, in mem- 
ory of his victory over the Moors at Tours, 
A.D. 726. It was named Gennet, or Wood 
Marten, because numbers of these animals 
were found in the camp of the invaders. 

Genoa (Italy), the ancient Genua, is said 
to have been founded about B.C. 707. It 
was the chief maritime city of the Ligures, 
and at the beginning of the second Punic 
war, B.C. 218, was in aUiance with Eome. 
Mago, the Carthaginian, seized it B.C. 205, 
and reduced it to ruins ; but it was rebuilt 
by Sp. Lucretius, b.c. 203. 



The cathedral is founded. 

A bishop of Genoa is present at the council 

of AquUeia. 
Genoa is seized by the Lombards. 
It is pillaged by the Saracens. 
The cathedral is rebuUt. 
War is declared against Pisa. 
It is governed by consuls, who hold their 

office for a year at a time. 
The see is made archi'-piscopal. 
The Genoese take Minorca from the Moors. 
The administration is intrusted to a Podesta. 
The town is governed by a captain. 
.Doria and Spinola usurp the govemmtut, 

and assume the titles of Captains of 

Liberty. 
They defeat the Pisans at the navsil battle of 

Melovia. 
They destroy Porto Pisano. 
War is declared against Venice. 
They conclude an advantageous peace with 



641. 

936. 

985. 
1119. 
1122. 

1133. 

1146. 
1190. 
12.57. 
1270. 



1290. 
1293. 
1299. 



1339. The citizens appoint Simon Boccanegro doge 
for life. 

1344. The nobles depose Boccanegro, and elect 
Giovanni da Murta. 

1346. The Genoese defeat the Venetians near Con- 
stantinople. 

1350. The republic is again at war with Venice. 

1356. Boccanegro is re-appointed doge. 

1381. They again make peace with Venice. 

1391. The Genoese place themselves under the pro- 
tection of Charles VI. of France, who puts 
them under the rule of Marshal Boucicaut. 

1399. They seek assistance from the marquis of 
Montferrat. 

1407. The Bank of St. George is founded. 

1421. The duke of Milan is invited to superintend 
their govei-nment. 

1458. They place themselves under the protection 
of Charles VII. of France. 



GEN 



1461. March 9. The Genoese expel the French 
governor and ganison. 

1464. Louis XI. resolves to have nothing to do with 
so troublesome a dependency, and the re- 
public passes under the sway of the duke 
of Milan. 

1475. Genoa is invaded by the Turks. 

1499. It is again subjected to the French. 

1507. An insurrection of the inhabitants is sup- 
pressed by Bayard. 

1528. Andrew Boria opposes Francis T., and obtains 
a new constitution, the chief power being 
in the hands of a doge, elected biennially. 

1547. Jan. 2. Louis Fiesco fails h) a conspiracy 
against Andrew Doria. The lighthouse is 
erected this year. 

1684. Genoa is bombarded by the French, and the 
doge comes to Versailles to render sub- 
mission to Lotiis XrV. 

1730. Corsica revolts. 

1745. Sept. 26. G«noa is bombarded by Admiral 

Kowley. 

1746. Nov. 9. It surrenders to Charles Emanuel, 

king of Sardinia, and the Austrians, who 
arc expelled by the citizens Dec. 10. 

1747. March 31. The Austrians renew the siege, 

which they finally abandon June 10. 
1768. Corsica is ceded to France. 
1777. The palace of the doge is destroyed by fire. 

1796. Genoa is occupied by the French. 

1797. June 14. The republic assumes the title of 

the Ligurian Republic. 
1800. Massena is besieged in Genoa by the English 

and Austrians, who compel him to evacuate 

it Jime 4 
1805. June 4. G«uoa is incorporated with the French 

empire. 
1812. The university is founded. 
1814. April 18. Genoa suiTen<lers to the English 

under Sir William Bentinck. Dec 14. It 

is annexed to Sardinia by the congi-ess of 

Vienna. 
1828. The Carlo Felice theatre, the largest in the 

city, is opened. 
1849. April 3. The inhabitants expel the Sardinian 

forces, and proclaim the restoration of the 

Ligurian republic. The city is declared in 

a state of siege by General Delia Marmora, 

who obtains an unconditional surrender 

Apiil 11. 
1853. The harbour is connected with Turin by a 

railway. 

1859. May 12. Napoleon III. disembarks here to 

join the Fi-ench army in the war against 
Austria. 

1860. May 5. Garibaldi embarks for Sicily with 

2,000 men. 

1861. June 7 and 8. The theatres, &c., are closed, 

in consequence of the funeral of Count 
Cavour. 

Gentleman. — This name is derived from 
the Latin gentilis, which signified such as 
were of the same family or gens, and is a 
corruption of the French gentilhomme. It 
exists in some form in all the Komance lan- 
guages, and is defined by Selden (Titles of 
Honour, p. 852) as " one that either from 
the blood of his ancestors, or the favour of 
his sovereign, or of them that have power 
of sovereignty in them, or from his own 
virtue, employment, or otherwise according 
to the laws and customs of honour in 
the coimtry we speak of, is ennobled, made 
gentile, or so raised up to an eminency 
above the miiltitude, perpetually inherent 
in his person, that by those laws and cus- 
toms he be truly nobilis or noble, whether 
he have any of the precedent titles or not 
fixed besides on him." 

Gentlemen - AT -Aems.— This branch of 



GEO 

the royal body-guard was instituted by 
Henry VIII. in 1509, under the title of the 
"Band of Gentlemen Pensioners." Origi- 
nally it numbered fifty men, but it was 
reduced to forty by Charles II. in 1670. 
It received its present designation from 
WiUiam IV. in 1834. 

Geographical Society. — Malte- Brun 
founded one at Paris a.d. 1821. The Eoyal 
Geographical Society of London was founded 
in 1830. The African Association, esta- 
blished July 9, 1788, was incorporated with 
it July 23, 1831. The Palestine Associa- 
tion, founded in 1805, joined it March 4, 
1834, and the Geographical Society of 
Bengal, founded in 1831, joined it in jfune, 
1832. 

Geogkapht. — Egyptian tradition ascribes 
the foundation of this science to Hermes or 
Mercury, and the invention of geographi- 
cal maps to Sesostris, who flourished about 
B.C. 1618. The first Grecian map was pre- 
pared by Anaximander of Miletus, about 
B.C. 568, and the science was first reduced 
to rule by Eratosthenes, B.C. 240, and after- 
wards improved by Hipparchus, B.C. 135. 
Strabo, who flourished B.C. 71 to a.d. 14, is 
the most eminent of the ancient geographers. 
Modern geography was revived by the Moors, 
who introduced it into Spain in 1201. In 
1478, Arnold Buckinck pubUshed an edition 
of Ptolemy's Geography at Eome, illustrated 
with copper-plate engraved maps; and in 
1532 Simon Grynaeus printed an account of 
the state of geography in his time, embodying 
the recent mscoveries of the Spaniards and 
Portuguese. Maritime charts were brought 
to England by Bartholomew Columbus in 
1488. Eamusio's collection of Travels ap- 
peared in 1550, and Ferrari's Lexicon Geo- 
graphieum in 1627. The first volume of 
Malte-Brun's Geography was published in 
1810. 

Geological Society was instituted in 
London in 1807, and its charter of incorpo- 
ration is dated April 23, 1826. The Eoyal 
Geological Society of Cornwall was founded 
Feb. 11, 1814. The Geological Society of 
Dublin was founded in February, 1832 ; that 
of Edinburgh in 1834 ; of Manchester in 1838 ; 
and of the West Eiding of Yorkshire in 1838* 
The French Geological Society was esta- 
blished in 1830. 

Geology is a science of recent origin, 
although the knowledge of fossils attained by 
Frascatorio in 1517, and the deductions 
Agricola drew from the information of the 
Saxon miners in 1546, ndght naturally have 
led to its cultivation. Kircher's " Mundus 
Subterraneus," which appeared in 1662, 
contains all then known on the subject. 
In 1683, Dr. Lister suggested the preparation 
of maps exhibiting the various soils of 
England, and in 1694 Burnet published;,his 
" Theory of the Earth." Woodward's theory 
appeared in the " Philosophical Transac- 
tions " for 1695 ; Whiston published his 
work on the same subject in 1696. In 1743, 
Parke pubhshed his Chorographical Chart of 
East Kent, and in 1749, the "Protogaea" of- 
373 



GEO 

Leibnitz announced his views on the science. 
The first volumes of Buffon's " Natural 
History," which also appeared in 1749, are 
devoted to his exposition of the theory of 
the earth, which he was afterwards com- 
pelled by the Sorbonne to recant. The 
regular order of strata was proved by the 
Swedish philosopher Tylas, in 1750, and 
enlarged upon by the German Lehmann in 
1756. Werner's treatise on minerals ap- 
peared in 1774, and was controverted by 
Hutton in 1795. EngHsh geology may be 
said to have been founded by WiUiam Smith,_ 
who walked over nearly the whole of 
England in order to prepare his "Tabular 
Yiew of British Strata," which he published 
in 1815. 

Geometbt. — Herodotus and other 
ancient writers state that this science was 
first cultivated in Egypt, whence it was 
introduced into Greece by Thales, about 
B.C. 640. Pythagoras, born about B.C. 580, 
and Hippocrates, B.C. 380, made many im- 
portant additions to the science, which was 
enriched by the writings of Euclid, B.C. 285. 
Archimedes, bom B.C. 287, and Ptolemy, 
who flourished a.d. 125, are also eminent 
among the ancient geometricians. Geometry, 
with the other sciences, suffered a temporary 
decline in consequence of the destruction of 
the Alexandrian Mbrary by Omar I. in 640. 
It was revived by the Moors in the dark ages, 
and gradually resumed its rank as an impor- 
tant branch of mental education. Euchd was 
first translated into Latin about the year 
1150, by a monk of Bath, named Adelard or 
Athelard, and Thomas Bradwardin, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, who died in 1349, was 
eminent for his skill in this science. Lam- 
berti's translation of Euchd appeared in 1505, 
and the treatise of Eegiomontanus on trian- 
gles in 1533. In 1552, books of astronomy 
and geometry were condemned to be burnt 
in England as connected with necromancy ; 
bi!t the science appears to have speedily 
regained the pubhc good opinion, as the 
iivit Enghsh translation of Euchd appeared 
in 1570. The apphcation of algebra to 
g^eometry was brought to perfection by 
Descartes, 1596 — 1650. Kepler's treatise on 
the capacity of casks, which appeared in 
1615, originated the modern school of geo- 
metry, which was brought to fuller perfection 
by Cavaheri of Bologna in 1626. Among 
modern geometers, Pascal (1623—1662), Sim- 
son, whose Euchd, first pubhshed in 1756, 
still maintains its rank as one of the best, 
and Legendre (1752 — 1833), are amongst 
the most distinguished. 

Geobge. — George florins, coined at 
Orleans, were made current in England in 
February, 1340. George nobles of gold were 
first coined by Henry VIII. in 1533. Their 
value was six shillings and eight pence. 

Gboeges Conspieacy. — This plot against 
the hf e of Napoleon takes its name from its ori- 
ginator, Georges Cadoudal, a Chouan chief. 
He associated with him in the scheme gene- 
rals Moreau and Pichegru, and others ; but 
the affair becoming known Feb. 16, 1804, the 
374 



GEO 

leaders were arrested, and the plot was aban- 
doned. Pichegru was found strangled in 
prison April 6, Moreau was sentenced to two 
years' exile June 10, and Cadoudal was exe- 
cuted Jime 25. 

Geobge, St., or George of Cappadocia, 
was bom in Cihcia, accorcSng to some autho- 
rities, and in Cappadocia according to others, 
in the 4th century. The English crusaders 
found St. George elevated to the rank of a 
warrior saint, bearing the title Victorious, 
A.D. 1096. The council of Oxford (June 11, 
1 1222) commanded his feast to be kept a hoh- 
day of the lesser rank. Edward III. made 
; him patron of the order of the Garter, and 
from that time he has been the tutelary saint 
of England. St. George was the ancient 
Enghsh war-cry. His day is April 23. 

Geobge, St.— This town, on the island 
of St. George's, one of the Bermudas, was 
founded in 1613. The general assembly was 
instituted to meet at this town Aug. 1, 1620. 
The government house was built in 1847. 

Geobge, St. (Knights of). — There have 
been several orders of St. George. Fre- 
derick III., emperor of Germany, foimded 
one A.D . ] 470, as a defence against the Turks. 
— The military Russian order of St. George 
was fovmded by Catherine II., Nov. 26, 1769. 
It afterwards became neglected, but was 
restored to its original dignity by Alexander 
I., Dec. 12, 1801. The order of St. George 
of the Eeunion was founded by Joseph 
Bonaparte as the order of the Two SiciUes, 
Feb. 24, 1808, and received its present name 
from King Ferdinand, Jan. 1, 1819. The 
order of St. George of Lucca was estab- 
hshed by the duke Charles Louis, June 1, 
1833. The Hanoverian order of St. George 
was founded April 23, 1839. 

Geobge, St. (Rehgious Order). — The 
order of St. George in Algha, founded at 
Venice by Antony Corrario and Gabriel 
Gondelmaire in 1404, was suppressed by 
Clement IX. in 1668. 

Geoege's, St. (Hospital), near Hyde Park 
Corner, London, was founded in 1733. The 
present edifice was erected in 1830. 

Geoege's (St.) Island, one of the Azores, 
was colonized by some Flemings and Por- 
tuguese, A.D. 1450. Another island of the 
same name, one of the Bermudas, was 
colonized by the Enghsh, a.d. 1612. 

Geoege the Fiest, son of Ernest, the 
elector, and Sophia, electress of Hanover, 
was born at Osnaburg, May 28, 1660. He 
married Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the 
duke of Zell, in 1682. She died a prisoner 
at Ahlen, Nov. 2, 1726. They had one son 
(see George II.) and a daughter, named 
Sophia Dorothea, born March 16, 1687, and 
married to Frederick II. of Prussia in 1706. 
George I. succeeded to the electorate of 
Hanover in 1698, and, in accordance with 
the terms of the Act of Settlement, became 
king on the death of Queen Anne, Aug. 1, 
1714. He arrived at Greenvrich Sept. 18, 
entered London Sept. 20, and was crowned 
Oct. 20, 1714. He died at Osnaburg, on a 
joxirney to Hanover, June 11, 1727, 



GEO 

George the Second, the only son ol 
George I. and Sophia Dorothea, was bom 
at Hanover Oct. 30, 1683. He married 
Wilhehnina Caroline, daughter of John 
Frederick, margrave of Brandenburg-Ans- 
pach, Aug. 22, 1705. They had three sons 
and five daughters : Frederick Louis, born 
Jan. 20, 1707, made duke of Gloucester 
Jan. 10, 1718, died March 20, 1751 j Anne, 
bom in 1709, died Jan. 12, 1759 ; Ameha, 
born in 1711 ; Caroline, in 1713 ; George 
William, born Nov. 3, 1713, died in 1714 ; 
Wilham Augustus, bom in April, 1721, 
created duke of Cumberland in 1726, and 
died in 1765 ; Mary, bom in 1723, married 
in 1740 to Frederick, landgrave of Hesse- 
Cassel ; and Louisa, born in 1724, married 
in 1743 to Frederick V. of Denmark. 
George II. succeeded his father June 11, 
1727. He died suddenly at Kensington, 
Oct. 25, 1760. 

Geokge the Third, the eldest son of 
Frederick Louis, prince of Wales, and 
Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, married April 25, 
1736, was bom in ^Norfolk House, St. 
James's Square, May 24, 1738 (O.S.). He 
succeeded his grandfather, George II., 
Oct. 25, 1760. He married Charlotte Sophia 
of Mecklenburg-Strehtz, Sept. 8, 1761. His 
queen died at Kew, Nov. 17, 1818. They 
had nine sons and six daughters. George 
Augustus Frederick, afterwards George IV. 
{q. V.) ; Frederick, born Aug. 16, 1763, 
made duke of York Nov. 27, 1789, and died 
Jan. 3, 1827; WiUiam Henry, afterwards 
William IV. (q. v.) ; Charlotte Augusta 
Matilda, bom Sept. 29, 1766 ; Edward, bom 
Nov. 2, 1767, made duke of Keut in April, 
1799, died Jan. 23, 1820; Augusta Sophia, 
born Nov. 8, 1768, died in 1840 ; Ehzabeth, 
bom May 22, 1770 ; Ernest Augustus, bom 
June 5, 1771, made duke of Cumberland 
in April, 1799, died Nov. 18, 1851 ; Au- 
gustus Frederick, born Jan. 27, 1773, made 
duke of Sussex in April, 1779, died April 21, 
1843 ; Adolphus Frederick, born Feb. 24, 
1774, made duke of Cambridge in April, 
1799, died July 8, 1850; Mary, born April 25, 
1776, became duchess of Gloucester July 22, 

1816, died April 30, 1857; Sophia, born 
Nov. 5, 1777, died May 27, 1848 ; Ameha, 
bom Aug. 8, 1783, died Nov. 2, 1810 ; and 
Charlotte Carohne Augusta, born Jan. 7, 
1796, and died Nov. 6, 1817. George III. 
died at Windsor, Saturday, Jan. 29, 1820, 
in the sixtieth year of his reign. 

Geoege the Foueth, the eldest son of 
George III., was born Aug. 12, 1762. He 
married Carohne Amelia Ehzabeth, second 
daughter of the duke of Brunswick, April 8, 
1795. They had one daughter, Charlotte 
Augusta, born Jan. 7, 1796, and married to 
Prince Leopold, afterwards king of the 
Belgians, May 2, 1816. She died Nov. 6, 

1817. George IV. separated from his wife 
in 1796. She was accused of having given 
birth to a son in 1802, and a commission of 
inquiry was instituted in 1806. The evidence 
was pubhshed in a volume, entitled " The 
Book," in 1813. He ascended the throne 



GEO 

Jan. 29, 1820 ; and Queen Caroline, who had 
retired to the continent in 1816, returned to 
London June 6, 1820. She was refused 
admittance to Westminster Abbey at the 
coronation, July 19, 1821, and, falhng iU, died 
at Hammersmith, Aug. 7, 1821. George IV. 
died at Windsor, June 26, 1830. 

Geobge the Foueth' s Cohonation 
Gulf (Arctic Sea) was discovered and 
named by Frankhn in July, 1821. 

Geoege Town (United States.)^::^ifeEoman 
Cathohc College was erected here a.d?^789, 
which received authority from Congress to 
confer degrees in 1815. There is also the 
Convent of Visitation, which was founded in 

1798. George Town, formerly caUed 

Stabrok, in British Guiana, was nearly 
destroyed by fire Dec. 29, 1828. 

Geobgia (Asia). — This country, Ijing 
between the Caspian and the Black seas, 
corresponds to the ancient Iberia (q.v.). 
The present name is derived from Gurj, 
Gurj-i-stan, or Gurg-i-stan, " the land of 
wolves," the designation given it by the 
Arabs and Persians in the 11th and 12th 
centuries. Alp Arsan conquered the country 
A.D. 1065-8. The Tartars invaded it in 1235, 
and Timour conquered it in 1388, retiring 
in 1404. The Turks obtained possession of 
a large portion of Georgia in 1589, and it 
fell under the Persian yoke in 1618. The 
Eussians obtained great influence in the 
country early in the 18th century, Peter 
the Great obtained some provinces by 
treaty in 1723 and 1724, and though they 
were subsequently; restored, Georgia was 
declared a Russian province in 1800. 
George XIIL, its last king, bequeathed his 
dominions to the Czar of Eussia, by wiU, 
dated Oct. 28, 1800, and the emperor Alex- 
ander published a manifesto accepting the 
responsibility, Sept. 12, 1801. Other parts 
of the country were acquired by the Eussians 
in 1813, 1828, and 1829. 



SGTEEEIGN3 OF GEOBGIA. 
FDRST DYNASTY. 
B.C. 



Karthlos . . , 
Hitzkhethos 



Ouplos 



The country is invaded by the Scythians, who put 
an ehd to thi^ dynasty in the 7th century b. c. 



SECOND DYNASTY. 



Phamavaz 247 I Mirvan . . 

Sourmag 215 | Phamadj 



DYNASTY OF THE AKSACaDES. 



Archag 1 71 I Archag 11. 

Artag 

Bai-tom 44 1 Aderkhi . 



DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM. 
A.D. 



Bartos and Khar- 
tham 58 

Phaisaman I. and 
Khaoa 74 



Asork and Aiinasel 87 
Amsasy and Derokh 103 
Pharsaman II. and 

Miidat Il3 

375 



GEO 



THE MONARCHY KESTORED. 



Adam 122 

Pharsaman III 125 

Amsa&p II 182 

Rev 186 



A.D. 

Vatchg 213 

Bakotur 231 

Mirdatn 246 

Asphagour 262 



DYKASTY OF THE SASSAUIDES. 



A.D 

PhaTsaman VI 532 

Bakour IL 557 

Stephanos 1 568 

Gouraiii Pagratides 574 

Stephanos II 600 

Adamassus 614 

Stephanos in 639 

Moslem Invasion and 

Interregnum .... 635 
Mirman, or Mir .... 730 

Ai-tchilll 760 

Joannfi and Djou- 

ancher 781 



Mirian 265 

Bakhar 342 

Mirdatin 364 

Barsabakhar 379 

Tirdat 395 

Pharsaman rv. .... 405 

MirdatIV 408 

ArtchU 413 

Mirdat V 434 

Vakhtang 446 

Datehi 499 

BakoTir I. 528 

Pharsaman V 528 

DYNASTY OF Tl 



Achot 787 1 Davldl 845 

Bagrat I. 841 | Aternitch 881 

(After which the list is confused.) 

GrEOEGiA (United States) was founded 
and named after George II., by an English 
company in 1732. The Spaniards invaded 
Georgia in 1742. It became crown property 
in 1752, and the provincial legislature was 
established in 1755. Georgia joined the 
Confederacy in 1776, was occupied by the 
Enghsh from 1778 to 1786, and was one of 
the original states of the Union. Its con- 
stitution, framed in 1785, was remodelled in 
1798. 

Georgian or Tahitian Islands (Pacific), 
were discovered by WaUis in 1767. iSee 
Tahiti.) 

Geoegium Sidus.— William Herschel dis- 
covered this planet March 13, 1781, and 
named it Georgium Sidus in honour of 
George III. It has been called Herschel, 
and more generally Uranus. Two satellites 
were discovered in 1787, two in 1790, and 
two in 1794. 

Gerbeeoi (Battle) . — WiUiam I. was 
wounded in a battle fought at this place 
A.D. 1078. He engaged in a personal en- 
counter with his son Robert, who had joined 
Philip, king of France. The king's horse 
was kiUed, and his own life placed in great 
peril. 

Geegovia (France). — Vercingetorix 
defeated Caesar in an attempt to capture 
this city, belonging to the Avemi, b . c. 52. The 
modern Gergoie, near Clermont, occupies its 
site. 

Geemain- en-Late, St. (France) .—King 
Robert built the monastery of St. Germanus 
here in the 11th century. Louis VI. resided 
here in 1124. The English burnt the town in 
1346. A palace was built by Charles V. in 
1370. Francis I. rebuilt it, and it was im- 
proved by various sovereigns. It was the 
residence of James II. of England during 
his exile, from 1689 till his death, Sept. 6, 
1701. Here he held a mock court. 2^apo- 



GER 

leon I. established a military school at this 
town in 1809, and English troops were quar- 
tered in it in 1815. 
Geemanic Confedeeation. — {See CoN- 

FEDEEATION OP THE RhINE.) 

Geemano, San (Italy). — An agreement 
between the emperor Frederick II. and Pope 
Honorius was concluded at this Neapolitan 
town, in July, 1225. It deferred the crusade 
tUl August, 1227. Frederick II. concluded 
a humiliating treaty of peace with Pope 
Gregory IX. at this town, June 14, 1230. It 
was taken by the Spaniards in 1730 ; and the 
Austrians defeated Murat here March 16, 
1815. 

Geeman, San (Porto Rico) was founded 
in A.D. 1511. 

Germans, St. (Cornwall). — A bishop's see 
was founded here a.d. 909. The sees of 
Devon and Cornwall were united in 1040 and 
were fixed at Exeter in 1046. 

Geemantown (Battle). — The Enghsh de- 
feated the Ajnericans at this tovni, in Penn- 
sylvania, Oct. 4, 1777. 

Germany. — The Romans applied the term 
Germania to a much more extensive tract of 
coimtry than that at present known imder 
the name of Germany. It was occupied by 
various warlike tribes, the name itselt' mean- 
ing "man of war." 



113. The Cimbri and Tentones cross the Dannhe, 

appear npon the Alps, and defeat the 

Eomans at the buttle of Noreja, in lUyria. 

102. They are defeated by Marius, at Aquse Sextise. 

72. Ai'iovistus, king of the Marcomannic Suevi, 
seizes Burgundy 

55. Julius Caesar- builds a wooden bridge over the 
Rhine, and enters Germany. 

12-9. Drusus makes four incursions into Ger- 
many. 

A.D. 

9. The northern Germans, under Arminius, or 
Hermann, defeat the ai'my of Varus, in the 
Teutoburger forest. 
14. Germanicus invades Grermany. 
21. The Germans conspire against Arminius, and 

put him to death. 
50. Cologne is founded. 

69. The Batavians revolt under Claudius Civilis. 

86. The Germans, under Becerbal, defeat Domi- 

tian, and compel him to pay tribute. 

121. Hadrian constructs his wall from the Rhine 

to the Danube. 
180. The Romans withdraw from their garrisoiLS 

beyond the Danube. 
238. The Frauks appear in Gaul. 
288. The Saxon confederation is mentioned by 

Eutropius. 
375. The Huns invade Germany. 
409. The Alani, Suevi, and Vandals, pass into 

Spain. 
420. The Vandals pass into Africa. 

449. The Saxons, and other tribes, pass into 

England. 

450. The Huns invade Gaul. 

568. The Longobardi invade Italy. 

772. Charlemagne declai-es war against the Saxons. 

785. The Saxons promise submission, and receive 

Christianity. 
800. Dec. 25. Charlemagne is crowned emperor of 

the West. 
843. Aug. 11. By the treaty of Verdun, France 

and Gei-many are made separate states, 

the latter falling to the lot of Louis the 

German. 
896. The Germans, nnder Arnold, invade Rome, 

which they take by storm. 



GEE 



GEE 



1044 
1055. 
1073. 



1122. 

1140. 
1152. 



1154. 
1162. 
1167. 
1178. 

1180. 



1208. 

1215. 

1229. 
1241. 
1246. 

1247. 
1254. 



1273. 
1308. 



1325. 

1347. 



Louis the Child dies, which puts an end to 
the supremacy of the Carolingians in 
Germany. Conrad, duke of Franconia, is 
elected king in his stead, Nov. 8. 

Dec. Deathof Conrad I., who is succeeded by 
Henry I. of Saxony, eumamed the Fowler. 

Henry 1. defeats the Danes. 

Otho I. makes his brother Henry duke of 
Bavaria. 

Feb. 2. Otho I. is crowned emperor of Ger- 
many at Rome. 

Oct. 1. Otho II., the Red, invades France, 
and conquers Lorraine. 

Pope Benedict VIII. visits Germany. 

The kingdom of Burgundy is bequeathed to 
Conrad II. 

Peter of Hungary does homage to Henry III. 
for his kingdom. 

The eldest son of the emperor receives the 
title of king of the Romans. 

Hildebrand is elected pope, by the title of 
Gregory VII., without the sanction of the 
emperor Heniy IV., which occasions the 
dispute as to the right of investiture. 

Jan. Henry is compelled to submit to the 
pope, and do penance at Canossa. March. 
The pope elects Rodolph of Swabia em- 
peror. 

Rodolph is killed in battle, at Merseburg. 

March 21. Henry IV. takes Rome, and en- 
thrones Clement III. as pope. Gregory 
escapes to Salerno, where he dies the fol- 
lowing year. 

The dispute between the emperor and the 
pope respecting the right of investiture, 
is concluded by a treaty entered into at 
Worms. 

The names "Guelphs and Ghibellines" are 
fli.-st used as party names at the battle 
of Weinsberg. 

Frederick Barbarossa, duke of Swabia, is 
elected emperor at Frankfort. On the 
father's side he was connected with the 
Ghibelliaes, and on the mother's, with the 
Guelphs. 

Frederick I. invades Italy. 

He takes and destroys Milan. 

He besieges and takes Rome. 

Frederick I. is crowned king of Burgundy at 
Aries. 

He pronounces sentence of outlawry on 
Henry the Lion of Bavaria, who is de- 
prived of his dignities and possessions. 

June 10. Frederick I. is drowned while crossing 
the river Calycadnus, in Syria. The Teutonic 
order of knighthood is established. 

On the death of Henry VI., the Guelphs elect 
Otho IV., son of Henry the Lion, for 
emperor ; and the Ghibellines, Philip of 
Swabia. 

Philip is assassinated at Bamberg, and Otho 
is solemnly crowned sole emperor at Rome. 

Otho IV. is deposed, and Frederick II., son of 
Henry VI., elected in his stead. 

Frederick II. becomes king of Jerusalem. 

The Hanseatic League is signed. 

Frederick 11. is deposed by his subjects, who 
elect Henry of 'Thuringia. 

The League of the cities of the Rhine. 

The death of Conrad IV. produces a disputed 
succession and interregnum. 

Richard of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. 
of England, is elected emperor, but merely 
enjoys nominal dignity. 

Oct. 28. Conradin of Swabia, son of Coni-ad IV., 
is beheaded at Naples. 

Rodolph of Habsburg is elected emperor. 

May 1. Albert is assassinated by his nephew, 
John of Swabia. 

On the death of Henry' VII., the empire is 
contended for by Louis V. and Frederick of 
Austria. 
Frederick is associated in the empire. 

Gunther, count of Schwartzbui-g, disputes 
the throne with Charles IV., but dies the 
same year. 



1353. 
1356. 
1364. 



1483. 

1497. 
1514. 

1517. 

1519. 

1521. 



1546. 
1552. 
1556. 



1634. 
1648. 



1670. 
1674. 
1679. 



1702. 
1704. 



Germany is ravaged by the plague. 
Charles IV. signs the Golden Bull. 
The Tyrol passes under the house of Austria. 
The empire is divided into circles. 
Sigismund, king of Hungary, and Jossus, of 

Moravia, are elected emperors. Jossus dies 

the next year, and Sigismxmd reigns alone. 
The title of emperor is limited to the house 

of Austria, by the Pragmatic Sanction. 
Frederick IV. is besieged in Vienna, by his 

brother Albert, to whom he cedes Lower 

Austria for eight years. 
Nov. 10. Birth of Martin Luther, at Eisleben. 
Birth of Philip Melancthon. 
The Poor Conrad League originates in Wur- 

temberg. 
Oct. 31. Luther condemns indulgences, and 

thereby assists the Reformation. 
June 28. Charles V. of Spain is elected em- 
peror. 
AprU 17. Luther is excommunicated at the 

diet of Worms. 
March 13. The reformers are condemned by 

the diet of Spires. 
June 25. The reformers publish their con- 
fession of faith at Augsburg. 
The Protestant princes form the League of 

Smalcald, for the defence of religious 

liberty. 
Jmie 25. The Roman Catholics take Muuster 

from the Anabaptists, and execute John of 

Leyden and Knipperdolling. 
Feb. 13. Death of Martin Luther. June 26. 

The emperor declares war against the Smal- 
cald coufederates. 
July 31. The treaty of Passau is signed, by 

which the emperor withdraws his ban from 

the members of the League of Smalcald. 
Aug. 27. Charles V. abdicates in favour of his 

brother Ferdinand. 
Hungary is annexed to the empire. 
AprU 19. Death of Philip Melancthon. 
The Protestant princes form the League of 

Heidelberg. 
The Evangelical Fnion of the Protestants js 

formed by the elector palatine Pi-ederick. 
Nov. 1. The Thirty Years' war commences. 
Nov. 8. The battle of Prague is fought, ajid 

the elector palatine defeated. 
May 12. The treaty of Lubeck restores peace 

with Denmark. 
June 24. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 

invades Germany with 15,000 men. 
Nov. 16. Gustavus Adolphus dies victorious 

at Lutzen. 
Feb. 25. Wallenstein is assassinated by the 

imperialists. 
Oct. 24. The peace of Westphalia concludes 

the Thirty Years' war. 
The peimanent diet commences at Ratisbon. 
LoiTaine is ceded to France. 
War is declared with France. 
Feb. 5. The treaty of Nimeguen restores peace 

with France. 
Sept. 12. John Sobieski, king of Poland, 

compels the Turks to raise the siege of 

Vienna. 
War is renewed with France. 
The French invade Germany, and act with 

frightful cruelty. 
Oct. 30. Peace with France is restoi-ed by the 

treaty of Ryswick. 
Jan. 26. The treaty of Carlowitz is concluded 

with the Turks. 
Oct. 6. War is again declared against France. 
Aug, 13. The French are defeated at Blen- 



1713. AprU 11. The peace of Utrecht is signed. 

The emperor publishes the Pragmatic 

Sanction in favour of liis daughters. 
1717. Germany and HoUand suffer severely from 

inundations. 
1719. Bremen and Verdun are ceded to the elector 

of Brunswick. 
1733. The emperor and States join in the Polish 

war. 

377 



GER 



GER 



1736. 
1740. 



1756 
1772. 



1788. 
1789. 



1804 
1805. 
1806. 



1811. 
1813. 



1824. 
1830. 



1832. 
1841. 



Feb. 12. Marriage of Maria Theresa and the 
duke of Lorraine. 

Oct. 20. Death of the emperor Charles VI., 
who is succeeded by his daughter Maria 
Theresa, in virtue of the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion. 

Jan. 22. Charles VII., elector of Bavaria, is 
crowned emperor at Frankfort, in oppo- 
sition to the right of Maria Theresa. 

Jan. 20. Charles VII. dies at Muniuh. Sept. 15. 
The Stateselect Francis T., duke of Lorraine, 
and husband of Maria Theresa. 

The Seven Veal's' war commences. 

The empire receives an accession of territory 
on the first pai'tition of Poland. 

Important civil reforms are introduced, vas- 
salage and ecclesiastical censorship of the 
press being abolished. 

War is declared against Turkey. 

Oct. 22. The provinces of Brabant declare 
themselves independent of the empire. 

Aug. 4. Peace with Turkey is restored by the 
treaty of Szistowa. 

The Rhenish provinces revolt. 

The emperor joins in the second partition of 
Poland. 

Feb. 9. The treaty of peace of Luneville is 
signed with the French republic. 

Feb. 25. The diet sanctions the sacrifice of 
about one-seventh of the German empire, 
ceded by ihe congress at Eatist>on to 
various powers. 

Aug. 11. Francis II. of Gtermany assumes the 
title of emperor of Austria. 

Napoleon I. erects Bavaria and Wiirtemberg 
into independent kingdoms. 

July 12. The Confederation of the Rhine is 
formed. Aug. 18. Napoleon forms the 
kingdom of Westphalia. Dec. 15. The 
Germanic empire is dissolved. 

March 16. Hanover is annexed to Westphalia. 
Dec. 13. The whole of the north of Ger- 
many, from the Wesel to LUbeck, is annexed 
to France. The Tugendbund, a secret society 
against the French, is formed in Germany 
this year. 

Jan. 1. Hamburg is annexed to France. 

The war of German independence com- 
mences. 

Nov. 1. The congress of Vienna assembles. 

May 25. The congress of Vienna closes, 
having restored the German states to 
independence, though they are united by 
a federal league. Juue 8. The Genoanic 
Confederation is formed. 

A year of great commercial depression in 
Germany. 

Revolutions in Brunswick, Belgium, and 
Saxony {q. v.). 

Death of the poet Goethe. 

Jan. Insurrections occur in Argovia and 
Soleure. 

Popular agitation in He?se-Gassel, Saxony, 
Bavaria, and Hanover, where various con- 
cessions are made to the people. March 31. 
A congi-ess assembles at Frankfort. May 18. 
The German parliamentassembles. July 12. 
The Arctiduke John of Austria is elected 
vicar of the empire. Aug. 4. The Frank- 
fort diet abolishes capital punishment. 

March 28. The king of Pinissia is elected 
emperor of Germany. April 3. He de- 
clines to accept the title. May 14 The 
Prussian deputies are recalled from the 
Frankfort assembly. May 30. Part of the 
assembly removes from Frankfort to Stutt- 
gardt. Sept. 30. Prussia and Austria con- 
clude a treaty for the temporary establish- 
ment of a central government. Nov. 12. 
Austria protests against the alliance of 
Prussia with the German states. 

Feb. 27. The treaty of Munich is signed, by 
which Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, and 
Austria, agree to a revision of the Ger- 
man Confederation. March 20. The parlia- 
ment assembles at Erfurt, 

378 



1851. 
1854. 



May 10. The diet assembles at Frankfort. 
June 7. Hesse-Cassel refuses to send a re- 
presentative to th« college of princes at 
Erfurt. June 20. Hesse- Darmstadt with- 
draws from the Prussian league. July 19. 
Austria proposes the convocation of the 
federal assembly. Sept. 2. It assembles at 
Fi-ankfort. Nov. 1. Austria invades Hesse- 
Cassel {g v.). Dec. 23. A conference on 
German affairs is opened at Dresden. 

May 15. The Dresden conferences conclude 
their sessions with a resolution to restore 
the old Frankfort diet. 

Jan. 13 and April 9. Protocols are signed 
between the western powers and the 
German states. 

Jan. 15. Conferences respecting the adoption 
of a general comiLercia' code by the Ger- 
man states are opened at Nuremberg. 

July 17. A meeting of the democratic and 
constitutional parties is held at Eisenach, 
where it is proposed to revise the consti- 
tution of the confederation, and appoint 
a central power under the direction of 
Prussia. Auk. 14. Another meeting is 
held at Eisenach. Sept. 13. Prussia dis- 
sents from the proposition. Sept. 16. An 
association is founded at Frankfort for 
the furtherance of the Eisenach plan. 
Nov. 3. The government of Baden suggests 
the establishment of a federal tribunal for 
the settlement of disputes between the 
Germanic states. 

Jan. 29. Deatb of Ernest Maui'ice Amdt. 
March 54. Ihe diet opposes Piussia re- 
specting the constitution of Hesse-Caaae). 
April 29 to May 17. A solemn coimcil of 
German ecclesiastics is held at Cologne. 
June 16. The German princes have an 
interview with the emt<eror Napoleon III. 
at Baden-Baden. 

May 31. The Federal Assembly adopts a pro- 
ject for a code of commerce for (Jermany. 

SOVEEEIGNS OF GEBMANY. 
CAftOLINGIAirS. 

Charlemagne. 

Louis I. , le Dfebonnaire. 

Lothaire I. 

Louis II., the German, king. 

Ditto ditto emperor. 

( Charles II., the Bald. 
< Carloman. 
I Louis III. , the Saxon. 
Charles IIL, the Fat, king. 

Ditto ditto emperor. 

Arnold I., king. 

Ditto emperor. 
Louis IV., the Child. 



HOUSE OF FKANCOlflA. 
A.D. 

911. Conrad L 



HOCrSE OV SAXONY. 
A.D. 

919. Henry I., the Fowler. 
936. Otho I., the Great, king. 
962. Ditto ditto emperor. 
973. Otho IL 
983. Otho III. 
1002. Henry II., the Holy. 



HOUSE OF FKANCONIA. 
A.D. 

1024. Conrad II., the Saliqne. 

1039. Henry III., the Black. 

1056. Henry IV. 

1077. Rodolph of Swabia (elected by the pope). 

1081. Herman of Luxemburg (elected by the 

pope). 
1087. Coni-ad. 
1106. Henry V. 



GER 

H0U3E OF SAXONY. 
A.D. 

1125. Lothaire II. 

HOUSE OF SWABIA, OR HOHENSTATJFBN. 
A.D. 

1138. Conrad in. 

1152. Fiederick I., Barbarosaa. 

1190. Henry VI. 

,,Q» /Philip. 

■'^'"- X Otho IV., of Brunswick. 

1208. Otho IV., alone., 

1215. Frederick II. 

124!). Heniy of Thurlngia. 

1247. William of Holland (choseu by the pope). 

1250. Conrad IV. 

INTERREGirUM, 
A.D. 

1254. William of Holland, merely nominal. 
,„-- /Richard of Cornwall, ditto. 
■^'^^'- (.Alphonso of CastUe, ditto. 

HOUSE OF HABSBUBG. 



1273. Bodolph of Habsburg. 
1292. Adolpnus of Nassau. 
1298. Albert L, of Austria. 



HOUSES OF LUXEMBURG AITO BAVARIA. 
A.D. 

1308. Heniy VII., of Luxemburg. 

Til A /Louis v., of Bavaria. 

•^^^'*-|. Frederick of Austria. 

,„.- /Charles IV., of Luxemburg. 

I6ii. I (junther, count of Schwartzburg. 

1378. Weuceslaus of Luxembm-g. 

1400. Robert, count palatine. 

, .,„ / Jossus of Moravia. 

•^ "'•(.Sigismund of Luxemburg. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, 
A.D. 

1438. Albert II. 

1439. Frederick IIL 
1493. Maximilian I. 
1519. Charles V. 
1556. Ferdinand I. 
1564. Maximilian II. 
1576. Rodolph II. 
1612. Matthias. 
1619. Ferdinand II. 
1637. Ferdinand III. 
1658. Leopold I. 
1705. Joseph I. 
1711. Charles VL 

1742. Charles VII., of Bavaria. 



HOUSB OF AUSTRIA— lORKAINB. 
A.D. 

1745. Francis L 
1765. Joseph II. 
1790. Leopold IL 
1792. Francis II. 

Gebona, or GiEONA (Spain), is of very 
early origin, and was taken from the Moors 
by Charlemagne a.d. 785. The bishopric 
was established in 786, and in 795 the town 
was recovered by the Moors. In 1285 it 
was seized by Phihp III. of France, who 
was compelled to surrender it to Peter of 
Aragon. The cathedral was rebuilt in 1316. 
Gerona was taken by the French in 1694, 
but restored to Spain by the peace of Eys- 
wick, Sept. 20, 1697. In the war of the 
Spanish succession, it was taken by the duke 
de Noaillea for King PhiHp V., Jan. 25, 1711. 
In June, 1808, it was besieged by 6,000 
French under Duhesme, who was compelled 



GHI 

to retire by the Ulster regiment of 300 men, 
commanded by O'Daly. In May, 1809, a 
French army of 35,000 men, under Verdier, 
Augereau, and St. Cyr, laid siege to the city, 
which maintained a brave resistance until 
famine compelled the defenders to capitu- 
late, Dec. 12, 1809. Councils were held at 
Gerona in 517 and 1068. 

Gbrxbutdenbeeg (HoUand).— Con- 
ferences for the conclusion of a general 
peace were opened at the village of Gertruy- 
denberg, March 11, 1710. They led to no 
definite result, and were broken off July 20. 
Dumouriez captured Gertruydenberg in 
March, 1793, but was soon after compelled 
to retire. The French took it again in 
1795. 

Ghazeepobe (Hindostan) .—This town and 
the adjoining territory were ceded to the 
East-India Company a.d. 1775. 

Ghent (Belgium). — This fine old city is 
said to have been founded by the Vandals, 
who made an irruption into the Low Coun- 
tries in the 5th century. 

A.D. 

630. St. Amaud introduces Christianity into 

Ghent. 
879. It is ravaged by the Danes. 
944. The cathedral of St. Bavon is founded. 
938. The art of weaving is introduced. 

1053. The city is fortified. 

1180. Ghent is made the capital of Flanders. 

1182. The belfry tower is erected. 

1234. The grand B6guinage is founded. 

1344. Jaciiues van Artevelde's insurrection is sup- 
pressed, and he is killed. 

1379. Philip van Artevelde commences his insur- 
rection. 

1480. The HOtel de Ville is commenced. 

1539. Ghent rebels against Chailes V., who sup- 
presses the insurrection with great severity 
the following year. 

1559. The bishopric is founded. 

1576. Nov. 8. The "Pacification of Ghent," by 
which the provinces of Holland unite 
against Spain, is signed in the town-hall. 

1584. Sept. 17. Ghent surrenders to the Spaniards. 

1678. March 9. It is taken by Louis XIV. of Fiance. 

1706. It is taken by the duke of Marlborough. 

1774. The greac pi-ison is commenced by Maria 
Theresa. 

1793. The French again seize Ghent, and make it 
the capital of the department of the 
Scheldt. 

1814 Ghent is annexed to the kingdom of the 
Netherlands. Bee. 24. The English con- 
clude a peace with the United States at 
Ghent. 

1816. The university is founded by William I., king 
of Holland. 

1830. The city forms part of the new kingdom of 
Belgium. 

1838. Sept. 2. The railway to Ostend is opened. 

Ghebiah (Hindostan). — The Mahrattas 
seized this fortress in the 17th century, and 
the pirate Angria made it his stronghold 
in 1705. Angria and his fleet were destroyed 
by Watson and Chve, Feb. 11, 1756. The 
Enghsh exchanged it by treaty in the 
same year, for other places, and it came 
into the possession of the East-India Com- 
pany in 1818. 

Ghibellines and GTrEiPHS.— On the 

death of Lothaire II., emperor of Germany, 

A.D. 1138, Conrad, duke of Franconia, son 

of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, duke of 

379 



GHI 

Swabia and lord of Wiblingen, which by 
corruption became Ghibelline, was elected 
his successor. His right to the imperial 
throne was, however, disputed by Henry the 
Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and 
nephew of Guelph II., duke of Bavaria, who 
was in consequence declared outlaw, and 
shortly after died. His adherents transferred 
their allegiance to his son Henry the Lion, 
at that time a boy of ten years old, and the 
whole empire was divided into the partisans 
of Conrad, who assumed the name of Ghi- 
beUines. and those of Henry, or the Guelphs. 
These titles were first used at the battle of 
Weinsberg in 1140. The strife between the 
two parties soon subsided in Germany, but 
it continued longer in Italy, where it assumed 
the importance of open warfare in 1159. 
The titles were transferred to the factions by 
which that country was harassed, the sup- 
porters of the popes being termed Guelphs, 
and those of the emperors, Ghibellines. 
Charles of Anjou expelled the Ghibellines 
from Italy in 1268 ; but the contest between 
the two factions was not rehnquished until 
the French invasion in 1495 united them 
against a common enemy. 

Ghizni, or Ghuznee (Afghanistan), was 
an important city a.d. 957, when it formed 
the capital of a powerful empire. In 1171 
it was Durned to the ground by Saheb ud 
DeenMohammedGhori, audit never regained 
its former prosperity. Ghizni surrendered 
to a British force under Sir John Keane, 
July 23, 1839. The English were compelled 
to restore it to the Affghans, March 1, 
1842, but it was retaken by General Nott, 
Sept. 6. 

GiBKALTAE (Spain) . — This rock was known 
to the Phoenicians by the name Alube, which 
the Greeks altered to Calpe. 



711. April 30 (Thursday). Gebal Tarik, the Moor, 
lands at Gibraltai-, and commences the 
subjugation of Spain. 

1309. Gibraltar is taken from the Moors by Guzman 
el Bueno. 

1333. The Moors recapture it. 

1462. It is filially taken by the Spaniards. 

1502. It is incorporated with Spain. 

13,52. Charles V. strengthens the fortifications. 

1704. July 21. The combined English and Dutch 

fleets arrive at Gibraltar. July 23. They 
open fire ou the citadel, which surrenders 
July 24. Oct. 11. The Spaniards, under 
the marquis de Villadarias, lay siege to the 
garrison. 

1705. March 10. Admiral Sir John Leake compels 

the Spaniards to raise the siege. The 
Spanish loss duinng this attempt was 
about 10,000 men, whUe the garrison only 
lost 400. 

1713. Apiil 11. Gibraltar is secured to Great Britain 
by the treaty of Utrecht. 

1720. The Spaniards make an abortive eflFort to 
recapture it. 

1727. Jan. 20. The Spaniards blockade it without 
success. Feb. 22. They open fire on the 
gan-ison. June 12. They discontinue the 
attack. 

1773. The king's bastion is erected. 

1779. July 16. The grand siege is commenced by the 
Spaniards blocking up the port. 

1782. M'iy 14 The Spaniards commence their float- 
ing batteries. 
380 



GIN 



1782. Sept. 13. The grand attack is made by 

the combined French aud Spanish fleets 
and ten floating batteries, which are 
destroyed by fire, and completely re- 
pulsed. 

1783. Feb. 5. The blockade is discontinued. 
1793. The library is founded. 

1801. July 7. The Hannibal, 74 guns, surrenders to 
the French. July 12. Sir J. Saumarez, 
with a fleet of five men-of-war and a frigate, 
attacks the French and Spanish fleets off 
Gibraltar, blowing up two Spanish ships 
of 112 guns each, and capturing one of 74 
guns. 

1804. Sept. The town is ravaged by pestilence. 

1813. Sept. 5. The fever again appears. 

1828. Sept. 1. The fever again rages. 

GiEssEN (Germany). — A university was 
founded in this ancient town a.d. 1607. An 
indecisive action was fought near Giessen, 
between the aUies and the French, Sept. 13, 
1796. Blucher fixed his headquarters here 
in Nov. 1813. 

GlLBEETIlTES, Or OeDEE OF SeMPEINGHAM. 

— This order of monks and nuns was founded 
A.D. 1131, by St. Gilbert, priest of Sempring- 
ham, in Lincolnshire, who died in 1189. The 
order possessed twenty-two monasteries in 
England. 

Gilding. — The art of covering wood or 
stone with plates of gold is of great anti- 
quity, and was employed by Moses in the con- 
struction of the tabernacle (Exod. xxv. 11), 
B.C. 1491. The art of gilding with gold-leaf 
was known to the Egyptians, who employed 
it in the decoration of their idols and 
mummy-cases, and was also practised in 
Greece; whence it was conveyed to Eome 
about the year b.c. 183. Gilding with gold- 
leaf on vol-armoniac was invented in Italy 
by Margaritore, a.d. 1273 ; and gold varnish 
was discovered by Antonino Cento, of Pa- 
lermo, in 1680. Elkington's patent for gild- 
ing copper or brass by means of potash and 
soda, combined with carbonic acid and with 
a solution of gold, was obtained in June, 
1836. (See Electeottpe.) 

Gin Act.— By 9 Geo. II. c. 23 (1736), 
every retailer of spirituous Uquor in less 
quantity than two gallons was obliged to pay 
£50 a year for a license, and a duty of 20s. 
on every gallon sold. 

Gingee (Hindostan). — This fortress, in 
the Carnatic, was founded a.d. 1442. In 1669 
it passed into the hands of the Moham- 
medans of Bejapour, who retained it tiU 
1677, when it was seized by the Mahrattas. 
In 1698 it was captured by the imperial 
general Zulficar Khan, and in 1715 by Saadet 
Oolla Khan. The French, under Bussy, 
took it in 1750; and it surrendered to the 
British April 5, 1761. 

GiNGEK was formerly collected in Egypt, 
and sold by weight to Europeans. By 
12 Charles II. c. 18 (1660), the exportation 
of ginger from British colonies to any foreign 
country was prohibited ; but, in 1765, large 
quantities were allowed to be exported to 
Holland. By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47 (July 9, 
1842), the duty on ginger was ten shiUings 
I per hundred-weight if imported from a 



GIR 

foreign country, and five shillings per 
hundredweight if from a British colony/, 

GiEAFFE, or Camelopaed. — This animal, 
found in Africa, was known to the ancient 
Egyptians. Julius Caesar was the first to 
exhibit it in Italy. A giraffe was sent as a 
present to Frederick II. of Germany (1215 — 
1250). A giraffe belonging to Lorenzo de' 
Medici was a great favourite with the inha- 
bitants of Florence, towards the end of the 
loth century. No living giraffe was seen in 
Europe for more than three centuries. The 
first brought to England aMve was in Aug. 
1827. It died in 1829. Four were exhi- 
bited in the Zoological Society's gardens in 
1836. 

GiKONDiSTS. — A pohtieal party, during 
the great French revolution, was so named 
because its leading members were deputies 
for the department of the Gironde. It was 
composed of the more moderate repubUcans, 
and numbered amongst its members Verg- 
niaud, Brissot, Ducot, Condorcet, Petion, 
and many others, who played a conspicuous 
part in the history of the times. The 
Girondists at first were the dominant party 
in the Assembly ; but, owing to their disgust 
at the massacres of August and September, 
1792, they rendered themselves obnoxious 
to the Montagnards, who procured the 
arrest of twenty-two of their chief members, 
June 2, 1793. These prisoners were con- 
fined in the Conciergerie, and executed 
Oct. 3. 

GisoBS (Battle). — An indecisive battle was 
fought at this town, in !tf ormandy, between 
the French and English, Oct. 28, 1197. 
Eichard I. defeated a French force near 
Gisors, Sept. 20, a.d. 1198. The Enghsh 
watchword on the occasion was " Dieu et 
mon droit," which Eichard assumed as his 
motto, in honour of the victory, and which 
remains the motto of the Enghsh sovereigns. 
WiUiam II. erected a fortress at Gisors in 
1097. 

GiuKGEVO (Wallachia) was taken by the 
Eussians in 1771, and attacked by the Aus- 
trians in 1790. Its fortifications were demo- 
lished in 1829, and the Eussians failed in an 
attempt to storm the Turkish camp here, 
July 23, 1854. 

Gladiatoes. — Gladiatorial combats are 
beheved to have originated in the ancient 
custom of sacrificing prisoners of war at the 
funerals of celebrated warriors. Homer and 
Virgil both allude to this practice. The first 
gladiators exhibited at Eome fought at a 
funeral, b.c. 264, when only three pairs of 
combatants were engaged. The revolt of 
the gladiators under Spartacus broke out 
B.C. 76, and lasted for three years, when it 
was suppressed by M. Crassus. The largest 
number of gladiators ever sacrificed at one 
show is supposed to have been on the occa- 
sion of Trajan's triumph over the Dacian 
chief Decebalus, a.d. 103, when no less 
than 5,000 pairs of combatants were matched 
against each other. Constantine I. passed a 
law prohibiting gladiators, in 325, in the 
Eastern empire; but at Eome they continued 



GLA 

until they were finally suppressed by Hono- 
rius in 404. 

Glamoegaw (Wales). — This county was 
reduced under the Eoman sway by Juhua 
Frontinus, who was governor of Britain 
A.D. 75. In 440 the Eomans abandoned it 
to the native princes, and in 1066, at the 
Conquest, it was conferred by Wihiam I. on 
his relation Fitzhamon. In 1107 the district 
passed into possession of the duke of Glou- 
cester. It was erected into a county in the 
reign of Henry YIII. 

Glaeis, or Glaeus (Switzerland). — 
Christianity was first preached here by an 
Irish monk, named Fridolin, a.d. 490. Ori- 
ginally the town and canton of Glaris be- 
longed to the convent of Seckingen, but in 
1299 they were seized by the house of 
Habsburg. In 1352 the inhabitants joined 
the Helvetic confederation, and in 1388 they 
gained their independence by defeating the 
Austrians at Nafels. Glaris received its 
constitution in 1836. 

Glasgow (Lanarkshire). — The period at 
which this city was founded is unknown. 



1123. The present cathedral, or high chureh, is 

commenced. 
1180. Glasgow is erected into a royal burgh. 
1268, The town is governed by a provost and 

bailies. 
1330, The plagiie first appears at Glasgow. 
1345. Bishop Rae builds Stirkwell Street bridge. 
1387. The spire of the cathedral is destroyed by 

lightning. 
1392. A mint is established. 
1441. St. Enoch's church is founded. 

1450. James 11. grants a charter. 

1451. The university is founded. 
1484. The Tron church is founded. 

1556. The town is pillaged by James Hamilton, 
earl of Arran. 

1638. The first printing-press is established by 
George Anderson. 

1677. A great fire destroys 130 houses and shops. 

1715. The Glasgow Courant, the first newspaper in 
the west of Scotland, is commenced this 
year. 

1725, Jan. 25. The Shawfield riot breaks out. on 
account of the malt tax. The cotton manu- 
facture is introduced this year. 

1736. The Town -hall and Assembly-rooms are 
founded. 

1742. Calico-printing is introduced. 

1753. The first circulating library in the west of 
Scotland is estabUsDed at Glasgow. 

1756. St. Andrew's chui-ch is completed. 

1764. The theatre is opened. 

1782. April 16. The theatre is destroyed by fixe. 

1785. Jan. The Buulop .Street theatre is opened. 

1795. May 7. The Andersonian University is 

founded. 

1796. The Trades'-hall is erected. 

1805. AprQ 24. The Queen Street theatre is 

opened. 
1807. The goal is founded. 
1818. The town is visited by severe typhxa fever. 

Sept. 5. The first gaslight is introduced. 
1819 and 1820. Great commercial depression. 

1823. The Mechanics' Institute is founded. 

1824. Dec. 25. The Bridewell is opened. 

1829. Jan. 10. The Queen Street theatre is burnt. 
The Royal Exchange is built this year. 

1832. Feb. 12. The cholera appears in Glasgow. 

1833. Sept. 3. The new Bromielaw bridge is founded 

with great ceremonies. 
1840. Sept. 24. The British Association meet at 

Glasgow. 
1844. The duke of Wellington's statue is erected. 



GLA 



A,D. 

1849. Feb. 17. A false alarm of fire in the theatre 
occasions a panic, in which sixty-five per- 
sons are crushed to death. 

1854. Sept. 6. The statue of the Queen is inau- 

gvirated. 

1855. Sept. 12. The British Association meets at 



1859. Oct. 14. The Queen opens the new water- 

works at Loch Katrine. 

1860. Nov. The empress of the French visits 

Glasgow. 

GiASGOw, (See of,) is said to have been 
founded by Kentigrern, or St. Mungo, a.d. 
560. It subsequently fell into neglect, having 
been destroyed, as is supposed, by the Danes, 
and was refounded by David, prince of Cum- 
berland, in 1115. In 1488 it was erected into 
an archbishopric, which was suppressed on the 
aboUtion of episcopacy in Scotland, July 22, 
1689. Glasgow became a post-revolution 
bishopric in 1724. 

Glasites, or SANDEHAifiAH-s.— This sect 
was founded by John Glas, minister of Teal- 
ing, near Dundee. In 1728 he was deposed 
for heterodoxy by the synod of Angus, and 
consequently founded a distinct sect about 
1730. In 1755 his opinions were embraced 
by Kobert Sandeman, who removed to Lon- 
don in 1760, and after founding a congrega- 
tion, sailed for America in 1764. This sect 
receives the Holy Supper weekly, and retains 
the ancient feasts of charity, or Agapae ; they 
abstain from things strangled, and from 
blood, and wash each other's feet. In 1851 
they numbered six congregations in England. 

Glass. — The probable inventors of glass 
were the Phceniciaus, who are said by Pliny 
to have discovered its manufacture from the 
accidental fusion of sand and nitre in a fire 
lighted by some sailors on the seashore. It 
was brought to great perfection by the Sido- 
nians. The glass most esteemed in anti- 
quity seems to have been that made by the 
Hindoos. Considerable skiU in its prepar- 
ation was shoAvn by the Egyptians, who 
practised the art of staining glass as early as 
B.C. 11-50. Vessels of glass have been dis- 
covered in the buried city of Herculaneum, 
which was overwhelmed by an erruption of 
Vesuvius, A.D. 79, and the celebrated Port- 
land vase is another specimen of Roman 
glass ware. It was discovered in the tomb of 
Alexander Severus, who died a.d. 285. 
There is no certain evidence that glass 
was employed in windows before the 3rd 
or 4th century. Jerome refers to their use 
in 422. They were first introduced into 
England by the abbot Benedict Biscop, 
who brought a number of Prench glass 
n[ianufacturers to aid in the decoration 
of Wearmouth church and monastery, 
in 674. At first the use of the article 
was entirely confined to rehgious edifices, 
and it was not till the 14th century that 
it was in sufficient demand to create a 
distinct business for its sale. The first 
notice of a glazier occurs in a contract 
respecting York cathedral, of the year 
1338. "Window glass of an inferior kind 
was made in England before the year 1439. 



GLE 

The finer sorts were not manufactured 
till 1557, when a glass-house was estabhshed 
at Crutched Friars, London. Plate glass 
was first made in England at Lambeth, by 
some Venetian workmen in the employ of 
the diike of Buckingham. The first glass 
manufactory in America was estabhshed 
in New Hampshire in 1790. British sheet 
glass was first manufactured by Messrs. 
Chances, of West Bromwich, and Messrs, 

Hartley & Co., of Sunderland, in 1832. 

An excise duty on glass was first imposed by 
6 & 7 WiU. & Mary, c. 18 (1695). This wiis 
repealed by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 45 (1698), 
and 10 & 11 Will. III. c. 18 (1699). It was 
re-estabUshed by 19 Geo. II. t. 12 (1745), 
and after successive augmentations was 
finally abohshed by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 6 (April 24, 
1845). 

GLASTONBrKT (Somersetshire) . — Accor- 
ding to monkish tradition, the earliest 
Christian church in Britain was founded 
here by St. Joseph of Arimathea, about 
A.D, 63. On the death of its founder it is 
reported to have fallen into decay, until 
Pope Eleutherus, in 186, dispatched Phaganus 
and Diruvianus, wbo converted King Lucius 
to Christianity, and afterwards established 
themselves in the long-neglected foundation 
of St. Joseph. Ina, king of Wessex, 
erected a church at Glastonbury about 719, 
and Edwy expelled the ambitious Dunstan 
from the abbacy, which he had enjoyed for 
twenty-two years, in 956. In 1081 there 
was a serious quarrel between the abbot 
Turstin and the monks, which resulted in 
the death of several of the latter. The 
chapel of St. Joseph of Arimathea, of which 
the ruins stiU exist, was built by the abbot 
Herlewin, who governed the abbey from 
1101 to 1120. In 1184 the town and abbey 
were consumed by fire, and in September, 
1275, the chapel of St. Michael was over- 
thrown by an earthquake, Edward III., 
and his queen Philippa, were magnificently 
entertained here by the monks in 1331, and 
Eichard Whiting, the last abbot, was hanged 
ontheTor-hill, for opposing the Eeformation, 
Nov. 15, 1539. The monastery was sup- 
pressed in 1540, and has since fallen into 
decay. 

Glatz (Prussia) was besieged and occu- 
pied by Henry III. of Germany in 1049. 
In 1114 it was seized by the Poles, in 
1421 by the Hussites, and in 1462 it was 
erected into a county by Frederick III. 
In 1561 it was annexed to Bohemia; the 
Austrians besieged it in 1622, and in 1742 it 
was taken by the Prussians and incorpo- 
rated with their territories. The Austrians 
took Glatz in 1759, and the Bavarians and 
Wiirtembergers in 1807. 

Glencoe (Argyleshire) was the scene of 
the atrocious massacre of a tribe of the 
Macdonalds by the regiment of Campbell of 
Glenlyon. The Jacobite Highlanders having 
shown great reluctance to submit to the 
rule of Wilham & Mary, a proclamation was 
issued, promising pardon to all who should 
tender their submission before Jan. 1, 1692. 



GLE 

Many of the chiefs acceded to the demands 
made upon them. Macdonald, or Mac Ian, 
of Grlencoe, repaired to Fort William, 
Dec. 31, 1691, and offered submission ; but 
the governor was not authorized to receive 
it. He furnished the chief with a letter to 
the sheriff of Inverary, who received his oath 
of allegiance Jan. 6, 1692. The Macdonalds 
had, however, rendered themselves offensive, 
and William III. issued a warrant for the ex- 
tirpation of the tribe. A troop of 120 men, 
led by Captain Campbell, accordingly en- 
tered the valley Feb. 1, and on the pretext 
that they merely required quarters, were 
hospitably received by the inhabitants. 
They lived together in friendly intercourse 
tiU five o'clock in the morning of Saturday, 
Feb. 12, when the massacre was perpetrated 
under circumstances of shocking and infamous 
treachery. Owing to the boisterous weather 
and the blundering arrangements of the 
assassins, about three-fourths of the tribe 
escaped. 'No judicial inquiry into this crime 
was made tiU May 23, 1695, when a com- 
mission was nominated. The commission- 
ers made some statement June 10, when 
Bredalbane was arrested on a charge of 
treason. The report was declared to be 
finished June 20, and was laid before the 
House June 24. Bredalbane was set at 
liberty without trial, and William III. paid 
no attention whatever to the recommenda- 
tions of the commission. 

Glendaloch (See of). — This Irish bishop- 
ric was founded by St. Keivin, who resigned 
it A.D. 612, after a very long occupation. In 
1192, King John ordered the see to be united 
to Dublin on its next avoidance, and the 
union consequently took place in 1214. 

Glenlivat (Battle) . — The Eoman Catholic 
party in Scotland, assisted by France and 
Spain, defeated the adherents of James VI., 
afterwards James I. of England, at this 
place, A.D. 1594. 

Globe Theatee (London). — This theatre, 
situated in Bankside, Southwark, was the pro- 
perty of Shakespeare and his fellow-actors. 
It was built in 1594, the exterior plan being 
hexagonal, and the interior circular, while the 
roof was open. It was destroyed by a fire, 
occasioned by the accidental ignition of 'the 
thatch by some ordnance, discharged during 
a performance of Henry VIII., June 29, 
1613 ; but it was soon rebuilt, at the expense 
of King James and the nobUity. The theatre 
Aras finally pulled down on Monday, April 15, 
1644. 

Gloucester (Gloucestershire) . — This city, 
called by the Romans Clevum or Glevum, is 
of great antiquity, though the precise period 
of its foundation is unknown. It submitted 
to the Romans about a.d. 45, and on their 
departure became the principal city of the 
Britons, who surrendered it to the West 
Saxons in 577. In 679 it was enlarged and 
beautified by a son of King Penda. St. 
Peter's Abbey, the present cathedral, was 
commenced by Wulfere, king of Mercia, 
about 671, and restored by Aldred, bishop of 
Worcester, in 1058 j andin 1087, and June 17, 



GNO 

1264, the town suffered severely from fire, a 
calamity to which its wooden houses fre- 
quently exposed it. This city was incor- 
ported by Henry III. The statutes of Glou- 
cester were passed Oct. 4, 1278. The siege 
of the city by the royahsts under Charles I. 
and the earl of Brentford commenced 
Aug. 10, 1643, and lasted till Sept. 5, when 
the earl of Essex brought relief. The 
walls were demohshed in 1662, and in 1673 
the city received its chief charter from 
Charles II. The infirmary was founded in 
1755, the market-house in 1786, and the gaol 
in 1791. The Gloucester and Berkeley Canal, 
commenced in 1794, was not completed 
till 1826. The town-haU was erected in 
1814. 

Gloucester (See of) . — This see was sepa- 
rated from the diocese of Worcester by a 
charter of Henry VIII., dated Sept. 3, 1541. 
The see of Bristol was united with it by an 
order in council, Oct. 5, 1836, and the diocese 
styled the diocese of Gloucester and Bristol. 

Gloves. — In the classical aera gloves were 
worn by archers, husbandmen, and others, as 
a protection from accidents, to which their 
pursuits rendered them Kable. They were 
first distinguished by pairs about the year 
814, and were introduced into this country 
in the 10th or 11th century. Stevens, in his 
"Notes on Shakspeare," remarks, it was "the 
custom to wear gloves in the hat on three 
distinct occasions; viz., as the favour of a 
mistress, the memorial of a friend, and as a 
mark to be challenged by an enemy," and 
instances of their use for these purposes are 
common in the writers of the 15th and 16th 
centuries. White wedding gloves are men- 
tioned by Dekker in 1599, and at a wedding 
in 1604 the gloves given to the guests cost 
nearly £1,000. The Glovers' Company was 
incorporated Sept. 10, 1639. The importa- 
tion of gloves was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. 
c. 4 (1463), and 6 Geo. III. c. 19 (1766). The 
restriction was removed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 105, 
s. 119 (July 5, 1825) . 

GLUciifiuM, the metaUic base of glueina, 
was discovered by VauqueHn a.d. 1798. The 
metal was first obtained by Wohler in 1823, 

Glxjckstadt (Denmark). — This tovra was 
founded a.d. 1619, and fortified in 1620 by 
Christian IV. In 1628 it successfully resisted 
a siege by TiUy, and in 1643 Torstenson failed 
in an attempt to take it. A supreme court 
of justice for Holstein and Sleswig was 
established here in 1752. The fortifications 
were demohshed in 1814, and it was declared 
a free port in 1830. 

Gltceeine. — This substance was disco- 
vered by Scheele in 1779, and termed by him 
the " sweet principle of oUs." It is obtained 
in the manufacture of soap and pahn candles, 
and is employed as a material for soap and 
in medicine. 

Gnesna (Posen).— Otho III. made this 
place the seat of an archbishopric a.d. 1000. 

Gnostics. — This sect of heretics is said by 
some to have been founded by Simon Magus, 
whom St. Peter rebuked in Samaria, a.d. 33 
(Acts viii. 20—24). Gnostic doctrines be- 



GOA 

came very general about the year 81. In 
122, Basilides and Satuminus founded new 
■sects in Syria, and in 140 one was founded 
at Eome by Yalentinus. The heresy reached 
its height about 150, after which period it 
gradually dechned, though some scattered 
sects continued to exist as late as 390. 

GrOA (Hindostan).— This city of Bejapoor 
was wrested from the Hindoo rajah by 
the Mohammedan sovereign of the Deccan 
about A.D. 1469. In 1510 it was taken by 
Albuquerque, who made it the capital of the 
Portuguese possessions in the East. Bloodless 
revolutions in the constitution were effected 
in 1821 and 1822. 

Gobelin Tapestet is manufactured at 
the estabhshment founded by Colbert at 
Paris, A.D. 1662, and named in honour of 
the celebrated tapestry -makers, the brothers 
Gobelin. The manufactory was under the 
management of the painter Lebrun from 
1662 to 1690, and of late years M. Chevreul 
has introduced several improvements in 
design and colour. 

GoDEKiCH Admikisteation. — On 
the death of Mr. Canning, Aug. 8, 1827, 
Lord Goderich became prime minister, 
with the under-mentioned associates in the 
cabinet :-^ 



Treasury Lord Goderich. 

liord Chancellor Lord Lyndburst. 

Pi-esident of the Council . . Duke of Portland. 

Privy Seal Eail of Carlisle. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . . Mr. HeiTies. 

Home Secretary Marquis of Lansdowne. 

Foreign Secretary Lord Dudley and Ward. 

Colonial Secretary Mr. Huskisson. 

Board of Control Mr. C. W. Wyun. 

Secretary at War Lord Palmerston. 

Board of Trade .Mr. C. Grant. 

Chancellor of the Duchy | j^ord Bexley. 

of Lancaster J 

Master of the Mint Mr. Tiemey. 

Woods and Forests Mr. S. Bourne. 



Mr. Huskisson resigned the colonial secre- 
taryship Jan. 7, 1828, and dissensions having 
broken out in the cabinet. Lord Goderich 
himself resigned Jan. 8. 1828. {See Wel- 
lington Administeation.) 

GoDFATHEES AND GoDMOTHEES. — Tradi- 
tion refers the origin of godfathers and 
godmothers to Bishop Hyginus, about a.d. 
154, though some authors endeavour to derive 
the office from the Jewish rites or the Roman 
civil codes. Parents were prohibited from 
acting as sponsors for their children by the 
Council of Mentz in 813. The number of 
sponsors was limited to one or two, at the 
most, by the Council of Trent in 1545, but 
the Church of England permits three. 

GoDOLLO (Battle). — The Hungarians de- 
feated the Austrians at this place, near 
Pesth, April 6, 1849. The Austrians lost 
3,200 prisoners, 26 pieces of cannon, seven 
standards, and ammimition. 

GoDOLPHiN Administeation was formed 
soon after the accession of Queen Anne, 
Lord Godolphin, afterwards Earl Godolphin 
and Viscoimt Rialton, having been made 
lord high treasurer May 8, 1702. 



GOL 

Treasury Lord Ctodolphin 

Lord Keeper Sii- Nathan Wright. 

{Earl of Pembroke and 
Montgomery (July 14, 
1702). 
( Marquis of Normanby, 

Privy Seal < afterwards duke of 

(. Buckingham. 

Principal Secretaries of/ Earl of Nottingham. 

State ( Sir Charles Hedges. 

T ^ -a- i. A.:]„«».i ("Prince George of Den- 

lx,rd High Admiral ....[ n,aik (May 21. 1702). 



The duke of Marlborough received the 
garter and the command of the army. A 
modification of the cabinet took place in 

1704, when the earl of Nottingham retired. 
Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and 
Lord Mortimer, became secretary of state 
May 18, 1704, and Henry St. John (created 
Viscount Bolingbroke in 1712) became se- 
cretary at war April 20, 1704. The duke of 
Newcastle became privy seal March 31, 

1705. WiUiam, afterwards Lord Cowper, 
was made lord keeper Oct. 4, 1705, and 
lord chancellor May 4, 1707. Harley, in 
consequence of the indiscretion of Gregg, 
a clerk in his office, was dismissed Feb. 11, 
1708, and St. John immediately resigned. 
Mr. Boyle, afterwards Lord Carleton, re- 
placed Harley, and Mr., afterwards Sir 
Robert, Walpole and earl of Orford, suc- 
ceeded St. John. Mr. Smith replaced 
Mr. Boyle at the exchequer Feb. 11, 1708. 
Lord Somers was made president of the 
council Nov. 25, 1708. The Godolphin 
Administration was dissolved Aug. 8. 1710. 
{See Haeley Administeation.) 

Gog and Magog. — In a description of the 
procession made by Ehzabeth, Jan. 13, 1558, 
mention is made of "the two ymages of 
Gotmagog the Albioue, and Corineus the 
Britain, two gyantes bigge in stature, fur- 
nished accorcfingly." Douce believes that 
some figures of the kind decorated the 
GvuldhaB. long before this date. Richard 
Saunders carved the present figures, set up 
in 1708. 

GoHUD (Hindostan) . — ^This town, fortified 
about the middle of the 18th century, was 
taken by Scindia in 1784. The East-India 
Company concluded a treaty guaranteeing 
the rana of Gohud in his possessions, 
Jan. 17, 1804. It was not, however, carried 
out, and Gohud was transferred to the 
East-India Company, in exchange for Dhol- 
poor. 

GoiTO (Battles). — The Sardinians carried 
this village, in Italy, April 8, 1848; and 
Charles albert, king of Sardinia, defeated 
the Austrians here. May 30, 1848. 

GoLCONDA (Hindostan). — This tovra, cele- 
brated in olden times for its diamond-mines, 
was the capital of a Hindoo principality, 
incorporated with Delhi by Aunmgzebe, 
A.D. 1687. 

Gold. — The earliest mention of this pre- 
cious metal occurs in Gen. ii. 11, where gold 
is said to exist in the land of Havilah, com- 
passed by the Pison, one of the four heads of 



I 



GOL 

the river that went out of Eden. In Gen. 
xiii. 2, Abraham is described as a man rich 
in silver and gold (b.c. 1897). Solomon em- 
ployed this metal in every part of the temple 
and of his own palace, silver being " nothing 
accounted of" in his reign, 1 Kings x. 21 
(B.C. 992). The metal was also in high 
estimation with the Egyptians, Babylonians, 
Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Komans. It 
was manufactured vrith skill by B]'itish gold- 
smiths as early as a.d. 628. The standard of 
gold is regulated by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 96 
(Aug. 10, 1854) . Wedding rings are exempted 
from this rule by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (July 23, 
1855). 

Gold ATT (Switzerland). — This village was 
entirely destroyed by the fall of the Knippe- 
nouhl rock, which formed the summit of 
Mount Eossberg, Sept. 2, 1806. Four other 
villages were destroyed at the same time, and 
upwards of one thousand persons were victims 
of this calamity. 

Gold Coast (Africa). — A district on 
the west coast of Africa, discovered by San- 
tarem and Escobar, a.d. 1471, and named 
in consequence of the wealth thence derived. 
It was visited by an English expedition in 
1591, and became an English colony in 161S. 

Gold Coinage. — The earliest gold coins 
known are supposed to be those of Miletus, in 
Asia Minor, which were probably struck about 
B.C. 800. The gold darics of the Persian 
monarchs originated about B.C. 520, and the 
Sicilians established a gold coinage at least 
as early as B.C. 400. The Romans first used 
gold coins B.C. 206. The modern gold coinage 
of Europe was commenced by the Florentines 
A.D. 1252, that of Venice was established in 
1276, and in 1320 we find gold a general 
circulating medium. The principal facts 
connected with the English gold coinage will 
be found in the following table : — 



19. Canobeline begins to reign, and strikes the 
earliest known British gold coins. 

A.D. 

1257. Henry TIT. commences the English gold 

coinage by making a number of gold 

pennies. 
1344. Edward III. orders florins, nobles, half -nobles, 

and quarter- nobles, to be stmck. 
1362. The Commons petition for smaller gold 

coins. 
146.5. Edward IV. coins gold rials and angels. 
1489. Sovereigns, or double rials, are first coined 

by Henry VII. 

1526. Henry VIII. increases the value of the gold 

coins. 

1527. Henry VIII. coins gold crowns. 
1558. Gold crowns are coined. 

Ifi03. James I. coins gold unites, or broad pieces. 

1617. James I. orders a new coinage. 

1663. Guineas are first coined. 

1695. In consequence of the large number of clipped 
coins in circulation, the window -tax is 
levied to defray the expense of a recoinage. 

1701. "William ITL coins gold pistoles and half- 
pistoles for Scotland. 

1732. The broad pieces of James I., Charles I, and 
Charles II., are recalled, and coined into 
guineas 

1797. Geurge III. coins gold seven-shilling pieces. 

1842. June. The light gold coinage is caUed in. 

Gold DiscovEaiES.— The most important 



GOL 

gold discoveries of modern times are those 
which have occurred in Cahfornia, Australia, 
and British Colvimbia. The metal was dis- 
covered in Cahfornia by Mr. Marshal and 
Captain Suter in September, 1847, and at- 
tracted adventurers from all parts of the 
world to obtain it, insomuch that the immi- 
gration was estimated at 50,000 persons at 

the end of 1848. The gold excitement in 

Austraha did not commence tiU 1851, though 
the metal was discovered in small quantities 
in 1829. In 1841 it was detected in the 
neighbourhood of the Macquarie river, and 
in May, 1845, Sir Roderick Murchison an- 
nounced the probabUity of large gold dis- 
coveries in Australia to the Geographi- 
cal Society. In 1850 Mr. Stutchbury was 
appointed geologist to the colony of Sydney, 
and Mr. Hargraves announced his establish- 
ment of miners at the Ophir diggings, near 
Bathurst, May 8, 1851. The local govern- 
ment claimed the right of search for gold on 
behalf of the crown, May 17, and before 
May 19 the diggers at Ophir had increased 
to between 500 and 600. Dr. Kerr discovered 
a hundredweight of the precious metal in 
one day (July 14), and at the end of 1857 
the total amount derived from Australia had 

amounted to £66,135,484. The discovery 

of gold in British Columbia was ofiicially re- 
ported to the governor of the colony, March 1, 
1856, and during 1858 occasioned similar im- 
migration and excitement to that previously 
experienced in respect to California and Aus- 
traha, although in this case it was chiefly con- 
fijied to the American continent. 

Golden Bull.— The name given to 
several charters and documents of the 
Middle Ages, which were sealed with a 
golden seal. The golden bull of Hungary 
was promulgated A.D. 1222, that of Bohemia in 
1348, of Brabant in 1349, and of Milan in 
1549. The golden buU par excellence is the 
celebrated buU of Charles IV. of Germany, 
which was made the basis of the German 
constitution at the diet of Nuremberg in 
1356, and remained in force until the disso- 
lution of the German empire in 1806. It was 
published in Latin, at Nuremberg, in 1474, 
and in German, at Ulm, in 14S4j and at 
Strasburg in 1485. 

Golden Fleece. {See Aegonautic 
Expedition.) 

Golden Fleece (Order of). — This order 
was instituted at Bruges by Phihp the Good, 
duke of Burgundy, Jan. 10, 1429, and re- 
ceived its name and badge of a golden fleece, 
in consequence of the important woollen 
manufactures of the country. The grand- 
mastership was inahenably attached to the 
house of Burgundy, vrith the proviso that 
in the event of that family having no male 
representatives, it should descend to the 
husband of the daughter and heiress of the 
last sovereign. It consequently passed into 



It consequently pa 
the house of Austria in 1477, and continued 
in that family until the death of Charles II. 
of Spain, Nov. 1, 1700, when it was con- 
tested by Charles III. and Philip V., who 
agreed, at the peace of Vienna, April 30, 1725, 
2 c 



GOL 

that each should retain the title during life, 
but that their heirs should only take the 
title of the country they governed. The 
order was consequently divided into the 
Golden Fleece of Austria, and of Spain. 

GoLDEsr Horde. — This tribe of Mon- 
golians, under their leader Batou, grandson 
of Zenghia Khan, estabhshed themselves on 
the plains of Kipsale a.d. 1235. In 1243 
they rendered Eussia tributary to their 
power, and made Alexander Newski grand- 
duke in 1252. Timour attacked them in 
1392, and in 1477 Ivan III. discontinued the 
payment of tribute to them. Their influence 
was finally destroyed by the Nogay Tartars 
and Ivan III., at the battle of Bielawesch, 
in 1481. 

GoLDEK HoEKT. — Gibbon (ch. xvii.) re- 
marks: — "The harbour of Constantinople, 
which may be considered as an arm of the 
Bosphorus, obtained, in a very remote 
period, the denomination of the Golden 
Horn. The curve which it describes might 
be compared to the horn of a stag, or as it 
should seem, with more propriety, to that 
of an ox." 

GOLDEK NUMBEE, Or CtCIE OP THE 

Moon. — This cycle of nineteen years, at 
the end of which the phases of the moon 
correspond withia an hour to their appear- 
ance nineteen years before, was invented by 
Meton, the Athenian, and adopted July 16, 
B.C. 433. It is called the Golden Number, 
because in old almanacs it was marked in 
letters of gold. 

Golden Rose. — A mysterious gift, 
representing by its gold, its odour, and its 
balm, the godhead, the body, and soul of the 
Eedeemer, was only bestowed by popes on 
sovereigns who were the most loyal servants 
of the Church. Pope John XXIII., during 
the struggle for the papacy, presented one 
to the emperor Sigismund, March 9, 1416. 

Gold-Leae. — According to Pliny (a.d. 
77) the Eomans were able to beat gold so 
thin that an ounce, forming a plate four 
fingers square, was multiplied into 600 leaves 
of the same area. The use of gold-leaf in 
the decoration of houses, furniture, or dress, 
was prohibited by a proclamation of James I. 
in 1619. The art of gold-beating is carried 
to such perfection at the present day that a 
single ounce of gold is made to cover an 
area of a hundred square feet, the average 
thickness of common gold-leaf being ^ga^ooQ 
of an inch. 

GoLD-MiNES. — The earhest source whence 
the precious metals were derived was the 
eastern parts of Egypt and Asia. The 
Egyptians obtained gold from the copper- 
mines of ]S"ubia, which were discovered by 
the kings of the most ancient race, and the 
metal was also derived from some mines of 
Southern Africa, of which the situation is 
now unknown. Job (xxii. 24) speaks of the 
gold of Ophir, the locality of which is much 
disputed, B.C. 2130. The first gold-mine in 
Europe was opened by Cadmus (who flou- 
rished about B.C. 1493) in Mount Pangaeus, in 
Thrace. The sources whence Solomon (b.c. 



GOO 

1015 — 975) appears to have derived his gold 
were chiefly Ophir (1 Kings x, 28) and Tar- 
shish, which is supposed to be an ancient name 
for the south of Spain (2 Chron. is. 21) . The 
gold-mines of Hungary were discovered about 
A.D. 745, those of Saxony in the 10th cen- 
tury, of Hanover in 972, of ScheUgadin in 
1378. Gold was obtained from Chili in 1539. 
In 1543 its existence was discovered in 
Brazil, where the Indians used it for fish- 
hooks, but it was not obtained there by 
Europeans till 1693. Peter the Great, of 
Eussia, reopened some long-neglected gold- 
mines in his kingdom in 1699 ; and in 1781 
the metal was discovered in France. Gold 
was found in the county of Wicklow, Ireland, 
in 1796, and in the Ural Moimtains in 1820. 
Gold was discovered in California in 1847, in 
Australia in 1851, and in British Columbia in •j 
1858. 1 

Goldsmiths' Company. — This company S 
was incorporated by letters patent of Ed- m 
ward III., A.D. 1327, and confirmed by m 
Eichard II. in 1392 or 1394. Edward IV. «« 
increased its privileges and powers in 1462, 
and the crest and supporters were granted 
in 1571. The fine haU of the company was 
bmlt from the designs of Philip Hardwick, ^ 
E.A., and opened July 15, 1835." 9 

Golf. — A game of club and ball sup- * 
posed to have been known in Scotland 
at a very early period. It was prohibited, 
lest it should interfere with the practice of 
archery, by numerous statutes, beginning in 
1457. 

GoLOVTCHiv (Battle). — Charles XII. of 
Sweden defeated the Eussians in this en- 
counter, which took place July 4, 1708. 

GoMAKiSTS. — The Calvinists of Leyden, 
who supported the views of Francis Go- 
marus, the opponent of James Arminius, 
the Lutheran, in the great controversy which 
commenced early in the 17th century, re- 
ceived this name. A council of the whole 
Church met at Dort Nov. 13, 1618. It sepa- 
rated May 9, 1619, having condemned the 
Arnunians {q.v.). 

GoMBEooN, or Bttndee Abbas (Persia).— 
An English factory was established at this 
ancient seaport a.d. 1613. The Dutch 
formed an estabhshment here in 1620. The 
English factory was destroyed by the French » 
in October, 1760. 'ail 

GoMEEA (Atlantic) .—Christopher Colum- m\ 
bus remained a short time on this island, 
one of the Canaries, a.d. 1492. Pizarro 
remained here a short time in 1530. 

Good Feidat. — The Friday preceding 
Easter Sunday is observed under this name 
as the anniversary of the Lord's crucifixion, 
on Friday, April 15, a.d. 29. It has always 
been the custom of the Christian church to 
solemnize the day of this event, but the 
name Good Friday is comparatively of 
recent origin. The Saxons called the day 
Long Friday, from the length of the church 
services then performed. The practice of 
using cross -buns on this day is of great 
antiquity. 

Goodman's Fields Theatee (London) 



GOO 



GOR 



wag first opened as a playhouse by Thomas 
Odell, Oct. 31, 1729. Owing to the objections 
urged against it by the clergyman of St. 
Botolph, Aldgate, it was removed in 1735 to 
Lincoln's-Inn Fields, but it was again estab- 
lished in Goodman's Fields Oct. 19, 1741, "when 
David Garrick made his first appearance on the 
London stage as Richard III. This theatre 
was pulled down in 1746, and another was 
speedily erected, which was destroyed by 
fiire in June, 1802. 

GooDWiif Sands. — The sand-banks off the 
coast of Kent are said to have originally 
formed part of that county, and to have 
taken their name from Earl Godwin. They 
were submerged by the sea a.d. 1097. The 
present lighthouse on the North Foreland, 
erected in 1683, is for the purpose of 
warning mariners of the dangerous vicinity 
of these quicksands. On the 26th of 
November, 1703, thirteen men-of-war were 
wrecked on these shoals, and nearly every- 
body on board perished. Since 1841 a light- 
house and two beacons have been erected on 
the sands and destroyed. 

GoojEKAT (Hindostan). — This province 
was invaded and seized by Sultan Mahmoud 
of Ghuznee about a.d. 1025. In 1298 it is 
mentioned by Marco Polo, and in 1572 
became subject to Akbar. In 1707 it was 
devastated by the Mahrattas, and in 1724 
became independent of the Mongol authority. 
Severe famines and pestilences occurred 
here in 1813 and 1814. The battle of 
Goojerat was gained by a British army of 
25,000 men, under Lord Gough, over a Sikh 
force of 60,000 men, Feb. 21, 1849. 

GoECUM (HoUand) .—The French captured 
this town January 12, 1795. It was retaken 
by the Prussians in 1814. 

GoKDiAN^ KifOT. — " A story is told of the 
Macedonian hero during his residence at 
Gordium, which the gravest historians have 
not disdained to preserve in their pages. 
Plutarch tells us that, upon taking this town, 
which is said to have been the seat of the 
ancient Midas, he found the famed chariot 
fastened with cords made of the cornel-tree ; 
and was informed of a tradition, firmly be- 
lieved among the barbarians, that * the fates 
had decreed the empire of the world to him 
who should untie the knot.' This, as most 
historians state, was twisted so many private 
ways, and the ends of it were so artfuiy con- 
cealed, that Alexander, finding he could not 
untie it, cut it asunder with his sword, and 
made many ends instead of two. But Axis- 
tobulus affirms that he easily undid it, by 
taking out the pin which fastened the yoke 
to the beam, and then drawing out the yoke 
itself." — Encyclopadia Metropolitana. This 
is supposed to have occurred m the acropolis 
of Gordiiun, a town of Bithynia, B.C. 333. 
To Gordius I. of Phrygia the invention of 
the knot is ascribed, b.c. 1449. 

GoEDON- Riots (London) .—These anti- 
popery riots were named from their leader. 
Lord George Gordon, who was elected pre- 
sidentof the Protestant AssociatiouA.D. 1779. 
On the 4th of January, 1780, he presented a 
387 



petition, praying for the repeal of an act in 
favour of Roman Cathohcs, from that society 
to Lord North, and summoned a meeting at 
Coachmakers' HaU on the 29th of May, at 
which it was resolved that the entire associa- 
tion should assemble in St. George's Fields, 
on the following Friday, June 2, and accom- 
pany him with the petition to the House of 
Commons. Accordingly, on the day ap- 
pointed, a crowd of the supporters of the 
movement, variously computed at from 
60,000 to 100,000 men, assembled at the place 
determined upon, and marched in several divi- 
sions to Palace Yard, where they mobbed the 
members of parliament as they arrived in 
their carriages. Lord George presented 
his petition, which was signed by nearly 
120,000 persons, and movedfor its immediate 
consideration ; but on a division, only 6 votes 
appeared for his proposition, while 192 were 
recorded against it. The mob retired from 
the Houses, and having burnt the Roman 
Cathohc chapels in Duke Street and Warwick 
Street, dispersed for the night. The follow- 
ing evening the disturbances were less violent, 
but on Sunday the rioters assembled in 
large bodies in Moorfields, and burnt the 
chapels and houses of the Roman Cathohcs. 
On Monday, the 5th, they burnt the chapels 
in Virginia Lane, Wapping, and Nightingale 
Lane, Smithfield, and also the house of Sir 
George SackvUle, who was peculiarly un- 
popular as the proposer of the obnoxious 
act. On Tuesdair, the 6th, the houses of Lord 
Mansfield, Justice Hyde, and Justice Cox, 
were burnt by the rioters, who also set fire 
to Newgate and the new prison in Clerk- 
enwell, releasing the prisoners. On Wed- 
nesday, the 7th, King's Bench and Fleet 
prisons, and the new Bridewell, with many 
private houses, were destroyed, as many as 
thirty-six conflagrations being visible at once 
from the same spot. The Bank was also threat- 
ened, but being strongly guarded by soldiers, 
escaped pUlage. On Thursday the distur- 
bances began to subside, and on Friday, 
Lord George was arrested and committed to 
the Tower. The official return of casualties 
during the riots comprised 210 kiUed by the 
soldiers, and 248 wounded, but a great num- 
ber are supposed to have perished from 
intoxication, and in the flames of the burn- 
ing houses. The trial of the rioters com- 
menced at the Old Bailey on Wednesday, 
June 28, and many were convicted and 
executed. Lord George Gordon was tried 
for high treason in Westminster Hall, Feb. 5, 
1781, and acquitted. He afterwards died in 
Newgate, where he had been confined for hbel, 
Nov. 1, 1793. 

GoEEE (Atlantic). — This .island on the W. 
coast of Africa, belonging to the French, 
was discovered about a.d. 1446. Commo- 
dore Keppell took it Dec. 29, 1758. The 
settlement was destroyed by fire March 14, 
1761. The island was restored to France by 
the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Fort 
EMzabeth blew up Oct. 15, 1763. It suffered 
from an earthquake in 1777. The French 
abandoned Goree early in 1779, and an 
2 c 2 



GOE 

English squadron soon after took possession. 
It was restored to France by the 9th article 
of the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. 
Sir Charles Hamilton captured it April 4, 
1800. The French took it Jan. 18, 1804. 
Enghsh squadron regained possession 
March 9, 1804. 

G-OEET (Battle of).— This battle was 
fought between the Irish rebels and a 
force under Colonel Walpole, June 4, 1798. 
The latter were completely defeated, as Col. 
Walpole fell ahnost immediately after the 
action commenced. 

GosHEif (Egypt). — Jacob and his family 
settled in this part of Egypt b.c. 1706 (Gen. 
xlvi. 28, and xlvii. 4-6). Their descendants 
possessed the land above four centuries. 

GosLAE (Hanover), founded a.d. 922, was 
afterwards the residence of the emperor, 
and a free imperial city. It was annexed 
to Hanover in 1803, made part of West- 
phalia in 1807, and restored to Hanover in 
1813. 

GoTHA (Saxony). — Formerly the capital 
of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha, passed, on 
the extinction of the direct line, in 1825, to 
the duke of Saxe-Coburg. The gymna- 
sium was founded in 1524, and the ducal 
palace in 1643. The Almanach de Gothawas 
first pubUshed here in 1774. 

GoTHEifBUEGr, or GoTHEBOEG (Sweden). — 
This town was built by Gustavus Adolphus, 
A.D. 1611. The Danes besieged the town in 
1788, and owing to the intervention of the 
English, the Dutch and the Prussian minis- 
ters were induced to withdraw. It suffered 
seriously from an extensive conflagration in 
1803. 

Gothic Aechitecttjee. — The first diver- 
gences from the classical orders of archi- 
tecture occur about the 4th century, but 
the introduction of the pointed arch, the [ 
great feature of the Gothic style, cannot 
with propriety be referred to a period 
earher than the 12th. The branches of this i 
order are differently classed by various i 
authors. Dallaway enumerates five; viz., [ 
the Mixed, or Semi-K'orman, from 1170 to 
1220; Lancet-Arched Gothic, 1220 to 1300; 
Pure Gothic, 1300 to 1400; Ornamented 
Gothic, 1400 to 1460; and Florid Gothic, 
1460 to the middle of the 16th century, 
when the order was extinguished. Eickman 
reckons only three orders; viz., Early En- 
ghsh, 1189 to 1307 ; Decorated Enghsh, 1307 
to 1377 ; and Perpendicular Enghsh, 1377 to 
the extinction of the style. Much atten- 
tion has recently been directed to the com- 
parative merits of classic and Gothic archi- 
tecture, owing to the necessity of new build- 
ings for the government offices. 

Gothland, or Gottland (Baltic Sea). — 
This island was taken from the Swedes by 
Yaldemar III., king of Denmark, a.d. 1361. 
By the treaty of 1644, it was restored to 
Sweden, and in 1807 was surprised by a 
Eussian force, which was however, soon, 
compelled to retire. 

Goths. — This barbarian nation of 
antiquity deduced its origin from the Scan- 



GOT 

dinavian peninsula, but it is uncertain 
whether this statement is correct. It was 
divided into two great bodies, — the Ostro- 
goths, who traced their origin from the 
eastern part of Scandinavia, and the Visi- 
goths, who claimed its western portion as 
the cradle of their tribe. At the beginning 
of the Christian sera they occupied a territory 
towards the mouth of the Vistula, but they 
did not become conspicuous in history till 
A.D. 250, when the emperor Decius was 
compelled to resist their encroachments on 
the banks of the Danube, and sustained a 
severe defeat in consequence. In 253 they 
were defeated by JEmfiianus, in 262 they 
ravaged Greece, and in 269 invaded the 
Eoman empire with a force of 320,000 men, 
which was defeated by the emperor Claudius 
at the battle of ISTaissus. They invaded 
Moesia in 332, but were repulsed by Constan- 
tine I., and in 366, assisted in the revolt, and 
shared the humiliation of Procopius. In 
375 they came into colhsion with the Huns, 
by whom they were defeated on the banks 
of the Dniester, and the following year they 
implored the protection of Valens, who 
assigned them a territory in Thrace, where 
they soon introduced the horrors of war. 
In 378 the Gothic youth in Asia were 
aU massacred by order of the Eoman 
governor. The Visigoths tendered their 
submission to the Eomans, Oct. 3, 382, 
but the Ostrogoths stiU continued their 
attacks, and again invaded the empire 
without success in 386. They subse- 
quently accepted settlements in Thrace 
and Phrygia, and were admitted as soldiers 
of the Eoman army under the name of 
Foederati. In 395, however, the whole na- 
tion was again in revolt under the leadership of 
Alaric, who invaded Greece in 396, marched 
into Italy in 400, laid siege to Eome 408, 
and took and sacked the city Aug. 24, 410. 
In 412 they marched into Gaul, and esta- 
bhshed themselves in Aquitaine in 419. In 
489, led by Theodoric, they defeated Odoacer 
in Italy, and in 540 again revolted from the 
government of Justinian, whose general 
Narses defeated them, and terminated their 
national existence in 553. The history of 
the Visigoths of Spain will be found under 
that country. 

Gotthaed, St. (Battle). — AnaUiedarmyof 
French, German, and Itahan forces defeated 
the Turks at this place, in Hungary, Aug. 1, 
1664. 

Gottingen (Hanover) is first noticed in 
a record of the time of Otho I. (a.d. 936 — 
973), and became amember of the Hanseatie 
league a.d. 1360. The university, founded 
by George II. of England, in 1734, and 
opened in 1737, was called the "Georgia 
Augusta." The French seized Gottingen in 
1760. The aUied army having blockaded it 
from Nov. 22 until Dec. 12, 1760, were com- 
pelled to retire. The French blew up the 
fortifications and withdrew, July 16, 1762. 
The three youngest sons of George III. 
were entered members of the university of 
Gottingen, July 6, 1786. An insurrection 



GrOZ 

which broke out here Jan. 8, 1831, was 
suppressed on the 16th. 

Gozo (Mediterranean). — This island, the 
ancient Gaulos, was first colonized by the 
Phoenicians, from whom it was wrested by 
the Carthaginians. The Komans captured 
it B.C. 241. It was given to the Knights 
Hospitallers a.d. 1530. The French cap- 
tured it June 10, 1798, but it was wrested 
from them by the English Oct. 28, 1798. 

Grace at Meals. — Fosbroke (Antiq. ii. 
608) remarks : " Similar ceremonies, both 
before and after dinner, existed among the 
Jews and classical ancients. The latter used 
to offer the first-fruits of the viands to the 
gods." The Anglo-Saxons signed the dish 
with the cross. The form of grace said by 
the priest at table is given in the poems of 
Alcuin. On Sundays and festivals during the 
14th century, the psalter was sung over. In 
this country, grace was said in metre at the 
time of Shakespeare. 

Geadisca, or Beebie (Bosnia), was forti- 
fied by French engineers in 1774. It sur- 
rendered Jiine 20, 1789, to the Austrians, who 
failed in an attempt to capture it in 1788. 
The French took it in March, 1797. 

Grado (Illyria).— This town, situated on 
an island of the same name, in the Adriatic 
Sea, was first inhabited by the Italian fugi- 
tives who were expelled from their own 
cities by AttUa, a.d. 452. It became the 
seat of the patriarchate of AquUeia in 583, 
and in 877 was unsuccessfully attacked by 
the Saracens. The town was taken and 
burned by the Genoese in 1379, and in 1451 
the patriarchate was transferred to Venice. 
A council was held at Grado in 579. 

Geapton Admixisteatiois'. — Lord Chat- 
ham having been incapacitated by illness 
from taking any active part in pubMc affairs, 
the direction devolved upon the duke of 
Grafton in December, 1767, Lord Chatham 
himself resigning the privy seal Oct. 21, 
1768. It was thus constituted : — 

Treasury Duke of Grafton. 

Lord CliaiiceUor Lord Camden. 

President of the Council. .Earl Gower. 

Privy Seal Earl of Chatham. 

Chaucellor of Exchequer. .Lord North. 

Principal Secretaries of j ^^^.f^/^^--^^ -^ 

"^■^^^ ( Viscount Weymouth. 

Admiralty Sir Edward Hawke. 

Ordnance , Marquis of Granby. 

The earl of Bristol became Privy Seal, in 
place of the earl of Chatham, Nov. 2, 1768. 
Lord Camden resigned the chancellorship 
Jan. 17, 1770 ; and Mr. Charles Yorke, his 
successor, created Lord Morden, died three 
days after his acceptance of office. The 
marquis of Granby retired Jan. 17, 1770 ; 
and the duke of Grafton resigned his oflace 
as chief lord of the Treasury, Jan. 28, 1770, 
when his administration came to an end. 

{See NOETH ADHUflSTEATIOir.) 

Graham's Dyke. (See Agricola's 
Wall.) " 

Geammae-Schools. — The first grammar- 
school in London was established a.d. 1447. 



GRA 

Their number was much increased after 
the Eeformation, twenty-one having been 
founded by Edward VI. (1.547—15.53). The 
Act for Improving the Condition and Extend- 
ing the Benefits of Grammar-Schools (3 & 4 
Vict. c. 77) was passed Aug. 7, 1840. 

Gran (Himgary). — This town, seized by 
the Turks a.b. 1540, was recovered in 1683 
by the united forces of John Sobieski, king 
of Poland, and Charles of Lorraine. It was 
partially destroyed by fire April 13, 1818 ; 
and in 1821 a cathedral was commenced. 
The battle of Gran, between the Aus- 
trians and Magyars, was fought Feb. 27, 
1849, and gained by the Magyars. 

Granada (Spain). — A province, erected 
into a separate state by the Moors in 1238, 
and united to Castile a.d. 1492. The city of 
Granada was founded by the Moors in the 
10th century. It was made the capital of 
Granada in 1238. The Spaniards besieged it 
April 26, 1491, and, after a gallant resistance, 
it capitulated Nov. 25, 1491, and was sur- 
rendered to the Spaniards Jan. 2, 1492. 
The Moors were expelled in 1610. Granada 
suffered from an earthquake May 15, and 
again Dec. 14, 1826. 

Granaries. — That the ancients con- 
structed granaries is evident from the history 
of Joseph, Gen. xU. 48 (b.c. 1715). They 
were also used by the Greeks and Eomans. 
In 1419 Sir Simon Eyre erected a public 
granary in London as a preservative against 
famine. This, with other similar buildings, 
was placed imder the control of regular 
surveyors during the reign ol Henry VIII. 
By 11 Geo. II. c. 22 (1738), persons guilty 
of robbing or destroying granaries were 
rendered liable to seven years' transporta- 
tion. 

Grand Alliance.— This treaty, of which 
the objects were " to procure satisfaction to 
his imperial majesty in regard to the Spanish 
succession, obtain security to the English 
and Dutch for their dominions and com- 
merce, prevent the union of the monarchies 
of France and Spain, and hinder the French 
from possessing the Spanish dominions in 
America," was signed at Vienna by the 
plenipotentiaries of the emperor, the Mng of 
England, and the States-general, May 12, 
1689. The king of Spain and the duke of 
Savoy joined the alliance in 1690. 

Grand Junction Canal. — This canal 
runs from the Thames through Uxbridge, 
Tring, Fenny Stratford, &c., to Braunston, 
in Northamptonshire, where it joins other 
canals, and thus opens water-communication 
between London, Liverpool, HuU, and Bris- 
tol. It was commenced May 1, 1793. 

Grand or Great Privile&e. — Mary of 
Burgundy granted this charter to tiie Hol- 
landers and Zealanders, a.d. 1477, at the 
States assembled at Ghent. It was the 
Magna Charta of Holland, and transferred 
aU the actual rights of sovereignty to the 
States. 

Grandmontines (Monks). — This order 
was foimded by Stephen, a native of Au- 
vergne, at Grandmontin Limosin, in France, 



GEA 

about A.D. 1076. The Grandmontines passed 
into England during tlie reign of Henry I., 
and established themselves at Abberbury, 
in Shropshire ; CresseweU, in Herefordshire ; 
and Grosmont, or Eskdale, in Yorkshire. 
The rule of the order was a modification 
of that of St Benedict. 

Grastd PENsidiTAET. — The title of 
an officer of the Dutch goTemment, whose 
functions were to propose to the council the 
subject for deliberation, to collect the votes, 
to receive the diplomatic communications of 
foreign powers, and to supervise the adminis- 
tration of finances. He held office for five 
years, at the end of which period he was 
ehgible for re-election. Previous to the 
time of Barneveldt, who was executed May 
13, 1619, this functionary bore the title of 
advocate-general. The office was abolished 
at the revolution of 1795, and restored by 
Napoleon I. in ISOo. 

Gkak^icus (Battles). — Alexander the Great 
defeated the Persian army near this river, in 
Asia Minor, May 22, 3.34 B.C. It was also 
the scene of a victory gained by Lucullus 
over Mithridates, e.c. 74. 

Gbanite. — The two principal depositories 
of granite are at Aberdeen and Dartmoor, 
the former of which was not worked till 1730, 
and the latter till 1820. The first large build- 
ing erected of this material was Gordon's 
Hospital, at Aberdeen, built in 1739. 

Gransoij- (Battle). — Charles the Bold, 
duke of Burgundy, having destroyed the 
Swiss gan-ison at Granson, near Neuchatel, 
was defeated by them, with great slaughter, 
April 5, 1476. 

Granville (France), the ancient Gran- 
nonum, was bombarded and set on fire by 
the Enghsh, July 8, 1694. Admiral Dilkes 
destroyed about forty French ships in the 
neighbourhood of GranviUe in the autumn 
of 1703. The Vendeans committed great 
havoc at Granville Oct. 15 and 16, 1793. 

Gbatz (Austria), the capital of Styria, 
is an ancient town. The cathedral was 
erected by Frederick IV. a.d. 1456, and the 
university was founded in 1586. Napoleon 
Bonaparte entered Gratz in April, 1797. 
The French took the place and destroyed its 
citadel in 1809. 

Grave (HoEand) was captured by the 
duke of Parma in 1586, by Prince Maurice 
in 1603, and was besieged "by Louis XIY. ia 
1674. The French took it, after a siege of 
two months, Dec. 29, 1794. 

Gravelijtes (France). — This town was 
foimded by Henry, count of Flanders, a.d. 
1160. In 1558 the French sustained a defeat 
under its walls from the Spaniards ; but in 
1658 they regained possession of it, and it 
was finally restored to them by the treaty of 
the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659. 

Gravesend (Kent). — This town is men- 
tioned in the Domesdav Survey as Gravesham . 
In 1337 the fleet of Edward III. anchored 
here, previous to sailing against the Flemings, 
and in 1380 the town was attacked by a 
French fleet and burnt. The first charter 
of incorporation was granted by Queen 



GEE 

Ehzabeth, July 22, 1562; and in 1588 the 
to\vn was fortified, in anticipation of the 
attack of the Invincible Armada. In 
July, 1606, James I. received a visit from 
Christian TV. of Denmark here, and the 
town was the scene of a conflict between the 
Irish adherents of James II. and the sup- 
porters of the prince of Orange, Dec. 12, 
1688. A great fire occurred at Gravesend, 
Aug. 24, 1727, which is said to have destroyed 
120 dwelling-houses, with other buildings, 
the whole damage being estimated at more 
than £2(X),000. The first steamboat be- 
tween London and Gravesend was the 
Margery, which performed her first voyage 
on Monday, Jan. 23, 1815. The town-haU 
was erected in 1836. 

GRAViTATiojr. — P3i;hagoras, who flourish- 
ed B.C. 529, and Anaxagoras, born about 
B.C. 500, make allusions to this principle, 
which was referred to by Copernicus in 1543, 
and Kepler in 1609. Hooke published a 
theory on the subject in 1674. Sir Isaac 
Newton's attention is said to have been 
directed to this subject in 1666 by the fall of 
an apple from a tree, but the fact is disputed. 
In 1687 he pubhshed the Prineipia, in which 
he established the principle of imiversal 
gravitation. 

Great Britain-. — This name was first 
applied to England, Wales, and Scotland, at 
the union of the two crowns, Oct. 24, 1604, 
when James I. was proclaimed king of Great 
Britain, France, and Ireland. A national 
flag for Great Britain was announced by 
royal proclamation, April 12, 1606. The 
legal application commenced at the legislative 
union, agreed upon by the commissioners 
July 22, 1706, when it was provided that the 
two states should form one " United King- 
dom of Great Britain." An act passed (6 
Anne, c. 11) to carry out the union, received 
the royal assent March 6, 1707. It took 
effect from May 1, 1707, and a proclamation, 
July 28, appointed the national flag. It was 
the same as the one agreed upon in 1606, 
which had fallen into disuse. (See England, 
Scotland, &c.) 

Great Exhibition. — Industrial exhibi- 
tions originated in the French expositions. 
In June, 1845, the Society of Arts attempted 
to introduce them into England, but no steps 
were taken till 1847, when the council opened 
an exhibition on a small scale. The experiment 
was renewed, with increased success, in 1843 
and 1849. Prince Albert, the president of 
the society, subsequently took an interest 
in the matter, and at a meeting held at 
Buckingham Palace, June 30, 1849, stated 
his opinion that the proposed exhibition 
should include raw materials, machinery, 
manufactures, sculpture, and plastic art in 
general. A royal commission was appointed 
at the commencement of the following year, 
and the necessary arrangements were made 
with astonishing regularity and despatch. 
When completed, the building measured 
1,851 feet in length, by 408 in width. The 
transept was 72 feet wide and 108 high. 
The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or 



GEE 

about 19 acres, and the quantity of iron 
employed in the building was about 4,000 
tons. The glass amounted to 17 acres for 
roofing, and 1,500 vertical glazed sashes, 
and the woodwork was estimated at 600,000 
cubic feet. 



1850. Jan. 3. A royal conmiission is appointed. 
Jan. 24 The commissioners nominate a 
building committee. Jan. 25. A meet- 
ing is held at the Mansion House, and 
a subscription list is opened. Feb. 21. The 
building committee approve of the site in 
Hyde Park. March 13. They invite designs 
for the building. March 21. The Lord 
Mayor of London gives a banquet to the 
provincial mayors, to enlist their sym- 
pathies in behalf of the undertaking. 
July 6. Mr. (afterwards Sir Joseph) Paxton 
publishes his plans in the Illustrated 
London News. July 16. Mr. Paxton's 
design is accepted. July 26. The commis- 
sioners adopt Messrs. Fox and Henderson's 
tender for £79,800. July 30. The builders 
take possession of the ground. Sept. 26. The 
first column is erected. Oct. 26. The Lord 
M-),yor of York gives a bauquet in aid of 
the exhibition. Dec. 4. The first pair of 
arched ribs for the transept are hoisted. 
Dec. 21. The Queen visits the building. 

1831. Jan. 21. The catalogue is commenced. Feb. 3. 
The commissioners take possession of the 
buiWing. Apiil 30. The first copy of the 
catalogue is completed at ten o'clock at 
night, and 10,800 are finished by the fol- 
lowing morning May 1. The exhibition 
is opened by the Queen. May 26. Fii-st 
shilling day. Oct. 7. The greatest number 
of visitors this day (109,91.5). Oct 11. The 
last public day. Oct. 15. The jury make 
their awards, and the exhibition is for- 
mally closed. (See Cktstal Palace and 

INTBRNAIIONAI FiXHTBITIOy OF 1862.) 

Great Northeen Railway. — This com- 
pany was incorporated by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 71 
(June 26, 1846) . The London terminus at 
Kmg'a Cross was opened in Oct. 1852. By 
23 & 24 Vict. c. 168 (July 23, 1860), the 
Great Northern is authorized to effect a 
communication with the Metropohtan Rail- 
way. The station of the Great Northern 
.Cemetery Company was erected in 1861. 

Great Seal op Em^gland.^ — The earhest 
English monarch who is known to have 
made grants under seal is Edgar (a.d. 957 to 
975), but the institution of the Great Seal is 
usually attributed to Edward the Confessor 
(1041—1066). The custody of the great 
seal is the prerogative of the lord chancellor, 
but as there is sometitLes an interval be- 
tween the death of that officer and the 
appointment of his successor, a keeper of 
the great seal was appointed to act in such 
cases. His dignity was declared equal to 
the lord chancellor's by 5 EHz. c. 18 (1562). 
Commissioners of the great seal were ap- 
pointed in 1689, and authorized by 1 WiE. & 
Mary, c. 21 (1688). The great seal was 
stolen by housebreakers from the residence 
of Lord Thurlow, in Great Ormond Street, 
March 24, 1784, and never recovered. 

Great Western Railway. — This line 
was opened as far as Maidenhead June 4, 
1838 ; it was extended to Twyford July 1, 
1839 ; and completed as far as Bristol 



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June 30, 1841. The line is on the broad 
gauge, and the engineer was Mr. I. K, 
Brunei. 

Greece, originally called HeUas, consisted 
of a number of states. {See Attica, &c.) 
The name Graecia first occurs in the works 
of Aristotle. The modern kingdom of 
Greece, erected in 1827, comprehends a 
portion only of the territories of ancient 
Greece. 



2089. .^gialeus founds Sicyon. 
2042. Uranus settles in Greece. 
1856. Inachus founds Ai-gos. 
1807. Phoroneus succeeds Inachus. 
1796. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia. 
1773. Phoroueus introduces sacrificial worship. 
Lenglet considers this year the date of the 
foundation of Sicyon. 
1760. A flood, known as the deluge of Ogyges. 

occui's in Attica. 
1710. OJnotrus leads a colony of Arcadians into 

Italy. 
1582. The chronology of the Arundelian marbles 

begins this year. 
1556. Cecrops, the Egyptian, arrives in Attica. 
1550. Cadmus arrives from Phoenicia, and found 

Thebes. 
1520. Ephyre, or Corinth, is founded, 
1514 Lycaon institutes the Lupercalia. 
1506 The Areopagus is founded. 
1504. Deucalion's deluge occurs this year. 
1495. The Panathensean games are instituted. 
1459. Reign of Hellen, from whom the country was 
called Hellas, and who is the reputed an- 
cestor of the Greek race. 
1453. The Idagi Dactyli found the Olympic games. 
1415. Melampus institutes the Dionysia. 
1397. Orpheus founds the Chalceau festival. 
1383. Erectheus establishes the worship of Athene 

iu Attica. 
1376. The Isthmian game? are instituted. 
1356. Eumolpus introduces the Eleusiuian mys- 
teries. 
1320. The Lycian games are instituted. 
1313. Mycenae is founded by Perseus of Argos. 
1293. Ihe Greeks colonize Sicily. 
1283. Pelops, from Lydia, settles in the southern 
part of Greece, which is called the Pelo- 
ponnesus in consequeuce. 
1263. Jason conducts the Argonautic expedition, 
and Adrastus institutes i.he Pythian games. 
1240. Theseus subdues the Minotaur. 
1228. Theseus carries off Helen. 
1225. The flrbt Theban war, known also as the 

war of the Seven Captains. 
1216. Helen is married to Menelaus, king of Sparta. 
1214 Helen elopes with Paris, son of Priam, king 

of Troy. 
1209. Expulsion of the Heraclidse. 
1193 or 1192. The Trojan war commences. 
1183. End of the Trojan war. 

1124. The Thessali settle in Thessaly, which is 
namtd after them, and the Boeoti in Bceotia. 
The migTation of the iSolians also happens 
this year. 
1104. The return of the Heraclidae. 
1100. The ^Eolians migrate into Asia Minor. 
1044. Neleus leads a colony of lonians into Asia 

Minor. 
926. Birth of Lycurgus. 
914 The ^tolian league orignates about this 

time. 
907. Hesiod flourishes. 
884. Lycurgus legislates in Sparta. 
814. Caranus founds the kingdom of Macedon. 
776. The sera of the Olympiads commences. 
743 to 723. The first Messenian war. 
685 to 668. The st-coud Messenian war. 
681. Arcadia becomes a republic. 
623 to 612. The Milesian war. 
621. Draco legislates for Athens. 
595 to 586. The Cirrhsean, or Sacred war. 
391 



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GRE 



594. Solon legislates for Athens. 

58t5. The Seven Wise Men of Greece flourish ; viz., 

Solon, Peiiauder, Pittauus, Chilou, Thales, 

Cleobnlus, and Bias. 
562. The Greek drama is commenced at Athens, 

by Susariou and Colon. 
526. Hippias and Hipparchus establish the first 

public library at Athens. 
522. The Greeks colonize the Thracian Chersonese, 

and found Sestos, Caudia, and iEgOopo- 

tamos. 
499 to 494. The Ionian war. 
492. The Persians, under Mardonius, first invade 

Greece, and are wrecked near Mount 

Athos. 
491. Darius demands earth and water from the 

Greeks as a token of submission, which 

are refused. 
490. Datis and Artaphernes conduct the second 

Persian expedition against Greece, and are 

vanquished at Marathon {g. v.). 
483. Aristides the Just is banished from Greece by 

ostracism. 
482. The states unite against Persia. 
480. Xerxes invades Greece, and is checked at 

Thermopylae, Aitemisium, and Salaniis 

479. Mardonius is defeated at Mycale and Platjea 
iq.v.). 

477. Athens becomes the chief of the Greek states. 

470. The states establish a common treasury at 
Delos for supplying funds for the Persian 
war. 

466. The battles at the Eurymedon {q. v.) end 
the Persian war. 

464 to 455. The thii-d Mrssenian war. 

460 to 455. The Eeyptian war. 

448. The first Sacred war. 

443. Herodotus flourishes. 

440. The Samian war. 

431 to 405. The Peloponnesian war. 

418. The battle of M^ntinea i,g. v.). 

415 to 413. The Athenian invasion of Sicily, which 
fails. 

414. The Deceleian war. 

403. The Greeks adopt a new alphabet. 

400. The retreat of the Ten Thousand. 

399. The Athenians condemn Socrates to die by 
poison. 

395. The Corinthian war. 

387. The peace of Antalcidas. 

382. The Olynthian war. 

378. Thebes and Athens unite against Sparta. 

3V1. Congress at Spaa-ta. 

369. Tbe Thebans invade Laconia. 

368. Epaminondas leads the Thebans into the 
Peloponnesus. 

362. Epamiuondas dies in the moment of victory, 
at the battle of Manttnea {g. v.). The de- 
cline of Thebes dates from his death. 

357 to 355. The Social war. 

356 to 346. The second Sacred war. 

353. Philip of Maeedon commences the execution 
of his ambitious designs against the liberties 
of Greece. 

339. The third Sacred war, against the Locrians. 

338. PbUip defeats the confederate Greeks at 
Chseroneia {g. v.). 

336. PhUip i» slaiu at Mgai. 

335. Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 

334. Alexander crosses the Hellespont, and invades 
Persia. 

332. He founds Alexandi-ia. 

323. Death of Alexander. 

323 to 322. The I^mian war. 

284. The jEtoUan league is formed against 
Maeedon. 

280. The Achaean league commences. 

279. The Gauls invade Greece. 

228. The first Roman embassy arrives in Greece. 

220. The second Social war. 

211. A Roman fleet arrives at Athens, and a treaty 
is concluded between the .^tolians and 
Romans again«t Philip T. of Maeedon. 
00. Maeedon is attacked by the Rom.aiis, Athe- 
nians, .^tolians, and minor states. 



195. Titus Qainctius declares Greece free from 

the Macedonian power. 
195. The JEtolians endeavour to form a coalition 



1146. 
1204. 

132?;. 
1456. 
1460. 
14ti3. 

1499. 

1540. 
1684. 
1687. 



1713. 
1718. 
1750. 
1768. 

1770, 



1779. 
1788. 
1789. 



The Romans ravage Epirus. 

They invade Achaia. 

Metellus invades Greece and subdues Sparta. 

Greece becomes a Roman province, under the 

name of Achaia. 
The coasts of Greece are infested by pirates- 
Augustus founds the confederacy of the free 

Laconian cities. 

The senate restricts the right of asylum 
claimed by many Greek temples and 
sanctuaries. 

Nero visits Greece, and exhibits himself in 
the national games. 

Hadrian visits Greece. 

Ic is invaded by the Goths. 

Its maritime cities assist Licinius, the rival 
of Constantiue I., with a fleet. 

Julian restores many of the ancient cities. 

It is shaken by an earthquake. 

Alaric invades Greece. 

AttUa ravages Thrace and Maeedon. 

Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, devastates Thessaly 
and Thrace. 

The Huns plunder tbe country. 

The Slavonians ravage Thrace. 

The Avars establish themselves in the Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

Northern Greece is conquered by the Bul- 
garians. 

The Slaves form settlements in the Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

The Slaves attempt to expel the Greek 
population of tiie Peloponnesus. 

The Bulgarians form settlemeuts to the south 
of Macedonia. 

Greece is plundered by Roger, king of Sicily. 

It is seized by the Latins, who divide it into 
a number of petty states. 

It is invaded by the Turks, under Orchan. 

Mohammed II. conquers Athens. 

He completes the subjection of Greece. 

It is invaded by the Venetians, who seize 
the Morea. 

Bajazet attacks the Venetian possessions in 
Greece. 

The Turks complete the conquest of Greece. 

It is iuvaded by the Venetians 

The Venetians recover the Morea, and take 



Jan. 26. The Morea is ceded to Venice by the 

peace of Carlowitz. 
Turkey declares war against Venice for the 

recovery of Greece. 
July 21. It is finally sun-endered to Turkey by 

Venice, at the peace of Passarowitz. 
Russian emissiries excite the hostility of the 

Greeks to Turkish government. 
The Porte declares war against Russia, in 

cousequence of her intrigues with the 

Greeks. 
The Russians arrive in Greece to assist the 

native insurgents, bat are defeated by the 

Turks. 
The Albanians are expelled from the Morea. 
The Suliot rebellion commences. 
Russian agents again incite the Greeks to 

revolt. 
Jan. 9. The peace of Jassy establishes Russian 

consuls in the Greek ports, and places the 

country under Russian protection. 
The French endeavour to excite the Greeks 

to rebellion. 
The Suliots are subdued by the Tui-ks. 
The Heteria, a secret political society for the 

independence or Greece, is founded. 
March 6. Alexander Ipsylanti and the Greeks 

assist the revolt of the Danubian pritici- 

palities, which is quelled June 19. A revolt 

breaks out in the Morea April 4 and by the 

end of June the whole of the . 

is in the hands of the Greeks. 



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1822. Jan. 1. The Greeks formally proclaim their 

independence. April 11. The Turks seize 
Scio, and massacre the inhabitants. June 22. 
The Greeks take Athens. July 13. Corinth 
is occ'ipied by a Turkish force. Aug. 6. 
The Tuife are defeated in the passes of 
Barbati, Dervenekai, and Thermopylae. 
Oct. 2. Corinth is taken by Colocotroni. 
Dec. 14. The congress of sovereigns at 
Verona pronounces the Greek insiuTection 
a rebellion. 

1823. April 10. A Greek national congi-ess assem- 

bles at Argos. Ang. 17. Marco Bozzaris, 
the " Leonidas of Modem Greece," dies 
in the moment of victory over the Turks, 
at Oarpe'nisi. 
1324. April 19. Death of Lord Byron, at Missolonghi. 
July 3. The Turks destroy Ipsara, and mas- 
sacre the iuhaoitants. Oct. 7. The Greeks 
destroy the Turkish fleet at Mitylene. 
Oct. 12. The proifisional government is 
established. 

1825. Feb. 24. Ibrahim Pasha lands in the Morea. 

May 23. He takes Navarino. June 30. Tri- 
polizza surrenders to htm. July 24. The 
provisional government seeks aid from 
England. 

1826. April 22. Missolonghi surrenders to the Turks, 

after a long siege. 

1827. May. Athens surrenders to the Turks. 

July 6. England, France, and Russia, con- 
clude a treaty for the pacification of Greece, 
at London. Aug. 30. Tiu'key refuses to 
sanction the interference of the foreign 
powers. Oct. 20. The Tui-kish fleet is 
destroyed at the battle of Navarino 
{q. v.), and Greek independence thereby 
secured. 

1828. Jan. 18. Count Capo d'Istrias is made president 

of Greece. Feb. 2. The Panheliou, or grand 
councU of state, is established. April 26. 
The country is divided into departments. 
Aug. 6. A convention is signed for the 
evacuation of the Morea by the Turks, 
and the release of Greek captives. Oct. 7. 
The Turks finally quit the Morea. 

1829. May 17. The Turks sui-render Missolonghi. 

July 23. The Greek National Assembly 
commences its sittings at Argos. Sept. 14. 
The Sublime Porte acknowl'^dges Greek 
independence in an article of the treaty 
of Hadrianople. 

1830. May 21. Prince Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, 

declines the crown of Greece. 

1831. The Greeks rise against the government of 

the Count Capo d'Istrias, the president, 
who is assassinated at Napoli di Romania, 
Oct. 9. 

1832. May 7. A convention for the establishment 

of Prince Otho, of Bavaria, is signed at 
London. Aug. 8. The election of Otho is 
approved by the people. The latter part of 
the year is disturbed by Colocotroni's con- 
spiracy. 

1833. Otho I. arrives in his kingdom. 

18.J4. May 12 to June 7. Colocotroni is tried, and 
condemned to death, but receives a com- 
mutation of sentence. Sept. An insurrec- 
tion is quelled in the Morea. 

1835. June 1, Otho attains his majority, and the 
regency is abolished. 

1843, Sept. 14. A i-evolutlon at Athens establishes 

a new ministiy. They summon a national 
assembly, which prepares a new consti- 
tution. 

1844. M:irch 16. King Otho sanctions the new con- 

stitution. 
1847. Greece is disttirbed by petty insurrections 
this year. 

1849. Oct. 28. A<1mii-al Parker, with the British 

Mediterranean fleet, an-ives in Besika 
Bay. 

1850. Jan. 18. The Piraeus is blockaded by the 

British fleet. March 1. France acts, as 
mediator, and the blockade is discontinued. 



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April 25. Negotiations prove useless, and 
the blockade is recommenced. 

Feb. 10. The Albanians revolt against the 
Turks. March 28. The Turkish ambassador 
leaves Athens. May 18. The allied powers 
declare Greece in a state of blockade. 
May 25. The French and English land at 
the Piraeus. May 26. Otho issues a decla- 
ration of neutrality in the Russo-Tui-kish 
war. 

The French and English finally evacuate 
Greece. 

The Greeks sytnpathize warmly with the 
Italians in theu- war of independence, and 
organize a committee to aid them. 

July 1. The princes of the Orleans family 
visit Athens. Nov. The king becomes very 
unpopular. 



Geeek Chttkch. — The bishops of Constan- 
tinople aimed at equal dignity with the pope 
of Kome, from the foundation of their city. 
In 734 they condemned image-worship, in 
opposition to the Eomish church, and in 
767 accused their western brethren of heresy 
respecting the doctrine of the Holy Ghost. 
The result was, that the two churches became 
practically separate, and in spite of the 
attempts of the council of Florence in 1439 
to procure a union, and of the Act of 
Union, concluded in 1596, they have never 
reunited. The principal confessions of faith 
of the Greek Church are Cyril Lucar's, 
which appeared in 1621 ; and the Orthodox 
Confession of 1643. 

Greek Fiee. — This combustible missile is 
said to have been invented by CaUinicus, 
A.D. 672, though it was probably an earlier 
discovery of the Arabian chemists. It was 
blown through copper tubes upon the ob- 
ject to be ignited, and was much employed 
in the crusades for burning ships. This fire 
burnt freely in water, and was, indeed, almost 
inextinguishable. It was supplanted by gun- 
powder. 

Geeek Language. — Theodore, archbishop 
of Canterbury A.D. 668, who was sent to Bri- 
tain by VitaUan, brought a collection of Greek 
documents with him, and imparted a know- 
ledge of the language to several of the 
natives. Charlemagne was able to read it, 
and about the year 1000 it was employed by 
a congregation of Greek refugees in Toul, in 
the celebration of their rehgious worship. 
It continued a hving language at Constan- 
tinople until the city was captured by- 
Mohammed II., in 1453. It was taught at 
Paris in 1458, and was printed at Milan in 
1481. Comelio ViteUi taught it at Oxford 
in 1488, and WUliam Grocyn, the first 
eminent English professor of the language, 
commenced his efforts to diffuse a knowledge 
of Greek at the same place in 1491. The first 
Greek lecture was established at Oxford in 
1517. The language was first taught in Scot- 
land, at Montrose, in 1534. During the 17th 
century it was much neglected ; but Kuster 
and Fabricius restored the study at the end 
of the century. The most eminent English 
Greek scholars are Eichard Bentley, 1662 — 
1742; Parr, 1747—1825; Burney, 1757— 
1817 ; and Porson, 1759—1808. 



GEE 

Green-bag Inquirt. — This is the name 
given to an investigation into the nature of 
the contents of a green bag full of papers, 
alleged to be of seditious import, which was 
laid before Parhament by the Prince Eegent 
Feb. 3, 1817, On the 4th both houses ap- 
pointed secret committees, who presented 
their reports Feb. 18 and 19. Bills for the 
suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, and 
for the prevention of seditious meetings, 
were moved on the 24th, and the Habeas 
Corpus Suspension Act passed March 3. 
The bin for restraining seditious meetings 
was passed March 25. 

Greenland (North America). — This 
country was probably discovered and inha- 
bited by settlers from IS'orway , at least as early 
as A.D. 830, as Gregory IV. published a buU 
in 835, in which especial mention is made of 
the Greenlanders. The Iceland Chronicle, 
and other authorities, however, fix its dis- 
covery in the year 982. In 1122, Arnold 
became the first bishop of Greenland, and 
in 1256 the inhabitants attempted to throw 
off the yoke of the Norwegians. In 1576 
part of the coast was explored by Martin 
Frobisher, and in 16'i5 and succeeding years 
the Danes sent expeditions to colonize the 
country. They all failed, until the Nor- 
wegian missionary Hans Egede arrived 
there in 1721, and founded Godhaab. In 
1733 the Moravians estabhshed a mission, 
and the small -pox carried off 3,000 of 
the natives. The coimtry was explored 
by Captain Scoresby in 1822, and by 
Captain Graab between the years 1829 and 
1831. 

Greenock (Kenfrewshire) . — In 1635 
Charles I. granted a charter to John Shaw, 
erecting the lands of Wester Greenock, and 
the town and village of Greenock, into a 
burgh of barony, and in 1670 Sir John Shaw, 
son of the above-named, obtained another 
charter, incorporating the lands of Finnart 
with the barony of Wester Greenock, under 
the title of the burgh of Greenock. The 
first harbour at Greenock was built between 
1707 and 1710. James Watt was born at this 
place, Jan. 19, 1736. By a charter granted 
Sept. 2, 1751, the election of the magistrates 
was intrusted to the inhabitants, and the 
magistrates themselves received considerable 
enlargement of authority. This charter is 
the basis of the prosperity of Greenock. The 
town-hall was erected in 1766, from Mr. Watt's 
designs, and the gaol in 1810. The new east 
harbour was commenced in 1806 and finished 
in 1811, and the west quay was rebuilt and 
enlarged between 1807 and 1811. The Cham- 
ber of Commerce and Manufactures was 
incorporated by royal charter in 1813. The 
dry, or graving dock, was commenced in 
August, 1813, and completed in September, 
1825. Sir Francis Chantrey's statue of Watt 
was erected in 1832. Victoria Harbour was 
comcmenced in 1846, and opened in October, 
1850. 

Green Park (London) was first inclosed 
in the reign of Charles II. by Le Notre. In 
1767 it was reduced in size by George III., 



GEE 

who wished to enlarge the gardens of old 
Buckingham House. 

Greenwich Hospital (Kent). — This in- 
stitution occupies the site of a former royal 
palace, which appears to have existed as 
early as the reign of Edward I. The park 
was commenced by Hiimphrey, duke of 
Gloucester, in 1433, and in 1465 the park 
and palace were bestowed by Edward IV. on 
his queen, Ehzabeth WoodviHe. Henry VII. 
enlarged the palace and founded a convent. 
Henry VIII. was bom here June 28, 1491, 
and married to Catherine of Aragon June 3, 
1509. Queen Mary was born here Feb. 8, 
1515, and Queen Elizabeth Sept. 7, 1-533. It 
was also the scene of Henry's marriage with 
Anne of Cleves, Jan. 6, 154<0, and of the death 
of Edward VI., July 6, 1553. In 1654 the 
palace became the residence of the Lord- 
Protector ; but it reverted to the crown in 
1660, and was enlarged by Charles II., who 
did not live to carry out his plans in relation 
to the building. The patent for the erection 
of the hospital was granted by WiUiam III. & 
Mary, Oct. 25, 1694, and the foundation- 
stone of the new buildings was laid by John 
Evelyn, June 30, 1696. In December, 1704, 
the liospital was sufficiently advanced to 
receive forty-two seamen as inmates. Among 
the sources whence the fuuds for this noble 
institution were derived, may be mentioned, 
a duty of sLxpence per month from every 
seaman, first levied in 1696 ; the forfeited 
property of the pirate Kid, in 1705 ; and the 
estates of the last earl of Derwentwater, in 
1735. The infirmary was erected in 1763. 
The commissioners became a body corporate 
by a charter dated Dec. 6, 1775. The chapel, 
dining-hall, and other portions of the hos- 
pital, were destroyed by fire Jan. 2, 1779. 
The chapel was rebuilt, and opened Sept. 20, 
1789. A portion of the infirmary was also 
burnt down in 1811. The Painted Hall was 
established in 1823. The accommodation at 
[ the hospital is for 2,710 pensioners ; but in 
1859 there were only 1,600 inmates. The 
I annual revenue is between £150,000 and 
{ £160,000. 

Greenwich Obseevatort (Kent). — This 

I institution stands on the site of a tower built 

\ by Duke Humphrey. It was founded Aug. 10, 

j 1675, inconsequence of the need for more cor- 

I rect tables of the moon and fixed stars than 

; were afforded by the observations of Tycho 

j Brahe. Mr. Flamsteed was the first astro- 

! nomer royal, and the observatory was for 

1 some time known as Flamsteed House, in 

consequence. In 1725 a mural quadrant 

was erected, a zenith sector was added in 

1727, and in 1750 the institution was enriched 

by many valuable instruments. Since Nov. 

30, 1767, the observations made here have 

been published annually. Trough ton' a 

mural circle was erected in 1812, and his 

transit-instrtunent in 1816. The magnetic 

observatory was erected in 1837 and 1838, 

and the new south dome for the altitude and 

azimuth instrument in 1844. The electric 

time-baU in the Strand was erected, and 

made to act simultaneously with that at 



GEE 



Greenwich observatory in August, 1852. A 
splendid equatorial, designed by Airy, was 
completed in the spring of 1860. 

GHEGOKiAif Calendar. (/See Calendar.) 

Gkegoeian Chant. — Gregory L (a.d. 
690 — 604) added four additional tones to 
the Ambrosian chant, and the whole was 
accordingly named after him the Gregorian 
chant. 

Grenada, or Granada (Antilles). — This 
island was discovered by Christopher Colum- 
bus in his third voyage of discovery a.d. 1498. 
The French under Du Parquet formed a 
settlement in the island in 1650, when the 
Caribs, the aboriginal inhabitants, were 
exterminated. Grenada capitulated to an 
Enghsh force, April 5, 1762, and was ceded 
to England by the ninth article of the treat}' 
of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. The French having 
assailed it with a very superior force in July, 
1779, succeeded in wresting it from the 
English, to whom it was restored by the 
8th article of the treaty of Versailles, 
Sept. 3, 1783. The French planters rebelled 
against the Enghsh in 1795, and the revolt 
was suppressed Jime 10, 1796. 

Grenade, or Hand Grenade, a kind of 
shell, first used a.d. 1594. 

Grenadier. — In 1667 a few men were 
appointed iu the French army to throw the 
grenades during a siege. Cavalry, called 
horse grenadiers, were appointed in France 
in 1676. Grenadiers formed a portion of 
the Enghsh army in 1684. They were 
armed with firelocks, shngs, swords, dag- 
gers, and pouches with grenades in 1686. 

Grenadines (Atlantic). — A cluster of 
small islands between St. Vincent and 
Grenada, two of the Antilles, are called 
Grenadines. They were ceded to England 
by the 9th article of the treaty of Paris, 
Feb. 10, 1763. The crown lands were sold 
by auction March 26, 1764. The French 
and the Caribs rebelled here in 1795. 

Grenoble (France) occupies the site of 
the ancient Cularo, which (a.d. 379) was 
called Gratianopohs, in honour of the em- 
peror Gratian, who enlarged it. Mention of a 
bishop occurs a.d. 381. Eiots occurred here 
A.D. 1788. Pius VII. was brought a prisoner 
to Grenoble in July, 1809 ; thence he was 
transferred to Savona, and afterwards to 
Fontainebleau. Greno>)le was the first 
place that received Napoleon I. on his 
return from Elba in March, 1814, and here 
the emperor issued three decrees. An 
attempt at insurrection was suppressed 
May 4, 1816; and disturbances occurred 
Dee. 18, 1831. 

Grenville Administration was formed 
soon after the dissolution of the Bute Ad- 
ministration, April 8, 1763, George Grenville 
becoming fii-st lord of the Treasury and 
chancellor of the Exchequer, April 16, 1763. 
The cabinet was thus constituted : — 

Treasury and Chancellor- "I-,, ~ 

ship of the Exchequer ;^- GrenviUe. 

( Lord Henley, created Earl 
Lord Chancellor < oi' Northington May 19. 

I 1764. 



GEE 

President of the Council. .Earl Granville. 

Pvivy Seal Duke of Marlborough. 

Principal Secretaries of) Earl of Sandwich and 

State J- Earl of Halifax. 

Admiralty Earl of Egmont. 

Secretary at War Mr. Ellis. 

Ordnance Marcxuis of Granby. 

The duke of Bedford took Earl GranviUe's 
place as president of the council Sept. 2, 
1763. This ministry was dissolved in July, 
1765. {See Eockingham (First) Adminis- 
tration.) 

Gresham College (London). — This in- 
stitution was founded by Sir Thomas 
Gresham, who gave the Eoyal Exchange 
to the corporation of London and the 
Mercers' Company, on the condition that 
they instituted a series of lectures on 
divinity, civil law, astronomy, music, geo- 
metry, rhetoric, and physic, May 24, 1575. 
He died Nov. 21, 1579, and the lectures 
commenced in his house, which he be- 
queathed for the purpose, in June, 1597. 
The first Gresham College was pulled dovni 
in 1768, and the site used for the Excise 
Ofiice. The lectures were dehvered in a 
room over the Eoyal Exchange, untU the 
present college was opened, Nov. 2, 1843. 
The Eoyal Society held its meetings at this 
institution from 1662 to 1710. 

Gretna Green (Scotland). — This village, 
in Dumfriesshire, at a short distance from 
the English frontier, was long notorious for 
irregular marriages. The Fleet marriages 
having been declared Ulegal in 1754, runaway 
lovers repaired to Scotland, and a celebrated 
Fleet parson advertised his removal to 
Gretna. He was succeeded by an old 
soldier named Gordon, who in his" turn was 
followed by Joseph Paisley, called " the 
blacksmith," originally a weaver, and at one 
time a tobacconist. He died in 1814. By 
19 & 20 Vict. c. 196 (July 29, 1856), Gretna 
Green and Border marriages were abolished. 
It provided that, after Dec. 31, 1856, "no 
irregular marriage contracted in Scotland 
by declaration, acknowledgment, or cere- 
mony, vrill be valid, unless one of the parties 
has his or her residence in Scotland, or had 
hved therein for twenty-one days next pre- 
ceding such marriage ; any law, custom, or 
usage to the contrary notwithstanding." 

Grey Administration was formed soon 
after the resignation of the Wellington 
Administration, Nov, 16, 1830, The cabinet 
consisted of 

Treasury Earl Grey. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Brougham. 

President of the Council . .Marquis of Lansdowne. 

Privy Seal Lord Durham. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . .Viscount Althorp. 

Home Secretary Viscount Melbourne. 

Foreign Secretary Viscoimt Palmerston. 

Colonial Secretary Viscount Goderich. 

Admiralty Sir James Graham, Bart. 

Board of Control Mr. C. Grant. 

Board of Trade Lord Auckland. 

Postmaster-General Duke of Richmond. 

Chancellor of the Duchy 1 t « .q -Er„ii„„ j 

of Lancaster "^ | Lord Holland. 

Without office Earl of Carlisle. 

The Hon. E. G. S. Stanley, afterwards earl 
395 



of Derby, as chief secretary of Ireland, and 
Lord John Eussell, as paymaster of the 
forces, were made members of the cabinet. 
Having been defeated on an amendment to 
their Eeform Bill in the House of Lords, 
this cabinet resigned, May 9, 1832. The 
Opposition refused to form an administration, 
and the Grey cabinet was restored. The 
Hon. E. Gr. S. Stanley became colonial 
secretary March 28, 1833, Sir John Hob- 
house taking his place as chief secretary for 
Ireland ; and Viscount Goderich, afterwards 
earl of Ripon, succeeded Lord Durham as 
privy seal, April 3, 1833. This ministry was 
dissolved July 9, 1834. {Ses Melboxjene 
Administeation.) 

GEETTOWif, or San Juan de Nicabagtja 
(Central America) . — This town, which was 
originally founded by the Spaniards, was de- 
clared a free port under its present title, 
Jan. 1, 1851. It was bombarded by a United 
States ship of war in 1854, iu retaliation for an 
alleged insult to the American consul. 

Geisoxs (Switzerland) . — In May, 1424, 
the abbot and lords of Upper Ehsetiamet the 
deputies of the Swiss valleys, and the towns of 
Itantz and Tusis, near the village of Trons, 
and there formed a league, which received the 
name of the Grey League, or the League of 
the Grisous, from the colour of the smocks 
worn by the deputies. Gradually the name 
extended to the district and its inhabitants, 
who formed an aUiance with the Swiss can- 
tons in 1497. In 1499 they defeated the 
troops of the emperor Maximilian at Mal- 
sheraid, and in 1512 they took possession of 
Valtehne, Chiavenua, and Bormio, south of 
the Alps. The Grisons received the Refor- 
mation early. In 1603 they formed an alli- 
ance with Venice for the protection of 
Valteline against the Spaniards ; but in 1620 
the natives of that province rebelled against 
them, and the territory feU into the hands of 
Spaia. A forced treaty was concluded in 
1622, by which Valteline and Bormio were 
surrendered, and the independence of the 
Grisons annihilated ; but in September the in- 
habitants rose in arms, and compelled the 
Spaniards to retire. Valtehne was restored to 
the Grisons in 1639. In 1797 the Itahan pro- 
vinces were again wrested from them by 
If apoleon, and in March, 1799, their country 
was overrun by the French. The Grisons 
became a canton of Smtzerland by the 
Act of Mediation in 1803. 

Geoats were first ordered to be coined 
A.D. 1227 and 1249. Their proper value was 
fourpence, but the term was occasionally 
apphed to coins of different worth. Thus 
Stow, imder the year 1504, speaks of " a 
groat, the value of which was \M." Half-groats 
were first coined in 1351. The modern four- 
penny piece was struck in the reign of 
WiUiam IV. 

Geocees' Compastt (London). — The ori- 
ginal ittle of this company was " Pepperers," 
who are mentioned as a separate fraternity 
in the time of Henry II., though the guild 
probably originated at a much earHer date. 
The present company was founded June 12, 



GEO 

1345, and the name " grocers," which first 
appears in a petition of the Commons in 
1361, was not adopted by them till 1376. The 
meaning of the term is somewhat disputed, 
though it is most probably a contracted 
form of "engrossers," the name apphed to 
dealers in any ware, who by monopoly or 
other means, contrived to raise the price of 
their goods The haU was founded May 8, 
1427, and the company received its first 
patent of confirmation in 1429. The great 
fire of 1666 seriously damaged the hall, 
which was restored in 1668-9, by Sir John 
Cutler. In 1681 it was again in ruins, and 
was renovated by Sir John Moore, and in 
1694 it was let to the Bank of England. The 
present hall was built in 1802, and repaired 
in 1827. 

Geochow (Battle).— The Poles defeated 
the Russians at this place, near Warsaw, 
after an obstinate contest that lasted two 
days, Feb. 19 and 20, 1831. The Russians lost 
7,000 and the Poles only 2,000 men. 

Geodno (Poland). — This town is of ancient 
and uncertain origin. In 1184 it suffered 
considerably from a fire, and in 1283 was 
taken by the Teutonic knights. The Prus- 
sians made a futile attempt at its capture in 
1306. Grodno was a seat of the Pohsh diet 
from 1673 to 1752. In 1708 it was taken by 
Charles XII., and in 1753 the greater part 
was destroyed by fire. The Russians seized 
it in 1792, and erected it into the chief town 
of Lithuania in 1795. It has since been made 
the chief town of a province of the same name. 

Geog. — Admiral Edward Vernon, after 
the reduction of Porto BeUo, Nov. 21, 
1739, introduced the use of rum-and-water 
amongst his crew. " In bad weather," 
according to Mr. Vaux (Notes and Queries, i. 
p. 52) " he was in the habit of walking the 
deck in a rough grogram cloak, and thence 
had obtained the nickname of Old Crrog in 
the service. This is, I beheve, the origin of 
the name^ro^, apphed oinginaUy to rM»»-and- 
water." 

GEONiNGEif (Holland). — This town was 
founded towards the latter part of the 6th 
century, and possessed some conmiercial 
influence in the 9th century, when it was 
seized and destroyed by the JS^orthmen. In 
1110 the town was rebuilt, and subsequently 
formed part of the Spanish dominions. In 
1576 it was incorporated with the United 
Provinces, but it afterwards fell again into 
the hands of the Spaniards, from whom it 
was finally wrested by Prince Maurice in 
1594. The citadel was erected in 1607, and 
the university founded in 1614. In 1678 
Groningen repelled a siege by the elector of 
Cologne and bishop of Munster. The in- 
stitution for the deaf and dumb was foimded 
in 1790, and the town-hall in 1793. In 1795 
it was seized by the French, under General 
Macdonald. The Hotel de VOle was buUt in 
1810. 

Geoss-Beeeen (Battle) . — Bemadotte, 
commanding an allied army, defeated Napo- 
leon I. and the Saxons at this place, near 
Berlin, Aug. 23, 1813. 



GEO 

Gross GiOGAN (Prussia).— The Prussians 
took this city, on the Oder, a.d. 1741. The 
French invested it in October, 1806, and it 
surrendered early in December. The allies 
blockaded it Aug. 17, 1813, and it capitulated 
April 10, 1814. 

Geub Street (London) was inhabited, be- 
fore the discovery of printing, by text-writers, 
who wrote all sorts of books then in use. John 
Foxe, the martyrologist, John Speed, the his- 
torian, and other authors, resided in Grub 
Street. Memoirs of the Society of Grub 
Street appeared in 1737. Its name was 
changed to that of Milton Street in 1830. 

Guadalajara (Spain).— A corruption of 
Guidalhichara or Guadalaruaca, the name 
bestowed upon this town by the Moors, who 
captured it a.d. 714. 

GuADALOTTPE (West Indies). — This island 
was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1493. In 
1635 it was seized by the French, and on 
Jan, 29, 1759, was taken by the English, 
who restored it in 1763. It was again seized 
by them in 1794 and Feb. 5, 1810, when it 
was proposed to cede it to Sweden ; but at 
the peace of 1814 it was restored to France. 
The EngUsh again captured it Aug. 10, 1815, 
and it was ultimately and finally restored to 
France July 23, 1816. Guadaloupe suffered 
severely from an earthquake in 1843. 

GuADix (Spain) . — This is said to have 
been the seat of the first bishopric erected in 
Spain. Ferdinand of Castile captured it in 
December, 1489. 

Gu ALICE, or Gw ALICE (Hiudostau). — This 
town was under the government of rajahs as 
early as a.d. 1008. In 1197 it was taken by 
the Mohammedans, and in 1235 submitted to 
Altumsh, king of Delhi . In 1519 it was taken 
by Ibrahim Lodi, the last Patau emperor 
of Delhi, and in 1543 it was surrendered to 
Shere Khan, the Affghan. Gualior was taken 
by the British, under Major Popham, Aug. 3, 
1780. In 1784 it was seized by Madhajee 
Scindia, and in 1803 a treaty was concluded, 
by which it was to be surrendered to the 
British. As this treaty was not observed, 
the town was again invested by the Enghsh 
under Sir Henry White, who effected its 
capture Feb. 5, 1804. In 1805 it was again 
ceded to Scindia ; but it was recaptured by 
the English under Sir Hugh Gough, Dec. 29, 
1843. 

Guam, or Guahon. — One of the Ladrones, 
discovered by the Portuguese Fernando 
Magellan, a.d. 1521. 

GuAis'C. — Prescott maintains that the 
Peruvians made great use of this valuable 
manure before Peru was visited by the 
Spaniards. Herrera refers to it in a 
work published in 1601, and in another 
pubhshed in 1609. It was described by 
Ulloa in 1748, and first brought to Europe 
by Humboldt in 1804. It is chiefly ob- 
tained from the Chincha and Lobos islands, 
situated off the coast of Pferu. In 1839 
the sole right to ship guano for nine years 
was sold to a private firm by the Peru- 
vian and Bolivian governments; but the 
contract was cancelled by the government of 



GUE 

Peru in 1841. The monopoly has, however, 
been recently revived. Guano was dis- 
covered on the island of Ichaboe, on the 
coast of Africa, in 1843, and by the next 
year the whole stock was exhausted. Large 
deposits of this manure were discovered in 
Van Diemen's Land in April, 1861. 

GuAEDS. — The celebrated Scotch guards 
of the kings of France were enrolled by 
Charles VII. a.d. 1453. The English yeomen 
of the guard were instituted by Henry VII. 
in 1485. The four troops of horse-guards 
were enrolled in 1660, 1661, 1693, and 1702 ; 
the foot-guards in 1660, — the second regiment 
is the celebrated Coldstream Guards (q. v.) ; 
the horse grenadier guards in 1693 and 1702. 
The French National Guard was instituted in 
1789, the Imperial guard in 1804, and the 
Garde Mobile in 1848. 

Guards' Club (London). — This club is re- 
stricted to officers of the household troops. 
The house, designed by Mr. Henry Harrison, 
was commenced in 1848. 

GuASTALLA (Italy). — This Italian duchy 
passed into the hands of the dukes of 
Mantua a.d. 1677, and in 1746 fell under the 
dominion of Austria. In 1748 it was ceded 
to the duke of Parma by the treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, and in 1796 was incorporated 
with the Italian repubhc by Napoleon. In 
1815 it formed a portion of the appanage of 
the empress Maria Louisa, and in 1847 was 

ceded to the duke of Modena. The battle 

of Guastalla was fought near the chief town 
of the above duchy, between the French and 
Sardinian forces under Charles Emanuel 
III., and the Austrians, Sept. 19, 1734, 
when the latter were defeated. 

Guatemala (Central America). — This 
country was discovered by the Spaniards a.d. 
1502. In 1524 they founded the town of 
Old Guatemala, or Guatemala-la-Vieja, which 
was overthrown by earthquakes in 1541 and 
1773. After the latter disaster, the town 
of New Guatemala was founded in 1776, 
and the old town was rebuilt in 1799. In 
1821 the colony revolted from Spain, and 
became a federal republic in 1823. Its 
limits were diminished in 1839 by the seces- 
sion .of Honduras, and in 1846 each of the 
states forming the confederation adopted 
an independent government. Guatemala is 
governed according to the constitution of 
Oct. 19, 1851, by a president and legislative 
chamber. The bishopric of Guatemala was 
estabhshed in 1533. 

Guebees, Paesees, or Fiee-Woe- 
SHIPPERS. — The Guebres of Persia, and the 
Parsees of Bombay, are descended from the 
fire-worshippers of antiquity, a sect which 
arose about B.C. 2120, and was suppressed 
by the Greeks about B.C. 330. It was re- 
stored by Ardeschir Badekhan a.d. 225, and 
again proscribed by the Mohammedans in 
652, when Yezdijud III. was deposed and 
slain. A large number of his subjects emi- 
grated to Gujerat, in India, where they were 
known as Parsees, cr Persians. The modern 
Guebres are chiefly confined to the city of 
Yezd, in Persia. 

397 



GUE 

GuELDEELAND (Holland) . — This duchy 
was sold to Charles I., duke of Burgundy, 
A.D. 1472, and reverted to the empire as an 
escheated fief in 1503. In 1528 it was held 
by its duke as a fief of Brabant and Holland, 
and in 1538 the succession was settled on the 
duke of Cleves. In 1579 it took part in the 
Union of Utrecht, and in 1672 submitted to 
the French, who evacuated its borders the 
following year. It was re-admitted to the 
Union in 1674, and received an amended con- 
stitution in 1748. 

GuBLPHic Ordee.— This Hanoverian 
order of knighthood was founded by the 
Prince Kegent, Aug. 12, 1815. The statutes 
were amended May 20, 1841. 

GuELPHS. (See Ghibellines.) 

GuEBAUDE (France). — After the cele- 
brated battle of Auray, fought Sept. 29, 
1364, between the forces of the two pre- 
tenders for the duchy of Britanny, John of 
Montfort and Charles of Blois, in which the 
latter was slain, a treaty was concluded at 
Gueraude, by the intervention of Charles V., 
April 12, 1365. It left Montfort in quiet 
possession of the duchy, which was to revert 
to the widow of Charles of Blois in case 
Montfort died without heirs. 

Guernsey (Enghsh Channel). — This is- 
land was called Holy Island in the 10th 
century, owing to the numerous monks who 
inhabited it. In 1035 it was shared between 
NigeUius, or Neel, viscount of St. Sauveur, 
and Earl Kobert of Iformandy. Cornet 
Castle was founded about 1204, and St. 
Peter's Church consecrated in 1312, Queen 
EUzabeth founded Elizabeth's CoUege in 
1563, and Fort George was commenced in 
1775. The French have made numerous 
efibrts to take Guernsey, the last of which 
occurred in 1780. 

GuEux, or "Beggaes," was the name 
contemptuously applied by the count of 
Barlaimont to the confederate nobles of 
the Low Countries, who presented a re- 
monstrance against the Inquisition to the 
governess Margaret, April 5, 1566, and was 
adopted by them as the name of their party 
the same evening. In 1568 they defeated the 
Spaniards at Heiliger Lee, but later in the 
year were themselves compelled, by the duke 
of Alva, to disband their forces. In 1570 they 
petitioned the diet of Spires against the 
cruelties of the Spaniards, and, in 1571, 
were refused asylum in Denmark, Sweden, 
and England. In 1572 they again proved 
"victorious, and seized Briel and Flushing. 
Kammekens, Middleburg, and Arnemuyden 
also surrendered to them in the two follow- 
ing years. The celebrated WiUiam, prince 
of Orange, was a member of this party. 
There were also the Wild Gueux, a band of 
Dutch Protestants di-iven into outlawry and 
plunder by Alva, in 1568, and the Water 
Gueux, apartyof privateers, who commenced 
their ravages in 1569. 

Gtjiana, or GrxAifA (S. America). — This 
country was discovered by Columbus, in 
August, 1498, and visited by Yincent Pinzon 
in 1500. The first town, St. Thomas, of 



GUI 

Guiana, was founded by Diego de Ordaa 
in 1531, and the Dutch established their set- 
tlement of New Zealand in 1580. Sir 
Walter Kaleigh visited Guiana in 1595, 
and commenced his exploration of the 
country, in the hope of discovering rich 
gold-mines in 1617. Slave labour was in- 
troduced into the country in 1621. The 
three colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, 
and Berbice, were united and first called 
British Guiana in 1803. (See Beebice, 

Demeeaea, and Esseqtjibo.) Dutch 

Guiana. (See Sueinam.) Feench Gui- 
ana. — The first French settlements in Guiana 
were formed in 1604. In 1809 their colony 
was seized by the English and Portuguese, 
who restored it to France in 1815. 

GuiENNE, or GuTENNE (Fraucc). — This 
province, situated to the north of Gascony, 
with which it is often confounded, comprised 
part of Aquitania, which name, according to 
some authorities, became corrupted into 
Guienne. Bordeaux was its capital. W^hat 
was termed the duchy of Guienne passed 
into the possession of the English, May 20, 
1259, A.D. The French seized it in 1293, and 
it became the subject of many struggles, until 
it finally came into the possession of France 
in 1453. 

Guildfoed (Surrey) is first men- 
tioned in the wiU of Alfred the Great, 
who bequeathed it to his neighbour Athel- 
wald. In 1036 it was the scene of the mur- 
der of the Norman friends of the Saxon 
atheling Alfred, by order of Godwin, earl of 
Kent ; and, in 1216, its castle was taken by 
the French dauphin Louis. The town re- 
ceived its charter of incorporation from 
Edward III., in 1337. The Koyal Grammar- 
school was founded in 1509, and Archbishop 
Abbot's Hospital in 1619. The market-house 
was erected in 1758, the prison finished in 
1822, and the Guildford Institution founded 
in 1844. 

Guildhall (London) was founded 
A.D. 1411, and the kitchen was erected 
ia 1501. It suflTered much from the great 
fire of 1666, but was rebuilt in 1669, though 
the King -street front was not restored 
till 1789. The statues of Gog and Magog 
were set up in the haU in 1708. The alhed 
sovereigns were entertained here at a civic 
banquet, June 18, 1814, and the emperor and 
empress of the French received a similar 
compliment, April 19, 1855. 

Guilds. — Enghsh guilds were originally 
political in their nature, arising from the 
Anglo-Saxon custom of frank -pledges. 
Trade guilds existed as early as the time of 
Athelstan (a.d. 925 — 941), one of the earliest 
being the GHlda Theutonicorum, or Steelyard 
Merchants, who were established in England 
before 967. The Knigten guild existed in 
the reign of Edgar (957 — 975), and received 
a charter of Edward the Confessor (1041 — 
1066). These are the most important of 
the ancient guilds, though there were many 
others. The substitution of the term livery 
company for that of guild was made in the 
reign of Edward III. 



GUI 

GtriLtOTiNE. — This instrument of decapita- 
tion was invented in 1785, by Joseph Ignace 
Gxiillotin, a celebrated French physician. 
It was first employed April 25, 1792. The 
inventor was himself condemned to suffer by 
this machine, butwas dehveredby the counter- 
revolution of 9 Thermido-r (July 27), 1794. 

GuiMAEAENS (Portugal), founded B.C. 
500, was made the capital of Portugal a.d. 
1107. 

Guinea (Africa) .—This name is apphed to 
the whole west coast of Africa between Cape 
Verga on the north, to Cape Negro on the 
south. It was first discovered by the Por- 
tuguese A.D. 1446, but the whole coast was 
not completely explored till 1484. The Eng- 
lish first traded with Guinea in 1530. They 
renewed their attempts in 1553, but the ad- 
venturers died from the unhealthy climate, 
without effecting any negotiations. A second 
expedition was, however, equipped in 1554, 
which met with better success, and in 1588 a 
company was chartered by Queen EHzabeth 
for the sole object of trading to this country. 

Guineas. — So caUedbecause they were ori- 
ginally made of gold brought from the coast 
of Guinea. Guineas and half-guineas were 
first struck a.d. 1663, the device being an ele- 
phant, to signify the country whence the gold 
was brought. Quarter- guineas were first 
coined in 1718. The last coinage of guineas 
took place in 1813. The value of this coin 
has varied considerably at different periods. 
When first struck it passed for 20s. ; but in 
1695 its worth had increased to 30s. It was 
reduced to 25s. March 25, 1696, and to 22s. 
the following 10th of AprU. Its value was 
finally fixed at 21s., by a proclamation of 
Dec. 22, 1717. The guinea was gradually 
withdrawn after the introduction of sove- 
reigns in 1817. 

GuiNE&ATE (Battle). — Henry VIII., at the 
head of an English army, defeated the French 
at this place, in Artois, Aug. 16, 1513. The 
enemy fied with such precipitation that it is 
usually called the Battle of the Spurs. 

GuiSNES, or GuiNES (France). — It was 
near this town, in Picardy, that Henry YIII. 
and Francis I. met in 1520, at the celebrated 
Field of the Cloth of Gold {q.v.) 

GuLisTAN. — This peace between Persia and 
Eussia was concluded Oct. 12, 1813. Persia 
ceded to Eussia a number of governments in 
the Caspian Sea, and the whole of Daghistan, 
at the same time renouncing all claims to 
Georgia, Mingrelia, and other provinces. 

GuMBiNNEN (Prussia). — Frederick Wil- 
liam I. erected this small village into a town 
A.D. 1732. 

Gun. — The Armstrong gun, invented by 
Sir WiUiam Armstrong, was adopted by the 
British artillery service, Feb. 26, 1859. {See 
Artillery, Cannon, &c.) 

Gun- Cotton.— In 1846 Schonbein exhi- 
bited specimens of this material to the Bri- 
tish Association at Southampton ; but the 
method of its preparation was not published 
tiU the enrolment of the patent in April, 1847. 
It was found inapplicable to military and 
mining purposes, owing to its habihty to 



GUT 

spontaneous combustion, but has proved of 
great service in photography. {See Collo- 
dion.) 

Gunpowder. — This substance was known 
to the Chinese at a very early period. It 
appears to have been employed against 
Alexander the Great by some Hindoo tribes, 
B.C. 355, and to have been applied to military 
purposes in China a.d. 85. It is described 
in an Arabic MS. of the year 1249, and also 
in the works of Eoger Bacon (1270), who is 
regarded by some as the author of the in- 
vention, though other authorities ascribe it 
to the German monk Barthold Schwartz, in 
1320. Its exportation from England was pro- 
hibited by Henry V. in 1414, and in 1625 its 
manufactvire was monopolized by Charles I. 
Eestrictions as to the quantity manufactured 
at a time, or stored in one place, were im- 
posed by 12 Geo. III. c. 61 (1772), which 
prohibited dealers from keeping a stock of 
more than 200 lb. 

Gunpowder Plot. — This conspiracy of 
the papists, to destroy the king, lords, and 
commons, while assembled in parliament, 
by means of gunpowder, was contrived by 
Eobert Catesby in the spring of 1604. He 
was joined by Thomas Winter, who, on 
the 22nd of April, secured the co-operation 
of Guy Fawkes, a native of Yorkshire, and 
a soldier of fortune. In furtherance of his 
scheme, Catesby hired a house close to the 
old palace of Westminster, and began to 
mine under the palace Dec, 11. They were, 
however, compelled to relinquish their 
mining ; but hearing that a cellar under 
the house was to let, Catesby hired it, 
March 25, 1605. Thirty barrels and two hogs- 
heads of gunpowder were concealed here 
under sticks and fagots. Everything was 
now prepared for the execution of the plot, 
which was arranged for Nov. 5, on which 
day parliament was to be re-opened, when 
an anonymous letter sent to Lord Monteagle, 
Oct. 26, "to warn him, led to the disclosure 
of the whole affair. This letter was laid 
before James I., Nov. 1, and he at once 
inferred that the threatened danger was from 
gunpowder, and ordered that the cellars 
beneath the parliament house should be 
searched. This was done on the evening of 
the 4th, when Fawkes was discovered in 
charge of the vault, with dark lantern and 
matches, ready to fire the mine. The other 
conspirators fled to Holbeach House, in 
Worcestershire, where they were attacked 
Nov. 8. Catesby, Percy, and the two 
Wrights, fell sword in hand, and the others 
were made prisoners. Their trial commen- 
ced Jan. 27, 1606, and on the 30th, Digby, 
Eobert Winter, Grant, and Bates, were 
executed in St. Paul's Churchyard. Thomas 
Winter, Eookwood, Keys, and Guy Fawkes, 
suffered in Old Palace Yard, Westminster, 
on the 31st ; Henry Garnet, the Jesuit, was 
tried March 28, and executed at St. Paul's 
as an accessory. May 3. 

GuTTA Percha. — The properties of this 
Malayan tree were known to the natives of 
Malacca and the neighboui-ing countries, long 



before they were discovered by Europeans. 
The tree was first described by Doctor Mont- 
gomerie, of Bengal, in 1842^ and in 1843 
Doctor D'Ahneida exhibited a specimen of 
its inspissated juice to the Eoyal Society of 
Arts. 

Gut's Hospital (London). — This insti- 
tution was founded a. d. 1722, by Mr. Thomas 
Guy, bookseller, who devoted £18,793. 16s. Id. 
to the erection of the building, and 
£219,499. Os. 4d. to its endowment. His 
statue was erected in the court Feb. 11, 1734. 
The front of the building was new-faced in 
1778, and in 1829 its funds were increased 
by a legacy of £196,115, bequeathed by 
Mr. Hunt, of Petersham. 

GtmnasitjM. — According to Plato, the 
Lacedaemonians established the first gymna- 
sium, and during the classical sera, every 
important town possessed a similar institu- 
tion, where the young practised racing, 
leaping, wresthng, boxing, &c. Solon com- 
piled a code of laws especially for the regu- 
lation of gymnasia, about B.C. 594. The 

first French gymnasium, for the instruction 
of the army in physical exercises, was founded 
at Paris a.d. 1818. 

Gymnastics. — By a decree of the French 
minister of pubhc instruction, of March 13, 
1854, gymnastics foiia a regular branch 
of instruction in all the royal colleges 
of the empire. 

Gtmnosophitje. — This was the name given 
by the Greeks to a sect of Hradoo philo- 
sophers who were remarkable for the asceti- 
cism of their manners and doctrines. They 
wore no clothing, taught the transmigration 
of the soul, and exhibited the most surprising 
contempt of death. Calanus burnt himself 
to death in the presence of Alexander the 
Great, about e.g. 325. 

Gypsies were for a long period supposed 
to be of Egyptian origin, their very name j 
being a corruption of the word Egj'ptians ; 
but it is now generally beheved that they 
are the descendants of some Hindoo Pariahs 
who were exiled from their country by 
Tamerlane at the commencement of the 
15th century. They first appeared in Europe, 
in the Danubian provinces, in 1417. In 1418 
they are found in Switzerland, and in 1422 in 
Italy. They appeared in France ia 1427, in 
Spain in 1447, ia England about 1512, and 
in Sweden in 1514. By 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10 
(1530) , they were ordered to quit the country, 
and severe ordinances were also issued against 
them by 1 & 2 PhU. & Mary, c. 4 (1554), 
and 5 EHz. c. 20 (1562), which made their 
continuance in England for more than a 
month a capital felony. In 1560 they were 
expelled from France, and ia 1591 from 
Spain ; but, ia spite of aU legislative enact- 
ments, they stiU exist in all the countries of 
Europe. The oppressive statutes against 
them in this country were repealed by 
23 Geo. III. e. 51 (1783), by 1 Geo. IV. c. 116 
(July 25, 1820), and by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 64 
(July 21, 1856) . Mr. Borrow commenced the 
translation of the Bible into the Eommany 
dialect (the language of the gypsies) ia 1836. 
400 



HAC 

Gteoscope. — This instrument for exhi- 
biting the peculiarities of rotatory motion, 
was invented by Fessel, of Cologne, and 
described by Foucault to the Academy of 
Paris in September, 1852. The principle 
of its action was discovered by Frisi as 
early as 1750. It has been applied to the 
illustration of the diurnal rotation of the 
earth on its axis, and has been improved by 
professors Pliicker and Wheatstone. 



131. 

Haaelem, or Haeblem (Holland). — This 
town existed in the time of Theodore I., 
count of Holland, who began to reign 
A.D. 913. The church of St. Bavon was 
erected by Albert of Bavaria in 1372. 
Haarlem is famous for its memorable siege 
by the Spaniards, under the duke of Alva. 
It lasted from December, 1572, to July, 
1573, when the town surrendered. The 
great organ of Haarlem was built by 
Christian Miiller, of Amsterdam, in 1738. 
It stands in the church of St. Bavon, and is 
considered one of the finest instruments in 
the world. An industrial exhibition was 
opened at this town July 4, 1825. The Lake 
of Haarlem was drained between the years 
1849 and 1851. 

Habeas Coepus. — A writ at com- 
mon law, issued for various purposes con- 
nected with the detention of prisoners. By 
2 Hen. V. st. 1, c. 2 (1414), there was no 
liberation under such a writ when the 
prisoner was confined on judgment at 
another's suit. Felons and murderers 
were allowed to be tried in the counties 
where their ofiences were committed, by 
6 Hen. VIII. c. 6 (1514). The celebrated 
Habeas Corpus Act, 31 Charles II. c. 2 
(May 27, 1677), specifies the modes of 
obtaining this writ, and renders the deten- 
tion of an English subject for any con- 
siderable time, Olegal, unless the law has 
pronounced the detention just. This act 
cannot be suspended, except by authority 
of parhament, which is never exerted for 
the purpose but at periods of great pubhc 
danger. 

Habeedashees' Company (London) was 
incorporated a.d. 1447, and received their 
coat of arms Ifov. 8, 1570. The original hall 
and laws of the association were destroyed 
by the Great Fire of 1666, in consequence of 
which the present hall was erected in 1667. 
New rules were adopted in 1675. 

Habsbueg (Switzerland). — This castle, 
the seat of the ancestors of the house of 
Austria, was fovmded a.d. 1020. It was 
destroyed in 1415. The ruins were visited 
by the emperor Francis, I. in 1815. 

Hackney Coaches. — The first vehicle of 
this kind was introduced at London a.d. 
1625. Captaia Baily placed four hackney 
coaches, to ply for hire, at the Maypole, 
in the Strand, in 1634. Their number 
was subsequently increased, and all restric- 
tions on this poiat were removed by 1 &. 2 



HAD 



IIAI 



Will. IV. c. 22, s. 9 (Sept. 22, 1831). The 
regulations respecting hackney coaches are 
embodied in 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (June 28, 
1853), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 127 (Aug. 20, 1853). 
The Lost-and-Found Office, for recovery of 
goods left in hackney coaches, was established 
by 55 Geo. III. c. 159, s. 9 (July 11, 1815). 

HADDiifGTON (Scotland) was created a 
burgh by David I., who reigned a.d. 1124 — 
1153. It was destroyed by John, king of 
England, in January, 1216, and, having been 
rebuilt, was againburned inl244. Edward III. 
burned it in 1355. The English took posses- 
sion of Haddington in 1544, and again in 
1548, and were compelled to retire in 
October, 1549. 

Hadeianople (Battles). — The most cele- 
brated was fought July 3, 323 a.d., between 
Constantine and Licinius, during the civil 
wars that followed the abdication of Diocle- 
tian, in which the latter was defeated. It 
was in this action that Constantine is said to 
have thrown himself into the river Hebrus 
with only twelve horsemen, and to have 

vanquished an army of 150,000 men. Near 

this city Valens was defeated by the Goths, 
with immense slaughter, Aug. 9, 378. 
Gibbon says this battle, in which, the em- 
peror Valens perished, " equalled in actual 
loss, and far surpassed in the fatal conse- 
quences, the misfortune which Rome had 
formerly sustained in the fields of Cannae." 

Hadkiaitople (European Turkey). — This 
city is referred to by ancient authors under 
the name of Uscudama. It received its 
present title from the emperor Hadrian, by 
whom it was restored and raised to con- 
siderable splendour. It was the scene of a 
great victory gained by Constantine over 
his rival Licinius, July 3, 323 a.d., and of 



the defeat of the Romans by the Goths, and 
■ - " - " Vale ■ 

by the 
year, but surrendered to the Btdgarians in 



the death of the emperor Valens, Aug. 9, 378 
It withstood a siege by the Goths the 



813. Hadrianople was erected into a bishop 
ric by Constantine I, Its first bishop died in 
340. Frederick I., emperor of Germany, 
stormed it in 1190, and it was taken by the 
Turks, under Amurath I., in 1360. In 1366 
it became the capital of the Ottoman empire, 
which rank it retained until the capture of 
Constantinople by the Mohammedans in 
1453. The Russians effected an entry into 
Hadrianople Aug. 20, 1829, and retained 
possession tiU. Sept. 14, when the treaty of 
Hadrianople was signed. By this treaty the 
Danubian principaUties were restored to the 
Porte, and confirmed in aU privileges granted 
by former treaties. Russia received free 
right of commerce throughout the Turkish 
empire, with Hberty to pass the Dardanelles ; 
and Turkey agreed to pay 1,500,000 Dutch 
ducats as indemnity for the expenses of the 
war, and 10,000,000 ducats as compensation 
for losses sustained by Russian merchants. 
The city suffered severely froiii the plague in 
1836 and 1837. The Turks caU it Edreneh, 
and it is generally known under the name 
of Adrianople. 
Hadkian's Wall.— The Roman fortifica- 
401 



tion, of which some remains still exist, 
extended from the Solway Frith to the 
mouth of the Tyne, and consisted of a stone 
wall and parallel earthen rampart, about 
sixty feet apart. Spartianus declares that 
Hadrian built a wall eighty miles long, di- 
viding the Romans from the barbarians, and 
that Severus constructed a wall across the 
island. The generally received opinion, there- 
fore, is, that Hadrian buUt the earthen ram- 
part (a.d. 121), and that Severus, to strengthen 
it, constructed the stone wall (208 — 210). 
Mr. Bruce, in his work on the Roman wall, 
contends that both the earthen rampart and 
the stone wall were constructed by Hadrian, 
and that though Severus may have repaired 
this fortification, he buUt no wall himself. 
This is also called the Picts' wall. 

Ha&ue (Holland). — The Binnenhof, or 
court of Holland, was founded a.d. 1249. 
The town originated in the erection of a 
hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland in 
1250. In 1528 it was pillaged by Maerten 
van Rossum, and in 1580 was the scene of 
the abjuration of Spanish supremacy by the 
States-general, and was made the residence 
of the stadtholder, and the centre of govern- 
ment. The cannon-foundry was estabHshed in 
1668. In 1672 the brothers Cornehus and 
John De Witt were hterally torn to pieces 
by the enraged populace. The city was 
seized by the French, and the stadtholder 
compelled to take refuge in England, Jan. 19, 
1795. In 1806, Napoleon I. transferred the 
title of capital to Amsterdam; but the 
government was restored to the Hague on 
its evacuation by the French in 1813. Seve- 
ral important treaties have been signed at 
the Hague; viz., between England, France, 
aud Holland, to maintain the balance of the 
North, May 21, 1559; between Holland and 
Portugal, May.7, 1669 ; and between Holland, 
the emperor, and Brandenburg, against 
France, July 25, 1672. A twenty years' truce 
was signed here June 29, 1684. The Hague 
congress of Christian princes against French 
encroachments met in 1690 and 1691. The 
Grand Alliance was renewed here in 1696, 
and the Triple Alliance in 1717. A treaty 
was concluded at the Hague with the French, 
May 16, 1795. 

Hailexbtjbt College (Hertfordshire ) 
was founded by the East-India Company for 
the education of cadets. The first stone was 
laid May 12, 1806, and in April, 1809, the 
building was completed. The coUege was 
closed in 1859. 

Hainatjlt (Belgium) was governed by 
a regular succession of counts from the time 
of Regnier I., who began to reign about 
860. In 1436 it passed into the hands of 
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and by 
the treaties of the Pyrenees, Nov. 7, 1659, 
and of Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678, part was 
ceded to France, and now forms the province 
of French Hainault. In 1793 the rest of 
the territory was surrendered to France, 
and formed into the department of Jemmapes . 
In 1814 it was allotted to the Low Countries, 
and in 1830 was incorporated with Belgium. 
2 D 



HAI 



HAL 



Hainatjlt Foeest (Essex). — This wood, 
■which owed its chief celebrity Co the Fairlop 
oak {q. ■!;.), was disafforested by 14 & 15 Vict, 
c. 43 (Aug. 1,1851). 

Hair. — The Egyptians shaved the head, 
but the Greeks and Romans esteemed the hair 
of such honour that it was offered to the gods 
in gratitude for escape from shipwreck. Curl- 
ing with irons was practised by females among 
the Greeks and Eomans, and by both sexes 
among the Phrygians. The early Greek 
Christians offered the hair to God. Long hair 
was esteemed by the Goths ; but the English 
of the 9th and 10th centuries wore it short. 
The Danes and Normans wore it long ; but 
in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, it was 
cut short. Wigs became common in the 17th 
century. Strange fashions of dressing ladies' 
hair in the 18th century, began about 1760, 
moderated towards 1790, and had nearly de- 
clined before 1800. 

Haie-powdek. — Gold dust was occasion- 
ally used by the ancients for this purpose, 
but the usual expedient was to dye the hair. 
Powder is said to have been introduced by 
Mary of Medicis ; itis mentioned by L'Etoile 
A.D. 1593. The hair -powder tax was proposed 
by Mr. Pitt, and levied by 35 Geo, III. c, 49 
(April 30, 1795). 

HAKiiTJXT's Island (Polar Seas) was dis- 
covered by Baffin a.d. 1616. 

Haklutt Society, named after Richard 
Hakluyt, celebrated for his labours in col- 
lecting the materials for a history of British 
voyages and discoveries, was instituted Dec, 
15, 1846, 

Halbeetstadt (Saxony) was the seat of 
a bishop a.d. 814. The cathedral, com- 
menced in 1235, was completed in 1491. The 
diet of Halbertstadt elected Otho IV. empe- 
ror in 1208. It was annexed to Branden- 
burg by the treaty of Munster, in 1643. The 
French captured Halbertstadt in January, 
1758, It was ceded to France in 1807, and 
was afterwards restored to Prussia at the 
peace of 1814-15. 

Haliaktus (Battle). — Lysander was slain 
in this battle, fought between a confederacy of 
Grecian states and Laced^mon, B.C. 395. 

Halic AEXASSUS ( Asia Minor) .—This town 
of Caria was of Dorian origin, and is famous 
as the birthplace of Herodotus, B.C. 484. 
The celebrated tomb of Mausolus was erected 
B.C. 353, and the city was taken by Alexander 
the Great B.C. 334. Halicamassus was a 
bishopric in the primitive church, and sent a 
bishop to the coimcU of Chalcedon, a.d. 451. 
The site of the ancient town was discovered 
in 1839 by Lieutenant Brock, and many in- 
teresting sculptures have been disinterred, 
and deposited in the British Museum. 

Halidou-, or Halidovtu- Hill (Battle). — 
Edward III. defeated the Scottish forces at 
this place, near Berwick, July 19, 1333. 

Halifax (K"ova Scotia) . — This town was 
settled A.D. 1749, by adventurers from Bug- 
land, who named it after the earl of Halifax, 
first commissioner of trade and plantations. 
It was declared a free port in 1817. The col- 
lege was founded in 1820. 
4D2 



Halifax (Yorkshire) is first named in a 
grant of the 12th century, and was a seat of 
the woollen manufacture as early as 1414. 
In 1443 the town only nttmbered thirteen 
houses, which hadincreased in 1540 to 520. The 
free grammar-school was founded by Queen 
Ehzaljeth in 1583. Archbishop TiUotson was 
born here in 1630. Halifax was anciently re- 
markable for possessing the right of executing 
any thief who stole property of the value of 
thirteen pence halfpenny within its hmita. 
The instrument used in the execution re- 
sembled the guillotine, and the town pos- 
sessed and exercised this right from about 
1280 to 1650; after which there is no re- 
cord of its use. The Piece-hall was erected 
in 1779, Trinity Church in 1795, the gaol in 
1828, the infirmary in 1836, and the general 
cemetery was estabHshed in 1837. The Peo- 
ple's Park was presented to the town by 
F, Crossley, and opened in August, 18.57, 

Halifax ADMiifisTEATioif . — Immediately 
after the accession of George I. the treasury 
was placed in commission, Avith Lord, after- 
wards the earl of Halifax, at the head (Oct. 5, 
1714) . The office of lord high treasurer has 
not been revived. The ministry was thus 
constituted : — 

Treasury , .Lord Halifax. 

_ , -_, ,, /Lord, afterwards Earl 

Lord ChanceUor \ Cowper. 

President of the Coxmcil . .Earl of Nottingham. 

_ . „ , f Earl, afterwards Marquis 

PnvySeal \ of Wharton. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Sir R. Onslow, Bart. 
Principal Secretaries of P^^stanhop™^d Lo'^ 

^***^ I Townshend. 

Admiralty Earl of Oxford. 

Secretary at War Mr. Pulteney. 

Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. 

Paymaster-General • • • • { ^^.Sr""'' ^" ^^ 

Hallam states that Lord Townshend was the 
actual prime minister. The marquis of 
Wharton died April 12, and the earl of 
Halifax May 19, 1715. {See Caelisle Ad- 

MINISTEATION.) 

Halle (Saxony). — This Prussian town 
was founded in the 9th century, and was 
erected into a city by Otho II. in 981. 
St. Ulrich's church was bmlt in 1339, and 
the cathedral founded in 1520. The univer- 
sity was established in 1694, and the orphan- 
house in 1698. A battle was fought here 
between the French and Prussians, Oct. 17, 
1806. The latter were defeated, and the town 
was seized by the French, who retained it 
till 1814, when it was restored to Prussia. 
In 1815 the university was imited to that of 
Wittenberg, and the building for the incor- 
porated institution was erected in the suburbs 

of HaUe in 1834. A treaty between the 

Protestant princes of the German empire was 
concluded here ia 1610. 

Hallelitjah Victoey. — This name was 
given to a victory gained by some newly- 
baptized Britons over their enemies, a.d. 
429, because they commenced the struggle 
with loud cries of " Hallelujah," Germauus, 
bishop of Auxerre, was their leader on this 
occasion. 



HAL 



HAN 



Hallet's Comet. — This comet is memo- 
rable as having established the periodical 
return of certain of those bodies. Halley 
was led to form this idea from observing 
the comet in 1682, and comparing its oi'bit 
with those of the comets of 1531 and 1607, 
which he found identical. He conse- 
quently inferred that the three' comets 
were only three appearances of the same 
body, and announced this opinion in 1705, 
and having convinced himself of the truth of 
his theory by laborious calculations, he pre- 
dicted that it would again appear in 1759, 
which proved to be the case. The mean 
period this comet takes in accomplishing its 
orbital revolution is 76*1 years. 

Halts, (Battle,) between the Medes and 
Lydians, on the banks of this river, in Asia 
Minor, was interrupted by the eclipse of 
Thales. The years B.C. 603 and 601 are 
assigned by some as the date of this eclipse ; 
but Airy has proved it to have occurred 
May 28, B.C. 584, which is consequently the 
day of the battle. 

Ham (France). — This fortress, on the 
Somme, was built by the count of St. Pol, 
A.D. 1470. It was the prison of the unpopu- 
lar ministers of Charles X. in 1830, and of 
Louis Napoleon in 1840, after his attempt 
upon Boulogne. He effected his escape 
May 25, 1846. 

Hamadanites. — ^Arabian princes of the 
tribe of Hamadan, who ruled over Meso- 
potamia from A. D. 892 to 1001. 

Hambtteg (Germany). — This free city was 
founded by Charlemagne, a.d. 809, and 
speedily attained great influence on account 
of its commerce. In 1241 it concluded a 
treaty with Liibeck, which subsequently be- 
came the basis of the Hanseatic League, and 
in 1269 it received the right to frame its own 
laws and enforce their execution. A pro- 
vincial council of ecclesiastics met here in 
1406. The town extended its borders to the 
right bank of the Alster in 1500, adopted 
the Eeformation in 1535, and in 1618 was 
released from its former subjection to the 
dukes of Holstein. The bank was founded 
in 1619, and the church of St. Michael in 
1751. In 1768 the city was finally released 
from all subjection to the house of Holstein, 
and in 1770 the emperor confirmed its 
right to the rank of a free city. In 1799 
the Irish rebel Napper Tandy was sur- 
rendered to the British government by the 
Hamburghers, and in 1801 the city was 
occupied by the Danes. In 1802 all the 
Hanoverian property in Hamburg was sur- 
rendered to the city, which suffered severely, 
in consequence of the blockade of the Elbe, 
in 1803. French troops occupied Hamburg 
from 1806 to 1809, and in 1811 it was an- 
nexed to France as capital of the depart- 
ment of Bouches-d' Elbe. The French re- 
linquished Hamburg in 1813 ; it regained its 
old constitution May 26, 1814, and joined 
the Germanic Confederation June 8, 1815. 
The gymnasium was founded iu 1840. A 
terrible fire, which broke out May 5, 1842, 
destroyed 2,000 houses and property to the 
4£>3 



amount of £7,000,000. A new constitution 
was adopted in 1848, and in 1851 the city 
was occupied by an Austrian force. An in- 
undation of the Elbe laid the greater part of 
the city under water, Jan. 1, 1855. A com- 
mercial panic occurred in 1857. The As- 
sembly adopted a constitution based on the 
parliamentary system, with representative 
government, the members of which are 
elected by popular suffrage, Aug. 11, 1859. 

Hammeesmith (Middlesex). — This village 
is first noticed in the early part of the reign 
of Henry VII. The church was founded 
a.d. 1631. In 1656, Hammersmith was the 
scene of Miles Syndercomb's conspiracy 
against CromweU. The suspension-bridge 
was founded by the duke of Sussex, May 7, 
1825, and opened to the public Oct. 6, 1827. 
The parish of Hammersmith was separated 
from that of Fulham in 1834. 

Hampdek Clubs. — Associations imder 
this name were formed throughout the 
country a.d. 1816. Their professed object 
was parliamentary reform. A report of a 
committee of both houses, presented Feb. 9, 
1817, declared these clubs to be revolu- 
tionary. 

Hampton- Cottet (Middlesex) was built by 
Cardinal Wolsey, and presented by him to 
Henry VIII. a.d. 1526. Edward VI. was born 
here, Oct. 12, 1537 j and his mother, Jane 
Seymour, died here the following Oct. 24. 
The ecclesiastical conference between the 
presbyterian and episcopal clergy assembled 
at Hampton Court, Jan. 14 to 18, 1606, and 
Charles I. was detained a prisoner from 
August 24 to Nov. 11, 1647. The grand 
front of the palace was commenced by Sir 
Christopher Wren in 1690, and completed in 
1694. George I. fitted up the hall as a 
theatre in 1718. The celebrated vine was 
planted in 1769, and the public were per- 
mitted to -visit the place in Nov. 1838. 

Hanapee Office. — An obsolete de- 
partment of the Chancery Court, which 
derived its name from the practice of keep- 
ing writs in a hamper or basket, " in Hana- 
perio." The emoluments of this office were 
granted by Charles II. to Lord George Fitz- 
roy and his male descendants, or, fafimg such 
issue, to the earl of Southampton and his 
male descendants, or to the earl of Euston, 
afterwards the duke of Grafton, these noble- 
men being the king's sons by the duchess of 
Cleveland. The Hanaper Office was abohshed 
by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 103 (Aug. 10, 1842). 

Hanaf (Germany), in Hesse-Cassel, was 
erected into a town a.d. 1303, and the terri- 
tory of which it is the capital was made a 
county in 1429. It was fortified in 1528, and 
received a large addition to its population in 
1593, in consequence of the numerous Flemish 
Protestant refugees. The new town was 
founded about 1600. Hanau was besieged 
for nine months by the Imperialists, under 
General Lamboi, who was compelled to re- 
tire June 13, 1636. Numerous French Pro- 
testants settled there in 1685. In 1736 the 
county was divided between Hesse-Cassel 
and Hesse-Darmstadt, but soon passed under 
2 D 2 



tlie exclusive power of the former. It was 
erected into a priacipality in 1803, seized by 
tlie French in 1806, united to the duchy of 
Frankfort in 1809, and ultimately restored to 
Hesse in 1813. The battle of Hanau, between 
JSTapoleon I., with about 70,000 men, and the 
Austrian and Bavarian army, under General 
Wrede, was gaiaed by the former, Oct. 30, 
1813. The loss was very severe on both sides. 

Handel Commemorations. — The first 
musical festival in memory of this composer 
commenced in Westminster Abbey a.d. 1784, 
the centenary of his birth. It lasted five days. 
The second day's performance was held at 
the Pantheon, and the receipts amounted to 
11,842 guineas. Similar festivals were held 
on various occasions ; and another on a large 
scale took place in Westminster Abbey, 
June 24, 26, 28, and July 1, 1834. A com- 
memorative festival took place at the Crystal 
Palace June 20, 22, and 24, 1859. The chorus 
and band numbered 3,158 performers, the 
audience 81,260 persons, and the receipts 
amounted to about £30,000. Two rehearsals 
had been beld at the same place, June 15, 17, 
and 19,1857 ; and July 2, 1858. The total num- 
ber of visitors at the three days of the first 
performance was 48,418, while on the last 
occasion nearly 20,000 persons attended. 

Handkeechiefs were unknown to the 
Greeks, but were used by the Anglo-Saxons, 
and during the Middle Ages. Laced hand- 
kerchiefs came iato fashion in the reign of 
Queen EHzabeth. 

Hanging. — This punishment is mentioned 
as the sentence of thieves, in a charter of the 
reign of Edgar (a.d. 959—974). The pirate 
Wilham Marsh, executed in 1242, was the 
first person who was hanged, drawn, and 
quartered. The term "dravm" meant that 
the criminal was drawn on a hurdle to 
the place of execution. The old custom of 
hanging the bodies of criminals in chains was 
aboHshed by 4 & 5 Will, IV. c. 26 (July 25, 
1834). \ J > 

Hango (Finland).— Peter the Great gained 
his first naval victory over the Swedes off 
this village, in Finland, July 27, 1714. Here 
the Eussians fired on an EngHsh flag of truce, 
killiag six men, and wounding several more, 
June 5, 1855. 

Hanovee ( Germany ) was given to Her- 
mann Billing by Otho the Great a.d. 970, and 
passed into the possession of Henry the 
Black, duke of Bavaria, in 1107. 



A.D. 

1533. 
1641. 
1692. 
1714. 

1780. 
1795. 



Lutheranism is adopted. 

The city of Hanover becomes the capitaL 

Hanover is made an electorate. 

The elector succeeds to the English throne as 
George I. 

The waUs of the city are leveUed. 

Hanover is includ ed in the convention between 
France and Prussia, for the neutrality of 
the North of Germany. 
1801. April 3. It is occupied by the Prussians. 
18ti2. The bishopric of Osnaburg is annexed. 
1803. Napoleon Bonaparte seizes Hanover. 
1805. France cedes it to Prussia. 
1807. It is agaia seized by the Fi-ench. 
1810. Part of the country is annexed to Westphalia. 
1813. It is restored to its rightful elector, George III. 
1814 Oct. 12. Hanover is erected into a, kingdom. 

4M 



HAN 



1815. Part of Lauenbnrg is ceded to Pi-ussia, in ex- 

change for East Friesland and Harlingen. 

1816. Nov. The duke of Cambridge is appointed 

lieutenant-governor. 

1819. A new constitution is formed, on the model 
of the English. 

1821. Oct. 8. George IV. visits Hanover. 

1833. A new constitution is adopted, which confers 
more influence ou the people. 

1837. June 20. In consequence of the law of 
Hanover limiting the royal succession to 
male descendants, Ernest, duke of Cum- 
berland, becomes king on the death of 
WUUam IV. 

1846. The great Arsenal is built in the city of 
Hanover. 

1848. The king abolishes the censorship of the 
press, and grants a new constitution. 

1851. The new theatre at Hanover is erected. 

1855. May 20. The king abolishes free institutions, 
by order of the federal diet. 

1857. Dec. 31. Some of the jewels brought by 

George II. to England, in 1714, are restored 
to Hanover. Their value is estimated at 
£100,000. 

1858. Dec. 13. Submarine telegraphic oommttnica- 

tion is opened with England. 
1861. Jime 12. The Stade dues are abolished. 

ELECTOES OP HANOTBE. 
A.D. 

1692. Fmest-Augustus. 

1693. George Louis (George I. of England). 
1727. George Augustus (George 11.). 

1760. George WilUam Frederick (G«orge III.). 



1814. George William Frederick. 

1820. George Augustus Frederick (George IV.). 

1830. William Henry (WUliam IV.). 

1837. Ernest Augustus (duke of Cumberland). 

1851. George V. 

Hanoveeian StrccESSiON. — Elizabeth, 
daughter of James I. of England, married 
Frederick V. elector palatine, a.d. 1613. 
Her daughter Sophia was born in 1630, and 
married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector 
of Hanover, inl658. By the Act of Settlement, 
13 Wm. III. c. 6 (1701), she was declared the 
next heir to the EngHsh throne after the de- 
scendants of William III. and of Queen Anne. 
Sophia died May 28 (O.S.), 1714, and on the 
death of Anne without issue, Aug. 1, 1814, her 
son, George Louis, elector of Hanover, suc- 
ceeded to the EngUsh throne as George I. 

Hanseatic League. — This imion of Ger- 
man seaport towns was instituted about 
A.D. 1140, for the protection of their com- 
mercial interests, although the actual signing 
of the league did not take place till 1241, 
Henry III. conferred several immunities on 
this association in 1266, and in 1348 it pos- 
sessed sufficient power to carry on a suc- 
cessful war with Denmark respecting the 
Soimd dues. The League attained its great- 
est power about 1370, when it numbered 
64 confederate and 44 aUied cities. In 1448 
they were at war with England, but had 
their privileges in that country restored 
in 1474. They were, however, finally abo- 
Hshed by Queen EHzabeth in 1578. In 1601 
the Dutch supplanted them in the Medi- 
terranean, and in 1630 their commerce was 
seriously injured by the invasion of Germany 
by the Swedes under 'Gustavus Adolphus. 



HAR 

The maritime law of this league was not 
published in a complete form till 1614, when its 
power had already begun to decline. In 1624 
it originated maritime insurance companies, 
and in 1723 opened its ports to foreign 
commerce. The only towns still retaining 
the title of Hanse towns, are Bremen, Ham- 
burg, and Liibeck. The merchants of the 
Hanse towns were called Hansards. 

Haebouks.— The improvement of har- 
bours, docks, and piers, is regulated by 
10 Vict, c. 27 (May 11, 1847). 

Habfleuk, also called Harefleot (France). 
— Henry V. of England laid siege to this 
place in August, 1415, and captured it 
Sept. 22. It was retaken by the French in 
1431, was stormed by the English in 1440, 
and was recaptured by the French in 1450. 
Louis XI. placed Harfleur at the disposal 
of the earl of Warwick ia May, 1470, and 
EngUsh vessels saUiag thence, assailed the 
merchant shipping of the Netherlands. The 
steeple of the church of Harfleur was built 
by Henry V. in 1416, in memory of the 
battle of Agincourt. Richmond, afterwards 
Henry VII., sailed from Harfleur Aug. 1, 
1485, for the purpose of wresting the English 
crown from Richard III. 

Haelaw (Battle). — Donald, lord of the 
Isles, obtained some aid from Henry TV. 
of England, and endeavoured to make him- 
self independent of the Scottish crown. He 
was defeated in a severe battle at this place, 
near Aberdeen, July 24, 1411, and afterwards 
made subnaission. 

Hableian Libeaet. — This collection of 
MSS. and pamphlets was formed by Mr. 
Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, who died 
May 21, 1724. It was purchased from his 
trustees for £10,000, by the government, who 
received authority from 26 Geo. II. c. 22 
(1753), and it is now in the British Museum. 
The " Harleian Miscellany," a collection of 
the most interesting documents and tracts 
in the Harleian Library, first appeared in 
1744. Another edition was issued in 1808. 

HAELEQTJiif. — The account given by 
Menage that this term is derived from a 
celebrated Italian actor, who appeared at 
Paris in the reign of Henry III. (a.d. 1547 — 
1589), and received the name of Harlequino, 
or Little Harlay, from his constant attend- 
ance at the house of M. de Harlay, is 
incorrect, as the word was in use before 
that period. Dr. Clarke, who traces its 
origin to classical times, says that Harlequin 
is Mercury. 

Harley (Loed Oxfoed's) Administea- 
liON. — Godolphin was dismissed Aug. 8, 
17] 0, the treasury being put in conajnission, 
with Lord Powlett at its head, and Harley, 
afterwards earl of Oxford, was made chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, Aug. 10, 1710, and 
lord high treasurer May 29, 1711. Lord 
Cowper resigned the great seal Sept. 25, 1710, 
and it was placed in commission until Oct. 19, 
when Sir Simon, afterwards Lord Harcourt, 
was made lord keeper, becoming lord-chan- 
cellor April 7, 1713. Harley^s associates were 
Lord, afterwards Earl Dartmouth, and Mr. 



HAR 

St. John, afterwards Viscount St. John and 
Bohngbroke, secretaries of state. Earl Dart- 
mouth, on accepting the privy seal in 1713, was 
replaced by Mr. Bromley. The Hon. G. Gran- 
ville (afterwards Lord Lansdowne) became 
secretary at war Sept. 28, 1810 : he was suc- 
ceeded June 28, 1712, by Sir WiUiam Wynd- 
ham, Bart., who was followed by Mr. Francis 
Gwyn, Aug. 21, 1713. Sir Wilham became 
chancellor of the exchequer Nov. 1, 1713. 
Dr. Robinson, bishop of Bristol, and after- 
wards of London, became lord privy seal 
April 23, 1711. The chancellorship of the 
exchequer was given to Hon. Mr. Benson, 
afterwards Lord Biagley, June 14, 1711. 
Oxford and Bohngbroke quarrelled, and the 
former was dismissed July 27, 1714. [See 

ShEEWSBUEX ADMINISTEATIOIf.) 

Haemonica. — Musical glasses are men- 
tioned in a work published at Nuremberg a.d. 
1651. The instrument was improved by 
Franklin in 1760. It first became known at 
Paris in 1765. John Stein invented a stringed 
harmonica ia 1788. 

Haemonists . — This religious sect was 
formed by the brothers George and Frede- 
rick Rapp, who emigrated from Wiirtemberg 
to the United States in 1803, when they 
founded the town of Harmony, in Pennsyl- 
vania. In 1815 they built New Harmony, in 
Indiana, which was purchased by Robert 
Owen in 1824, in which year the Harmonists 
removed to a new settlement, which they 
named Economy. Community of property 
and the absence of marriage are the distin- 
guishing features of this sect. 

Haeijess. — The invention of harness has 
been ascribed to Erichthonius, kingof Athens, 
B.C. 1487. In the Middle Ages white harness 
was much used. 

Haep. — Jubal is said to have been "the 
father of all such as handle the harp and 
organ," Gen. iv. 21 (b.c. 3204). The harp was 
common in Egypt as early as B.C. 1500, and 
the instrument was introduced into Ireland 
at an early date. The Saxons and other 
northern barbarians possessed it when they 
first came into contact with the civilized in- 
habitants of Europe in the 5th century, and 
the Welsh are said to have used a harp of 
twenty-six notes in the 6th century. Erard's 
pedal harp was patented in 1794, and his 
double-action harp in 1808. 

Haepee's Feeet (Virginia). — This 
village is the seat of a large state armoury, 
estabMshed a.d. 1798, which was destroyed 
by the Federal commissioners to prevent 
it from faUing into the hands of the Con- 
federate states, April 18, 1861. It was the 
scene of the negro insurrection under Cap- 
tain John Brown, Oct. 17, 1859. 

Haeponullt (Hindostan).— The rajah of 
Harponully became tributary to Hyder Ali 
A.D. 1774, and to Tippoo in 1786. On the 
faU of Seringapatam, in 1799, Harponully fell 
into the hands of the Nizam, by whom it 
was assigned to the East-India Company in 
1800. . , 

Habeisbtteg (Pennsylvania).— The capital 
was founded a.d. L785. It was incorporated 
405 



HAR 

in 1808, and made tte chief town of Penn- 
sylvania in 1812. 

Haeeo&ate, or HAEEOweATE (York- 
shire). — The "Old Spa," a chalybeate 
spring, in High Harrowgate, discovered in 
1571 by Captain Shngsby, was surrounded 
by a terrace in 1656. The waters from the 
"sulphur wells" of Low Harrowgate were 
used both internally and externally before 
1700. The " Crescent water" was discovered 
in 1783, and the Cheltenham water in 1819. 
The first inn was built at Harrowgate in 
1687. 

Haeeow-oit-the-Hili, (Middlesex). — 
Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury, pur- 
chased Harrow, then called Herges, and 
other lands, a.d. 822, for the purpose of 
restoring them to the church of Canterbury. 
The town, given in 1543 by Archbishop Cran- 
mer to Henry VIII., in exchange for other 
lands, was granted by him to Sir Edward, 
afterwards Lord I^orth, in 1546, and it 
continued in his family until 1630. The free 
school was founded in 1585 by John Lyon. 
A great part of the building was destroyed 
by fire Oct. 22, 1838. 

Haetfoed (Connecticut). — This town, 
originally established by the Dutch a.d. 1633, 
received its name from a colony of EngUsh 
who settled there in 1635. It was incorpo- 
rated as a city in 1784. 

Haetwell ( Buckinghamshire ) . — The 
principal manor was bestowed by William 
the Conqueror on his natural son, WiUiam 
Peverell. Henry II. seized the estate in 
1155. Louis XVIII. of France resided in 
the manor-house of HartweU from 1809 until 
the restoration in 1814. 

Haeuspices. — Priests in ancient Rome, 
instituted by Eomulus about B.C. 750. They 
pretended to foretell future events by in- 
specting the entrails of animals. When 
abolished by Constantine I., a.d. 836, their 
number amounted to seventy. 

Haewich (Essex). — The Danes were de- 
feated by the vLnglo-Saxons in a naval battle 
oif Harwich, a.d. 885. The town received a 
charter from Edward II. in 1318 ; this, after 
having been confirmed by several sovereigns, 
was extended in 1604. Isabel, queen of 
Edward II., landed here in 1326 with her 
son. Prince Edward. Edward III. sailed from 
Harwich in 1340, and gained an important 
victory over the French fleet off Sluys. The 
duke of York defeated the Dutch fleet near 
Harwich June 3, 1665. The Dutch lost 
twenty-four ships, and 3,000 men were made 
prisoners. 

Hastebtbeck (Battle). — The French de- 
feated an allied army of British, Dutch, and 
Hanoverians at Hastenbeck, July 25, 1757. 

Hastings (Battle). — ^WiUiam of Nor- 
mandy sailed from St. Valery Sept. 26, 1066, 
and arrived at Pevensey Sept. 28. His 
army, amounting to 60,000 men, landed and 
formed a camp at Hastings. Harold II., 
having marched to the north to encounter 
the Norwegians, whom he defeated at Stam- 
ford Bridge, Sept. 25, hastened to the south, 
and arrived in sight of the invader Oct. 13. 
406 



HAT 

The battle was fought at a place then called 
Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, Satur- 
day, Oct. 14, when, after an obstinate strug- 
gle, which lasted from sunrise to sunset, 
Harold II. was slain, and the Normans re- 
mained masters of the field. In 1067 William T. 
founded an abbey near the place where the 
victory was gained. It was dedicated to St. 
Martin, and is known as Battle Abbey. 

HASTiifGS (Sussex) was known by this 
name, at least as early as a.d. 780. Athel- 
stan established a mint here in 925. It was 
burnt by the French in August, 1377. The 
town-haU, buUt in 1700, was rebiult in 1823. 

HASUifFiOED (Sea-fight). — Harold Har- 
fager, of Norway, defeated the Vikingri, 
A.D. 875. 

Hat, as an article of man's attire, was in- 
vented at Paris, by a Swiss, a.d. 1404. Hats 
were fashionable in France in the latter part 
of the reign of Charles VI., who died in 1422. 
Charles VII. is reported to have worn a 
white felt hat at his entry into Eouen in 
1449. The pope of Rome was in the habit of 
sending "blessed hats" to princes and com- 
manders of armies who deserved the grati- 
tude of the Roman Catholic church. These 
hats were of violet silk, lined with ermine, 
and embroidered with gold and jewels. They 
were blessed by the pope, in solemn con- 
clave, on Christmas-eve. The last hat of 
this description was given to General Daun, 
after the capture of Hochkirch in 1758. The 
crowns of the hats worn at the commence- 
ment of the 18th century were round. The 
Jews of Spain were formerly compelled to 
wear yellow hats. In many towns of Ger- 
many, bankrupts had to wear green and 
yellow hats. Hats were first manufactured 
in London by Spaniards in 1510 ; and came 
into fashion, and were taxed in 1785. The 
tax was repealed in 1811. 

Hatelet-Field (Battle). — Henry IV. de- 
feated the Percies, who had risen in arms 
against him, at this place, about three miles 
from Shrewsbury, July 23, 1403. Henry 
Percy (Hotspur) was killed in this action, 
sometimes called the battle of Shrewsbury. 

Hatfield (Hertford). — A council was 
held here Sept. 17, 680, against the Mono- 
thehtes, at which Theodore, archbishop of 
Canterbury, presided. Hatfield, in the 10th 
century, was granted by Edgar to the abbey 
of Ely, and when the latter was made a 
bishop's see, in the reign of Henry I., the 
manor-house became one of the residences 
of the bishop, and was on that account 
called Bishop's Hatfield. EHzabeth, who 
afterwards purchased it, was kept prisoner 
at Hatfield from 1555 tiU her accession in 
1558. The left wing of the old palace was 
burned to the ground Nov. 27, 1835, and the 
dowager marchioness of Salisbury perished 
in the flames. 

Hateas (Hindostan). — This town, ceded to 
the East-India Company by Dowlet Eowe 
Seindia, a.d. 1803, was besieged and taken by 
the British, March 1, 1817. Since its subjec- 
tion to the English, its prosperity has mate- 
rially increased. 



HAT 

Hats. {See Caps and Hats.) 

Hattemists. — The followers of Pontian 
van Hattem, an enthusiast, who spread his 
peculiar doctrines in Zealand, towards the 
end of the 17th century. 

Havana (Cuba).— This city, founded a.d. 
1511, by Diego Velasquez, was taken by a 
French pirate in 1536. It was afterwards 
repeatedly seized by the Bucaneers. The 
university was founded in 1728 . The Enghsh 
took Havana Aug. 14, 1762, and restored it 
to Spain the following year. Havana was 
probably erected into a bishopric soon after 
its foundation, as its second bishop died in 
1528. In 1795 the remains of Columbus were 
removed from the cathedral of St. Domingo, 
where they had been deposited in 1536, to the 
cathedral at Havana. Three hundred and 
fifty houses were destroyed by a fire which 
broke out in this town Feb. 10, 1828. 

Havee de GrEACE (France). — A fishing 
village converted into a town by Louis VII. 
A.D. 1509. Francis I. fortified it, commenced 
the port, and gave it the name of Francis- 
copolis. It was placed in the hands of Queen 
Ehzabeth by the Hugenots m 1562. It was 
besieged by the constable de Montmorency, 
who captured it June 28, 1563; anditwas bom- 
barded by the English in 1678, in July, 1694, 
in 1759, 1794, and 1795. Captain Ohver, of 
the Melpomene, made fruitless attempts to 
destroy the French fleet off this town, July 23 
and Aug. 1, 1804. The town was injured 
by the shot fired into it on the occasion. In 
1852 statues of Bernardin de St. Pierre and 
Casimir Delavigne, who were natives of the 
town, were erected; and in August, 1854, 
Havre was made the capital of the new de- 
partment of Seine-Maritime. The old ram- 
parts were removed in 1856, and, since 1858, 
two large forts have been erected on the 
heights above the town. 

Hawkees and Pedlaes. — These itinerant 
merchants first appeared in England about 
A.D. 1330. They are classed with rogues and 
vagabonds by 39 EHz. c. 4 (1597), and were 
first compelled to obtain a license by 9 & 10 
Will. III. c. 27 (1698). The annual duty, 
fixed at £4 by 50 Geo. III. e. 41 (June 2, 
1810), was made payable to the commis- 
sioners of stamps by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22, 
8.75 (Sept. 22, 1831). 

Hawking and FALCONEy. — The Greeks 
obtained from India and Thrace their first 
knowledge of fowhng with birds of prey. 
Gibbon (ch. xlv.) remarks : " This favourite 
amusement of our ancestors was introduced 
by the barbarians into the Koman provinces." 
The art, common in Italy, is mentioned 
in the Koman laws, and in writings of the 
4th and 5th centuries. Ecclesiastics were 
prohibited from fowling by the council of 
Agda, A.D. 506, and by Charlemagne in 769. A 
charter was granted by Beornwulf, king of the 
Mercians, to the abbey of Abingdon in 821, 
prohibiting persons from carrying hawks on 
the lands of the monks. The emperor 
Henry is said to have been called the 
Fowler, from having been found luring 
his hawk when his election to the empire 



HAY 

was announced to him in 919. Falconry 
was carried to great perfection in the 12th 
century. Steahng hawks was made felony 
by 37 Edw. III. Before the close of the 
17th century falconry was utterly neglected. 
Demetrius, physician to Michael VIII. (Pa- 
laeologus) in 1270, is one of the oldest writers 
on falconry. His book was first printed at 
Paris in 1612. 

Hatmakket Theatee (London) was first 
erected a.d. 1702, on the site of the King's 
Head inn. It was rebuilt and made a 
theatre royal in 1767. Fifteen persons were 
killed, Feb, 3, 1794, by a crowd rushing 
into the pit. The tailors of London created 
a riot here in 1805 on account of a farce, 
supposed to be insulting to that trade. The 
existing edifice was commenced in 1820, and 
opened Jidy 4, 1821. 

Hayti, or Haiti (West Indies). — This is- 
land, which forms one of the Leeward group, 
was discovered by Columbus in December, 
1492, and named by him Hispaniola. It was 
afterwards called St. Domingo, which was 
finally changed to its native tilie, Hayti, in 
1803. 



1495. Hayti is conquered by the Spaniards. 

1496. St. Domingo is founded. 

1586. The island is attacked by Drake. 

1630. The western coast is seized by the French. 

1665. The French appoint a governor. 

1697. Sept. 20. The island is guaranteed to the 
French by the treaty of Ryswick. 

1722. The negroes rebel. 

1791. They again revolt. 

1793. The French abolish slavery in the island. 
Sept. 19. An English force arrives to pro- 
tect the whites. 

1795. July 22. Spain, by the treaty of Basel, sur- 
renders her possessions la Hayti to the 
French. 

1798. The British and French troops evacuate the 
island. 

1801. July 1. The negroes declare themselves inde- 

pendent. 

1802. Jan. The French invade Hayti, which 

they reduce to subjection, and compel the 
negro general, Toussant-Louvertuxe, to sur- 
render, May 3. 

1803. The negroes expel the French, and declaxe 

the island independent. 

1804. The negro Dessalines is proclaimed emperor 

as James T. 

1806. Oct. 17. James I. is assassinated by his sub- 
jects, who place his lieutenant, Christophe, 
at the head of affairs. 

1811. June 2. Christophe and his wife are crowned 
king and queen, Petion retaining the pre- 
sidentship of half the island. 

1818. Death of Petion, who is succeeded by Boyer. 

1820. Oct. 6. The troops revolt. Oct. 8. King 
Christophe commits suicide. 

1822. Boyer becomes president of the whole island. 

18'.i5. April 17. France recognizes the independence 
of Hayti. 

1839. Dec. 23. The republic accedes to the conven- 
tions of Nov 30, 1831, and March 22, 1833, 
between Great Britain and France, for the 
suppression of the slave trade. 

1843. Boyer is overthrown. 

1849. Aug. 26. Pi-esident Soulouque proclaims 
Hayti an empire, and assumes the title of 
Faustin I. 

1852. April 18. Faustin I. is crowned at Port-au- 
Piince. 

1855. Dec. 10. Faustin is repulsed by the troops of 
St. Domingo, and threatened with revolu- 
tion by his own subjects. 

407 



HEA 



HEL 



1858. Dec. 22. Faustin is deposed. Dec. 23. A 
republic is proclaimed under the presideucy 
of Oeffrard. 

1861. March 18. Hayti is declared to be united to 
Spain. 

■^ Heaeth-Moh-et (Tax).— Fumagre or 
faage, vulgarly called smoke-farthings, were, 
according to Domesday Book, paid for every 
chimney in the house. Edward the Black 
Prince, after his French victories, imposed 
a tax of one florin on every hearth in his 
French dominions. The tax was first esta- 
bUshed, by sanction of parHament, by 
13 & 14 Charles II. c, 10 (1662). It was 
repealed by 1 Will. & Mary, sess. 1, c. 10 
(1689). 

Heat, or Caloeic. — Little was known as 
to the phenomena of heat, till Dr. Black 
dehvered his chemical lectures at Glasgow in 
1757. He discovered the doctrine of latent 
heat, which he pubhcly announced April 23, 
1762. Dr. (afterwards Sir William) Herschel 
announced the substantiaMty of heat May 15 
and Nov. 6, 1800 ; and, in 1802, his experi- 
ments were repeated and confirmed by Sir 
Henry Euglefield. The next important dis- 
coveries were made by Mr. (afterwards Sir 
John) Leshe, who pubhshed his theory of 
the radiation of heat in 1804, which was 
brought to greater perfection in 1813, by 
Delaroche, of Geneva. 

Hebkews, (Epistle to the,) was written by 
St. Paul, according to the best bibhcal critics, 
A.D. 61 or 62. Some writers refer it to 
A.D. 58. The letter was probably intended 
for the church at Alexandria, for in the 
Eoman catalogues, from the end of the 2nd 
century, it is described under the title of 
" Epistola ad Alexandrinos." 

Hebrides (Scotland). — These islands, long 
subject to the kings of Norway, became 
independent a.d. 1089. In 1153, Somerled, 
lord of these isles, invaded the mainland, and 
attempted to dethrone Malcolm IT. Having 
been defeated, he was MUed in a second 
attempt made in 1163. They were ceded 
to Scotland in 1266. Magnus, their last 
independent chief, died in 1265, and they 
were held by chieftains ia vassalage to the 
king of Scotland until 1346, when their 
ruler, John of Isle orlslay, assumed the title 
of "Lord of the Isles." James V. brought 
them under the dominion of Scotland. In 
1748, the abolition of aU heritable jurisdic- 
tions put an end to the power of the chief- 
tains of the Isles. Dr. Johnson visited these 
islands in 1773. 

Hecatomb, or the Sacrifice of One Hun- 
dred Oxen, is supposed to have originated in 
each of the hundred cities of Lycaonia 
sending a bullock for the general sacrifice, 
or in each of the hundred cities of Pelopon- 
nesus making a similar contribution to« ards 
a sacrifice to avert the plague. Pythagoras 
(B.C. 555 — 497) is said to have offered a 
hecatomb on discovering the 47th proposi- 
tion of the first book of Euclid. 

Hecla (Iceland). — Forty-three eruptions 
of this volcano are on record since a.d. 900. 



Of these five were simultaneous, or nearly 
so, with eruptions of Vesuvius, four with 
eruptions of ^tna, and one with an erup- 
tion both of ^tna and Vesuvius. An erup- 
tion that commenced in June, 1784, lasted 
until May, 1785. Sir Joseph Banks visited 
Hecla ia 1772, and Sir George Mackenzie in 
1810. 

Hedglet Moob (Battle).— Lord Mont- 
acute, brother of the earl of Warwick, at 
the head of a Yorkist army, defeated Queen 
Margaret at this place, near Wooler, April 25, 
1464. 

Hbgiea. — This sera dates from the flight 
of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, which 
happened during the night of Thursday, 
July 15, A.D. 622. The sera conamences 
July 16. 

Heidei,bee& (Baden), but a village 
A.D. 1225, was enlarged by Eobert, count 
palatine, in 1362. It was plundered by the 
Bavarians in 1622. The Swedes captured it 
in 1633, and they retained possession tiU the 
peace of Westphalia in 1648. It was sacked 
by Turenne in 1674, and ravaged by the 
French in 1689 and 1693. The electors re- 
moved their residence to Manheim in 1719. 
Heidelberg was ceded to the grand-duchy of 
Baden in 1802. Its university, the most 
ancient in Germany except that of Prague, 
was founded in 1386. The famous Heidel- 
berg tun was constructed in 1751. It is the 
largest wine-cask in existence, measuring 36 
feet long and 24 feet high, with a capacity of 
800 hogsheads, or 283,200 bottles. It has re- 
mained empty since 1769. 

Heilbeonn- (Wiirtemberg) was founded 
by Charlemagne a.d. 805, and came under 
the dominion of the see of Wurzburg in 
1225. It was raised to the rank of a free 
imperial city in 1360, and was taken by storm 
in the War of the Peasants, 1528. The Pro- 
testant League of Germany was formed here 
in 1594, and a treaty between Sweden and 
the Protestant states of Germany was con- 
cluded here in March, 1633. It was made 
over to the king of Wiirtemberg in 1803. 

Heili&ee Lee (Battle). — The Spaniards 
were defeated by Louis of Nassau and the 
Dutch patriots near the monastery of Hei- 
hger Lee, or the " Holy Lion," May 23, 1568. 

Heldee (Holland) . — The Dutch admiral 
Van Tromp was killed off the Helder Point, 
A.D. 1653. The Enghsh, having captured the 
Dutch fleet, Aug. 30, 1799, took possession of 
Helder. They retired in October of the 
same year. 

Helena, St. (Atlantic), was discovered 
May 21, 1502, by Juan de Nova Castella, a 
Portuguese. It was occupied by the Dutch, 
some time after 1610. They removed their 
colony to the Cape of Good Hope in 1651, 
when St. Helena fell into the possession of 
the Enghsh. The Dutch captured it in 1665 
and in 1673, and on both occasions were 
speedily expelled. Charles II. granted it to 
the Enghsh East -India Company in 1673. 
In 1815 it was made the abode of the emperor 
Napoleon I., who landed on the island 
Oct. 16, 1815, and resided there until his 



HEL 

death, May 5, 1821. His remains were re- 
moved to France in 1840. 

Helga (Battle).— The Swedes and Nor- 
wegians defeated Canute near this river, in 
Denmark, a.d. 1025. 

Helieb, St. (Jersey), was founded by the 
Normans, a.d. 837. The parish church was 
bmlt in 1341. Fort Kegent was commenced 
in 1550, and completed in 1806. Ehzabeth 
Castle, erected in 1586, received great addi- 
tions in 1636. The Court-house was built 
in 1647. St. Heher was surprised by the 
French, Jan. 6, 1781. The harbour pier 
was completed in 1819. Queen Victoria 
visited St. Heher, Aug. 28, 1846, and again 
Aug. 13, 18.59. 

Heligoland (North Sea). — This island 
was a dependency of the duchy of Holstein, 
until captured by the English, Sept. 5, 1807. 
It was definitively assigned to England by the 
treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, and ceased to 
be occupied as a military post in 1821. 

Heliometeb was first suggested by 
Eaemer about a.d. 1678, and was described 
by Savary in 1743. Bouguer constructed 
his hehometer in 1748. It was improved by 
Dollond in 1753, and by Kamsden in 1777. 

Heliopolis. {See Baalbec.) 

Hellenists. — Jewish colonists who settled 
in Egypt, after the destruction of the king- 
dom of Judah, about b.c. 606. Their num- 
ber was increased by the Jewish colomes 
planted by Alexander, B.C. 336. 

Hellespont. {See Dardanelles.) 

Hell-eike Clubs. — Three secret associa- 
tions under this name, to which about forty 
persons, of both sexes, belonged, existed in 
London a.d. 1721. Their tendencies and 
mummeries were believed to be simdar to 
those of the Mohocks, forbidden, under high 

Senalties, in 1711. A royal proclamation, 
ated April 28, 1721, interdicted such asso- 
ciations. 

Helmets were worn by the ancient Egyp- 
tians and Assyrians, and by the Greeks, 
Eomans, and Etruscans. The Britons did 
not use them before the Eoman invasion, 
and they were rare among the Franks and 
Germans. The Anglo-Saxons wore foui'- 
cornered pyramidal hehnets of leather, and 
the Danes, conical protections of metal, 
which also formed part of the armour of 
the Saxon nobles at Hastings. The nasal- 
piece was added in the 10th century, and 
cylindrical flat-topped helmets were intro- 
duced in the 12th, the earliest specimen 
being one worn by Charles the Good of 
Flanders, a.d. 1122. Fan crests became 
general in the 13th century ; the round- 
topped hehn came into fashion about 1270 ; 
and the sugarloaf-shaped helmet about 
1280. Bell-shaped and broad-brimmed hel- 
mets were sometimes worn in the 14th 
century, though they never became general. 
In the 15th century hehnets of cuir bouilli 
and wicker-work were worn by archers ; 
and in the 16th century the close helmet, or 
burgonet, was introduced, and mask-visors 
of grotesque design were in vogue. An 
attempt was made during the reign of 



HEN 

Charles II. to invent a head-covering an- 
swering the double purpose of a helmet and 
a hat. 

Helmstadt (Brunswick). — A university 
was founded here a.d. 1576. It was sup- 
pressed by Jerome Bonaparte in 1809. 

Helots. — The inhabitants of the town of 
Helos, in Laconia, captured by the Spartans 
B.C. 700. They were employed either as do- 
mestic slaves, cultivators of the land, or in 
the public works ; and, being cruelly treated, 
often rose in rebeUion. This was the case 
during the great earthquake b.c. 464, and in 
the Peloponnesian war B.C. 420. The term 
was afterwards applied to aU captives con- 
demned to servitude. 

Helsingborg (Battle). — The Swedes de- 
feated the Danes at this town, in Sweden, 
March 10, 1709. A convention between Great 
Britain and Sweden was concluded here 
Aug. 31, 1805. 

Helsingeoes (Kussia), built by Gusta- 
vus I. m the 16th century. The Kussians 
burned it in 1728 and in 1741. It was ceded 
to Kussia in 1809, and they made it the capital 
ofFinlandinl819. 

Helvetian Kepttblic. — The title of the 
government estabhshed in Switzerland by its 
French conquerors in April, 1798. {See Swit- 
zerland.) 

Helvetii. — This Celtic tribe inhabited the 
country now called Switzerland, and under 
their leader Divico defeated L. Cassius Lon- 
ginus, and compelled his army to pass under 
the yoke, B.C. 107. Orgetorix led them into 
Gaiil B.C. 61, and they were totally defeated 
and cruelly massacred by Julius Caesar on the 
banks of the Saone, B.C. 58. 

Helvoetsluys (Holland). — WUliam, 
prince of Orange, sailed from this port for 
England, Oct. 19, 1688. It was taken by the 
French in January, 1795, and was evacuated 
by them Dec. 5, 1813. 

Hemp. — This plant has been grown in Ben- 
gal from the earliest ages, and was woven into 
cloth by the ancient inhabitants of Thrace. 
It was introduced into this country about 
A.D. 1139. Its cultivation was ordered by 
24 Hen. VIII. e. 4 (1582) . Its growth in the 
North American colonies was encouraged by 
3 & 4 Anne, c. 10 (1703) . 

Heneet Isle, about ten miles from Bom- 
bay, was seized by Sevajee in 1679. It was 
a rendezvous for pirates about 1790. 

Hengstone Hill, or Hengestdown 
(Battle) . — Egbert defeated the Northmen at 
this place, in Cornwall, a.d. 835. 

Hennebon (France). — The succession to 
Britanny was disputed by Charles of Blois, 
nephew of Philip VI., king of France, and 
John de Montfort, a.d. 1341. Charles of 
Blois besieged De Montfort' s wife Jane, in 
the town of Hennebon, in 1342. This heroic 
woman was on the point of surrendering the 
town, when the English fleet, conveying 
reinforcements under Sir Walter Manny, 
entered the harbour. 

Henoticon, or Edict of Union, was pub- 
Hshed by the Greek emperor Zeno a.d. 482, 
for the purpose of reconciling the rival 
409 



HEN 

clittrclies of Alexandria and Constantinople. 
Felix III. condemned it in 4S3, and it was 
reTokedby Justinl. in518. {See Acacians.) 

HENKiCAifS. — The followers of Henry, a 
monk and hermit, who attempted to effect a 
reform amongst the clergy in the 12th cen- 
tury. He quitted Switzerland, travelled 
through Bordeaux and Poitou, and arrived 
at Toulouse in 1147. Eugenius III. con- 
demned his views at the council of Eheims, 
March 21, 1148, and committed Henry to 
prison, where he died. 

. Heket the Eiest, the youngest son of 
Wilham I., was born at Selby, in Yorkshire, 
in 1068. He was chosen king at Winchester, 
Aug. 3, and crowned at Westminster, Stm- 
day, Aug. 5, 1100. He married Maud, 
daughter of Malcohn, king of Scotland, 
Nov. 11, 1100. She bore him a son and a 
daughter, — William, duke of Normandy, who 
perished by shipwreck, Nov. 25, 1120, and 
Maud, married to Henry V., emperor of 
Germany, Jan. 7, 1111, and, after his death 
(May 22, 1125), to Geoffrey of Anjou, Aug. 
26, 1127. She received homage as fu- 
ture queen, Dec. 25, 1126, and contested 
the crown with Stephen. Henry the First's 
queen, Maud, died at Westminster, May 1, 
1118 ; and Feb. 2, 1121, he married Adelais 
of Louvain, who survived him, leaving no 
issue. Henry died at Rouen, Sunday, Dec. 1, 
1135. He was surnamed Beauclerc. 

Heijet the Second, the eldest son of 
Geoffrey of Anjou, and Maud, daughter of 
Henry I., was bom at Mans, in Maine, 
March, 1133. He was crowned at West- 
minster, Dec. 19, 1154. He married Eleanor, 
the divorced wife of Louis VII., Whitsunday, 
May 18, 1152. They had five sons and three 
daughters, — WiUiam, bom in 1152, and died 
in 1156; Henry, bom Feb. 28, 1155, died 
June 11, 1183 ; Matilda, born in 1156, married 
to Henry the Lion, of Saxony, in 1168, and 
died June 28, 1189; Eichard (see Richard I.); 
Geoffrey, born Sept. 23, 1158, killed at a tour- 
nament Aug. 19, 1186; Eleanor, bom in 1162, 
married to Alfonso III., of Castile, in 1170, 
and died Oct. 31, 1214 ; Joanna, born in Octo- 
ber, 1165, and died in September, 1199 ; and 
John {q. v.), afterwards king. Henry II. died 
at Chinon, July 6, 1189. He was surnamed 
Fitz-Empress. 

Henkt the Third, eldest son of King 
John and Isabella, was born at Winchester, 
Oct. 1, 1207; was crowned at Gloucester, 
Friday, Oct. 28, 1216. He married Eleanor 
of Provence, Jan. 14, 1236, by whom he had 
six sons and three daughters. Of these, five, 
namely, Robert, John, William, Henry, and 
Catherine, died young. Edward {see Ed- 
ward I.) was born June 18, 1239 ; Margaret 
was born in 1241, married to Alexander I. 
of Scotland, Dec. 26, 1251, and died in 
1275 ; Beatrice was bom in 1242, and died 
in 1275; and Edmund was born in 1245, 
created earl of Lancaster, and died in 1296. 
Henry III. died at Westminster, Wednes- 
day, Nov. 16, 1272, and was buried in the 
abbey, Nov. 20. In 1286 his wddow Eleanor 
became a nun at Amesbury, where she died 
410 



HEN 

June 24, 1291. Henry III. was surnamed 
Winchester from the place of his birth. 

Henry the Fourth, the only son of John 
of Gaunt, was born at BoUngbroke in 1366, 
was acknowledged king on Tuesday, Sept. 30, 
1399. In 1380 he married Mary de Bohun, 
by whom he had four sons and two daughters ; 
namely, Henry V. {q. v.) ; Thomas, born in 
1389, created duke of Clarence iu 1412, and 
was killed at Baug^, March 22, 1421 ; John, 
bom in 1390, created duke of Bedford in 
1415, and died Sept. 14, 1435 ; Humphrey, 
bom in 1391, created duke of Gloucester in 
1414, and died in February, 1447 ; Blanche, 
bora in 1392, and died May 22, 1409 ; and 
Philippa, born in 1393, married to Eric XIII. 
of Denmark, and died Jan. 5, 1430. Henry's 
first wife, Mary, died in 1394, and Henry 
married Joan of Navarre, vridow of John V. 
of Britanny, April 3, 1402. The marriage 
was celebrated at Winchester, Feb. 26, 1403. 
She had no children, and survived the king, 
dying in 1437. Henry IV. died at Westmin- 
ster, Monday, March 20, 1413. He was sur- 
named Bolingbroke. 

Henry the Fifth, the eldest son of 
Henry IV. and his wife Mary, was born at 
Monmouth, Aug. 9, 1388. He ascended the 
throne March 21, and was crowned at West- 
minster, April 9, 1413, and married Cathe- 
rine of France, June 2, 1420. She bore him 
one child, Henry VI. (q. v.), and survived her 
husband, who died atBois Vincennes, Aug. 31, 
1422. He was surnamed Monmouth. 

Henry the Sixth, the only son of 
Henry V. and Catherine of France, was 
born at Windsor on Dec. 6, 1421, proclaimed 
king Sept. 1, 1422, and crowned at Paris 
Dec. 17, 1431. He married Margaret of 
Anjou, April 22, 1445, They had one son, 
Edward, bom Oct. 13, 1453, was killed at 
Tewkesbury, Saturday, May 4, 1471. Henry 
was deposed March 4, 1461 ; restored Oct. 9, 
1470 ; and again deposed April 14, 1471 . From 
that time he was kept in the Tower, where he 
was probably put to death in June of the same 
year. His queen, Margaret, survived him, and 
died in penuiy at Dampierre, Aug. 25, 1481. 
Henry was surnamed Windsor. 

Henry the Seventh, son of Edmund 
Tudor, earl of Richmond, and Margaret, 
daughter of John Beaufort, duke of 
Somerset, was bom at Pembroke Castle, 
Jan. 21, 1456. He was proclaimed king 
after the victory on Bosworth Field, Aug. 22, 
1485, and was erovmed Oct. 30. He married 
Ehzabeth of York, Jan. 18, 1486, thereby 
uniting the houses of York and Lancaster, 
that had long contested the right to the 
crown. They had three sons and four 
daughters, of whom Edmund, Ehzabeth, 
and Catherine died in infancy. Their other 
children were Arthur, born at Winchester 
Sept. 20, 1486, married Catherine of Aragon 
Nov. 14, 1501, and died April 2, 1502 ; 
Margaret, bom Nov. 29, 1489, and died 
in 1541 ; Henry, who became king {see 
Henry VIII) ; and Mary, bom in 1498, 
married to Louis XII. of France Oct. 9, 
1514, and died June 25, 1533. Ehzabeth died 



HEN 

Feb. 11, 1503. Henry VII. died at Eieh- 
mond, April 21, 1509. 

Henet the Eighth, the second 
son of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of 
York, was born at Greenwich June 28, 
1491 ; succeeded to the throne April 22, 
1509 ; and was crowned at Westminster 
June 24, in the same year. He married 
Catherine of Aragon, his brother Arthur's 
widow, June 7, 1509. The marriage was 
pronounced null and void May 23, 1533. 
Henry had married Anne Boleyn in January, 
1533, and this union was declared lawful 
May 28, 1533. Anne's marriage was set 
aside May 17, and she was executed May 19, 
the king marrying Jane Seymour May 20, 
1536. Jane Seymour died Oct. 24, 1537, 
and Henry married Anne of Cleves Jan. 6, 
1540. This marriage was pronounced invalid 
July 10 ; abrogated by parliament July 24 ; 
and Henry married Catherine Howard 
July 28, 1540. She was executed Feb. 12, 
1542 ; and Henry married Catherine Parr, a 
widow, July 10, 1543. She survived him, dying 
in Sept. 1548. In addition to children who 
died in infancy, Henry had, by Catherine 
of Aragon, Mary {q. v.) ; by Anne Boleyn, 
Ehzabeth {q.v.) ; and by Jane Seymour, 
Edward {see Edwabd VI.). Henry died at 
Westminster, Friday, Jan. 28, 1547. 

Heptarchy. — This word, which signifies 
the government of seven rulers, is applied to 
the divisions of England under the Saxons. 
The first Saxon monarchy in England was 
that of Kent, founded a.d. 455. The erec- 
tion of Sussex into a kingdom in 491, es- 
tablished the Duwrchy, which became a 
Triarchy, on the foundation of Wessex in 
519. The commencement of the states of 
Essex and East Angles, in 527, made it a 
Fentarchy, which became a Sexwrchy when 
Ida founded Bernicia, in 547, and a Hep- 
tarchy on the estabhshment of the British 
kingdom of Deira, in 559. An eighth state, 
Mercia, formed in 586, constituted the Oc- 
tarchy, which continued tiU 670, when the 
union of Deira and Bernicia into the single 
kingdom of Northumbria, restored the 
Heptarchy. The seven kingdoms were gra- 
dually united into one by Egbert and his 
successors . (ASeeBEiTANjs^iA and En gland . ) 

Heeacleia (Magna Grsecia) was founded 
B.C. 432. The Eomans were defeated near 
this city by P3rrrhus, b.c. 280. 

Heeacleia, or Minoa (Sicily), — Little is 
known concerning the early history of this 
town, which was repeopled by the Dorians 
B.C. 510. It was an important place during 
the first and second Punic wars. 

Heeacleia Pontica (Asia Minor) was 
founded by the Megarians, B.C. 986. The 
inhabitants suppUed the 10,000 Greeks 
under Xenophon with vessels to carry them 
back to Cyzicus, b.c 401. The repubhcan 
government of the city was overthrown by 
Clearchus b.c. 380. Heracleia furnished 
succour to Ptolemy, against Antigonus, B.C. 
307. The Koman consul AureMus Cotta 
sacked and plundered the city b.c. 74, 

Heeacleonites. — A Gnostic sect, the 



HER 

followers of Heraeleon, a pupil of Valentin, 
that arose in the 2nd century. 

Heeaclid^, the descendants of Hercules, 
who, after his death, b.c. 1209, were expelled 
from the Peloponnesus, and took refuge in 
Attica. The return of the Herachdae, b.c, 
1104, forms a celebrated epoch in ancient 
chronology, as marking the transition from 
the heroic or fabulous ages to the period 
of authentic history. 

Heealdey. — The origin of heraldry has 
been claimed for the Egyptians, Greeks, and 
other ancient nations, but it is of much later 
date, and probably arose from the devices 
painted on German banners. Blazonry was 
introduced by the French, whether in the time 
of the Merovingians, who became extinct in 
754, or in the 9th or 10th century, is un- 
certain. Family bearings were estabhshed 
among the kings of the Heptarchy. He- 
raldry, as a science, was not introduced into 
England till 1147 ; crests were borne about 
1286. Heralds, as now established, were 
instituted by Richard III. in 1483, and were 
incorporated March 2, 1483. 

Heealds' College (London). — This insti- 
tution was incorporated by letters patent of 
Richard III., dated March 2, 1484. Queen 
Mary gave Derby House for the purposes of 
the college, July 18, 1554 ; and this being de- 
stroyed in the great fire of 1666, the present 
edifice in Doctors' Commons was erected by 
Sir Christopher Wren in 1683. The college 
consists of the three kings-at-arms, viz., Gar- 
ter, Clarencieux, and Norroy ; of sis heralds, 
— Lancaster, Somerset, Richmond, Windsor, 
York, and Chester ; and of four pursuivants, 
—Rouge Croix, Blue Mantle, PortcuUis, and 
Rouge Dragon. 

He EAT (Affghanistan) in the time of 
Alexander was the capital of an extensive 
province. From a.d. 1150 to 1220 it was the 
residence of the Gourides. This city was 
taken from the Persians by the Affghans in 
1715. It was retaken by Nadir Shah in 
1731 ; and recovered by the Afl'ghans in 1749. 
The Persians attacked it in 1833 and 1838, 
without success. It was surrendered to the 
Persian general Sultan Murad Mirza by 
Issa Khan, after a long siege, Oct. 26, 1856. 
The Persian troops evacuated it July 27, 
1857. 

Heecttlam-eum (Italy). — This ancient city 
of Campania had Hercules for its reputed 
founder, and was undoubtedly of great anti- 
quity. It suffered severely from an earth- 
quake A.D. 63, and was entirely overwhelmed 
by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Aug. 24, 
A.D. 79. A second settlement, formed near 
the site of the buried city, met with a similar 
fate A.D. 472. Even the situation of Her- 
culaneum was forgotten. In 1709 some 
fragments of statues, &c., were discovered 
in sinking a well, and in 1738 the theatre was 
discovered and explored by Colonel Alcubier. 
A description of the city was pubhshed by 
the Academy of Naples, at the expense of 
the government, under the title of " Antichita 
diEreolano" (1757-92). 

Hebefoed (Herefordshire) was the seat 



HER 

of a bishop a.d. 676. A cathedral was built 
here in 825, rebuilt in 1030, and destroyed 
by Griffin, when he piUaged the city, in 1055. 
The present edifice was commenced in 1079. 
The town was pillaged by the Welsh, under 
Griffin, Oct. 24, 1055, and was taken by 
King Stephen ia 1141. The parhamentary 
troops captured it in 1643. It was incorpo- 
rated Oct. 9, 1189, and its last charter is 
dated June 14, 1697. 

Heretics. — St. Augustine defines heretics 
as those "who, when they are reproved for 
their unsound opinions, contumaciously re- 
sist, and, instead of correcting their per- 
nicious and damnable doctrines, persist in 
the defence of them, and leave the Church 
and become her enemies." In the primitive 
Church they were not regarded as Chris- 
tians : marriages between them and the 
orthodox were prohibited in 366 by the 
council of Laodicea ; and the Theodosian 
Code, promulgated in 438, deprived them of 
the benefit of sanctuary. The most im- 
portant heretical sects will be found under 
their respective titles. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 14 
(1533), oflFences against the see of Rome do 
not constitute heresy. All former statutes 
on the subject were repealed by 1 EHz. c. 1 
(1558), which rendered it an ecclesiastical 
offence, only to be judged in ecclesiastical 
courts. The burning of heretics was abo- 
lished by 29 Charles II. c. 9 (1676). Persons 
relapsing from Christianity into a behef in 
more than one God, or a denial of the sacred 
Scriptures, were rendered hable to sundry 
civil disabilities, and, on persistence in the 
offence, to imprisonment for three years, by 
9 & 10 WiU. III. 0. 32 



Heemanitstadt (Transylvania) was 
founded by the Saxons, a.d. 1160. The 
Austrians were defeated near this town by 
the Hungarians, Jan. 21, 1849. The Eus- 
sians occupied this town July 21, 1849, were 
diiven out Aug. 5, and regained posses- 
sion, having defeated the Hungarians with 
much slaughter, Aug. 6. 

Heeodians, mentioned by Matthew 
(xxiii. 16) and Mark (iii. 6, xii. 13), are be- 
lieved to have been the adherents of Herod 
the Great, appointed governor of Galilee by 
Antipater b . c . 47 . After he had obtained the 
throne, B.C. 40, he gained numerous par- 
tisans among the Jews, and they were pro- 
bably formed into a sect at his death, 
B.C. 4 (March 13) . Dr. Martin Luther tran- 
slated the word 'Rpwhavoi into " Diener 
des Herodes," servants of Herod. They 
were a political party rather than a rehgioua 
sect. 

Heeeeea (Battle).— The Carhsts defeated 
the queen's troops near this place, inAragon, 
August 24, 1837. 

Heeeis-g Eisheet.— The Scotch were 
extensively engaged in this fishery in the 9th 
century a.d., and the Dutch first practised 
it in 1164. By the Statute of Herrings, 
Edw. III. St. 2 (1357), the sale of the fish at 
sea was prohibited, and the trade was placed 
under the control of the chancellor and 
412 



treasurer. This statute mentions Yarmouth 
as the great seat of the herring fishery. The 
method of curing the fish with salt was in- 
vented by Beukels, a Dutchman, who died in 
1397. The Society of the Free British Fishery 
was incorporated in 1749 for the regulation 
of the herring fisheries, and a s imil ar com- 
pany was formed in 1786, but neither met 
with much success, in spite of the extrava- 
gant bounties granted for their encourage- 
ment. By 48 Geo. III. c. 110 (June 25, 
1808) commissioners were appointed, whose 
business was to superintend the cleansing, 
packing, &c. of the herrings, and in 1830 the 
bounties were discontinued. 

Heeeings, (Battle of), fought at Eoveroy, 
near Orleans, Feb. 12, 1429, between the 
Enghsh and the French, the latter being 
defeated. The French endeavoured to cut 
off a convoy of provisions for the army 
besieging Orleans, and for this reason the 
action was called the battle of Herrings. 

Heetfoed (Hertfordshire). — A castle was 
buQt here in the reign of King Alfred. A 
council was held at Hertford, Sept. 24, 673. 
Edward the Elder erected another castle 
in 909, which was granted by Edward III. 
to John of Gaimt in 1345. The earliest 
authenticated charter of Hertford was 
granted by Ehzabeth, in 1588 ; and that by 
which it is governed was granted in 1680. 

Heetfoed College (Oxford). — Hertford 
Hall was in existence in the reign of Edward I. 
and in 1312 was conveyed to Walter Staple- 
ton, bishop of Exeter. It became a depend- 
ency of Exeter College ; was re-estabhshed 
in 1710, and was raised into a perpetual 
college by royal charter, Aug. 27, 1740. It 
was dissolved in 1818. 

Hebijli. — This Teutonic tribe, from the 
coast of the Baltic, descended the Danube 
to the Black Sea, a.d. 200, and sailed through 
the Hellespont, in 500 ships, in 262, when 
they began plundering the cities of Greece, 
burning, among others, the famous temple 
of the goddess Diana at Ephesus. They 
were met near Athens by Dexippus, who 
routed them in 267. They again wandered 
northward, invaded Italy, and overthrew 
the Western empire in 476. The Lon- 
gobardi almost destroyed them in 512, 
and their name is mentioned for the last 
time in history at the defeat and death of 
Teias by IS" arses, in March, 553. 

Heezegovina, or Heetsek (European 
Turkey) . — This province, which originally 
formed part of Croatia, was incorporated 
with Bosnia a.d. 1326. It was seized by the 
Turks in 1463. It was formally ceded to 
the porte by Austria at the peace of Car- 
lovritz, Jan. 26, 1699, and was overrun by a 
band of Montenegrins in October, 1855. 

Hesse (Germany). — This country was 
originally peopled by the Catti. In the 
time of Clovis it formed part of Thuringia, 
but in A.D. 902 was \mder the government of 
a covint of Hesse. It afterwards passed by 
marriage into the possession of Louis I. of 
Thuringia (1130-1140), and on the extinction 
of his male descendants in 1247, was erected 



HES 

into a distinct landgraviate under Henry the 
Infant, whose claims were finally established 
in 1263. In 1292 it became a principality of 
the empire, and in 1458 was divided into 
Upper and Lower Hesse, the whole country 
again becoming united under the landgrave 
of Lower Hesse in 1500, On the death of 
PhiHp I. in 1567, Hesse was divided between 
his four sons, who founded the houses of 
Cassel, Marburg, Eheinfels, and Darmstadt. 
The house of Eheinfels becoming extinct 
in 1583, and that of Marburg in 1604, the 
famihes of Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darm- 
stadt became the sole rulers of the country. 
{See Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Daemstadt.) 

Hesse-Cassel (Germany) . — This state 
was erected on the death of Philip the Mag- 
nanimous, of Hesse, a.d, 1567. In 1628 
the houses of Hesse-Rottenburg and Hesse- 
Rheinfeis were founded by the brothers of 
William V. of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1655, 
Phihp, third son of William VI., founded the 
line of Hesse-Philipsthal. Hesse-Cassel 
was made an electorate in 1803 ; in 1806 it 
was occupied by the French, and in 1807 was 
incorporated with the kingdom of Westpha- 
lia. It was re-elected into an electorate in 
1813. Popular insurrections in 1830 and 
1848 procured important concessions from 
the elector, who joined the Prussian union 
in 1849, and seceded from it in 1850. The 
constitution was again modified in 1852, and 
again in 1860, the alterations taking efiect 
from July 1. 

Hesse-Dakmstadt (Germany). — This 
state was separated from Hesse on the death 
of Philip I., A.D. 1567. In 1801 Louis X. was 
compelled to cede several districts on the 
left bank of the Rhine, for which he received 
in exchange the duchy of Westphaha, &c. 
In 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt became a grand- 
duchy. The grand-duke joined the alliance 
against France in 1813, and ceded West- 
phaha and other territories to Prussia in 
1815. Important political reforms were 
introduced in 1820 and 1848, most of which 
were withdrawn in 1850. Hesse-Darm- 
stadt joined the Austrian league, which 
assembled at Frankfort in 1850, under the 
name of the Ancient German Diet. 

Hesse-Homburg- (Germany). — This state 
was founded in 1596 by Frederick, son of 
George I. of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1806 it 
was put in subjection to Hesse-Darmstadt, 
but it regained its independence in 1815, and 
received the lordship of Merssenheim. The 
landgrave of Hesse-Homburg was the only 
minor prince of Germany who refused to 
adopt the constitution of the empire in 
1849. 

Hestchasts, or HESTCHIST.S. (See 
Bablaamites.) 

Hexham (BTorthumberland) was erected 
into a bishopric a.d. 675, which was extinct 
in 810. In the 9th century this town 
suffered much from the Danes, and was 
taken and pillaged by the Scotch in 1296 and 
1346. A battle was fought here between 
the Yorkists and the Lancastrians, in which 
the latter were totally defeated, May 8, 1464. 



HIL 

Elizabeth founded a free grammar-school 
here in 1598. 

HiEEACiANS, or HiEKACiTES.— The follow- 
ers of Hierax, an Egyptian bishop of Leon- 
topolis, who taught towards the close of the 
3rd century. He was an ascetic. 

HiEBOGLTPHics, hterally "sacred en- 
gravings or sculpture," are believed to be the 
oldest mode of writing known to mankind. 
The invention is usually attributedto Athotes, 
B.C. 2122. The simplestform of hieroglyphics, 
the phonetic, continued in general use in Egypt 
till the time of the 22nd dynasty, or about 
B.C. 1000, when the hieratic character was 
introduced. This was employed tOl the com- 
mencement of the 28th dynasty, about B.C. 
800, when a new form, the demotic, came into 
use. It was employed till the Christian sera, 
when it was finally superseded by the modern 
Coptic. At the time of Clement of Alex- 
andria, A.D. 211, hieroglyphics had passed 
into the condition of a dead language. The 
last notice of them is by Horus Apollo, of 
Phenebetis, a.d. 500. Subsequently all know- 
ledge of hieroglyphics totally disappeared, 
tOl the discovery by M. Boussard, in 1799, 
of the Rosetta stone, a tablet bearing a de- 
cree in honour of Ptolemy Epiphanes, issued 
B.C. 196, gave a clue to their interpretation. 
The Rosetta inscriptions were partly de- 
ciphered by SUvestre de Sacy in 1801, by 
Akerblad in 1802, by Champollion le Jeune 
in 1814, and principally by Your^ in 1817-18. 
Champollion published his Grammar of 
Hieroglyphics in 1836, and his Dictionary 
in 1841. 

High Commission Cotjet. — This tribunal 
was established by 1 Ehz. c. 1, s. 18 (1559), 
to exercise jurisdiction in matters of an 
ecclesiastical nature. It sat for the last 
time at St. Paul's, Oct. 22, 1640, and was 
finally abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 11, s. 3 
(1641). James II. attempted to revive it. 

HiGHKESs. — This title, borneby Henry VIT. 
and Henry VIII., was rehnquished towards 
the end of the latter' s reign for the style of 
"your majesty." It was conferred on the 
prince of Orange by Louis XIV. in 1644. 
The prince of Conde was the first to assume 
the title of Serene Highness. 

High Teeason^.— The highest offence 
known in this country, is defined and regu- 
lated by 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 2 (1350). By 
7 & 8 Wfil. III. c. 3 (1695), persons accused 
thereof were to be prosecuted within three 
years of the alleged offence, unless it was a 
plot to assassinate the sovereign. Trials 
for this crime are conducted in the same 
form as trials for murder by 39 & 40 
Geo. III. c. 93 (July 28, 1800). The pun- 
ishment for high treason, according to 
54 Geo. III. c. 146 (July 27, 1814), is drawing 
on a hurdle, hanging, and quartering, which 
may be commuted to simple decapitation if 
the sovereign pleases. Petty treason hav- 
ing been abolished by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 2 
(June 27, 1828), the term high is not now 
used, the offence simply being styled treason. 

Hildesheim (Hanover). — A bishopric, 
1 founded at Else a.d. 812, was removed to 
' 413 



HIM 



HOH 



Hildesheim a.d. 822. The cathedral was 
founded in 818. It was secularized, and 
taken possession of by the king of Prussia, 
in 1803. It was iacorporated with the king- 
dom of Westphalia in 1807, and annexed to 
the kingdom of Hanover ia 1813, the annex- 
ations having been confirmed by the Con- 
gress of Vienna in 1814-15. 

HiMEEA (SicUy) was founded by a colony 
from Zancle, b.c. 648. A great battle was 
fought near the city, between the Cartha- 
ginians and the Sicilians, the latter beiag 
victorious, B.C. 480. Some new colonists, of 
Doric extraction, arrived here B.C. 476. It 
was razed to the ground by the Cartha- 
ginians, B.C. 408. Many of the inhabitants 
returned, and founded a new city near 
the site of Himera, B.C. 405. Agathocles 
was defeated at Himera b,c. 310. [See 
Thebii^.) 

HiNDOSTAN, or HiNDrsTAN, signifying, 
in the Persian language, the country of the 
Hindoos, has been applied by geographers 
to that part of India called the Peninsula 
within the Ganges, extending from Cape 
Comorin to the Himalaya mountains. {See 
India.) 

HiEA (Chaldea). — This ancient city, which 
is now known as Medschid Ali, was founded 
by the Arabs a.d. 190. It was destroyed by 
Saad Ben Abi Vacas in 639, and has never 
regained its former importance. Gibbon 
(ch. h.) says that " Hira was the seat of a 
race of kings who had embraced the 
Christian rehgion, and reigned above 600 
years under the shadow of the throne of 
Persia." 

HiSTOEIOGBAPHEE EOTAL. — This office 

was revived by Charles II. a.d. 1660, in fa- 
favour of James Howell. In 1685 Bernard 
Andreas was historiographer to Henry VII. 

HiSTOET. — Bacon divides human learning 
into history, poetry, and philosophy. Oral 
tradition was the mode in which historical 
facts were at first transmitted from one 
generation to another. The Old Testament 
is the earhest historical work in existence. 
Herodotus, born B.C. 484, and called the 
"father of history," is the earhest classical 
historian. With reference to the period 
at which Ancient history terminates and Mo- 
dern history commences, a writer in Black- 
vjood (vol. xxxii. p. 790, note) remarks, — 
•' It has repeatedly been made a question at 
what sera we are to date the transition from 
ancient to modern history. This question 
merits a separate dissertation. Meantime, 
it is sufficient to say in this place that 
Justinian in the 6th century will unani- 
mously be referred to the ancient division ; 
Charlemagne in the 8th to the modem. 
These, then, are two hmits fixed in each 
direction ; and somewhere between them 
must lie the frontier hne. JS'ow the sera of 
Mohammed in the 7th century is evidently the 
exact and perfect hue of demarcation ; not 
only as pretty nearly bisecting the debate- 
able ground, but also because the rise of the 
Mohammedan power, as operating so power- 
fully upon the Christian kingdoms of the 
414 



south, and through them upon the whole 
of Christendom, at that time beginning to 
mould themselves and to imite, marks in the 
most eminent sense the beginning of a new 
sera." 

HiTTiTES. — This nation was descended 
from Cheth, or Heth, the second son of 
Canaan, B.C. 3200. "Uriah the Hittite" 
was one of the thirty composing Da%-id'8 
body-guard, b. c. 1048. The Egyptian 
annals refer to a very powerful con- 
federacy of Hittites in the valley of the 
Orontes, with whom Sether I. waged war, 
B.C. 1340, and whose capital, Ketesh, near 
Emesa, he conquered. Solomon compelled 
them to pay tribute about B.C. 1000 (1 Kings 
ix. 20). 

HOBAET-Towir (Austraha), the capital of 
Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, was 
founded in 1804. It was thrown open to 
free settlers in 1819. 

HocHKiECHEN" (Battlcs) . — The Austrians 
defeated Frederick II. of Prussia at this 
place, in Saxony, Oct. 14, 1758. Jf apoleon I. 
gained a victory here over an alhed Eussian 
and Prussian force May 22, 1813. 

HocHST (Battle). — The imperialists de- 
feated Christian I. of Brunswick at this 
place, near Mayence, June 20, 1622. The 
Austrians defeated the French at the same 
place Oct. 11, 1795. 

HocHSTADT (Battles). — The emperor 
Henry IV. was defeated in the plains of 
Hochstadt a.d. 1081. The French and 
Bavarians defeated the imperialists here 
Sept. 18, 1703. 

HoHENBUEG (Battle). — The emperor, 
Henry IV. of Germany, defeated the re- 
beUious Saxons in this battle, fought June 9, 
1075. 

HoHENFEEiBrsG (Battle). — Frederick II, 
of Prussia defeated the Austrians under Prince 
Charles, at this village of Silesia, June 4, 1745. 

HoHEifLiNDEif (Battle) . — The French and 
Bavarians defeated an Austrian army at this 
village, in Bavaria, Dec. 3, 1800. The 
former lost 9,000, and the latter 18,000 
men in the battle. The French and 
Bavarians took 97 pieces of cannon and 
7,000 prisoners. 

HoHENLiNDEN CoKTENTiON was Con- 
cluded Sept. 28, 1800, between Austria and 
France. The fortresses of PhUipsburg, 
TJhn, and Ingoldstadt were given as se- 
cvirities to ^Napoleon Bonaparte, and a 
suspension of arms for forty-five days, com- 
mencing Sept. 21, was agreed upon. 

HoHENSTAUFEif. — The foimder of this 
house was Frederick von Biiren, who lived 
about A.D. 1040. His son fought vahantly 
imder the emperor Charles IV. in the battle 
of Merseburg, 1080, and received the hand 
of the emperor's daughter Agnes, together 
with the dukedom of Swabia, in 1081. 
Conrad, his grandson, was elected emperor 
of Germany Feb. 22, 1138. Conrad was 
succeeded as emperor by his nephew, 
Frederick I., sumamed Barbarossa, 1152- 
90; and the imperial throne was occupied 
by his son and grandson till 1254. The sole 



HOH 

and last survivor of the Hohenstaufen race, 
Conradin, tried to regain the family heritage ; 
but having been defeated in the battles of 
Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266, andof Tagliacozzo, 
Aug. 23, 1268, he was made prisoner and be- 
headed at Naples, Oct. 29, 1268. 

HoHENZOLLEBN. — This, the royal house 
of Prussia, was founded by Count Thassilo, 
who built the castle of ZoUem, afterwards 
called Hohenzollern (High-Zollern) , a.d. 
800. The castle was greatly enlarged by 
Frederick, the first count of Zollern, in 980. 
Frederick III. gained the title of prince 
and the government of Nuremberg in 1273. 
In the 16th century the house separated 
into two branches, the younger of which 
subsequently became kings of Prussia, while 
the elder remained princes of Hohenzollern. 
Frederick VI., of the younger Hue, received 
the province of Brandenburg from the 
emperor in 1411 ; his successor acquired 
the territory of Prussia in 1560. Another 
Frederick made himself king of Prussia 
January 18, 1701. The principalities of 
Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen, for many centuries in the pos- 
session of the elder line, were united with 
Prussia by treaty, March 20, 1850. 

Holland. — This country was, in the time 
of the Romans, inhabited by a warlike tribe, 
called the Batavi. 



692. Hollaud is invaded by Pepin Heiistal, mayor 
of the palace to Dagobert IT. of Austrasia. 
735. The country becomes ti-ibutary to Frame. 
913. Accession of Theodore I., first count of Hol- 
land. 
983. The county is made hereditary. 

1010. It is invaded by the Normans. 

1151. The Hollanders establish large colonies south 
of the Elbe. 

1291. Florence V., count of Holland, claims the 
throne of Scotland. 

1299. The county is transferred to the family of 
Hainault. 

1304. Guy of Flanders seizes Zealand and North 
Holland, from which he is expelled by the 
young prince "William. 

1349. Rise of the Kabbeljauwen and " Hoeks," the 
former term designating nobles, who sup- 
port William, and the latter the people 
and citizens, who espouse the cause of 
his mother Margaret. 

1359. The Kabbeljauwen rebel, are besieged in Delft, 
and defeated by Albert, heir to the county. 

1390. Aug. 21. The Hoeks uaurder Alice van Poel- 
geest, Albert's mistress. 

1418. Marriage of the Countess Jacobawith John of 
Brabant. Rotterdam and South Holland 
are surrendered to John of Bavaria. 

1421. Jacoba and John of Brabant obtain a divorce. 

Holland suffers from an inundation. 

1422. Jacoba marries Humphrey, duke of Gloii- 

cester. 
1434. Holland passes tinder the power of Philip of 

Burgundy. 
1451. Ghent revolts against the government of 

Philip. 
1477. Mary of Burgundy marries Maximilian of 

Austria, which brings Holland under 

Austrian dominion. 
1488. The Hoeks invade Holland. 

1490. They are expelled. 

1491. Holland is the scene of serious civil strife, 

kno^vn as the " Bread-and-Cheese war." 
1497. Fi-iesland is conferred on Alneit of Saxony. 
1510. Holland is involved in a war with the Hanse 

Towns. 



HOL 



AD. 

1516. The Reformation takes place in Holland. 
1520. Charles "V. introduces important innovations 

in the constitution. 
1522. Friesland is finally annexed to Holland. 
1549. Philip, heir to the county, faUs in an attempt 

to introduce the Inquisition. 

1565. The Inquisition is established in Holland. 

1566. The nobles foiiu the confederacy of the 

" Gueux," or beggars. 

1567. The reformed worship is suppressed. 

1568. The prince of Orange is outlawed. June 5. 

Execution of Egmond and Horn, by order 

of the duke of Alva. 
1570. Holland is visited by a terrible inundation, 

which destroys 20,000 people in Friezland 

alone. 
1572* The country revolts Tznder William, prince 

of Orange. 

1575. The sovereignty of the countiy is offered to 

Queen Elizabeth. 

1576. The north and south provinces are united 

against Spain by the I'aeiflcation of Ghent. 

1579. Jan. 23. The northern provinces sign the 

Union of Utrecht. 

1580. The States abjure their allegiance to Spain. 
1582. May 18. John Jaceguy fires at and wounds 

the prince of Orange. 

1584. July 10. Balthazar Gerard, a Burgundian, 

assassinates the prince of Orange at Delft. 
Prince Maui-ice is appointed stadtholder. 

1585. The States conclude a treaty with Queen 

Elizabeth, who appoints the earl of Lei- 
cester her governor-general in the Nether- 
lands. 

1586. The States disagi-ee with Leicester. Sept. 22. 

Death of Sir Philip Sydney, at the battle 

of Zutpheu. 
1.587. Leicester is recalled to England. 
1594 The States stand sponsors to the eldest son 

of James VI. of Scotland, and incur the 

severe displeasure of Queen Elizabeth in 

consequence. 
1595. The Dutch besin to trade to the East Indies 

and despatch expeditions in quest of a 

north-west passage. The Dutch E^st-India 

Company is founded. 
1598. Philip III. of Spain sui-renders the Spanish 

Netherlands to the Archduke Albert and 

the Infanta Isabella. 
1600. Prince Maurice invades Flanders. 

1609. April 9. Spain acknowledges the indepen- 

dence of the States, and concludes a truce 
for twelve years. 

1610. Rise of the Ai-minians and Gomarists. 

1614. The States promulgate the " Resolution for 
the Peace of the Church" of Grotius. 

1618. Maurice changes the government of the Dutch 

towns. Nov. 13. The Synod of Dort assem- 
bles. 

1619. May 13. Execution of John Barneveldt. 
1621. War is renewed with Spain. The Dutch West- 
India Company is foimded. 

1623. Feb. 6. The sons of Barneveldt and others 
are defeated in a plot to assassinate 
Maurice. 

1625. Death of Maurice, who Is succeeded by his 
brother Fi-ederick Henry. 

1628. The Admiral Peter Peterson Heyn captures 
the Spanish silver fleet, and acquires booty 
to the amount of twelve million florins. 

1637. The "Tulipomania" originates. 

1639. Oct. 21. Van Tromp blockades the Spanish 
fleet in the Downs. 

1641. May 1. The son of the prince of Orange 
marries the princess royal of England. 

1648. Jan. 31. The States conclude a peace with 
Spain, and are recognized by the Em-opean 
princes as an independent republic. 

1650. The dignity of the stadtholder is suspended. 

1652. War is declared against England, hostilities 
being chiefly caiTied on at sea. The re- 
nowned Van Tromp sails through the 
Channel with a broom at hl'i mast-head, 
to show his intention to sweep away the 
English, Nov. 29. 

415 



HOL 



1653. Aug. 10. The Dutch fleet is defeated at the 

mouth of the Meuse, by General Monk, 
and Van Tromp is mortally wounded in the 
action. 

1654. Peace is concluded. 

1658. The States assist the Danes agarost the king 
of Sweden. 

1665. The English again declare war. 

1666. Jvxxe 11 to 14. Monk and De Ruyter fight a 

furious but indecisive naval battle ofl:"lhe 
North Foreiaud. July 25. Pi-ince Rupert 
and Monk defeat De Ruyter off the Fore- 
land. 

1667. The "Perpetual Edict" is passed, which 

abolishes the stadtholdership. 

1668. Jan. IB. The triple alliance of the States, 

England, and Sweden against Frtmce, is 
signed at the Hague. 
1670. Charles II. withdraws from the aUiauce, and 
agrees with Louis XrV. to declare war 
against Holland. 

1672. April 7. England and France declare war, 

and Holland is invaded by 120,000 Fi-ench, 
under Cond6 and Turenne, who seize most 
of the important towns. The Perpetual 
Edict is revoked, and William, prince of 
Orange, made stadtholder. Aug. 22. Cor- 
nelius and John De Witt are assassinated 
by the mob. The Dutch aiTest the progi-ess 
of the French by opening the sluices, and 
putting the countiy in inundation. 

1673. Tlie French evacuate the Provinces. 

1674. Feb. 9. The treaty of Westminster restores 

peace with England. 

1676. April 29. De Ru>ter is killed in a naval en- 

gagement with the French off Sicily. 

1677. Nov. 4. The prince of Orange marries the 

Princess Mary, the daughter of the duke 
of York. 

1678. Sept. 17. The peace of Nimeguen restores 

peace with France. 

1688. Nov. 5. The prince of Orange lands at Torbay. 

1689. Feb. 13. He ascends the English throne as 

William III. The French declare war 
against Holland. 
1697. Sept. 20. The treaty of Eyswick restores peace 
with France. 

1701. The fortresses of the Netherlands are gar- 

risoned by French troops. 

1702. March 8. Death of the stadtholder, whose 

office is again suspended, and the govern- 
ment ai'ministered by Heiusius. May 15. 
Holland, England, and Germany declare 
war against Prance. 

1708. The Netherlands are invaded by 100,000 
French, under the dukes of Vend6me and 
Burgimdy. 

1713. April 11. Peace is restored by the treaty of 
Utrecht. 

1720. Death of Heinsius. 

1742. The Dutch assist Maria Theresa. 

1747. The French invade Dutch Flanders. The 

stadtholdership is revived, and conferred 
upon the prince of Orange. 

1748. Oct. 18. The peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe restores 

tranquillity to the Provinces. 
1763. A commercial i)anic occurs in Holland. 
1780. England declares war against Holland. 
1783. Peace is concluded. 

1786. Disagreements arise between the stadtholder 

and the States. 

1787. Civil war devastates the cotmtry. 

1793. The French National Convention declares 
war against England and the stadtholder, 
and sends an army into Holland. 

1794 The duke of York an-ives with an English 
force, for the defence of the country from 
the French, but withdraws without accom- 
plishing any great results. The Dutch con- 
stitution is revolutionized this year. 

1795. Jan 27. The Batavian republic is organized, 
and closely allied with France. 

1797. Oct. 11. Lord Duncan defeats the Dutch at 
CamperdowD {q. v.). 

1799. Aug. 28. The Dutch fleet at the Texel sur- 
renders to Vice-Admiral Mitchel. 
416 



HOL 



1801. The constitution is remodelled, and a kind 
of upper house added to the legislature. 

1805. April. Fi-ance changes the form of govern- 

ment, and places Schimmelpenninck, as 
Grand Pensionary, at the head of afl«irs. 

1806. June 5. Royalty is established by Bonaparte, 

in favour of his brother Louis. 

1809. Jvily 28. The Walcheren expedition sails from 

England. The English evacuate the island 
Dec. 23, having cost £20,000,000, and half 
the men being lost or ill. 

1810. July 1. Louis abdicates in favour cf his 

eldest son. July 9. Napoleon annexes the 
country to France. 

1813. Nov. 15. A revolution breaks out in Holland, 

and the French authorities are dismissed. 
Nov. 30. The prince of Orange lands in 
Holland, where he is proclaimed sovereign 
prince. 

1814. March 28. A free constitution is agreed to by 

the prince and people. Aug. 1. The ten. 
provinces of Belgium are annexed to Hol- 
land. 

1815. Feb. 23. Austria cedes most of her Belgian 

possessions to the prince, who assumes the 

regal title March 16. 
1817. May 8 The Roman Catholic bishops protest 

against the mode of instruction prescribed 

for the universities. 
1825. Great distress is occasioned by inundations. 

1830. Independence of Belgium (q. v.). 

1831. Aug. 4. War commences with Belgium. 
1837. Oct. 12. Death of the queen. 

1840. Oct. 7. King William 1. abdicates. 
184:j. Dec. 12. Death of the ex-king. 
1843. July 24. William II. visits England. 
1848. Exteusive reformation is effected in the ad- 
ministration. 

1853. The pope endeavours to introduce a Roman 

Catholic hierarchy. 

1854. Free trade is, to a great extent, adopted. 
1856. Jan. 30. A treaty is concluded with Japan. 
1861. Jan. and Feb. About 30,000 of the Dutch 

peasantry are rendered destitute by exten- 
sive inundations. 

ErLEES OF HOLLAND. 



A.D. 

Theodore 1 913 

Theodore n 924 

Arnold 988 

Theodore III 993 

Theodore IV 1039 

Florence 1 1049 

Theodore V 1061 

Florence TI lOiil 

Theodore VI 1121 

Florence III 1157 

Theodore VII 1191 

Ada 1203 

WUliam 1 1203 

Florence IV 1224 

William II 1235 

Florence V 1256 



A.D. 

John 1 1296 

John II 1299 

William III 1304 

William IV 1337 

Margaret ^. 1345 

William V 1356 

Albei-t 1359 

William A1 1404 

Jacoba 1417 

Philip the Good, of 

Burgundy 1434 

Chai-les 1 1467 

Mary 1477 

Philip II 1482 

Charles II 1506 

Philip III 1555 



STADTHOUJEES. 

A.D. A.D. 

William I., of Orange, I Maurice 1584 

surnamed the Taci- Frederick Henry . . 1623 
turn 1559 i WiUiam 11 1647 

REPUBLIC. 

A.D. 

John de Witt, grand pensionary 1650 

STADTHOLDER. 

A.D. 

WilUam ni 1672 

■REPXTBIAC. 

A.D. 

Heinsius 1702-1720 



HOL 

ST^lDTHOLDEKS. 

A.D. A.D. 

WiUiam IV 1747 | William V. 1751 

BEPUBUC. 

A.D. 

Schimmelpenninck, grand pensionary 1805 

kuTGDOM OF HOIXAM). 

A.D. A.D. 

Louis Bonapai-te . . 1806 I William II 1840 

(United to France) 1810 William III. 1849 

William 1 1815 | 

Holm (Battle) .—The Danes were de- 
feated at Holm, in Kent, a.d.'902. By some 
authorities the date of the action is referred 
to 904, 

HoLMBY (Northamptonshire). — The Scot- 
tish army having delivered Charles I. to 
the English commissioners, Jan. 30, 1647, 
he was conducted under a guard to Holmby. 
From this place the king was removed June 4, 
1647, and conveyed to Childersley, near 
Cambridge. 

HoLMFiRTH (Yorkshire) . — During a heavy 
flood, the Biberry reservoir, at Holmiirth, 
near Huddersfield, burst at half-past twelve 
in the morning, Feb. 5, 1852. Between 90 
and 100 persons perished, and the damage to 
property was estimated at £600,000. 

HoLSTEiK (G-ermany). — Charlemagne 
wrested this country from its Saxon inha- 
bitants, and erected it into the margraviate 
ot Nordalbingia, about a.d. 811. It was 
conferred upon Adolphus, count of Schauen- 
burg, by the emperor Conrad II. in 1030, 
and in 1106 or 1110 was permanently erected 
into a county under his descendant Adol- 
phus I., by Lothaire, duke of Saxony. It 
was for many years harassed by Danish 
invaders, who were finally expelled in 1237, 
and in 1326 it received the duchy of South 
Jutland as an hereditary fief. The house of 
Schauenburg becoming extinct in 1459, the 
States elected Christian of Oldenburg, king 
of Denmark, for count, March 3, 1460. In 
1474 Holstein was erected into a duchy, and 
in 1544 it was divided between the king of 
Denmark and Adolphus of Holstein-Gottorp, 
whose duchy was again divided, on the death 
of Christian Albert in 1695, Vietween his sons 
Frederick IV., who succeeded as duke of 
Holstein, and Christian Augustus, first duke 
of Holstein-Eutin, In 1751 the house of 
Holstein-Eutin succeeded to the throne of 
Sweden, and in 1762 to that of Eussia, the 
grand-duke of Eussia being also duke of 
Holstein-Gottorp. In 1773 the graud-duke 
of Eussia ceded aU his possessions in Holstein 
to the king of Denmark, and the whole 
duchy has ever since been an appanage of 
the Danish crown. On the dissolution of 
the German empire in 1806, Holstein was 
incorporated with Denmark, and in 1813 it 
was taken by the Swedes, who restored it in 
1814. Provincial states for the government 
of Sleswig and Holstein were appointed by 
a law of May 28, 1831. In 1839 ill-feeling 
arose between the duchies and Denmark, 
in reference to the Danish succession, and 
417 



HOL 

this dissatisfaction was increased in 1844, by 
the demand of the German inhabitants of 
Sleswig to be united with Holstein, while 
the Danes desired union with Denmark. 
The Provincial States appealed to the Ger- 
manic diet, Aug. 3, 1846, and the revolution, 
of which the object was the separation of the 
duchies from Denmark, commenced at Kiel, 
March 24, 1848. The general assembly of 
the States met at Eendsburg, April 3, and 
voted the annexation of the duchies to the 
German Confederation, and a Prussian force 
entered Holstein April 6, to assist in carrying 
this proposition into eifect. The result was 
the Sleswig-Holstein war, which continued 
tUl the end of 1850, when the duchies ten- 
dered their submission to Denmark. The 
provincial diets were restored Jan. 28, 1852. 
HoLSTBiK - GLtrcKSBUEG- ( Germany ) . — 
This duchy was founded by Philip, son of 
John the Young, duke of Holstein-Sonder- 
burg, in 1622. The dukes of Holstein- 
Gliicksburg became extinct on the death of 
Frederick Henry, March 13, 1779. 

HoLSTEiBT - GoTTOKP. — This duchy was 
founded a.d. 1544, by Adolphus IX., son of 
Frederick, duke of Holstein, and was go- 
verned by its own dukes until it was ceded to 
Denmark by Paul Petro^vitz, Nov. 16, 1773. 
HoLSTEiif - Plow. — This branch of the 
ducal family of Holstein was founded a.d. 
1622, by Joachim Ernest, son of John the 
Young, dulce of Holstein- Sonderburg, and 
became extinct on the death of Frederick 
Charles without male issue, Oct. 10, 1761. 

Holy Alliance. — This celebrated com- 
pact, between the emperors of Eussia and 
Austria and the king of Prussia, was signed 
at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815. It expressed the 
intention of the contracting sovereigns to 
continue in the bonds of Christian union, 
and recoimnended their subjects to "fortify 
themselves daily in the principles and ex- 
ercise of the duties which the divine Saviour 
has taught men," as the only means of 
securing lasting and real happiness. The 
duke of Wellington dechned to sign this 
compact. 

Holy Bbotheehood, or the Sakta 
Hebmandad, an association for the main- 
tenance of the public peace and the pro- 
tection of property, was instituted at 
Aragon about the middle of the 13th 
century, and fully organized a.d. 1488. It 
was established in Castile in 1282. A 
similar league was entered into by the cities 
of Castile and Leon in 1295. Kindred 
associations were organized in various parts 
of Spain at subsequent periods. The 
Hermandad in Valencia raised an insur- 
rection there in 1520-21. 

Holy Coat of Treves, said to be the 
coat mentioned in John xix. 23, which 
Christ wore at his crucifixion, a.d. 29. A 
holy coat is said to have existed in Galatia 
ill 580 ; another in Jerusalem in 589 j 
another at Oviedo in 800 ; another in 
899 at Santiago de ComposteUa ; another 
in 1014 at Ghent j another in 1066 at 
London ; another in 1115 at Mayence j 
2 £ 



HOL 

another in 1217 at Bremen; and another 
in 1513 at Treves. This last-named coat 
was declared to be the true garment of 
Christ by an apostolic decree of Pope 
Leo X., dated Feb. 1, 1514. Another holy 
coat appeared at Argenteuil, in France, and 
Pope Gregory XVI., Aug. 22, 1843, declared 
this garment to be the one worn at the 
crucitixion. Bishop Arnoldi of Treves ex- 
hibited in 1844 the coat kept in his cathedral 
to an immense concourse of people, and 
this act provoked much controversy in the 
Eoman Catholic church. 

Holyhead (Anglesey) . — A religious house 
is said to have been erected here by 
Maelgwyn in the latter part of the 6th 
century. The " college " was probably 
built by Hwfa ap Cynddelw, a contemporary 
of Owen Gwynedd, who began his reign 
A.D. 1137. A school was founded in 1745 ; 
baths, and an assembly-room, were intro- 
duced in 1770. An act was passed in 1809 
for erecting a pier and improving the har- 
bour; and it was made the chief packetr 
station for Ireland in 1830. 

HoiiT Island, or Lindisfaene. — The see 
of Lindisfarne was founded in this smaU 
island a.d. 634. The Danes assailed the 
church in the year 787, and destroyed it 
Jan. 8, 794. The island was invaded by 
Malcolm III., king of Scotland, in 1061. 
The castle was taken by adherents of the 
Pretender in 1715, aud it was dismantled 
in 1819. 

Holt League, formed Oct. 4, 1511, by 
Pope Julius II. with King Ferdinand and 
the Tenetian republic, to protect the ter- 
ritorities and to maintain the authority of 
the Eomish church, and to expel the French 
from Italy. The emperor Maximilian and 
Henry VIII. of England afterwai'ds acceded 
to it. Ferdinand concluded the truce of 
Orthes with Louis XII. of France, April 1, 
1513, and thus broke up the league. The 
Holy League of Castile was formed at Avila 
in July, 1521. {See CoGifAC, League). 

Holt Places (Palestine) .—The first of 
these, the church of the Holy Sepulchre, 
built upon Mount Calvary, was founded by 
the empress Helena, mother of the emperor 
Constantine the Great, a.d. 326. The church i 
was partly destroyed by the Persians in 614. I 
It was rebuilt, and various "Holy Places" | 
were added by Modestus, superior of the con- } 
vent of Theodosius, in 630. The structures, 
again destroyed by Hakim in 1010, were re- 
built in 1043. The holy places were occupied 1 
by the crusaders in 1099 ; again burnt by the | 
Saracens in 1244, and re-erected in 1292. On 
the 12th October, 1808, a fire broke out in i 
the chapel of the Armenians, and destroyed i 
nearly the whole of the sacred edifices. I 
After long negotiations with the Porte, per- 
mission was given to erect a new chm-ch, 
which was consecrated in 1810. A feax'ful 
tragedy occurred at the church of the Holy 
Sepulchre in 1834, when nearly five hundred 
people, pilgrims to the Holy Fii-e, were 
crushed to death. The guardianship of the 
Holv Places has long been a matter of dis- 
418 



HOM 

pute between the Greek and Latin churches ; 
Eussia espousing the cause of the former, 
and France that of the latter. In 1690 the 
Holy Sepulchre was allotted to the Latins, 
and a treaty on the subject was signed be- 
tween France and the Porte in 1740. A 
serious outbreak occurred at Jerusalem in 
1759 between the followers of the rival 
churches, and an imperial edict was soon 
after issued placing the holy sanctuaries 
under the protection of the Greek church. 
France and Russia interfered in 1819, and in 
1820 the French commissioner sent to inquire 
drew up a hst of the Holy Places. The 
French government made certain demands 
May 28, 1850, and most of these were on the 
point of being conceded in 1851, when 
Nicholas, emperor of Russia, required from 
the sultan of Turkey a strict adherence to 
the status quo ante. Negotiations were carried 
on for some time, and the other European 
powers oifered their mediation : but the 
emperor of Russia thought this a favourable 
opportunity to attempt the overthrow of 
the Turkish dominion, and his ambassador 
quitted Constantinople May 21, 1853. 

HoLTEOOD (Edinburgh) . — The abbey and 
palace were founded a.d. 1128, by David I. of 
Scotland. In 1607, John BothweU, com- 
mendator of this place, was advanced to the 
peerage under the title of Lord Holyrood- 
house. The abbey was destroyed by the 
duke of Somerset in 1547, and nothing left 
standing but the body of the church, which, in 
its turn, was plundered and despoiled by the 
mob in 1688. Rizzio was murdered in one of 
the apartments of the palace, March 9, 1566. 
Charles I. was crowned here June 18, 1633. 
In 1768 the roof fell. The existing palace of 
Holyrood was designed by Sir William 
Bruce in 1669. The French royal family 
took up their residence here in 1796; and 
Queen Victoria held a court at Holyrood, 
Aug. 30, 1850. 

Holt Sepulchre (Order of the) . — This 
military order is said to have been founded 
by St. James, a.d. 69, to guard the Holy 
Sepulchre against unbelievers. Other au- 
thorities date its origin from the time of 
Helena, mother of Constantine I., about 326, 
and others from the reign of Godfrey of 
Bouillon as king of Jerusalem (1099 — 1100). 
It was most probably instituted by Pope 
Alexander VI. in 1496. It was re-con- 
structed by Louis XVIII., Aug. 19, 1814. 

Holt Watee. — The custom of sprinkling 
churches, &c., with consecrated water is 
traced by some to the time of the Apostles. It 
is referred toby Pope Alexander I. (a.d, 109 
— 119) in such a manner as to infer that it 
was then an established custom. 

Holtwell (Wales), named after the well 
of St. Winifred. The parish church was 
founded in 1769. The Holywell Level, or 
great lead-mine, was opened in 1773. 

HoMEEiD^, or Sons of Homes, were 
numerous in the island of Chios, and in Asia 
Minor, b.c. 1000. Lycurgus, on his journey to 
Asia, is said to have received from this famous 
fraternity the first fragments of the poet's 



HOM 

works, which were introduced into Greece 
B.C. 890. Pisistratus and Hipparchus col- 
lected the rest b.c. 580. 

Ho ME BITES. — In the middle of the 4th 
century a.d., the princes of the Axumites 
joined to their titles that of king of the 
Homerites, an Abyssinian colony in Yemen. 
They entered into an alliance with Jus- 
tinian I., for the protection of the Chris- 
tians in Arabia, a.d. 531. The kingdom 
lasted sixty-seven years. 

HoMiLDON Hill (Battle). — Henry Percy, 
surnamed Hotspur, inflicted a humiliating 
defeat upon the Scots (who had invaded 
England in July), at HomUdon HOI, near 
Wooler, Sept. 14, 1402. The earl of Douglas 
and several Scottish nobles were taken pri- 
soners. 

Homilies. — The practice of compiling 
homilies commenced a.d. 796, when Charle- 
magne ordered Paulus Diaconus and Alcuin 
to discourse upon the New Testament. The 
famous " Homilarium" of Charlemagne was 
made pubhc in 809. The English Book of 
Homilies was brought out in two parts ; the 
first, containing twelve homilies, pubhshed 
in 1547, by Cranmer, in the reign of Ed- 
ward VI. ; and the second by order of 
Convocation, in 1563, during the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth. 

HoMCEOPATHT. — This system of medicine 
was first advocated by Dr. Samuel Hahne- 
mann, A.D, 1796. His " Matiere Medicale 
Pure " was published in 1820, and his ' ' Theory 
of Chronic Diseases and their Eemedies" 
in 1829. He died at Paris, July 12, 843, 
aged 88. 

HOMOIOUSIANS AND HOMOOITSIAWS. — The 

former of these terms was applied to the 
Arians, and the latter to the orthodox party, 
at the council of Nice, June 19 to Aug. 25, 
325. The Arian war-cry at the council of 
Seleucia, Sept. 27, 359, was Homoiousion. 

HoNDSCHooTE (Battle). — The Erench de- 
feated an Austrian and Dutch force at this 
place, Sept. 8, 1793. 

HoNDUEAS (America) was discovered by 
Columbus A.D. 1502. British settlers first 
established themselves here in 1643. Having 
extended as far as the river Behze, they were 
attacked by the Spaniards in 1659, 1678, 
1718, and 1754. The result was a treaty of 
peace in 1763, by which the colonists were 
allowed to remain. The Spaniards made 
another attempt to expel the British settlers in 
1779, and having captured several, sent them 
to the Havana, where they were confined 
till 1782. In 1784 Great Britain obtained 
certain rights, and the territory of Belize 
was declared a British colony. The Spaniards 
assailed it, but without success, Sept. 3 and 
10, 1798. The present constitution was voted 
in 1853. 

HoKDUKAS (America). — This republic 
formed part of the Spanish kingdom of Gua- 
temala, until A.D. 1821, when its inhabitants 
received their independence, and, with other 
American states, entered into a confederacy. 
The union was dissolved in 1839, and Hon- 
duras became an independent state. Great 
419 



HOO 

Britain ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras 
by treaty in 1860. 

Honeymoon.— The practice of distinguish- 
ing the first month after marriage by this 
title probably arose from an old custom of 
drinking methegUn, a beverage made of 
honey, for thirty days after a nuptial cere- 
mony. 

HoNFLEUB (France).— This town of Nor- 
mandy was taken from the English by 
Charles VII. a.d. 1440, and in 1562 was 
seized by the Calvinists, who were compelled 
to quit it the same year by the duke of 
Aumale. 

HoNG-KoNff (China). — This group of 
rocky islands, situated at the mouth of the 
Canton river, about 100 miles from the city 
of Canton, was ceded to Great Britain 
Jan. 20, 1841, and formal possession was 
taken Jan. 26. HostiHties having been 
renewed, it was ceded in perpetuity to 
Great Britain by the treaty of Nankin, 
signed Aug. 29, 1842, Hong-kong was 
regularly constituted a British colony 
June 26, 1843. (See Victoria.) 

HONI SOIT QUI MAL T PENSE, "Evilbe tO 

him that evil thinks," the motto of the order 
of the Garter, is said to have had its origin 
in an exclamation made by Edward III. on 
picking up a garter belonging to the coun- 
tess of Salisbury, at a ball, a.d. 1349. 

HoNiTON (Devonshire). — The parish 
church was founded a.d. 1482, by Courtenay, 
bishop of Exeter. Assizes were held here in 
1590, when seventeen criminals were exe- 
cuted. The lace manufactory flourished as 
early as 1630. Fairfax entered Honiton vrith 
his army, Oct. 14, 1645. The new parish 
church, commenced in 1835, was completed 
in April, 1838. 

HoNOLtTLU, or HoNOErBU (Pacific), the 
chief tovni of the Sandvrich Islands, was first 
visited by Captain Cook, February, 1779. 
A missionary station was estabMshed here 
in 1820. A treaty of friendship between 
Queen Victoria and the king of the Sand- 
wich islands was signed at Honolulu, 
July 10, 1851. 

Hood. — The length of the monastic hood 
was regulated by a council at Aix-la- 
Chapelle, a.d. 817. A dispute respecting 
its proper form caused great dissensions 
among the Cordeliers, and divided them into 
two parties in the 13th century. The 
weaker party was expelled from the con- 
vents by force of arms in 1314. It was 
condemned by John XXII., and four of 
its adherents were burned by the Inqui- 
sition at Marseilles in 1318. Bishops and 

canons were forbidden by the council of 
Paris, March 9 — 14, 1347, to wear hoods of 
silk or velvet. 

Hoops are mentioned as portions of 
ladies' dress by Gosson, a.d. 1596. They 
were first called fardingales, which appear 
to have been of smaller proportions. In a 
scarce book, entitled "The London Trades- 
man," published in 1747, the following 
occurs : " Some vriU have it that Semiramis 
wore one of them in her famous expedition, 
2 E 2 



HOP 

and some other antiquaries will have us 
believe the queen of Sheba was dressed 
in one full five yards in circumference, at 
her first interview with Solomon." Crino- 
line made of horsehair, brought into fashion 
in 1855, is the modern hooped petticoat. 

Hops. — The comnaon account that hops 
were first brought to England a.d. 1524 is 
incorrect, as they were cultivated in this 
country during the 15th century. The term 
hop-grounds first occurs in the statute- 
book in 1552. In 1603 the cultivation of 
hops had become general. 

HoRATii and CuRiATii.— The Albanshaving 
invaded Eome b.c. 670, it was resolved to 
decide the contest by a battle between three 
champions on each side. Three twin brothers 
having been found in both armies, the Eo- 
mans named the Horatii and the Albans the 
Curiatii, the issue of the struggle was in- 
trusted to them, and the Curiatii having been 
vanquished in the fight which followed, Alba 
was forthwith united to Rome. 

Horn.— Athenaeus (xi. c. 51) mentions 
the use of horns as drinkrng-cups as a very 
ancient custom. The exportation of horns 
from Great Britain was prohibited by 
4 Edw. IV. c. 8 (1464). This act was re- 
pealed by 1 James I. c. 25, s. 44 (1604). 
The Homers were incorporatedby Charles II. 
Jan. 12, 1638. 

Hornbooks, consisting of a single sheet 
of paper mounted on wood and protected 
by a transparent sheet of horn, were formerly 
extensively used in the education of children. 
Such books were very common in the Ehza- 
bethan period; but as they had no dates 
attached to them, it is impossible to give a 
precise account of their use. 

HoRNCASTLE (Battle). — Sir Thomas Fair- 
fax and Oliver CromweU defeated the royahst 
forces at Horncastle a.d. 1643. 

Hornpipe. — This dance is believed to be 
identical with the moyiocheros of the ancient 
Greeks. It derives its name from having 
been danced by the ancient Britons to the 
music of the "Welsh pib-com, or hornpipe. 

Horns were used at a very early period as 
musical instruments, and were employed by 
the Jews in the proclamation of the jubilee. 
Chromatic horns were first made in Ger- 
many early in the 18th century, and horns 
on which it was possible to play in all keys 
were introduced into England by the Mes- 
sings in 1740. The instrument was much 
improved in 1772 by S]Dandau. 

Horse-Guards. — The royal regiment of 
horse-guards was raised by Charles II. 
A.D. 1661. It fitrst mustered in Tothill 
Fields, Westminster, Feb. 16, 1661, and 
was first under fire in the Monmouth in- 
surrection, July 4-8, 1685. On the landing 
of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 
1688, the regiment was sent against him, 
met the prince's army at Axminster Wov. 13, 
was repulsed, and many of the officers and 
soldiers went over to the enemy. The 
regiment was re-organized by "William III. 
Dee. 17, 1688. The Horse Guards, West- 
minster, was built in 1758. 



HOS 

Horsemanship. — This art probably ori- 
ginated with the Egyptians, who are the 
earhest known possessors of horses, B.C. 
1706 (Gen. xlvii. 17). It passed from them 
to the Phoenicians, by whom it was imparted 
to the Greeks before the institution of the 
OljTnpic games, B.C. 1450, as chariot and 
horse-races constituted a prominent feature 
of those festivals. Gibbon mentions the 
Scythians as consummate masters of the 
equestrian art, and adds that it was com- 
monly believed that it was their custom "to 
eat, to drink, and even to sleep, without 
dismounting from their steeds." The rise of 
modern horsemanship depended greatly on 
the tournaments of the Middle Ages, which 
became common soon after the accession of 
Charles the Bald, a.d. 840. The present 
mode of shoeing horses was introduced into 
this country by the I^ormans at the time of 
the Conquest. Several statutes have been 
passed for the improvement of the breed of 
horses, the first of which was 27 Hen. VIII. 
c. 6 (1535). Horse-steahng was made a 
capital oifence, without benefit of clergy, by 
37 Hen. VIII. c. 8, s. 2 (1545) ; and the 
penaltv was commuted to transportation by 
2 & 3 "\Vill. IV. c. 62 (July 11, 1832). The 
first horse-tax was imposed by 24 Geo. III. 
c. 31 (1784). 

HoRTENSiAN Law. — This law, which con- 
ferred legislative power upon the plebeians 
of Rome, was passed B.C. 286. 

HoRTicuLTURAi/ SOCIETIES. — The Horti- 
cultural Society of London was founded 
A.D. 1804, and incorporated by royal 
charter in 1809 ; the Edinburgh society was 
founded in 1809, and the Dublin society 
in 1816. The Transactions of the London 
society were first published in 1812, and 
their gardens at Chis\vick were commenced 
in 1822. The orchard and great part of the 
gardens were completed in 1824, and the 
arboretum was finished in 1825. The annual 
exhibitions were instituted in 1831, when 
only fruit was exhibited. In 1833 the 
show was extended to flowers. The new 
gardens of the society at Kensington were 
opened by Prince Albert, June 5, 1861. 
The Royal Society of Horticulture of Paris 
was founded June 11, 1827. 

Hospitallers, or Order op St. John 
OF Jerusalem. — This celebrated military 
order originated in a monastery, chapel, and 
hospital, founded at Jerusalem by some 
merchants of Amalphi, a.d. 1048. In 1099 
the hospital received increased territories 
from Godfrey de Bouillon, who transferred 
its government from the monks to his 
knights. In 1100 they established a house 
at ClerkenweU, London, and in 1113 were 
confirmed as a spiritual order by Pope 
Pascal II. The Hospitallers greatly distin- 
guished themselves in the crusades, especially 
at Jerusalem in 1152, Ascalon in 1153, and 
Hittin in 1187. In 1308 their order was 
united with that of St. Samson of Jerusalem. 
They conquered Rhodes Aug. 15, 1309, and 
from their settlement in that island are some- 
times called the Knights of Rhodes. Their 



HOS 

wealth was much increased in 1311 by the 
addition of the possessions of the suppressed 
Templars, which were granted them by the 
council of Vienna. In 1321 they defeated 
the Turks in a great naval battle, and in 
1341 took Smyrna. They took Alexandria 
in 1365, and in 1480 compelled Mohammed II, 
to retreat from Khodes, which he had be- 
sieged with 100,000 men and 160 ships. In 
1485 the possessions of the dissolved orders 
of the Sacred Tomb and of St. Lazarus were 
bestowed upon, the Hospitallers. In 1522 
they were compelled to quit Khodes by SoH- 
man II., who besieged their garrison of 600 
knights and 4,500 soldiers, with a force of 
140,000 men and 400 vessels, and in 1530 
they were allowed to settle in Malta by the 
emperor Charles V. Hence they are often 
spoken of as the Knights of Malta. The 
order was suppressed in England by 32 
Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1540), and lost aU its 
privileges in France, Sept. 19, 1792. In 1798 
it was expelled from Malta by the French, 
and has never recovered its political impor- 
tance. 

Hospitals. — Institutions similar to 
Chelsea Hospital, for the support of decayed 
soldiers, were known at Eome, where they 
were called Meritoria. The first hospital of 
celebrity was established at Csesareia by the 
emperor Valens, between the years a.d. 
370—380. St. Ephraim, who died in 381, or 
St. Fabiola, in 400, is the reputed founder 
of infirmaries supported by voluntary con- 
tributions. A foundling hospital was insti- 
tuted at Milan in 787, and an hospital for 
orphans at Constantinople in 1090. The 
most important hospitals are mentioned 
under the places where they are situated. 
St. Bartholomew's, Bethlehem, St. Thomas, 
Christ's Hospital, and Bridewell, are known 
as the five Eoyal Hospitals, which were 
united for purposes of administration in 
1557, and placed under the care of the Cor- 
poration, but vrith a distinct government, 
by 22 Geo. III. c. 77 (1782). The following 
is a list of the London hospitals, with the 
date of their foundation. 

Foimded. 

A.D. 

St. Bartholomew's . , 1122 

Bethlehem (for lunatics) 1547 

St. Thomas's 1553 

Westminster 1719 

Guy's 1722 

St. George's 1733 

London 1740 

Middlesex 1745 

Small Pox 1746 

Spanish and Portuguese Jews' 1747 

British Lying-in 1749 

City of London Lying-in 1750 

St. Luke's (for lunatics) 1751 

Queen Charlotte's Lyiug-in 1752 

General Lyiug-rn 1765 

Fever 1803 

London Ophthalmia (Moorflelds) 1804 

Westminster Ophthalmic , 1816 

Charing-Cross 1818 

Dreadnought (ship hospital for saUors) 1821 

Queen Adelaide's Lying-in 1824 

Royal Free (Gray 's-Inn Lane) 1828 

University College 1833 

St. Mark's I835 

Orthopaedic 1838 



HOU 

Founded. 

A.D. 

King's College 1839 

Consumption ( Brompton) 1841 

For diseases of the skin 1841 

Central London Ophthalmic (Gray's-Inn") to>.j 

Eoad) J" ■^**<* 

St. Mary's (Paddington) 1843 

Women's. . . 1843 

German (Dalston) 1843 

Free, for women and children 1847 

Samaritan Free 1847 

City of London (for diseases of the chest) . . 1848 

London Homoeopathic 1849 

Hahnemann 1850 

For incurables 1850 

Cancer ■ 1851 

For sick children 1851 

Great Northern 1856 

Host (Elevation of the). — The date at 
which the custom of elevating the elements 
of the Eucharist previous to distribution was 
introduced, has given rise to considerable 
controversy. Some authorities assert that it 
originated in the 4th century, some that 
it was unknown till the 12th, while others 
fix its commencement a.d. 1201. The cus- 
tom of ringing a beU during the elevation 
was introduced in 1228, and the miracle of 
I the bleeding host is said to have occurred 
i in 1290. 

HoTTEM-TOTS. — This African race, the 
aboriginal population of the southern por- 
tions of Africa, first became known to Euro- 
peans A.D. 1493, and was very numerous when 
the Dutch began to form their settlements 
at the Cape, Their number has, however, 
been much reduced by the small-pox, which 
committed fearful ravages in 1713, and from 
other causes. Missionaries were first sent 
to them in 1736. A revolt of the Hottentots, 
which broke out in June, 1851, was promptly 
suppressed by General Somerset. 

HousE-DuTT. — A tax of two shiUings was 
levied upon all houses, except cottages, by 
7 Will. III. c. 18 (1695). It was raised to 
three shillings, and frequently varied, until 
repealed by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. c. 39. It was 
reimposed, in place of the window-tax, by 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (July 24, 1851), 

House of Commons. — The earliest in- 
stance of the assembly of knights, citizens, 
and burgesses as members of parhament, oc- 
curred Jan. 20, 1265, the parliament of 1258 
having been exclusively composed of barons. 
They were not again summoned tiU the par- 
liament of Kov. 12, 1294, and were esta- 
blished as a necessary part of the legislature 
by the declaratory statute of York, in 1322, 
Various statutes have been passed to regu- 
late the amoxmt of property necessary to 
enable a man to sit in the House of Com- 
mons, aU of which were repealed by 21 & 22 
Vict. c. 26 (June 28, 1858). The House of 
Commons has frequently changed its place 
of assembly. Our earliest knowledge on this 
point is that the parhament of April 30, 1343, 
met in the Painted Chamber, Westminster. 
In 1376 the Chapter-house is mentioned as the 
usual meeting-place, and in 1547 Edward VI. 
granted St. Stephen's chapel for the purpose. 
This building was destroyed by fire Oct. 16, 
1834u and the Commons took possession of 
421 



HOU 

their new house Nov. 4, 1852. The following 
table exhibits the number of representatives 
now composing the House of Commons : — 

ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Knights of shires 

Citizens and burgesses 



SCOTLAND. 



Knights of the shii-es . , 
Citizens and burgesses 



Knights of shires 64 

Citizens and burgesses 41 



Total of the United Kingdom 



105 
654 



House op Loeds. — The bishops and arch- 
bishops of England have composed a portion 
of the great council of the nation from the 
time of the Saxons, and they, with the barons, 
formed the king's council from the Conquest 
to the reign of John. The personal privilege 
of the peers was determined in 1341. The 
House of Lords was abohshed by the Long 
Parliament, Feb. 6, 1649, but constituted part 
of the first parhament after the Eestoration, 
April 25, 1660. The House of Lords has had 
various places of assembly. The first record 
on the subject states that in 1343 it met 
in the "\\Tiite Chamber, Westminster. The 
Painted Chamber was also a frequent place 
of assembly. Its place of meeting is first 
styled the "House of Lords" in 1543. The 
old palace of Westminster having been de- 
stroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834, the present 
Houses of Parhament were erected in its 
stead. The peers took possession of their 
new house April 15, 1847. The number of 
members in the House of Lords is always 
liable to increase, owing to the royal prero- 
gative of creating new peerages. The fol- 
lowing is a pretty correct statement of its 
present numbers : — 

LOEDS SPIEITUAL. 

Archbishops 2 

Bishops 24 

Irish representative bishoxJs.. .. 4 

30 

LOEDS TEMPOEAL. 

Diikes of the royal blood 2 

Dukes 20 

Marquises 21 

Earls 109 

Viscounts 23 

Barons 210 

Representative peeis of Scotland 16 
Representative peers of Ireland 28 

429 

Total of House of Peers 459 

HoiTSES OF Paeliament, or New Palace 
OP Westminstee. — The earlier parhaments 
met in various places, chiefly at Westminster, 
but occasionaUy in provincial towns. The 
original buildings where the business of the 



HUE 

Lords and Commons was transacted, were 
destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834. The first 
stone of the new building was laid AprU 27, 
1840. The House of Lords was opened 
April 15, 1847, and the House of Commons 
Nov. 4, 1852. Big Ben, the bell for the 
clock tower, was cast Aug. 6, 1856, and 
proved a failure. The Victoria Tower was 
completed in 1857. Sir Charles Barry, the 
architect of the New Palace of Westminster, 
died May 12, 1860. 

HuAEiNA (Battle). — Pizarro, with 480 
men and 85 horse, defeated Centeno at the 
head of 1,000 foot and 250 cavalry, on the 
plains of Huarina, in Peru, Oct. 26, 1547. 

HuBEETSBUEG (Saxouy). — The castle was 
built A.D. 1721, by prince Augustus of Saxony, 
afterwards elector Augustus III. The peace 
of Hubertsburg, which terminated the Seven 
Years' war, was signed here Feb. 15, 1763. 
A separate act, in accordance with the 20th 
article of the treaty of Hubertsburg, between 
the empress and the king of Prussia, was 
signed at Dresden March 12, and at Berlin 
March 20, 1763. 

Hudson (New York). — This city was 
founded by settlers from Ehode Island and 
Massachusetts a.d. 1784, and received ita 
charter of incorporation in 1785. 

Hudson's Bat (North America). — The 
sea was discovered by Sebastian Cabot 
A.D. 1512, and was rediscovered by Hudson, 
from whom it derives its name, in 1610. The 
Hudson's Bay territory was first explored 
by adventurers from Canada. Prince Rupert 
sent a vessel with colonists to the territory in 
1668. Charles II. incorporated the Hudson's 
Bay Company, May 2, 1670. A rival associa- 
tion, called the North- West Company, was 
formed out of several smaller ones in 1787. 
The two companies were united in 1821. An 
extended license for trading over the continent 
east of the Rocky Mountains was given to the 
company May 13, 1838. The EngHsh govern- 
ment granted Yancouver Island to the Hud- 
son's Bay Company in August, 1848. 

Hue and Cey. — This mode of creating 
alarm was in use among the Romans. Caesar 
speaks of a case, e.g. 50, in which an alarm 
was carried 160 miles in 16 hours. The hue 
and cry, a legal mode of procuring the arrest 
of off'enders, was introduced into England 
at an early period, and by 13 Edw. I. c. 4 
(1285), the hundred in which the offence was 
committed was held hable until the felon 
was caught. By 27 EUz. c. 13 (1585), the 
hue and cry was ordered to be effected by both 
horsemen and footmen ; and by 8 Geo. II. c. 16 
(1735), constables, &c., refusing or neglecting 
to make hue and cry were to pay a fine of 
£5. The Highland mode of raising the hue 
and cry, called the cross tarric, or fiery 
cross, was carried 32 miles in three hours 
in 1745. The "Hue and Cry," issued three 
times a week by the Pohce Court, was first 
pubhshed early in the 18th century. 

H u E s c A ( Spain ) , the ancient Osca, a 
town of the Hergetes, is mentioned by Strabo, 
under the name of Heoscan. Sertorius 
founded a school here b.c. 77. Pedro I. of 



HUG 

Aragon took it, after his victory over the 
Moors at Alcoraza, a.d. 1096. The imiver- 
sity was founded in 1354. 

Huguenots. — This was the name given to 
the French Protestants in the 16th century. 
Its etymology is unknown, some deriving it 
from Hugues, a noted Calvinist of Geneva, 
and others from the German eidgenossen, 
confederates. They were first persecuted in 
France in 1559, and in 1561 they received 
the name Huguenots, and resorted to arms 
for protection. A large number of them 
were barbarously slaughtered at Vassy, 
March 1, 1562. The massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew (q.v.) occurred Aug. 24, 1572. 
In 1598 they were protected by the Edict 
of Ifantes (q.v.), and received additional 
religious hberty by the Pacification of Msmes, 
July 14, 1629. Louis XIV. revoked the 
edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685, and the 
Huguenots were unable to enjoy free 
exercise of their religion tiU the National 
Assembly restored freedom of conscience, 
Aug. 24, 1789. 

Hull, or KiKGSTOKr-UPON-HuLL (York- 
shire). — In a grant made by Matilda Camin 
to the monks of Melza, a.d. 1160, HuUis de- 
scribed as the " Wyk of MytonI" Edward I. 
bought it from the monks in 1293, and called 
the place "King's town upon Hull." Ed- 
ward I. visited the town May 26, 1300. It was 
ordered to be made a fortress, by a charter 
of Edward II., in 1322. The walls were 
repaired and strengthened by Sir Michael 
de la Pole in 1377. iThe free grammar- 
school was founded 1482, and the first hos- 
pital was erected in 1517. The town was 
taken by HaUam, "the pilgrim of grace," 
1537. The merchants of Hull embarked 
in the whale-fishery in 1598. Lister's alms- 
houses were founded in 1642, the old dock 
was built 1775, and the first stone of the 
new dock was laid Oct. 19, 1775 : it was 
opened Sept. 22, 1778. The Marine Hospi- 
tal was established in 1787 ; the new water- 
works were erected by the corporation 
in 1831, and the Hull and Selby railway was 
opened July 1, 1840. 

HuLSEAN Lectuees. — Sermous upon the 
evidences of Christianity, or the difficulties 
of Holy Scripture, were instituted by the 
vrin of the Kev. J. Hulse, who died in 1790. 
The funds were inadequate until 1820, when 
the Eev. C. Benson dehvered the first 
course. 

HuMAifE Society (Royal). — This society, 
instituted for the recovery of persons from 
drowning, was founded in London, by Drs. 
Hawes, FothergiU, and Cogan, a.d. 1774. In 
1851 there were 221 depots for drags, &c. 
in connection with this institution. A 
Humane Society was established in Holland 
in 1767. 

HuMiLiATi, a pecuhar order of monks, 
founded by a number of Italian noblemen a.b. 
1134. They subjected themselves to the rule 
of St. Benedict, and their statutes were re- 
vived in 1151, and confirmedby Innocent III. 
in 1200. Females were admitted to this 
order in 1325. A considerable laxity of 



HUN 

discipline having arisen, Pius V. suppressed 
the society in 1571. 

Hundreds.— The precise nature of the 
division of a country into hundreds is not 
known; it existed in Germany at a very 
early date, and was established among the 
Franks in the 6th century. Alfred the 
Great (870—900) is said to have introduced 
the hundred system into this country. All 
statutes relating to men composing a hun- 
dred were repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27 
(June 21, 1827) ; and hundreders are rendered 
liable for damages committed by rioters by 
7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 21, 1827). 

HuNGAET. — This coxmtry includes part of 
the ancient provinces of Dacia and Panno- 
nia. 



The Eomans, under Octavianus, mst invade 
Pannonia. 

The country is reduced to a Eoman province 

hy Tiberius. 
The Goths establish themselves in Hungary. 
It is invaded by the Vandals. 
The Huns defeat the Goths on the Dniester. 
They establish their supremacy in Hungai-y. 
On the death of Attila, it is seized by the 



275. 
337. 
376. 
433. 
453. 



500. It passes into the power of the Lombards. 

568 The Avars expel the Lombards. 

793. Hungaiy is conrjuered by Charlemagne, and 

united to the Western empire. 
889. The Maygars, or Hungarians, establish them- 
selves in Hungary, under their prince 
Arpad. 
934 The Hungarians are defeated by Henry the 

Fowler, emperor of Germany. 
955. They are subdued by Otho the Great, at Augs- 
burg. 

1000. Stephen I. embraces Christianity, and receives 
the title of king. 

1061. Hungaiy is ravaged by the Poles. 

1139. Bela II. has his eyes put out, by order of his 
uncle Coloman. 

1162. The king is seized by the usui-pers Ladislaus 
and Stephen. 

1222. Andrew II. publishes the charter known as 
the Golden Bull of Hungary. 

1235 to 1245. The Tartars ravage the country. 

1290. Ladislaus III. is assassinated. 

1348. Louis the Great invades Naples. 

1370. L <uis the Great is elected kiug of Poland. 

1382. Mary, daughter of Louis the Great, is pro- 
claimed king of Hungary. 

1386. Mary marries iSigismund of Brandenburg. 

1390. Sigismund subdues Bajazet, and exacts tribute 
from Moldavia and W allachia. 

1396. Sept. 28. Sigismund sustains a severe defeat 
from Bajazet at Nieopolis. 

1405. Eepresentative government is established in 
Hungary. 

1410. Sigismund of Hungary is elected emperor of 
(Jermany. 

1437. Albert, duke of Austria, succeds to the Hun- 
garian throne. 

1443. John Hunniades defeats the Turks at Nissa. 

1444. The Hungarians sustain a severe dtsfeat from 

the Turks at Varna, 

1456. Death of John Hunniades. 

1490. On the death of Matthias Corvinus, the 
Hungar.ans elect Ladislaus VI., kiug of 
Bohemia, for their sovereign. 

1515. The emperor Maximilian seciu-es the suc- 
cession of Hungary. 

1526. Louis II. is defeated and slain by the Turks 
at Mohacz. 

1529. Hungary is overrun by the Turks. 

1570. Hungary is definitely annexed to the do- 
minions of the house of Austria. 

1600. The Turks seize Canissa. 

423 



HUN 



1607. The Protestant TTnion is formed in Hun- 
gary. 
1618. The emperor Matthias abdicates the throne 

of Hungary. 
1620. The Hungarian Protestants revolt, and are 

defeated by Maximilian and Tilly, at the 

battle of Prague, Nov. 8. 
1661. The Hungarians refuse to admit the imperial 

armies into their country, and declare war 

against Turkey. 
1669. The Hungarians seek Turkish assistance 

against the emperor, but are reduced to 

subjection the following year. 

1682. A Turkish force enters Hungary, to assist the 

inhabitants against the Austrians. 

1683. John Sobieski defeats the Turks. 
1605. The revolt is qnelled. 

1687. The Hungarian crown is declared hereditary 
in the male line of the hous^e of Austria. 

1C91. Aug. 29. Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at 
Salaukeman. - 

160.5. The Turks again invade Hungary. 

1699. Jan. Sii. By the treaty of Carlowitz, the 
Porte to Austria sun-enders its claims to 
Hungary. 

1703. The Hungarians revolt under Francis Ba- 
gotski. 

1708. Eagotski is defeated. 

1718. July 21. Belgrade, Temeswar, and part of 
B'lsnia, Servia, and Wallachia, are ceded 
to Austria by the treaty of Passarowitz. 

1737. "War with Turkey is renewed in Huugaiy. 

1739. Sept. 18. Servia and Wallachia are ceded to 
Turkey by the peace of Belgrade, 

1741. Maria Theresa is crowned king of Hun- 
gary. 

1765. Austria treats Hungary as a dependent pro- 
vince. 

1778. Temeswar is incorporated with Hungary. 

1784. Tije Hungarian regalia ai'e removed to 

Vienna. 

1785. Vassalage is abolished. 

1S12. Numerous Servian and Bosnian immigrants 

settle in Hungary. 
1S"25. The diet assembles, after a lapse of thirteen 



1830. 



yeare. 

The diet attempts to substitute the Magyar 
larguage for the Latin throughout Sla- 
vonic Hungary. 

Sept. 11. J he Hungarian revolution breaks 
out at Pesth. Sept. 28. Count Lamberg, 
newly appointed militaiy governor, is 
mnrdered by the mob at Pestb. Sept. 29. 
Jellachich, Ban of Croatia, is defeated by 
the Hungarians at the battle of Pakoza, 
or Sukoro. Dec. 26. The imperial troops 
capture Raab. Dec. 28. They defeat the 
Hungarians at Szikszo. Dec. 29. And at 
Mohr. 

Jan. 5. The Austrians, under Prince Win- 
dischgratz, take Pesth. Jan. 21. General 
Btm defeats the Austrians at HermanU- 
stadt. March 6. The Magyars defeat the 
Austrians. AprU 14. The Hungarian 
chambers assert the national independ- 
ence, and proclaim Kossuth governor. 
April 20. The Hungarians are defeated at 
Grail. April 27. Russia declares in favour 
of Austria. June 20. The Hungarians, 
under Georgey, are defeated by the Au- 
strians and Russians at the battle of Pered. 
June 28. The emperor takes Raab from 
Georgey. Jtdy 2. Georgey is defeated at 
the battle of Acz. Jnly21. The Russia' stake 
Hermanustadt. July 31. The Hungarian 
general Bern is defeated at Schassburg. 
Aug. 4. The Hungarians are defeated at 
Szegedin. Aug. 13. Georgey surrenders to 
the Russians at Vilagosh. Aug. 18. About 
5,000 Hungarian fugitivesretreat to Turkey, 
and are allowed protection at Orsova. 
Oct. 1. Comoru is surrendered to the 
Austrians. Oct. 7. Execution of Count 
Bathyany. 

Sept. 8. The Hungarian crown and insignia 
are discovered and removed to Vienna. 

421 



HUN 



1854. Jan. 1. State documents, law pleadings, &c., 
in Hungary are ordered to be transacted 
in the Gennan language. 

1856. July 12. A decree of amnesty for the political 

otfenders of 1848 and 1849 is published. 

1857. May 4, &c. The emperor and empress of 

Austria visit the Hungarian dominions. 

1859. Sept. 1. The emperor publishes a patent 

regulating the Interior administration of 
Hungary. 

1860. March 31. The chambers at Augsburg reject 

the emperor's patent, which he accordingly 
withdraws May 18. 

1861. Jan. 16. The emperor publishes an imperial 

manifesto against the election of refugees, 
&c. Feb. 26. A new constitution for the 
Austrian empire is publisher!. April 6. 
The Hungarian diet is opened, and demands 
an Hungarian ministry. June 6. A Sla- 
vonian diet assembles at St. Martin, and 
decides to maintain their nation ality sepa- 
rate from the Magyars. June 12. The case 
of the emperor of Austria v. Day and 
Kossuth is decided in the Chancery court, 
in favour of the plaintiff, 100,000,000 Hun- 
garian notes being ordered to be destroyed. 
Sept. 30. The assembly of the Comitat of 
Pesth is prevented from meeting by an 
armed force. 

SOVEEEIGNS OF HUNGAET. 



A.D. 

Stephen 1 1000 

Peter 1038 

Abo 1041 

Peter (again) 1044 

Andi'ew 1 1047 

Bela 1 1061 

Salomon 1064 

Geysal 1074 

Ladislaus I. . . 1077 

Colomau 1095 

Stephen IT 1114 

Bela II 1131 

Geysall 1141 

Stephen III 1161 

Ladislaus and Ste- 
phen (usurpers) 1162 

Bela III 1173 

Emeric 1196 

Ladislaus II 1204 

Andi-ew II 1205 

Bela IV 1235 

Stephen IV 1270 

Laaislaus III 1272 

Andrew III 1290 

Wenceslaus 1301 

Otho 1305 



Charobert , or Charles 
Robert, of Anjou 1308 

Louis 1 1342 

Mary 1382 

Charles 1385 

Sigismund 1386 

Albert of Austria 1437 

Elizabeth 1439 

Ladislaus TV 1440 

Ladislaus V 1445 

Matthias Corvinus 1458 

I.Adislaus VI 1490 

Louis II 1516 

John Zapolski and 

Ferdinand 1 152G 

Ferdinand I. (alone) 1540 

Maximilian 1563 

Rodolph 1.572 

Matthias 1 1608 

Ferdinand II 1618 

Ferdinand III 1H25 

Ferdinand IV 1647 

Leopold 1655 

Joseph 1687 

Charles 1712 

Maria Theresa . . . 1741 
(The succession is identical with that of the 
emperors of Geiinauy and of Austria.) 

HuNGEEFOED (London) . — The first mar- 
ket was built A.D, 1680. The present edifice 
was founded June 18, 1831, and opened 
July 2, 1833. The suspension-bridge, de- 
signed by I. K. Brunei, was opened on Fri- 
day, April 18, 1845. 

HuNiNGEN-. — This fortified post, at the 
bridge of Himingen, near Basel, in Switzer- 
land, was destroyed, in accordance with the 
provisions of the treaty of Baden, Sept. 7 
(O.S.), 1714. In 1796 the French restored 
the works, in which they were besieg^ed by 
the ImperiaHsts, Jan. 25, 1796, and capitulated 
Feb. 1. The victors entered a few days 
after, when they found the place a mass of 
ruins. The allied armies invested Huningen 
in January, 1814 ; and by the 3rd article of 
the treaty"of Paris, concluded Nov. 20, 1815, 



HUN 

the fortress was ordered to be demolislied. 
It was a place of great strength, and was 
called the gate of Alsace. 

Huns. — Historians are not agreed as to 
the origin of this famous barbaric tribe. 
Niebuhr considers them to be MongoHans ; 
Humboldt, Ugrians ; and Zeuss, Latham, 
and Dr. W. Smith, Turks. They invaded 
China about b.c. 201 ; and after harassing 
that empire for a succession of years, were 
finally expelled about a.d. 93. They sub- 
sequently migrated to the plains of Tartary ; 
and about the year 100 defeated the Alani 
on the banks of the Tanais. They defeated 
the Goths on the Dniester in 376, and 
attained their highest glory during the reign 
of Attila, A.D. 433 — 453. They invaded the 
Eastern empire in 441, ravaged Gaul (where 
they were defeated by A6tius at Chalons) 
in 451, and crossed the Alps into Italy in 
452. After the death of Attila their power 
dechned. 

Huntingdon. — ^Edward the Elder erected 
a castle here a.d. 917. A priory of Black 
Nuns, dedicated to St, Mary, was estabhshed 
in 973. St. Mary's church was rebuilt in 
1620, and the county gaol was erected in 
1829. 

HuNTLT Hill (Battle). — The earl of 
Huntly defeated the rebel earl of Crawford 
at this battle, fought on a level muir near 
Brechin, May 18, 1452. 

HuEST Castle. — On the rupture of the 
negotiations at Newport, the council of the 
army seized Charles I., Nov. 30, 1648, and 
conveyed him to Hurst Castle, whence he 
was removed, Dec. 18, to St. James's. 

HussAKS, light cavalry, first in use among 
the Magyars, a.d. 1610, and so called 
because the twentieth nobleman in each 
province was compelled to attend the call 
to arms. TiUy introduced hussars into the 
Austrian army ; and at the battle of 
Breitenfeld, in 1631, had five regiments of 
them in the field. Luxemburg formed a 
troop in France in 1692 ; and Frederick 
William I. of Prussia organized two regi- 
ments in Prussia, 1730. The first hussars 
forming part of the Enghsh army were 
enrolled by William III. during the war in 
Flanders in 1694 ; but the same troops were 
afterwards called Hght dragoons, and only 
employed temporarfly, and on foreign ser- 
vice. The first British regiment of light 
cavalry raised for permanent service was 
the " King's Eegiment of Hussars," now 
called the loth hussars, formed by Colonel 
George Eliot in 1759, by order of George II. 

Hussites, the followers of John Huss, 
burnt at Constance July 6, 1415. Upon 
receiving the news of his death, several 
nobles and knights formed an association, 
Dec. 2, 1415. This party obtained the 
majority at the parliament of Prague, 
Sept. 5, 1416, and being opposed by the 
emperor, they took the field, and appointed 
Ziska as their leader, March 10, 1418. 
Active war commenced in 1419. A schism 
occurred in 1420. {See Calixtines.) The 
battle of Prague was gained by Ziska, 



HYD 

July 14, 1420 ; and in the still more brilliant 
victory of Deutschbrod, Jan. 8, 1422, he 
totally annihilated the emperor's army. 
The Hussites overran the whole of Bohemia 
and Moravia, and were on the point of 
marching upon Vienna, when the sudden 
death of Ziska, Oct. 12, 1424, put a stop to 
their plans. They gained two more battles, — 
at Aussig, June 15, 1426, and at Mies, July 21, 
1426 ; but, weakened by internal disputes, 
they were induced to sue for peace. After 
long negotiation, the treaty of Iglau was 
concluded between the emperor Sigismund 
and the leaders of the Hussites, July 5, 1436. 
Though this treaty did not put an end to the 
struggles of the Protestants in Bohemia, yet 
from this time the name of Hussites was no 
longer applied to them. 

HusTiN&s. — This term was apparently- 
applied by the Anglo-Saxons to courts held 
within a house or building, to distinguish 
them from such as were held in the open 
air. Edward the Confessor granted such a 
court to the city of London a.d. 1052. 
Lincoln, Winchester, York, and other 
places, also possessed courts of hustings. 

HuTCHiNSONiANS, the followers of John 
Hutchinson, who was born a.d. 1674, and who 
died Aug. 28, 1737. " Thoughts concerning 
Eehgion," pubhshed at Edinburgh in 1743, 
contains an exposition of the views of this 
rehgious sect. 

Hut (Belgium) was taken by the English 
and Dutch, Sept. 26, 1694. The duke of 
Marlborough captured it Aug. 27, 1703. 
The French took it in 1705, and Marlborough 
recaptured it July 12, in the same year. It 
once more fell into the hands of the French, 
Aug. 20, 1746. {See Abbot op Hut.) 

Htacinth. — This plant received its name 
from Hyacinthus, whom, according to the 
legend, Apollo slew and transformed into a 
flower. It is indigenous to the Levant, and 
grows abundantly round Aleppo and Bagdad. 
It was first cultivated by the Dutch, pro- 
bably at the commencement of the 16th 
century, and is mentioned in England by 
Gerard in 1596. Parkinson enumerates 
eight varieties in 1629. Double hyacinths 
were first grown by Peter Voerhehn at the 
commencement of the 18th century. 

Htcsos, Htksos, or Shepherd Kings, 
a tribe of Arabian or Scythian shepherds, 
who overran Egypt more than 2000 years 
B.C., and maintained their supremacy for 
about 260 years, when they were expelled by 
Tuthmosis II., king of Thebes. Some authors 
deny the existence of the Hyesos ; others 
suppose them to represent the captive Jews 
in Egypt ; and various theories have been 
circulated on this perplexing subject. {See 
Egtpt.) 

Htdaspes (Battle). — ^Alexander the Great 
defeated Porus on the banks of the river 
Hydaspes, the modern Jelum, B.C. 327. 

Htde Pake (London), formerly the 
*' Manerium de Hyde," belonging to the 
monastery of St. Peter's, Westminster, a.d. 
1535, was enclosed about 1545. Cottages 
existed here in 1655. The custody of Hyde 
425 



HYD 

Park, " with all the lodges, houses, and edi- 
fices in the same," was granted in 1596 to 
Sir Edmund Gary, knight. The House of 
Commons resolved that Hyde Park should 
be sold, Dec. 21, 1652 ; and Su' Heneage 
Finch, sohcitor-general, obtained a grant of 
part of the park in 1661. Queen Anne 
enclosed another portion in 1705, and Queen 
Carohne another m 1730. In consequence 
of the Gordon riots, troops were encamped 
here in 1780. The volunteers formed a 
camp in 1799. The statue of Achilles, 
"inscribed by the women of England to 
Arthur, duke of Wellington, and ms brave 
companions in arms," was erected in Hyde 
Park June 18, 1822. The triple archway 
and gate at Hyde-Park Corner was con- 
structed from the designs of Burton in 1828. 
The bronze equestrian statue of the duke of 
Welhngton, by Wyatt, was erected in 1846. 
The Marble Arch was placed at Cum- 
berland Gate in March, 1851. Kiotous 
assembhes met in this park to denounce 
Lord Eobert Grosvenor's Sunday Trading 
Bill, June 24 and July 1 and 8, 1855. 
Turbulent meetings were held, in conse- 
quence of the high price of bread, Oct. 14, 
21, and 28. The queen reviewed 18,000 rifle 
volunteers in Hyde Park, June 23, 1860. 

Hybeeabad (Hindostan), the capital of 
Hyderadad and the Nizam's dominions, was 
founded by Kootab Shah, about a.d. 1585, 
being then called Baunuggur. It was taken 
and plundered in 1687 by the troops of 
Aurungzebe. 

Htdeogen'. — The combustibihty of this 
gas was known early in the 18th century, 
when it was often exhibited as a curiosity ; 
but httle was ascertained as to its real 
nature till the time of Henry Cavendish, 
who pubhshed an account of its most im- 
portant properties in the Philosophical 
Transactions, May 12, 1766. 

Htdeometek. — This instrument for ascer- 
taining the weight of fluids was probably 
invented by Archimedes, who was killed B.C. 
212, though it is not mentioned till the 
time of Hypatia, about a.d. 415. It was 
afterwards forgotten, and was not revived or 
re-invented tiU the end of the 16th century. 

Htdeopathy, or the cold-water cure, was 
in use among the Arabs, and recommended by 
Ehazes, a.d. 920. The system also flourished 
in Italy, having been advocated by Avicenna 
in 1030 ; by Barzi in 1450 ; by Savonarola 
in 1460; and by Cardan in 1540. Prom 
Italy it passed into G ermany, where it found 
zealous disciples in Hildanus (1560 — 1600) , 
and Von der Heyden (1630-43) ; and thence 
to England, where Ployer (1649—1714), 
George Cheyne in 1725, and Lucas ia 1750, 
strongly advocated the system. At Malta 
Padre Bernardo, the self-styled "medicus 
per aquam," made a great sensation in 1724; 
and at Paris the celebrated Tissot ia 1760 
advocated in eloquent language the use of cold 
water as a universal panacea. During the 
present century, the principal advocates of 
hydropathyare Dr. James Currie (1770-1805), t 
and Vincent PreisnitZj a peasant's son, who i 
426 



HYT 

estabhshed his famous cold-water cure esta- 
bhshment at Grafenberg in 1825. He began 
■with two patients, and in 1829 his system 
was in full operation. 

Htdeostatics. — The phenomena con- 
nected with water were but httle studied 
by ancient philosophers. Archimedes an- 
nounced the equal force with which each 
particle of a fluid mass is pressed when in 
equihbrio, B.C. 250, and Ctesibius and Hero 
invented the siphon force-pump and pneu- 
matic fountam about a.d. 120. Galileo 
(1564—1641), Castelho (1577—1644), Torri- 
celh (1608—1647), and Pascal (1623—1662) 
contributed to advance the science. HaUam 
says the science was entirely created by 
CasteUio and TorriceUi. The motion "of 
waters in rivers and canals was first studied 
by Gughelmini, who puljlished his work on 
the subject in 1691 ; and the nature of the 
oscillation of wa^■es was taught by !N"ewton 
in 1714. Daniel Bernouilli's theory of the 
motion of fluids was pubhshed in 1738, and 
Coulomb pubhshed his law of resistance in 
1800. Professor Airy suggested an imjjroved 
theory of fluids in 1830. Scott Eussell's 
experiments on the motion of ships and 
waves were pubhshed in 1837. 

Htgeometee. — Various instruments for 
testing the humidity of the atmosphere have 
been from time to time invented. The most 
general are the hair hygrometer of Saussure, 
who published an account of his instrument 
A.D. 1783, and the whalebone hygrometer of 
M. de Luc, which was described in 1786. 

Hymns, or songs of praise to the Deity, 
were in use among the Hebrews as well as 
the Greeks. The"TeDeum" and"Benedic- 
tus" are in our hturgy both called hymns. The 
former is supposed to have been written by 
St. Ambrose, a.d. 380. According to some 
authorities, St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, 
who died a.d. 368, was the first who com- 
posed hymns for the church. The use of 
hymns was authorized by the fourth council 
of Toledo, Dee. 9, 633. 

Hyrcania (Asia) . — This ancient province 
was situated to the south of the Caspian Sea, 
and varied considerably in size and import- 
ance at different periods. Little is known 
respecting its history. It appears that the 
inhabitants were rendered subject to the 
Assyrians at an early date, and that a troop 
of 6,000 of them formed part of the army 
with which Darius resisted Alexander the 
Great, B.C. 334. Hyrcania was occupied by 
the Parthians B.C. 244. Christianity was 
introduced during the 8th century. 

Hysi^ (Battle). — The Argives defeated 
the Lacedaemonians near this town B.C. 669. 
The Lacedaemonians destroyed the town 
B.C. 417. 

Hythe (Kent), one of the Cinque Ports, 
was, according to Leland, once " a very 
great tovene yn lenght, and conteyned iiii 
paroches, that now be clene destroied." 
St. Bartholomew's Hospital was founded by 
Hamo, bishop of Rochester, a.d. 1336. The 
town-hall and market-place were rebuilt in 
1794. 



lAM 



Iambics. — Iambic Terse was so called from 
lambe, an attendant at the court of Meta- 
nira, wife of the king of Sparta. She is said to 
have amused the goddess Ceres, whilst on her 
sad pilgrimage in search of her daughter Pro- 
serpine, with her witty stories and allusions, 
and her poetical talent. It is generally used in 
satirical compositions, and often figuratively 
to signify satire. The Greek poet Archilo- 
chus was the first who wrote in iambics. He 
flourished about B.C. 708. 

Iberia (Asia), the modern Georgia, 
anciently formed part of the Persian empire, 
and passed under the power of Alexander the 
Great b.c. 331. The Eomans first came into 
contact with the Iberians B.C. 65, when Pom- 
pey led an army against them, and compelled 
them to sue for peace. Instigated by Tiberius, 
the inhabitants invaded and subdued Ar- 
menia, A.D. 35, and in 115 they made a show 
of submission to the Eomans. Christianity 
was introduced during the reign of Constan- 
tine I. (323-337), and in 365 the Eomans re- 
signed the sovereignty of the cotmtry, which 
subsequently dechned into a Persianprovince. 
It was annexed to the Eastern empire by 
Herachus in 623. Iberia was erected into a 
bishopric about the pontificate of Gregory I. 
(590—604). {See Georgia.) 

Ice. — The manufacture of artificial ice was 
known to the Greeks and Eomans. The 
custom of cooling beverages with saltpetre 
was general in Italy in the 16th century. In 
the 17th "ice cups" were introduced into 
Prance aad Spain. A new mode of producing 
ice by chemical means was invented by Mr. 
Walker in 1782. Leslie introduced the em- 
ployment of sulphuric acid for the same 
purpose in 1810, Harrison patented an ice- 
making machine, in which ether and salt 
are used, in 1857. Tudor first estabhshed 
the trade in ice at Boston (U.S.) a.d. 1806. 
It has grown to such an extent, that there 
are sixteen companies for the exporta- 
tion of the article in that town. Many of 
the "ice farms" of the states of New York 
and Massachusetts are reputed to be as 
valuable as the rice-fields of Georgia. The 
Prench ice trade dates from 1859, when 
some Paris speculators constructed a range 
of ice-houses near Auteuil, in the Bois de 
Boulogne. 

IcELAifD (North Atlantic Ocean). — The 
discovery of this island is attributed to a 
Norwegian pirate, named Naddodr, who 
was cast by a tempest on its coast, a.d. 861. 
It was then called. Snia-land. Gardar cir- 
cumnavigated it in 864, and gave it the name 
of Gardarsholm. In 874 it was colonized by 
a band of Norwegians under Ingolph. Its 
inhabitants were converted to Christianity 
towards the end of the 10th century. In 
1261 it was united to Norway, and in 1397 
was ceded to Denmark, to which country it 
still belongs. It received the Eeformation 
in 1551. The commerce of Iceland was de- 



ICO 

clared free to all Danish subjects in 1787, and 
to foreigners in 1855. 

ICH DiEN. — The motto of John of Luxem- 
burg, king of Bohemia, inscribed upon his 
hehnet found upon the battle-field of Crecy, 
July 10, 1346, where he fell, fighting under 
the French banner. The motto was adopted 
by Edward the Black Prince, who took the 
plumed helmet from the head of the Bohe- 
mian monarch. The heirs to the English 
crown have retained the device, as weU as 
the plume of three ostrich feathers. Sir 
H. Nicholas holds a somewhat different 
theory on this subject. {See Feathers.) 

IcoifiuM: (Asia Minor). — Paul and Bar- 
nabas preached in this ancient city, now 
called Koniah (Acts xiii. 51), a.d. 45, from 
which they were compelled to flee, on ac- 
count of a conspiracy against them (Acts xiv. 
1 — 6). Councils were held here in 231 and 
378. It was made the metropoUs of Lycaonia. 
The Saracens captured it a.d. 1074, and 
foxmded the kingdom of Iconium or Eoum. 
The Crusaders took it in 1070, and again 
under Frederick I. (Barbarossa), June 10, 
1190. The Mongols seized it in 1244, and the 
Turks in 1307. _ The battle of Koniah was 
fought near this place, between the army 
of the sultan and that of the pacha of Egypt, 
Dec. 21, 1832. The latter was victorious. :, 

Iconoclasts, or Breakers of Images. — 
The custom of exhibiting images of the 
Saviour and of saints in churches, intro- 
duced about the third century of the Chris- 
tian sera, met with strong opposition in the 
Eastern empire, under Leo III., or the 
Isaurian, who issued an edict prohibiting the 
worship of all statues and pictures whioh 
represented the Saviour, the Virgin, and the 
saints, a.d. 726. A second decree, com- 
manding the destruction of all images, and 
the whitewashing of the churches, appeared 
about 728. The attempt of an official to 
destroy a statue of the Saviour caused an 
insurrection, which spread to Greece and the 
uEgsean islands. Gregory II. denounced this 
crusade agaiast images in a letter to Leo 
III. in 729. Another letter followed. Con- 
stantine Copronymus, the successor of Leo 
III., renewed his edict, and summoned the 
third council at Constantinople (Feb. 10 to 
Aug. 8, 754) , which issued a decree against the 
worship of images. The controversy raged 
with great fury, and a coimcil summoned at 
Constantinople, Aug. 1, 786, was dissolved on 
account of the violence of difterent parties. 
It met at Nicaea (second council) Sept. 24, 
and lasted till Oct. 23, 787. The Iconoclasts 
were anathematized, and the worship of 
images was re-estabhshed. A council at 
Constantinople, in 814, annulled aU decrees 
made against the Iconoclasts. After much 
resistance and many struggles, the Greeks 
restored the worship. A council was held 
at Constantinople Feb. 18, 842, when the 
decrees of the second council of Nicsea were 
accepted, and the Iconoclasts denounced. 
A solemn festival was appointed, and the 
whole of the clergy of Constantinople went 
in procession to the church of St. Sophia, 
427 



IDE 

to commeraorate the event. The eighth 
general council, held at Constantinople 
Oct. 5, 869, to Feb. 28, 870, anathematized 
the Iconoclasts. 

Ides, in the ancient Eoman calendar, were 
eight days in each month, the first of which, 
denominated the Idus, feU on the loth of 
March, May, July, and October, and on 
the 13th in the other months. The ides 
came between the caleyids and the nones, 
and were reckoned backwards. Thus, the 
14th day of March, May, July, and October, 
and the 12th of the other months, was 
called the day before the Ides. This mode 
of reckoning time is still retained in the 
chancery of Rome, and in the calendar of 
the Breviary. The Ides of March have 
become celebrated in history as the date 
upon which Julius Csesar was assassinated, 
B.C. 44. 

Idols. — Idolatry in some form or other 
was practised by all the nations of antiquity. 
It was conveyed from Egypt to India 
about the 17th century B.C., and thence to 
Is'orth Europe about the 6th century B.C. 
The earUest mention of idols oecui-s Gen. 
xxxi. 19 and 30, b c. 1739. Constantme I. 
ordered the destruction of idolatrous tem- 
ples A.D. 330, and Honorius abohshed 
idolatry throughout the Eoman empire in 
404. 

Ids TED T (Battle).— The Danish forces 
under General Von Kragh defeated the 
Sleswig-Holsteiners tmder Wilhsen, at this 
village of Southern Denmark, July 24 and 25, 
1850. The loss on both sides amounted to 
about 8,000 men. 

iDUMiEA. [See Edom.) 

Iglau, (Treaty,) was concluded at this 
town, in Moravia, between the emperor 
Sigismund and the Hussites, July 5, 1436. 
The latter obtained a general amnesty and 
the free exercise of their religion. The 
treaty was based upon the compactata of 
Prague made in 1433. 

Ildefottso, St. (Treaties). — Several 
treaties have been signed at this town of 
Old Castile, in Spain. The first, between 
Spain and Portugal, was concluded Oct. 1, 
1777, and confirmed March 31, 1778, An of- 
fensive and defensive alliance between France 
and Spain was concluded here Aug. 19, 1796, 
and a treaty between the same powers, by 
vii'tue of which France obtained Louisiana, 
was signed Oct. 1, 1800. 

Ilituegis (Spain).— This town was taken 
and destroyed byPubhus Seipio, B.C. 206. 

Ilium, or Ilion (Asia Minor), the real 
name of the city of Troy, or Troja; the 
latter, a|Eoman appellation, being, strictly 
speaking, the name of the district. Ihum is 
supposed to have stood on a height at the 
southern extremity of the plain of Troy, 
clsoe to the modern village of Bunarbashi. 
This ancient Hium, generaUy beheved to have 
been captured and destroyed after a siege 
of ten years, B.C. 1184, is distinguished by 
the epithet vetus, from Ilium Novum, or 
New Ihum, a village which Alexander the 
Oreat, after the battle of Granicus, B.C. 



ILL 

334, ordered to be enlarged and called a 
city. Fimbria captured it B.C. 85. After 
the battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48, it was visited 
by Juhus Caesar, who conferred upon the 
inhabitants nimierous privileges, and, in 
remembrance of his victory, instituted the 
Ludi Troja7ii, to which Virgil refers in the 
^neid. 

Illinois (United States). — The French 
settled in this country in the 17th century. 
It was ceded to England in 1763, and 
separated at the revolution of 1775. It 
formed part of the territory of Indiana from 
1800 to 1809, in which year a division took 
place, and in 1818 Illinois was admitted as 
the twentieth state of the Union. 

Illtjminati. — The name of lUuminati, or 
Enlightened Men, was adopted by several 
secret pohtical societies of a revolutionary 
tendency, which sprung up in Spain and 
Belgium during the 17th and 18th centuries. 
The most famous was the order of Uluminati, 
estabUshed at Ingoldstadt, Bavaria, May 1, 
1776, by Adam Weishaupt. The openly- 
declared tendency of this association was 
the extirpation of the Jesuits and the 
diminution of the papal influence. It 
soon became very powerful, and was sup- 
pressed by decrees issued June 22, 1784, and 
March 2 and Aug. 16, 1785. Mirabeau was 
one of its disciples. Its agents visited Paris 
for the purpose of illuminating France. 
For many years after its suppression, the 
society of lUimiinati lingered on under the 
name of the German Union. The favourite 
saying of the Uluminati was, — " The last 
king ought to be hanged with the entrails of 
the last priest." 

Illumikati, or Altjmbeados. — This sect 
of Spanish heretics first appeared a.d. 1575, 
but was soon suppressed, owing to the 
execution of its chief members by the 
Inquisition at Cordova. They reappeared 
at Seville in 1623 or 1627. 

Illumination and Illuminated Books. 
— The art of decorating manuscripts is of 
considerable antiquity, and was practised 
by the Eomans. Cicero commends Marcus 
Varro for having adorned his works with the 
portraits of more than 700 persons. Varro 
novirished B.C. 116-28. The most ancient il- 
luminated documents extant are the Terence 
of the 4th century and the Virgil of the 5th, 
both of which are in the Mbrary of the 
Vatican. The art received great encourage- 
ment fi-om the Eastern emperors in the 9tb, 
10th, and 11th centuries, and was extensively 
patronized by Charlemagne. About 1150 a 
better style of drawing became common. 
The finest specimens of illuminated books 
are of the 15th and 16th centuries, from 
which time the introduction of printed 
books has superseded MS. works, and hence 
put a stop to the illuminator's art. It has, 
however, been recently revived as a fashion- 
able amusement. 

Illtbia, or Illtkicum (Europe) .—This 
name was anciently applied to aU the coun- 
tries on the east coast of the Adriatic. In 
the 4th century b.c. the northern portions 



IMA 

of niyria were visited by the Gauls, who 
expelled the natives and drove them to the 
south. Philip II., king of Maeedon, waged 
war with the Illyrians B.C. 360; and the 
Komans sent an army against them, and 
compelled them to sue for peace, b.c. 233. 
The second Illyrian war commenced B.C. 
219, and also terminated in favour of the 
Eomans. The Dalmatse revolted from the 
Illyrians B.C. 180, find formed the indepen- 
dent state of Dalmatia ; and the remaining 
country was reduced into a Roman province 
by L. Anicius, B.C. 168. It became an 
imperial province B.C. 11. {See Dalmatia.) 

Images. — From the Apostolical Constitu- 
tions, published a.d. 193, it appears that 
image-makers were refused the sacraments 
of the Holy Supper and of baptism by the 
primitive church. The decoration of churches 
with images and pictures was prohibited by 
the council of Elvira in 277. It was first 
rendered common by Paulinus, bishop of 
Nola, who flourished a.d. 390. The worship 
of images and pictures was introduced some 
time before 692, and was approved by the 
second council of Nicsea in 787. Statute 3 & 4 
Edw. VI. c. 10 (1549), orders all images in 
churches to be destroyed ; and the Puritans 
greatly distinguished themselves by the 
Gothic zeal with which they accomplished 
the same purpose during the civil war. 
{See IcoiirocLASTS.) 

Image-Worship. {See IcoifoCLASTS.) 

Imbeds (^gaean Sea). — An island, inha- 
bited at an early period by the Pelasgians, 
was annexed to the Persian empire B.C. 505. 
It afterwards belonged to the Athenians. 
Mohammed II. subdued it in 1457. 

Immaculate CoifCEPTioisr. — The dispute 
in the Romish church on this subject com- 
menced about A.D. 1140, the Franciscans 
supporting, and the Dominicans opposing, the 
dogma. In 1384 the discussion was revived 
at Paris by the Dominican John de Monte- 
sono, and having been continued with great 
bitterness, resulted in the exclusion of the 
Dominicans from the university of Paris 
in 1389. It also occasioned great discussion 
duringthepontificatesofPaulV. (1605— 1621), 
of Gregory XV. (1621—1623), and of Alex- 
ander VII. (1655—1667). Pius IX. wrote 
letters on the subject Feb. 2, 1849, and 
May 20, 1850, and it was made an article of 
faith of the Eomish church by a bull pro- 
mulgated in 1854. The feast of the Im- 
maculate Conception has been annually 
celebrated since the 12th century. It re- 
ceived the sanction of the council of Basel 
in 1431, and was ordered to be celebrated 
by Sixtus IV. in 1476. 

Immje, (Battle,) fought at this village, 
near Antioch, June 7, 218, when Elagabalus 
defeated Macrinus. 

Impeachment is the accusation of a 
member of parhament of treason or other 
crimes. The earliest example of an im- 
peachment is the case of the Lord Chancellor 
Pole, earl of Suffolk, in 1386. By 12 & 13 
Will. III. c. 2, s. 3 (1700), no pardon under 
the great seal is pleadable to an impeach- 



IMP 

ment by the Commons in parliament. 
Persons impeached of high treason are 
allowed counsel by 20 Geo. II. c. 30 (1747). 

Imperial Chamber.- A supreme tribu- 
nal of the empire, estabUshed by Maximi- 
lian at the diet of Worms, a.d. 1495. It was 
a paramount court of justice, and consisted, 
at its first formation, of a chief judge, who 
was to be chosen among the princes or 
counts, and of sixteen assessors, partly of 
noble or equestrian rank, partly professors 
of law. They were nominated by the em- 
peror, subject to the approbation of the 
diet. HaUam says : " The functions of the 
Imperial Chamber were chiefly the two 
following. They exercised an appellant 
jurisdiction over causes that had been de- 
cided by the tribunals estabMshed in states 
of the empire. But their jurisdiction in 
private causes was merely appellant. The 
second part of the chamber's jurisdiction 
related to disputes between two states of 
the empire. But these two could only come 
before it by way of appeal." The pohce of 
the circles had to enforce the sentences 
pronounced by the Imperial Chamber. It 
lasted three centuries. 

Imperial Guard.— The Consular Guard 
received this title on the accession of Napo- 
leon I., in 1804. It originally numbered 
9,775 men, but was gradually increased, till 
in 1814 it included 102,708 men. This guard 
was disbanded on the restoration of Louis 
XVIII. in 1815, but it was again enrolled by 
a decree of Napoleon III., May 4, 1854. 

Imprisonment for Debt. — Clergymen 
in the performance of their duties, and 
members of parhament, are exempt from 
arrest for debt. {See Clergy, and Fer- 
rar's Arrest). By 12 Geo. I. c. 29 (1726), 
no arrest for debt could take place unless 
the cause of action amounted to £10 in 
superior, or 40s. in inferior courts. The 
restriction was extended to £10 in inferior 
courts by 19 Geo. III. c. 70 (1779). By 51 
Geo. III. c. 124 (July 2, 1811), £15 was the 
lowest sum recoverable by imprisonment, 
and by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 71 (July 2, 1827), 
it was fixed at £20. Arrest on mesne process 
was abohshed except in the case of the 
debtor's attempting to quit England, by 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 110 (Aug. 16, 1838). By the 
Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, 14 & 15 
Vict. c. 52 (Aug. 1, 1851), absconding debtors 
who owe £20 or upwards are Mable to 
arrest. 

Impropriations. — Impropriation is de- 
fined by Wharton as " the act of employing 
the revenues of a church hving to a layman's 
use." The suppression of the monasteries 
by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1.539), led to many 
such impropriations. The "feoffees for 
impropriations" were censured in the Star 
Chamber, and their h^dngs forfeited to the 
crown, Feb. 1.3, 1633. It was a self-consti- 
tuted corporation, formed for the purpose of 
purchasing impropriate rectories, and owes 
its origin to Johji Preston, a celebrated 
preacher. 

Impeovisatori, or extempore versifiers. 



INC 

first arose in Italy during the 12th century. 
Serafino d'Aquila, the first improvisatore of 
note,"was born in 1466, and died in 1500. The 
two blind brothers Brandolini excelled at 
Florence as improvisatori, in the 15th 
century. 

Incekse or Feawkincense was coDfi- 
monly employed by the pagan nations of 
antiquity in their religious sacrifices. In- 
cense was also much used by the Jews, who 
were prohibited from burning it except in 
the ceremonies of the law (Exod. xxx. 34 — 
38), B.C. 1491. Incense was not used during 
the first three ages of the Christian church, 
but is referred to by the Apostohcal Canons, 
which are believed to date from about a.d. 
550. The early Christians abhorred its use 
in public worship, regarding it as a part of 
the worship of idols. Its use was, however, 
permitted at funerals. 

IircHKEiTH (Firth of Forth) .—This island 
having been fortified by an Enghsh force, 
was captured by the French, a.d. 1549. A 
revolving fight was placed on the island in 
1805. 

Income and Peopertt Tax. — The first 
income-tax was levied in 1512 to defray the 
expenses of the war with France. It was 
imposed upon the commons, who were 
rated at two-fifteenths, and the clergy at 
two-tenths. Mr. Pitt's income-tax was 
also levied to defray the expense of a French 
war, by 39 Geo. III. c. 13 (Jan. 9, 1799). 
It imposed a graduated series of rates on all 
incomes of £60 per annum and upwards, and 
was repealed by 42 Geo. III. c. 42 (May 4, 
1802) . It was, however, virtually restored by 
the Property-tax Act, 43 Geo. III. c. 122 
(Aug. 11, 1803), which imposed a rate on aD 
incomes above £60 per annum, 5 per cent, on 
incomes of £150 being the standard. The rate 
was increased to 6| per cent, by 45 Geo. III. 
c. 15 (March 18, 1805), and to 10 percent, by 
46 Geo. III. c. 65 (June 13, 1806). This 
tax expired ia 1816, government being de- 
feated, on the motion for its renewal, by a 
majority of 37, on the 19th of March. Sir 
Eobert Peel's rate of sevenpence in the poimd 
was levied by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 35 (June 22, 
1842) , for three years. It was continued three 
years longer by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 4 (April 5, 
1S45), and again for three years by 11 & 12 
Vict. c. 8 (April 13, 1848). It was renewed 
for one year by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 12 (June 5, 
1851), and for another year by 15 & 16 Vict. 
c. 20 (May 28, 1852). By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 34 
(Jime 28, 1853), it was arranged for the rate 
to undergo a gradual diminution, and to 
expire in seven years, and the tax was also 
extended to Ireland ; but in consequence of 
the Russian war the plan was abandoned, 
and a double rate was imposed by 17 & 18 
Vict. e. 10 (May 12, 1854) . An addition of 
twopence in the pound on incomes of more 
than £150 and of three halfpence on those 
between £150 and £100, was imposed by 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 20 (May 25, 1855). These 
rates were reduced to sevenpence and five- 
pence in the pound by 20 Vict. c. 6 (March 
ai, 1857), and increased to ninepence and 



IND 

sixpence-halfpenny by 22 & 23 Vict. e. 18 
(Aug. 13, 1859). By 23 Vict. e. 14 (April 3, 
1860), they were farther increased to ten- 
pence and sevenpence. A select parhamen- 
tary committee to inquire into the present 
mode of assessing and collecting tMs tax, 
with a view to its more equitable adjustment, 
was appointed Feb. 19, 1861. In the finan- 
cial statement made by Mr. Gladstone, 
April 15, 1861, a reduction of a penny on 
the tenpenny rate was proposed. 

IwcoBPOEATED Law Societt of the 
United Kingdom was instituted a.d. 1827, 
and incorporated by charter in 1831. It 
was placed upon a new basis and re-incor- 
porated Feb. 26, 1845. 

Indemnity. — An act of indemnity, passed 
May 20, 1690, exempted from penal con- 
sequences the instruments of popery and 
arbitrary power during the reign of James II. 
In addition to the regicides, thirty-five per- 
sons were by name exempted in this act. Vari- 
ous statutes render it incumbent upon most 
government officers to take certain oaths as a 
necessary quahfication for their oflfice ; but as 
this would prove very troublesome in many 
instances, an act of indemnity is passed every 
year to exempt persons from any omission 
in this respect. Indemnity bills are also 
passed to release government or its agents 
from the consequences of illegal acts which 
circumstances may have rendered necessary. 
BiUs of this kind were passed on behalf of 
the advisers of the embargo on the exporta- 
tion of com, Dec. 16, 1766 ; also to indemnify 
officers who arrested persons during the sus- 
pensions of the Habeas Corpus Act, April 
10, 1801, and March 10, 1818; and for the 
violations of the currency laws by the sus- 
pension of the Bank Charter Act in 1848 
and 1857. 

Independents, or Congeegationalists. 
— The term Independents was apphed to 
several sects of dissenters, principally Brown- 
ists, about a.d. 1640. Jacobs and Brown 
are said to have established the first Congre- 
gational assembly at Leyden in 1616. The 
colleges for the education of Independent 
ministers in this country are Western Col- 
lege, Plymouth, founded in 1752 ; Rotherham 
College, Yorkshire, in 1756 ; Brecon College 
in 1760 ; Cheshunt College in 1768 ; Airedale 
College, Bradford, in 1784 ; Hackney Semi- 
nary in 1796 ; Lancashire College in 1806 ; 
SpringhQl College, Birmingham, in 1838 ; 
and ISTew College, St. John's Wood, London, 
in 1850. 

Index Expttegatoeifs. — A list of books 
considered pernicious by the Eomish church 
was prepared by the Inquisition, a.d. 1559, 
by order of Paul IV., and received the 
sanction of the council of Trent (1545 to 
1563). In 1565, Pius V. appointed a com- 
mittee for the express purpose of continuing 
this catalogue. 

India (Asia).— The term India is beheved 
to be derived from Sindhu, the Sanscrit 
name of the river Indus. Some writers 
believe that those early navigators the Phoe- 
nicians reached India by way of the Red 



IND 

Sea. The ancient Greeks had but a feeble 
acquaintance with India. Hecatseus of 
Miletus is the first historian who speaks 
of the country (b.c. 549—486). 



B.C. 

2000. The worship of Bramah is introduced about 

this time. 
1500. The country is ravaged by the Mahabharata 

war. 
1000. Buddhism is introduced, according to Sir W. 

Jones. 
508. The territory north of the Indus is subju- 
gated by the Persians. 
327. Alexander the Great oveiTuns the Punjaub. 



A.D. 

78. 
664. 
711. 
750. 
1001. 



The sera of Salivahan commences. 

The Arabs invade India for the first time. 

They conquer Scinde. 

They are expellfd. 

Sultan Mahmoud of Ghuznee commences his 

conquest of India. 
1030. Death of Mahmoud. 

1176. Saheb ud Deen founds the Mohammedan em- 
pire in India. 
1206. India becomes independent, on the death of 

Saheb ud Deen. 
1217. Zenghls Khan commences his invasion of 

India. 
1298. The country is invaded by the Mongols, who 

sustain a complete defeat at Delhi. 
1319. Conquest of Malabar. 
1356. Bengal and the Deccan are acknowledged to 

be independent. 
1398. The'iartars, under Tamerlane, ravage India 

and sack Delhi. 
1429. Amir Sheikh Ali ravages the Punjaub. 
1478. Jupur is annexed to the Indian empire. 
1497. Va=co de Gama doubles the Cape of Good 

Hope, and discovers the passage to India. 
1503. The Portuguese obtain a footing in Cochin, 

the commencement of theii- power in the 

East. 
1510. Nov. 25. Albuquerque takes Goa. 
1.526. Baber founds the Mongol dynasty in India. 
1528. The British attempt to reach India by the 

North-east and North-west passages. 
1531. Cabul is overrun. 
1540. May. Shir Khan defeats and deposes Hu- 

mayixu. 
1555. Humayun is restored, by the assistance of 

the Persians. 
1579. Sir Francis Drake lands in the Moluccas. 
1586. Akbar conquers Cashmere. 
1589. An overland expedition to India is mider- 

taken by the Levant Company. 
1591. Akbar annexes Scinde. 

1600. Dec. 31. The East-India Company (g.a.) re- 
ceive their first charter. 
IGOl. May 2. The fli-st English fleet sails from 

Torbay. 
1612. Jan. 11. The English are permitted to 

establish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, 

Cambaya, and Gogra. 

1614. The English defeat the Portuguese in Bom- 

bay. 

1615. Dec. 23. An English embassy, xmder Sir 

Thomas Roe, arrives in India. 

1617. The Danes settle in Tranquebar. 

1623. Shah Jehan rebels. 

1635. The English are allowed to trade with the 
Portuguese ports in India. 

1641. Fort St. George is founded. 

1648. Eebellion of Sevajee, the founder of the 
Mahratta empire. 

1658. Aurungzebe dethrones his father. Shah Jehan, 
and succeeds in his stead. 

1664. The French East -India Company is esta- 
blished. 

1668. The English company obtains Bombay island. 

1670. Sevajee ravages the Mongol dominions. 

1680. Death of Sevajee. 

1687. Bombay is made the chief establishment in 
India. The French establish Pondicherry. 

1686-8. Aurungzebe annexes Bejapore and Goloonda. 



1710. 
1719. 
1731. 
1739. 



1748. 

1749. 

1750. 
17.51. 
1752. 
1754. 



IND 



Calcutta ia purchased by the East -India 
Company. 

Bahadur Shah marches against the Sikhs. 

An East- India Company is founded at Ostend. 

The Swedish company is formed. 

Nadir Shah, of Persia, invades India. Feb. 
He defeats Mohammed Shah. March 9. He 
sacks Delhi, and obtains the cession of all 
the Indian territories west of tlie Indus. 

War commences between the English and 
French in India. Sept. 14. The French 
take Madras. 

The English fail in an attempt on Pondi- 
chei-ry. 

Oct. The French are made rulers of eighty- 
one villages near Pondicherry. 

The Rohillas defeat the imperial forces, 

Aug. 31. Clive takes Arcot. 

The Punjaub is ceded to Ahmed Shah. 

Dec. 26. Peace is concluded between the 
English and French, at Pondicherry. 

Feb. 11. The Mahratta pirate Angria is 
made prisoner, and his state destroyed.. 
June 20. Surajah Dowlah takes Calcutta, 
and enacts the tragedy of the Black-hole 
(q. v.). Dec. 20. Clive ?,nd Watson anrive 
in the Ganges. 

Jan. 2. Clive retakes Calcutta. March 23. 
The English take Chandemagore. June 23. 
Clive defeats Surajah Dowlah at Plassey 
(?. v.). 

June 1. The French, under Lally, take Fort 
St. David. Oct. 4. They seize Arcot. 

Feb. 16. The English fleet, under Admiral 
Pococke, compels Lally to retire. April 6. 
The bubahdar of the Deccan cedes a large 
portion of his territory to the British, aud 
agrees to allow no French settlements in 
his dominions. Nov. 29. The French are 
expelled from Wandewash. Dec. 10. The 
English seize their fort at Carangoly. 

Feb. 10. Arcot is taken by the British. 

Jan. Major Carnac defeats Shah Alum at 
Patna. Jan. 14. The French surrender 
Pondichen-y to the British. 

Feb. 10. The treaty of Paris restores Pondi- 
cherry to the French. Nov. 6. Patna is 
taken by the British. 

Feb. 11. The English army in India mutinies, 
biit is reduced to subjection by Major 
Munro. Oct. 23. The battle of Buxar (g. v.). 

May 19. The nabob of Oude becomes tribu- 
tary to the British. Aug. 12. The emperor 
constitutes the Company the Dewannee or 
receivers of revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and 



1758. 
1759. 



1760. 
1761. 



1763. 
1764. 
1765. 



1766. Nov. 12. Treaty with the Nizam of theDeccan, 

by which the British obtain the N orthem 
Circars. 

1767. Jan. Lord Clive sails for England. Sept. The 

Nizam forms an alliance with Hyder Ali, 
and treacherously attacks the British. 
Dec. The Nizam and Hyder Ali are defeated 
at Vellore. 

1769. Jan. Hyder Ali plundere the Carnatic. 

April 4. He marches to Madras, and com- 
pels the English to conclude an alliance 
with him. 

1770. A famine in Bengal carries off nearly a third 

of the jjopulation. 

1772. Api-il 13. Warren Hastings succeeds to the 

governorship of Bengal. Dec. 22. The 
Mahrattas enter Delhi, and compel the 
emperor to make important concessions. 

1773. The Mahrattas commit great ravages. 

1774. AprLl23. The British defeat the Rohilla anny. 

Dec. 28. Salsette and Bassetn are seized by 
the British. 

1775. May 21. The subahdar of Oude cedes Benares 

to the Company. May 30. Charges of 
corruption are brought against Warren 
Hastings. 

1776. March 11. Warren Hastings is again accused 

of receiving bribes, by the Brahmin Nun- 
comar. Aug. 5. Execution of ^uncoma^ 
for forgery. 



IND 



IND 



1778. Oct. Pondicheriy siirrenders to the Bi-itisli. 

1780. Aug. 2-5. A British force, tinder t-ir Hector 

Munro, takes the field against Hyder All. 
Sept. 10. Hyder Ali captures a detathinent 
under Colonel Baillie. Sept. 11. The 
English retreat. Oct. 31. Hyder takes 
Arcot. Nov. 5. Sir Eyre Coote arrives at 
Madras with remforcemeuts. 

1781. July 1. Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder, rear 

Porto Novo. Aug. 14. War-en Hastings 
attempts to arrest the rajah of Benares, 
who escapes. Sept. 19. The treaty of 
Chunar is signed by Warren Hastings and 
the subahdar of Oude. Hastings receives 
from the latter a present of £100,000. 
Oct. 24. Sir Elijah Impey is made judge of 
the court of appeal. 

1782. Jan. 12. The persecution of the Begums of 

Oude commences. Feb. 19. A French ex- 
pedition lands, and assists Tippoo Saib 
asrainst the English. May 17. Bassein and 
Ahmedabad are ceded to the Mahr.<ttas, 
■who agree to exclude aU foreigners except 
the English. Aug. 31. The French take 
Trinconialee. Sept. 28. Sir Eyre Coote relin- 
quishes the chief command. Dec. Death of 
Hyder Ali, who is succeeded by Tippoo Saib. 

1783. March. A Freijch force, under Bussy lands 

on the Coromandel coast. April 30. Tippoo 
takes Bednore. Sept. 3. Pondicherry is 
restored to the French, and Trincomalee to 
the Dutch, by the treaty of Versailles. 

1784. March 11. A peace.is concluded with Tippoo. 

1785. Feh. 8. Warren Hastings resigns the govern- 

ment, and i-eturns to England. 

1788. Sept. Gruntoor is ceded to the English by the 

Nizam of the Deccan. 

1789. Dec. 24. Tipi-ioo is defeated in an attack upon 

Travancore. 

1790. May 7. Tippoo enters Travancore, which he 

plunders. June 1. A treaty is concluded 
with the Mahratta'^ against Tipiioo July 4. 
Tiie Niz^m joins the league against Tippoo. 
Dec. 12. Lord Comwallis arrives at Madras. 

1791. March G to 22. Lord Corun-allis be>ieges and 

takes Bangalore. May 14. Comwallis de- 
feats Tippoo at the battle of Arikera. 

1792. March 26. Peace is concluded with Tippoo, 

who surrenders his two eldest sons as 
hostages. 

1793. Courts for civil and criminal causes, and 

circuits, are appointed, and judges' fees 
abolished. Pondicherry is again taken by 
the English. 

1794. March 29. Tippoo's sons axe restored. 

1798. Allahabad is ceded to the British. 

1799. May 4. Death of Tippoo, at the storming of 

Seringapatam (q. v.). June 22. The parti- 
tion of Mysore take" place. Oct. 25. The 
rajah of Tanjore surrenders aU his power 
to the British. 

1800. May 13. The nabob of Surat resigns his 

govemment to the English. Oct. 12. The 
Nizam cedes all his possession in Mysore to 
the British. 

1801. Nov. 14. Rohilcand and the Dooab are ceded 

to the English by the subahdar of Oude. 

1802. March 25. Pondicherry is restored to France 

by the treaty of Amiens. June 4. The 
nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories 
to the British. Dec. 31. By the treaty of 
Bassein, the Peishwa cedes a large extent 
of territory to the British, au'l agrees to 
hold no intercourse with otht-r foreigner.s. 

1803. Aug. 3. The Mahratta, war commences against 

Dowlut Rao Scindia and the raja,li of 
Berar. Sept. 12. Genei'al Lake enteis 
Delhi. Sept. 23. Sir Arthui- WeUesley 
gains the battle of Assaye (q. v.). Oct. 17. 
Lake takes Agra. Nov. 1. He defeats the 
Mahratta.s, at the battle of Laswaree. 
Dec. 17. Peace is concluded with the rajah 
of Beriir, who cedes Cuttack to the British, 
g*^ liec. 30. Peace with Scindia, who sur- 

rendei-s Baroach, Ahmednuggur, and his 
foi-ts in the Dooab. 



1812. 
1813. 



1814. 
1815. 



1822. 
1824. 



1842. 
1843. 



1844. 
1845. 



Feb. 27. The treaty of Boorhanpore is con- 
cluded with Scindia. April 16. War is 
declared against Holkar. Oct. 8. Holkar 
lays siege to Delhi, but is compelled to 
retire.' Oct. 25. AU Holkar's possessions 
in the Deucan are subdued by the British. 
Nov. 14. Deatu of General Frazer, at the 
battle of Deig, in which he defeats Holkar. 

April 10. The rajah of Bhurtpore cedes por- 
tions of territoi-y to the English. April 15. 
Holkar joins Scindia. Oct. 5. Death of 
Lord Comwallis. Dec. 24. Peace is con- 
cluded with Holkar, who renounces his 
claims to the districts north of the Chum- 
bul. and to Bundelcund. 

Jan. 31. A mutiny breaks out among the 
troops stationed at Yellore. 800 Sepoys are 
executed. 

War commences with Travancore. Dec. 31. 
The Travancore army is defeated by Colonel 
Hamilton. 

Feb. 25. All the lines of Ti-avancore are 
stormed by the British, and the war is 
ended. Aug. 23. A mutiny is quelled at 
Seringapatam. 

The Pindan-ies shake oflf the Mahratta autho- 
rity, and assert their independence. 

July 1. The India trade is thrown open by 
53 Geo. IIL c. 155. 

Nov. 1. War is declared against Nepaul. 

April 27. The whole of Kemaoon is ceded to 
the British. Dec. 2. The treaty of Segoulee 
ends the Nepaulese war. 

June 13. The Mahratta confederacy is dis- 
solved, and Ahmednuggur and other places 
are ceded to the British. Dec. 21. bir T. 
Hislop defeats Holkar at the battle of 
Mehudpore. The Pindarrie war commences 
this year. 

Jan. 6. Peace is concluded with Holkar. 
May. Conclusion of the Pindarrie war. 
June 3. The Peishwa surrenders to the 
English, abdicates his throne, and relin- 
quishes all claim to the Deccan. 

The vizier of Oude throws off his allegiance 
to the Mongol ruler, and establishes an 
independent govemment. 

Dec. 12. A treaty is concluded between the 
English and the Nizam. 

The Bui-mese war commences. May 11. The 
British take Rangoon. Nov. 1. A mutiny 
breaks ont at Barrackpore. 

Aug. 16 to Dec. 9. The Enterprise performs 
the first steam voyage to India. Dec. 1-5. 
The Burmese are defeated near Prome. 

Jan. 18. The British take Bhurtpore. Feb. 24. 
Peace with Burmah is restored by the treaty 
of Yandaboo. 

Deo. A decree for the abolition of sutteeism 
is ptttilished. 

Mar;hl9. The Bombay papers first mention 
the elevation of native Hindoos to the 
magistracy. April 10. The rajah of Coorg 
is deposed. 

Aug. 1. Slavei-y is abolished in the East 
Indies. Oct. 1. The Affghau war commences. 
(.See AFFGHA2f Wak and Cabul.) 

April 21. The English army occupies Kandahar. 
July 23. Ghuznee is stormed by Sir J. 
Keane. 

Oct. 11. Cabul is evacuated, and the Affghan 
war concluded. 

Feb. 17. Sir Charles Napier defeats the Ameers 
of Scinde at the battle of Meauee. Dec. 29. 
The Gu.alior ten-itory is invaded and sub- 
dued by the British. 

May 24. Sir C. Napier i-onvenes a great meeting 
of Beloochee chiefs at Hyderabad. A revo- 
lution occurs at Lahore. 

Feb. 22. The Danish possessions in India are 
pmchased by the British. Dec. 18. The 
British defeat the Sikhs at the battle of 
Moodkee. Dec. 21 and 22. The Sikhs are 
defeated at Ferozeshah. 

Jan. 28. The Sikhs sustain a severe defeat at 
Aliwal (q. v.). 



IXD 



1846. Feb. 10. They are defeated at Sobraon (g'.w.). 

Feb. 22. Sir Hugh Gough takes foi-mal 
possession of Lahore. March 9. Peace is 
restored by the treaty of Lahore. 

1847. Jan. The vizier Lall Singh is deposed from the 

government of Lahore. 

1848. April 18. Death of Mr. Vans Agnew and 

Lieutenant Anderson, in a skirmish with 
the troops of Dewau Moolraj. June 18. 
The army of Moolraj is defeated by Lieu- 
tenant Edwardes. at the battle of Kennyree. 
Sept. 22. General Whish raises the siege of 
Mooltan. Nov. 2. Lord Gough expels the 
enemy from Ramnuggur. Dec. 3. The 
Sikhs are defeated by Major-General Thack- 
well, at Vyseerabad. 

1849. Jan. 2. The town of Mooltan is taken by the 

English. Jan. 13. The Sikhs are defeated 
at Chillianwallah (q.v.). Jan. 22. The 
citadel of Mooltan surrenders, and Moolraj 
is taken prisoner. Feb. 21. The Sikhs are 
defeated at Goojerat {q. v.). March 7. Sir 
Charles Napier becomes commander - in - 
chief in India. March 14. The entire 
Sikh army surrenders unconditionally. 
March 29. The governor- general announces 
the annexation of the Punjaub. July. 
Moolraj is tried for the murder of Mr. 
Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson. He is 
convicted, and sentenced to death. Sept. 
The sentence is commuted to transportation 
for life. 

1850. Feb. 27. The 66th Bengal native infantry 

is disbanded for mutiny. May 25. The 
Nepaulese embassy arrives in England. 
July 2. Sir Charles Napier resigns the 
ofllce of commander-in-chief. 

1851. Jan. 28. Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of the Mah- 

rattas, dies at Bithoor. The continuance of 
his pension is refused to his nephew Nana 
Sahib. Oct. 29. Disputes having occurred 
with the Burmese empire, a British fleet 
arrives at Rangoon. 

1852. Jan. 4. The British force the passage of the 

Ii-awaddy. April 5. Martaban is stormed. 
April 14. General Goodwin storms and 
takes Rangoon. June 4. Pegu is taken, 
but is shortly afterwards evacuated. July 9. 
Prome is taken. Oct. 10. Prome is again 
taken. Nov. 21. Pegu is recaptured. Dec. 3. 
The Burmese invest Pegu, which is relieved 
by the British. Dec. 30. Annexation of 
Pegu to the Anglo-Indian empire. 

18-53. June 30. End of the Burmese war. Aug. 20. 
A new In<1ia Bill is passed (16 & 17 Vict. 
c. 95). Dec. 11. Death of the rajah of 
Nagpore, and annexation of his territories 
to the British possessions. 

18-56. Feb. 7. Annexation of Dude. 

1857. Jan. 24 to May 6. Mutiny of the native 
regiments at Ban-a'kpore, Berhampore, 
Lucknow, and Meerut. May 10. Mu- 
tiny at Meerut. May 11. The mutineers 
establish theii- head - quar-ters at Delhi. 
May 12. They proclaim the king of Delhi 
emperor. May 20. General Anson marches 
with a British force for Delhi, and dies 
of cholera at Kurnaul, May 27. May 
30. Four regiments mutiny at Lucknow. 
June 6. The mutiny reaches Allahabad. 
June 8. Sir H. Barnard succeeds General 
Anson at Delhi. June 21. Death of Sir 
Hugh Wheeler at Cawupore. June 26. 
The British at Cawnpore surrender to 
Nana Sahib, by whom they are nearly all 
murdered the following day. July 1. The 
rebels commence the siege of Lucknow. 
July 4. Death of Sir Henry Lawrence. 
July 5. Death of Sir H. Barnard. July 17. 
General Havelock enters Cawnpore. Jul y 1 9. 
He defeats Nana Sahib at Bithoor. Aug. 10. 
General Nicholson arrives before Delhi. 
Aug. 14. Sir Colui Campbell ai-rives at Cal- 
cutta. Sept. 14 to 20. Stoi-ming and capture 
of Delhi by General Wilson. 
433 



m-D 



1857. Sept. 21. Lieutenant Hodson kills the son.s of 

thekingof Delhi. Sept. 2,5. Havelock relieves 
the Europeans besieged at Lucknow. Oct. 
10. General Greathed defeats the Agra 
contingent near Agi-a. Nov. 3. Sir Colin 
Campbell arrives at Cawnpore. Jiov. 17. 
Outram, Havelock, and Campbell meet at 
Lucknow, and entirely dislodge the enemy. 
Nov. 22. The British evacuate Lucknow. 
Nov. 25. Death of Sir Henry Havelock at 
Alum Bagh. Nov. 27. General Windham 
sustains a defeat from the Gualior rebels 
near Cawnpore. Dec. 6. Sir Colin defeats 
the rebels at Cawnpore. 

1858. Jan. 2. Sir Colin defeats the rebels at 

Futteghur. Jan. 6. Jung Bahadoor cap- 
tures Goruckpore. Jan. 23. General Ro- 
berts takes Awah, in Rajpootana. Jan. 28. 
Sia- Hugh Rose captui-es the fort of Ratghur. 
Feb. 11. Sir Colin leaves Cawapore and 
advances to L'lcknow. March 8. The siege 
commences. March 19. Capture of Luck- 
now. March 30. General Roberts takes 
Kotah. April 2. Sir- H. Rose t^kes Jhansi. 
April 19. General Whitlock defeats the 
rebels at Bandar. April 27. Death of 
Sir William Peel at Cawnpore. May 7. 
Bareilly is seized by the British. May 8. 
Sir H. Rose takes Kooch. May 23. He 
captures Calpee. June 1. The rebels seize 
Gualior. June 19. Gualior is recaptured 
by Sir H. Rose. July 14. General Grant 
defeats the rebels at Kotara. Sept. 1. The 
government of the East-India Company 
terminates. Sept. 2. Two disarmed na- 
tive regiments rebel at Mooltan, and are 
desti-oyed. Sept. 5. General Roberts de- 
feats the Paoree rebels. Sept. 15. General 
Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee at Beora. 
Oct. The rebels sustain numerous severe 
defeats. Nov. 1. The Queen is pro- 
claimed sovereign of India, Lord Canning 
receiving the title of vicei-oy. Nov. 3. 
General Wetherall defeats the rebels at 
Rampur-Kupia, in Oude. Nov. 24. Lord 
Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell) defeats the 
mutineers near Futtehpur. Dec. 1. Tantia 
Topee is defeated at Tschota-TJdeypur. Dec. 5. 
Death of General Jacob. Dec. 17. Sir R. 
Napier defeats Perozeshah n(>ar Ramonde. 
Dec. 27. The British destroy Musjidia. 
L859. Jan. 1. The Punjaub is erected into a pre- 
sidency. Jan. 25. The pacification of Oude 
is announced. April 2. Maun Singh sur- 
renders. April 7. Tantia Topee is taken 
prisoner. AprU 18. Execution of Tantia 
Topee at Seepree. A public thanksgiving 
is held for the suppression of the mu- 
tiny. July 1. The soldiers in the army of 
the Company are allowed either to retire 
from the service or to re-enlist in the 
queen's service, with a tresh bounty. About 
10,000 men quit the service. 

1860. Nov. 13. Execution of William Johnson, of 

the 5th European regiment, for mutiny. 

1861. Jan. Large subscriptions are raised in England 

to relieve a famine in the north-west of 
India. April 8. The Scinde railway is 
opened as far as Kotree. 

LIST OF HINDOO DYNASTIES. 

B.C. A.U. 

House of Ghazni . . 977 I The Seiad suprem- 

House of Ghor .... 118 acy 1414 

A.D. I House of Lodi .... 1450 

Slave kings 1206 1 Houseof Teim\ir (or 

House of Khilii.... 1288 Mogul dynasty) 1526 
House of Toghlak 1321 j 



MOGUL EMPEEOES OP INDIA. 



Baber 1.526 I 'Shir Shah 1540 

Humayun 1531 | Selim Shah Sur 1545 

2 F 



IKD 



Mohammed Shah 

Sur AdiU 1553 

Htimayuii (again) 1555 

Akbar 1556 

Jehaugir 1605 

Shah Jehan 1627 

Aurungzebe 165S 

Bahadur Shah .... 1707 



Jehandar Shah .... 1712 

Ferokhir 1713 

Mohammed Shah.. 1719 

Ahmed Shah 1748 

Alamgir 1754 

Shah Jehan ...... 1756 

Shah Allnm 1761 



A.D. 

1772. 
1785. 
1786. 
1793. 
1798. 
1798. 
1805. 
1805. 
1807. 
1813. 
1823. 
1823. 
1828. 



1842. 
1844 
1844. 



GOVEBNOES-GEH-EEAIi OP INDIA. 

April 13. Warren Hastings. 

Feb. 1. Sir John Macpherson. 

Sept. 12. Marquis of CornwaUis. 

Oct. 28. Sir John Shore. 

April 6. Sir Alured Clarke. 

May 17. Marquis of WeUesley. 

July 30. Marquis Com-waUis (again). 

Oct. 10. Su- George Hilaa-o Barlow. 

July 31. Lord Minto. 

Oct. 4. Marquis of Hastings. 

Jan. 13. Hon. John Adam. 

Aug. 1. Lord Amherst. 

March 13. Hon. Wniiam Butterworth Bayley. 

July 4. Lord Bentinck. 

March 20. Sir C. T. (afterwards Lord) Metcalfe 

March 4. Lord Auckland. 

Feb. 28. Lord Ellenborough. 

June 15. WiHiam Wnberforce Bird. 

July 23. Sir Henry (afterwards Viscount) 
Hardinge. 
1848. Jan. 12. Earl of Dalhousie. 
18.55. Aug. 2. Viscount Canning. 
1862. Jan. Lord Elgin. 

Indiana (United States), separated in 
1809 from Illinois, with which, from 1800, it 
formed a territorial government, and was 
admitted into the Union as an independent 
state in December, 1816. 

Indianapolis, the capital of Indiana, was 
founded in 1821. 

Indian Council. — This council for the 
government of India, erected by 21 & 22 Yict. 
c. 106 (Aug. 2, 1858), to supersede the Board 
of Control, consists of fifteen members, eight 
of whom are appointed by the Queen, and 
seven by the directors of the East-India 
Company. They receive an annual salary 
of £1,200, retain their office during good 
behaviour, and are not permitted to sit in 
parhament. The fljst meeting of this coimcil 
was held in 1858. 

India-etjbbee, or Caoittchoitc, was first 
brought to Europe by M. de la Condamine, 
A.D. 1733. An account of the substance, as 
used by the natives of South America, was 
presented by him to the Academy of Sciences 
at Paris in 1736. A further report was given 
in 1761, by Messrs. Herissent and Maequer, 
to the French government, and by its order 
M. Grossart made several successful expe- 
riments, the results of which were pubhshed 
in 1768. The first allusion to the subject in 
English literature is by Joseph Priestley, in 
a work printed in 1770, in which India-rubber 
is recommended as good for "wiping from 
paper the marks of a black-lead pencil." The 
substance came into more general notice 
some ten years after, when it was sold in 
the shape of bottles, at the rate of about a 
guinea the ounce. Macintosh succeeded in 
dissolviag India-rubber, and applying it to 
waterproof clothing. The first patent ob- 
tained by him for these celebrated " Macin- 
434 



IND 

toshes" bears date 1823. Barnard took out 
a patent for caoutchoucine in 1833. The 
sulphm'ation of caoutchouc, a valuable inven- 
tion, is due to G-oodyear, who took out a 
patent for the same in 1839. 

Indiction. — This term was originally ap- 
plied to a tribute of com exacted by the 
Eomans every fifteen years ; but it was after- 
wards used to denote the period at which 
the payments were made. The institution 
of indictions dates at the earhest from the 
time of Constantine I., a.d. 312; but the 
first instance of their use is mentioned in 
the Theodosian code, under the reign of 
Constantius, who died in 361. The papal 
court adopted computation by indictions 
about 800, the comm encement of the first 
indiction being referred to Jan. 1, 313. 

Indigo.— Beckmann is strongly inchned 
to beheve that what Dioscorides calls indicon, 
and Pliny and Vitruvius indicum, is our in- 
digo. Muratori speaks of a treaty in Latin, 
A.D. 1193, between the people of Bologna 
and Ferrara, in which indicum is mentioned 
as an article on which duty must be paid. 
Marco Polo met with it in Asia, a.d. 1285, 
and pubhshed a description of the plant and 
its uses after his return to Europe in 1298. 
An act was passed ia the reign of EMzabeth, 
authorizing searchers to burn indigo in all 
dye-houses and other places where it could 
be discovered. This act remained in force 
till the time of Charles II. Indigo was so 
httle known on the continent that some 
proprietors of mines in the Hartz mountains 
obtained authority in 1705 to dig for the 
article in the hills near Halbertstadt. Its use 
was prohibited in Languedoc in 1598. The 
cultivation of indigo commenced in Carolina 
in 1747. 

I N D o E E ( Hindostan ) . — Mulhar Eao 
Holkar obtained a grant of the territory of 
Indore a.d. 1733. The town of Indore was 
founded by Aha Baee, a.d. 1767. A great 
battle was fought here Oct. 14, 1801, when 
Holkar was defeated by Scindia, a powerful 
Mahratta chieftain, who destroyed Indore, 
Murray captured the town, which had been 
restored, Aug. 24, 1804. By the treaty of 
Mundesore, Jan. 18, 1818, the British ex- 
tended their protection to Holkar, the ruler 
of Indore. 

Indulgence. — According to Bingham, 
anciently an indulgence was no more than 
the power which every bishop had of mode- 
rating the canonical punishments which, in 
course of penance, were inflicted upon sin- 
ners, and not any pretended power of dehver- 
ing souls from the pains of purgatory, by 
virtue of a stock of merits, or works of 
supererogation, of which the Pope is become 
the sole dispenser. Valentinian coromenced 
the practice of granting, on Easter Sunday, 
a genera] release to all except the worst 
criminals, a.d. 367. This act of grace was 
continued by the emperors, and called their 
indulgence. The papal system of indulgences 
originated with Pope Gregory VII. in 1077, 
and they were granted by the council of 
Clermont to the Crusaders Nov. 18—28, 1095. 



IND 

The)' were sold publicly in all parts of 
Europe on the occasion of the jubilee in 
1300. The doctrine of indulgences was made 
an article of faith by Clement VII. in 
1343. Indulgences were farmed out for 
fifteen years to Tetzel in 1502. The Tax-book 
of Indulgences was published at Rome in 
1514. Luther denounced the traffic Oct. 31, 
1517. The council of Trent framed a new 
law of indulgences, Jan. 13, 1546. 

Industrial Schools.— The first attempt 
to ititroduce these institutions into this 
country was made at Norwood by Mr. 
Aubin, A.D. 1836. The Industrial Schools 
Act, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 48, for the care and 
education of poor children, was passed Aug. 
17, 1857. 

INFANTICIDE. — This practice was per- 
mitted in ancient Greece and Rome, but 
was checked by the progress of Christianity. 
It prevailed to a frightful extent in India 
and the Pacific archipelagos ; but it is be- 
coming extinct, owing to the benign influence 
of Christianity. In 315 Constantine I. took 
a forcible step for its suppression, by pro- 
viding for the maintenance of children whose 
parents were too poor to support them; but 
it was not treated as murder till the reign 
of Valentinian (364—375). By 21 James I. 
c. 27 (1623), the concealment of the death 
of an illegitimate child was made legal proof 
that it had been murdered. This law was 
repealed by 43 Geo. III. c, 58 (June 24, 
1803). 

Inpan-tet. — The Jews, the Egyptians, and 
the Persians, amongst ancient nations, de- 
voted considerable attention to the formation 
of their infantry. Cyrus (b.c. 559 — 529) 
clothed his foot-soldiers in armour. The 
Greek phalanx and the Roman legion first 
came into collision at the battle of Heracleia, 
B.C. 280. On the decline of the Roman em- 
pire, the barbarians relied principally upon 
their infantry. The Franks borrowed the 
square, employed with such success at the 
battle of Tours, a.d. 732, from the Romans. 
The Anglo-Saxon forces were composed 
chiefly of infantry. During the Middle 
Ages, infantry was tsut little used. Louis VI. 
(a.d. 1108—1137) formed the communal 
militia in France, and his example was 
followed by Frederick I. (1152—1190) of 
Germany, and Henry II. (1154^1189) of 
England. This led to the gradual re-esta- 
bhshment of infantry as the chief arm in 
war. The battle of Bovines, July 27, 1214, 
was the first entirely decided by modern in- 
fantry, and led to the estabhshment of this 
force in aU the states of Europe. Infantry 
was for some time composed of irregular 
bands ; and Charles VII. of France was the 
first to organize a standing army, in 1444. 
Francis I. increased this army to the num- 
ber of 12,000. The battles of Biberach, Oct. 
2, 1796, and of Caldiero, Oct. 29 and 30, 
1806, were fought solely by infantry. 

Infant-Schools.— The first establishment 

of this kind was opened by James Buchanan 

at New Lanark, a.d. 1815, Mr. Robert Owen 

providing the means for the imdertaking. 

435 



IXG 

Mr. (afterwards Lord) Brougham and Lord 
Lansdowne introduced them at London in 
1819, and the success achieved by Mr. 
Wilderspin in their management, led to 
their general adoption throughout the 
kingdom. The Home and Colonial Infant- 
School Society was founded in 1836. 

Infernal Machine, an apparatus filled 
with gunpowder or other explosive materials 
for the destruction of human life and pro- 
perty. The Itahan engineer Federico 
GianibeUi was the first to employ these 
engines, which he did at the siege of Antwerp 
by the Spaniards, 1585. In modern times, 
infernal machines have been repeatedly em- 
ployed, especially in France, for the purpose 
of assassination. The most celebrated in- 
stances of this kind are, the attack upon Na- 
poleon Bonaparte, Dec. 24, 1800; that upon 
Louis-Philippe, July 28, 1835 ; and one 
upon Napoleon III. and his empress, Jan. 
14, 1858. The Russians employed infernal 
machines against the British fleet in the 
Baltic in 1854 and 1855. 

Infirmaries. — These institutions were 
unknown before the Christian sera. Julian, 
observing the charitable institutions of the 
Christians, founded similar estabUshments 
for the sick poor, which were called 
Xenodochia. The clergy were the first 
to estabhsh houses for the reception of 
the sick. Fabiola, a Roman lady, a friend 
of St. Jerome, established one at Rome in 
the 5th century. (See Hospitals.) 

Influenza, an epidemic catarrh, which 
first appeared in Europe a.d. 1510. Visi- 
tations occurred in 1557 and 1580. It raged 
with great severity in England, and especially 
in London, in 1729, 1803, 1831, 1833, 1836, 
and 1847. It broke out in Cape-Town, 
Africa, in 1836. 

Informers. — The custom of paying a 
portion of a fine imposed for an offence, to 
the person by whom the offender has been 
exposed, has created the business of common 
informers. They were very numerous in 
Greece and Rome, and much discouraged 
by Titus (a.d. 79—81) and Trajan (98— 
117). By 18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576) and 27 EHz. 
c. 10 (1584), informers were compelled to 
appear in person, and if they withdrew the 
action, were condemned to pay the costs. 
For compounding without permission of 
the court, they were to stand in the pillory 
two hours, pay a fine of £10, and be in- 
capacitated from suing in future. By 31 
Eliz. c. 5 (1589), no prosecution can take 
place on information, in cases where the 
penalty is divided between the informer and 
the crown, when a year has elapsed since 
the commission of the offence. An act to 
prevent malicious informations in the court 
of King's Bench was passed in 1692 (4 & 5 
Will. & Mary, c. 18). 

Infralapsarians. (See Calvinism.) 

Ingoldstadt (Bavaria). — This strongly- 
fortified town has been frequently besieged. 
By the 13th secret article of the treaty of 
Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the emperor 
agreed to surrender Ingoldstadt and other 
2 F 3 



ING 

German fortresses. The Tmiversity, -where 
the celebrated Dr. Faustus studied, was 
founded in 1472, and in 1800 was transferred 
to Landshut. 

Ingoue (Battle). — Omer Pasha, at the 
head of a Turkish army, passed this river, 
in Asia Minor, 'Noy. 6, 1855, and assailed a j 
strong Eussian force. The latter was de- | 
feated with the loss of 1,250 in killed and 
wounded. The Turks lost about 400 men. 

Iif GEiA (European Eussia) . — This province 
was invaded by the Poles a.d. 1579, and bv 
the Swedes a.d. 1609. Peter the Great 
invaded it in 1703, and it was ceded by 
Sweden to Eussia at the peace of N'ystadt, 
Aug. 30, 1721. 

Ink. — The ink used by the ancients was 
of a viscid nature, being chiefly composed of 
ivory-black and gum. A varnish of wax 
was also employed, especially in the 9th 
century a.d. The Anglo-Saxon black inks 
of the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries are 
remarkable for their excellence. Gold and 
silver inks were sometimes employed, and 
red ink is very common for capital letters, 
&c., though no MS. is entirely written with it. 
Indian ink was first made in China about 
A.D. 800, and was first perfumed abovit 1100. 
Sympathetic inks were known to the ancients, 
and a method of secret correspondence is 
mentioned by Ovid in the Art of Love, B.C. 2. 
Inks of this character were invented by 
Peter Borel in 1653, Le Mort in 1684, and 
Waitz in 1705. The French Academy of 
Sciences appointed a commission for the 
discovery ofanindehble ink, which pubhshed 
two receipts for the purpose. May 30, 1831. 

Inkermann (Battle). — During the Cri- 
mean war, the Eussians, nearly 50,000 strong, 
assailed the weakest part of the English 
position facing the harbour of Balaclava 
and the caverns of Inkermann, ISTov. 5, 1854. 
For six hours, 8,000 British troops encoun- 
tered at various points, and resisted, the as- 
sault of this overwhelming force. The French 
came to the support of the English, and 
the Eussians were driven back with great 
slaughter. The Enghsh loss amounted to 
3,000, and that of the French to 1,726 men. 
The Eussians lost about 12,000 in killed and 
woTmded. 

Inland Eevenue. (See Excise.) 

Inns were established in Egypt b.c. 1707. 
Herodotus ascribes the introduction of inns 
to the Lydians. They existed among the 
Eomans, who frequently used the chequers 
as a sign. The city of Herculaneum is said 
to have contained 900 pubHc-houses. Tibe- 
rius (a.d. 14 — 37) prohibited innkeepers 
from selling any baker's goods, and Nero 
(54—68) restricted them to the sale of boiled 
vegetables. By 27 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 3 (1353) , 
commissioners were appointed to inquire 
into impositions by innkeepers, and by 11 
Hen. IV. e. 2 (1409), innkeepers were pro- 
hibited from being officers in the customs. 
The latter act was enforced by 20 Hen. VI. 
c. 5 (1442). 

Inns of Couet and Chanceet. — Accor- 
ding to Pearse (Inns of Court and Chancery, 
436 



INQ 

p. 51), "the inns of court are voluntary 
societies, for ages submitting to government 
analogous to that of other seminaries of 
learning." They are four in number; viz., 
the Inner and Middle Temple, Lincoln's 
Inn and Gray's Inn, and they have apper- 
taining to them the nine inns of Chancery ; 
viz., Clement's Inn, Clifford's Inn, Lyon's 
Inn, New Inn, Fumival's Inn, Thavies' Inn, 
Symond's Inn, Barnard's Inn, and Staple's 
Inn iq^v.). 

Innspetjck, or Innsbetjck (Austria), the 
capital of the Tyrol, a very ancient city, was 
taken by Maurice of Saxony in 1552, by the 
Bavarians in 1703 ; but they were driven out 
in a few days, and the French took it in 
1805, and ceded it to Bavaria. The French 
and Bavarians were expelled April 15, 1809. 
They regained possession May 19, 1809, and 
were expelled, after a desperate battle around 
the city. May 29. Innsprtick once more fell 
into the hands of the French and Bavarians 
in July, 1809, but was rescued Aug. 12, 
1809. The emperor Leopold I. founded a 
university at Innspi-iick a.d. 1672, and the 
palace was erected by Maria Theresa in 
1770. 

Inoculation for smaU-pox was introduced 
into England from Turkey, about a.d. 1721, 
by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. It was 
tried as an experiment on seven condemned 
criminals, who submitted to the operation 
on condition that their fives should be 
spared if they survived. The royal family 
were inoculated in 1726, and the practice 
was afterwards generally adopted. On the 
! discovery of vaccination {q.v.),it was aban- 
t doned, and was finaUy prohibited by 3 & 4 
1 Vict. c. 29, s. 8 (July 23, 1840). 
I Inquisition. — This ecclesiastical tribunal 
dates from the mission of Pierre de Castelnau 
against the Albigenses a.d. 1204. In 1215 
I St. Dominic was appointed the first inqui- 
j sitor-general by the fourth Lateran council, 
• and in 1233 the so-caUed Holy Office received 
a definite constitution from Pope Gregory IX. 
Sicily received the Inquisition in 1224, Aragon 
in 1233, Venice in 1249, France iu 1255, and 
Castile and Leon in 1290. The modern 
I Inquisition was formed in Castile by a bull 
dated Nov. 1, 1478. The tribunal was 
erected in September, 1480, and commenced 
its operations at Seville, under the inqui- 
sitor-general Torquemada, Jan. 2, 1481. It 
was firmly estabhshed in Spain by two bulls 
of Sixtus IV., Aug. 2 and Oct. 17, 1483. 
i In 154<J the Holy Office was estabhshed in 
i Portugal ; and in 1571 it was introduced 
i into Peru and Mexico by Philip II., whose 
reign is known as the Spanish reign of 
I terror, owing to the numerous victims sacri- 
ficed to the Inquisition during its progress. 
It was suppressed in France by the edict of 
Nantes in 1598, and was abohshed in Tuscany 
and Naples in 1782. Napoleon I. published 
an edict for its suppression in Spain, Dec. 4, 
1808, and the Cortes also ordered its aboh- 
tion, Feb. 12, 1813 ; but Ferdinand VII. 
restored it July 21, 1814. The acts of the 
Inquisition were burnt at Goa, by order of 



mo, 

John, regent of Portugal, May 27, 1815, and 
the office was finally abohshed in Spain in 
1820, The total number of Tietims of the 
Holy Office is quite unknown. In Spain 
alone it is estimated by Lloreute that 32,000 
persons were burnt, 17,000 burnt in effigy, and 
291,000 condemned to other penalties. The 
last sufferer condemned to the flames was a 
woman, burnt at Seville Nov. 7, 1781, for 
having made a contract with the devil. This 
tribunal was abolished by the provisional 
government of Tuscany Nov. 16, 1859. 

Inquisitors op the Press were 
instituted by Pope Sixtus IV. (1471—1484). 
No work was to be printed without their 
permission. 

Insolvency. — The first act for the relief 
of insolvent debtors was passed by the 
Long Parhament. A court for their relief 
was temporarily established by 53 Geo. III. 
c. 102 (July 10, 1813), which was continued 
by several acts till June 25, 1820. New 
measures for their rehef by means of the 
court were adopted by 1 Geo. IV. c. 119 
(July 26, 1820), and the numerous laws on 
the subject were amended and consolidated 
by 7 Geo. IV. c. 57 (May 26, 1826). Insol- 
vent mayors, aldermen, or councillors of 
boroughs, are compelled to vacate their 
office by 5 & 6 Will. IV. e. 76, s. 52 
(Sept. 9, 1835). By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 116 
(Aug. 12, 1842), insolvent debtors whose 
Habiiities are less than £300 may obtain 
rehef by the Bankruptcy Court. This act 
was amended by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 9, 
1844). By the new Bankruptcy and Insol- 
vency Act, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134 (Aug. 6, 
1861), the business of the Insolvent Debtors' 
Court is transferred to the Court of Bank- 
ruptcy. 

Institute (French). — The name Instihit 
National was given to five eminent scientific, 
literary, and artistic societies, each having 
its own separate administration, which were 
united by decree in 1795. They held their 
first pubhc session in 1796. These societies 
are the Academie Fran^aise, estabhshed by 
Cardinal KicheUeu a.d. 1634, composed of 
forty members, and having under its charge 
the compilation of the Dictionnaire ; the 
Academie des Inscriptions et JBelles-Lettres, 
founded by Louis XIV. in 1663, and com- 
posed of an uncertain number of members 
and foreign associates ; the Academie des 
Beaux-Arts, founded in 1664, composed of 
forty members, and divided into five sec- 
tions, — painting, sculpture, engraving, ar- 
chitecture, and music ; the Academie des 
Sciences, founded by Colbert in 1666, having 
sixty -five members, divided into eleven sec- 
tions, and pubhshiug the results of its 
activity in a periodical "bulletin" and two 
series of memoirs ; and the Acadhnie des 
Sciences Morales et Folitiques, estabhshed 
by a decree of Louis-Phihppe, of Oct. 25, 
1832,_numbering thirty members, and divided 
into five sections,^philosophy, jurisprudence, 
political economy, historyj and moral philo- 
sophy. In 1803 the constitution of the 
society was changed j in 1806 the name was 



INT 

changed to Institute of Prance ; and in 1811 
to that of Imperial Institute. 

Insurance, or Assurance. — Some autho- 
rities are of opinion that it was introduced 
into Europe by the Jews, a.d. 1182 ; whilst 
others state that it arose in Lombardy about 
1280, and was brought to London about 
1350. The earliest ordinance respecting 
insurance is dated Barcelona, 1435. The 
next was published at Florence in 1523. 
The emperor Charles V. of Germany is- 
sued the " Carohne code" in 1551; his son, 
Phihp II., added a number of new decrees 
concernmg insurance in 1563 and 1565. The 
preamble to the first Enghsh statute on this 
subject (43 Ehz. c. 12), passed in 1601, states 
that insurance had been ' ' time out of mind 
an usage amongst merchants." Louis XIV. 
of France issued an ordinance on the subject 
in 1681. Dr. Barton set up the first insur- 
ance office against fire in 1696, afterwards 
called the Hand-in-Hand. The Amicable So- 
ciety General Insurance was estabhshed by 
charter in July, 1706 ; the Union Fire Office 
in 1714 ; and the Westminster Fire Office in 
1717. The first companies for marine in- 
surances, the Eoyal Exchange Insurance 
and the London Insurance, were estabhshed 
June 22, 1720. 

Interdict, (See Excommunication.) 

Interest, in use among the ancient 
Greeks, was restricted to 12 per cent, by 
a law of Solon, B.C. 550. It was regulated 
by law in India, B.C. 324, and was reduced 
to 4 per cent, at Eome, B.C. 29. It was pro- 
hibited by a law of Eichard I. a.d. 1197, 
but was apparently legal at the signing of 
Magna Charta, as it was then declared not 
payable by minors. It was again prohib- 
ited by 3 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1436), was fixed 
at 10 per cent, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 9 (1545), 
and was prohibited again by 5 & 6 Edw, VI. 
c. 20 (1552). Legal interest at 10 per cent, 
was restored by 13 Ehz. e. 8 (1570), and after 
undergoing successive reductions, was ulti- 
mately settled at 5 per cent, by 12 Anne, 
sess. 2, e. 16 (1713). All restrictions were 
repealed by 17 & 18 Vict, c, 90 (Aug. 10, 
1854). 

Interim. — Several decrees have been 
issued bearing this title. The first, pubhshed 
by the diet of Eatisbon, July 29, 1541, re- 
ferred the rehgious disputes of the Germans 
to the arbitration of a general council. The 
second, known as the Augsburg Interim, 
issued by Charles V., was read before the 
diet of Augsburg, May 15, 1548, and failed in 
its object of reeoncfiing the Eoman Catho- 
hcs and the Protestants, The Interim of 
Leipsic was promulgated by the elector 
Maurice of Saxony, Dec. 22, 1548, and was 
accepted by some Protestants. Charles 
and Maurice resorted to arms to support 
their respective decrees, and the empe- 
ror was compelled to revoke his interim 
in 1552. 

Interim Treaty. — This treaty between 
Austria and Prussia was signed Sept. 30, 

1849, but was not to take efiect till May 1, 

1850. Its object was the maintenance of 

437 



the Germanic confederatiorij and of the 
peace of Germany. 

Interlude. — ^A species of dramatic com- 
position between the moral plays and the 
modern drama, was, according to Disraeh 
(Amenities, i. 348), " called the interlude, 
ov & play betiveen, to zest by its pleasantry 
the intervals of a luxurious and sometimes 
a wearisome banquet. The most dramatic 
interludes were the invention of John Hey- 
wood, who flourished a.d. 1521 — 1565, the 
jester of Henry the Eighth." Heywood 
was in fact the inventor ot the interlude. 

Inteenational Coptkight. — The benefit 
of international copyright was secured to 
authors in certain cases by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 59 
(July 31, 1838), which was extended by 
15 Vict. c. 12 (May 28, 1852). A treaty on 
the subject was concluded with France 
in 1851, one was signed with the United 
States, Feb. 18, 1853, and with Hamburg 
in 1854. 

IlfTEEIfATIOirAL EXHIBITION OF 1862. — 

In 1858 it was resolved by the council of the 
Society of Arts that the holding of decennial 
industrial exhibitions would be of national 
benefit. Circulars were accordingly sent 
to the foreign exhibitors of 1851, to ascertain 
their views respecting a similar undertaking 
in 1861 ; but, in consequence of the ItaUan 
war, the Society of Arts, in June, 1859, passed 
a resolution for the postponement of the 
scheme. The sudden termination of the 
war induced them to resume their efforts, 
and the year 1862 was suggested as the date 
of the exhibition. In February, 1860, Prince 
Albert signified his desire to further the 
undertaking, and a guarantee fund was 
opened, which soon amoimted to £430,000. 
In June the commissioners of 1851 gave per- 
mission for the new building to be erected 
on the ground purchased with the surplus 
fund of the old exhibition, and in February' 
1861, the trustees were incorporated by 
charter, as the Eoyal Commissioners of the 
Exhibition of 1862. The building, designed 
by Captain Fowke, was commenced March 9, 
the contractors being bound to complete it by 
Feb. 12, 1862. Its principal front is of brick, 
1,200 feet long and 50 feet high. Brick 
wings recede at each end, between 500 and 600 
feet, and the parallelogram included between 
these erections forms the industrial exhi- 
bition, built of iron, wood, and glass. The 
immense domes at each end of the building 
measure 160 feet in diameter and 250 feet 
in height, being the largest structures of 
the kind in existence. Including the large 
wooden galleries forming the machine 
department, the Exhibition buildings cover 
an area of more than 25 acres. 

Intebeegnum. — This period lasted from 
the execution of Charles I. tOl the restoration 
of Charles II., being an interval of httle more 
than eleven years. On the king's execution, 
Jan. 30, 1649, a repubHc was proclaimed, 
which lasted tUl the expulsion of the parlia- 
ment by Cromwell, April 20, 1653, after which 
he exercised absolute power as lord-general. 
He surrendered his power to a convention 
438 



io?r 

appointed by himself, July 4, but was re- 
instated by them Dec. 12, and proclaimed 
lord-protector of the Commonwealth Dec. 16. 
A new settlement was adopted May 25, 1657, 
by which Cromwell received full powers to 
appoint his successor. He died Sept. 13, 
1658, and was succeeded by his son Kiehard, 
who resigned the protectorate in May, 1659. 
The regal authority was restored in the per- 
son of Charles II., May 29, 1660. 

Inteblocht (Battle). — The royaHst 
troops, commanded by the marquis of Mon- 
trose, defeated Argyle and the Covenanters 
at this place, in Scotland, Feb. 2, 1645. 

Invebness (Scotland) was one of the 
capitals of the Picts during the 6th century. 
Its first charter was granted by Malcolm Can- 
more, in 1067. Eobert Bruce captured it in 
1313, and Donald, Lord of the Isles, burned 
it in June, 1411. The bridge over the Ness 
was built in 1686 ; and the old castle was de- 
stroyed by the rebels in 1746. The town-haU 
was founded in 1708, and the assembly-rooms 
were erected in 1789. A disastrous earthquake 
occurred in 1816, and an inundation of the 
river Ness in 1848, which swept away the old 
bridge. The new suspension-bridge was 
opened in 1855. 

Investituee.— The whole right of inves- 
titure by the temporal sovereign was ab- 
rogated by a decree of Gregory VII. at a 
council held at Kome, Feb. 24-28, 1075. The 
decree deposed eYevj bishop, abbot, or infe- 
rior ecclesiastic who should receive investi- 
ture from any lay person. The claim led to 
many contests in Europe. The emperor 
Henry V. gave up the right of investiture 
in a treaty signed at Kome Feb. 12, 1111. 
Another dispute having arisen on the sub- 
ject, it was once more settled by the con- 
cordat of Worms, 1122, which was ratified 
by the Lateran coimcil in 1123. The 
Norman kings refused to concede the right, 
and Urban II. threatened excommunication. 
Anselm in vain attempted to persuade 
Henry I. to submit in 1103. At a council 
held at London, Aug. 1, 1107, it was agreed 
that bishops should do homage to the king, 
but not receive investiture from him. It led 
to frequent contests between the temporal 
and secular powers. 

Invocation op Saints. — The practice of 
imploring the intercession of the dead 
became general in the Eomish church during 
the 5th century. It is first enjoined in the 
canons of the EngMsh churches in the year 
994. 

Iodine. — This substance was discovered 
in 1811 by Courtois, a saltpetre manu- 
facturer at Paris, who described it to the 
Institute of Paris on the 6th of December, 
1813. It received its name from the Greek 
iwCijjg, violet-coloured, and has been suc- 
cessfully employed in the treatment of sev- 
eral diseases. 

loNA, Htrr, or IcoLMKiLL (Argyleshire) . — 
This island, one of the Hebrides, is cele- 
brated for the ruins of the cathedral, &c., 
founded by St. Columba a.d. 565. It was 



ION 

twice sacked by the Danes. In accordance 
with an act passed by the Scotch convention 
of estates in 1561, the ecclesiastical buildings 
on this island were destroyed. Shakespeare, 
referring to it as the ancient place of sepul- 
ture of the Scottish sovereigns, says that 
Duncan's body was 

" Carried to Colme-kill, 
The sacred storehouse of his predecessors. 
And guardian of their bones." 

Macbeth, ii. sc. 2. 

Ionia (Asia Minor). — This country is 
said to have been peopled by Greek colo- 
nists about B.C. 1044. After founding Colo- 
phon, Ephesus, MUetus, and other impor- 
tant cities, the lonians obtained possession 
of Smyrna about b.c. 700, and the country 
soon attained a high degree of prosperity. 
At the commencement of the reign of Croesus, 
B.C. 560, it was subject to the Lydians, but 
it was conquered by Cyrus B.C. 557. The 
inhabitants made unsuccessful efforts to 
regain their independence, B.C. 500 and 496, 
and they assisted the Greeks against the 
Persians at the battle of Mycale, b.c 479. 
The Persian yoke was at length shaken off 
by the battle of the Eurymedon {q.v.), but 
the peace of Antalcidas again imposed it 
upon the lonians, B.C. 387. On the destruc- 
tion of the Persian empire by Alexander, 
Ionia became subject to Macedonia, and 
afterwards formed part of the Eoman empire, 
B.C. 133. 

Ionian Islands (Mediterranean). — 
Cephalonia, Cerigo, Corfu, Ithaca, Paxo, 
Santa Maura, and Zante, with their depen- 
dencies, were erected into the republic of the 
Seven United Islands, March 21, 1800. It was 
to pay a moderate tribute to the Porte, and 
its independence was guaranteed by Turkey 
and Eussia. By the ninth article of the treaiy- 
of Amiens, March 25, 1802, Napoleon recog- 
nized this republic. The French captured 
them in 1807, and Eussia ceded them to 
France by a secret article of the treaty of 
Tilsit, July 7, 1807. The French garrisons 
surrendered to an English force in 1809, and 
by a treaty between Great Britain and 
Eussia, signed at Paris Nov. 5, 1815, they 
were formed into an independent state, 
called the United States of the Ionian Islands, 
under the protection of England. The 
Prince Eegent, afterwards Geo. IV., ratified 
their constitution July 11, 1817, and it was 
proclaimed Dec. 28. A university for 
this republic was founded at Corfu in 1823. 
In 1848 and 1849, Lord Seaton, the lord high 
commissioner, introduced numerous changes 
in the constitution ; a free press, vote by 
ballot, and a very extended suffrage, being 
among the number. In 1851 Greek be- 
came the official language of the Ionian 
government. In 1858, owing to the dissatis- 
faction of the inhabitants, Mr, Gladstone 
was despatched on a commission of inquiry. 
He arrived at Corfu Nov. 23. The legisla- 
tive assembly proposed the annexation of 
their repubhc to Greece, Jan. 27, 1859, and 
presented a petition to that effect, Jan. 30, 



IKE 

which Mr. Gladstone rejected Feb. 5. Gen- 
eral Sir H. Storks succeeded as lord high 
commissioner, Feb. 17, and Mr. Gladstone 
embarked for England Feb. 19. 

Ionic Sect. — This school of philosophers 
was founded by Thales of Miletus, who was 
born B.C. 635. His two cardinal doctrines 
were that the whole world is a living being, 
produced from a seed, and that water is the 
grand origin of all things. The succession 
of philosophers of this school is very in- 
definite. Anaximander, Anaximenes, and 
Heraclitus, are usually classed among its 
teachers. 

Iowa (United States). — The French set- 
tled in this part of America a.d. 1686. Iowa 
was made a separate territory in June, 1838, 
and was admitted into the Union Aug. 4, 
1846. 

Ipsus (Battle) .—Ptolemy Soter, Cassan- 
der, Lysimachus, and Seleucus Nicator, hav- 
ing entered into a confederacy against An- 
tigonus, their armies met at this village, in 
Phrygia, B.C. 301. Antigonus, who was in 
his eighty -first year, was defeated and slain. 

Ipswich (Suffolk) was pillaged by the 
Danes a.d. 991, and again in 1000. A 
hurricane destroyed many churches Jan. 1, 
1287. The grammar-school was founded in 
1527 ; the gaol was erected in 1790, and the 
Hall of Commerce in 1845. 

Ireland. — Its most ancient name is Eri, 
or Erin. The Greeks called it lerne, and 
the Saxons lerland, or Ireland. For several 
centuries, i.e. from the 2nd to the 10th, 
the island bore the name Scotia, and the 
inhabitants were called Scots. The term 
Hibernia came into use at a later date. No 
authentic records of its early history exist. 



2. Keign of Conary the Great. 
90. The Fir-Bolgs, or Belgse, inhabitants of great 
part of Ireland, revolt under Cairbre 
Cinncait, whom they raise to the throne. 
258. The Irish form a settlement in Argyleshire, 

Scotland. 
396. The Irish invade Britain, and cross over into 

Gaul. 
432. St. Patrick anives in Ireland. 
465. Death of St. Patrick. 

664. The Irish hospitably receive foreign students. 
684. Ecgfrid, king of Northumbria,invades Ireland. 
795. The Danes invade Ireland. 
844. The Danish chief Turgesius is slain, and his 
countrymen are expelled, but soon return. 
1014. April 23. Friday. Brian Born defeats the 
Danes at the great battle of Clontarf (q.v.).- 
1102. Magnus, king of Norway, invades Ii'eland, 

where he is defeated and slain. 
1154. Henry II. of England obtains from Pope 

Adrian IV. a grant of Ireland. 
1166. Dermot MacMurchad, king of Leinster, is 
expelled from his kingdom. 

1168. He flees to England, and receives a promise of 

assistance from Henry II. 

1169. May. The English, under Fitz-Stephen, in- 

vade Ireland. Aug. 24. Richard Strongbow, 
earl of Pembroke, lands near Waterford. 

1171, Death of Dermot, who is succeeded by 

Strongbow. Oct. 18. Henry n. lands at 
Croch, near Waterford. He receives the 
submission of the native pi-inces. 

1172. April 7. Henry returns to England. 

1175. Henry promulgates the bull of Pope Adrian. 
1177. May. Henry makes his son John lord of 
Ireland. 



lEE 



IRE 



1185. April 1. John arrives in Ireland, and ravages 

Ulster. 
1210. King John invades Ireland, and introduces 

English laws and usages. 
1254. Henry III. makes a giant of Ireland to his 

sou Edward, prince of Wales. 
1270. The natives rise in rehelliou, and massacre 

many English. 
1288. The "Statute for the state of Ireland" is 



Vere with the 



"Waterfovd with 
[ 30.000 archers. 



1295. The country is divided into counties. 

lolo. May 25. Edward Brace, brother of Robert 

Bruce of Scotland, invades Ireland, and 

is soon afterwarcs crowned king at Dun- 

dalk. 
1S18. Oct. 14. Edward Bruce Is defeated and slain 

near Dundalk. 
1329. Insurrections break out in the south of 

Ireland. 
1361. Lionel, duke of Clarence, arrives in Ireland 

as the king's deputy. 
1385. Eichard II. invests Robert 

sovereignty of Ireland. 

1394. Oct. 2. Richard II. lands f 

a force of 4,000 cavalry ai 

1395. March 10. The king of Tyrone and other 

northern chiefs do homage to Richard at 
Drogheda. March 25. The king kiiights 
many of the native noblemen at Dublin. 
He returns to England in the summer, 
leaviug Roger Mortimer as viceroy. 

1398. July 20. Mortimer is defeated and slain by 

the natives at Kealis, in Kilkenny. 

1399. June 1. Richard again lauds at Waterford. 
1455. Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, takes 

shelter in Ireland. 

1465. The parliament of Trim orders Irishmen 
living near English settlements to adopt 
English costumes and surnames, and passes 
au act to permit anybouy to kill thieves 
and robbers -vvithout trial, unless clad in 
English apparel. 

1472. The Brotherhood of St. George is instituted 
for the protection of the English in Ire- 
land. 

1486. May. A German force lands in Dublin to 
support the claims of Lambert Simnel, 
who is crowned king the next year. {See 
Dvsux.) 

1494. Sii- Edward Poynings obtains the passing 
of the act which bears his name. (See 
PoYiriiJGs' Act.) 

1528. O'Connor takes the lord-deputy prisoner. 

1534. June 11. Lord Thomas FitzGerald, earl of 
KUdare, rebels against Henry VIII. 

1536. Feb. 3. Execution of Lord Thomas at Tybum. 

1537. Henry endeavours to force Protestantism upon 

the Irish. 
1541. Henry assumes the title of Jcing of Ireland, 

former EngUsh sovereigns having governed 

as its lord. 
1546. Local jurisdictions are instituted, and native 

sheriffs appointed. 
1550. The French endeavour to obtain aid from 

Ireland against the Fnglish. 
1560. Shane O'Neill quarrels with the earl of 

Sussex, the lord-lieutenant. 
1567. O'Neill is mm-dered by the Scotch. 
1572. Sir Thomas Smith fails in an attempt to 

colonize parts of Ulster with EngUsh 

settlers. 

1579. The rebellion of FitzMauiice is suppressed, 

and its leader slain. 

1580. The fortress of Smerwick, garrisoned by 700 

Spaniards and ItaUaus, is taken by Lord 
Grey and Admiral Winter, who put the 
defenders to the sword. Sir Walter Puileigh 
conducted the massacre. 

1597. Revolt of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. 

1599. Sept. The earl of Essex concludes a truce 
with Tyi-one, and thereby iacurs the severe 
displeasure of Queen Elizabeth. 

1601. Tyrone receives assistance from Spain. 

1603. March 30. Tyrone tenders his submission, 
and receives a full pardon. 
440 



A.D. 

1605. Rom. Oath, priests are expelled from Ireland. 

1607. Tyrone goes to Rome, where he soon after- 

wards dies. James I. commences the set- 
tlement of Ulster iq.v.). 

1608. Sir Cahir O'Doherty's insun-ection is sup- 



1641. 

1649, 

1650. 

1651. 

1666. 
1689. 



1704. 
1711. 

1723. 
1740. 
1760. 



1761. 
1769. 
1778. 
1779. 
1782. 



1793! 
1795. 



Oct. 23. Commencement of the Ulster rebel- 
lion {g. v.). 

Aug. 15. Cromwell lands in Ireland. Sept. 11. 
He takes Drogheda {q. v.). 

May 29. Cromwell leaves Ireland under the 
government of Ireton. 

Oct. 29. Ireton takes Limerick, where he dies, 
Nov. 26. 

May. The garrison at Canickfergus mutinies. 
March 12. James II. lands at Kinsale. 
July 28. He attaints 3,000 Protestants. 

March 14. A French army, undtr Lauzun, 
lamis in Ireland. June 14. King Wil- 
liam III. lands at Carrickfergus. July 1. 
Battle of the Boyne (q. v.). July 4. James 
embarks for France. 

Oct. 3. The treaty of Limerick concludes the 
Irish war. 

March 4. The Popery Act against Roman 
Catholics is passed. 

Oct. The "houghers," under " Ever Joyce," 
commit great devastations among the cattle 
of the genti-y. 

Wood receives his patent for coining half- 
pence. (See Drapiek's Letteks.) 

The countrj is alarmed by the ravages of the 
Kelljonount gang of robbers. 

Feb. 21. Thurot's French invading squadron 
lands at Carrickfergus. He re-embarks 
Feb. 26. 

Oct. First appearance of the Whiteboys. 

The Steelboys' insurrection breaks out. 

The Roman Catholic Relief BUI is passed. 

Fi'ee trade is established in Ireland. 
Legislative independence is secured. {See 

PoYNKGs' Act.) 
The order of St. Patrick {q. v.) is foimded. 
The Genevese attempt to establish a colony 
in Waterford {See Gtsheva.) 

Restrictions are imposed on the license of the 
newspaper press. Rise of the Defenders 
and Peep-o'-Day-boys {q. v.). 

Rise of the Right-boys. 
The Society of the United Irishmen is 
founded. 

Apill 18. Arrest of Napper Tandy. 

Tandy escapes to America. 

Sept. 21. The first Oiange lodge is formed at 
Ai-magh. 

Dec. A French expedition, under Hoche and 
Wolfe Tone, fails in an attempt to land in 
Bant'y Bay. 

Lord Edward Fitzgerald's conspiracy. May 11. 
Government differs £1,000 for his apprehen- 
sion. May 19. He is arrested at Dublin. 
May 93. Insunection breaks out in Dublin 
and the provinces. June 4 Death of Lord 
Edward in prison. Sept. 16. Napper Tandy 
lands with a French force at Rutland, 
whence he re embarks for Norway the same 
day. Nov. 10. Trial and capital sentence 
of Wolfe Tone, who avoids the sentence 
of the law by suicide. 

The rebellion gradually subsides, having cost 
the lives of 50,000 Ii-ishmen and 20,000 
English soldiers. 

Jan. 16. The Irish parliament sanctions 
the ministerial scheme of a legislative 
union with England. July 2. The Act of 
Union receives the royal assent (39 & 40 
Geo. III. c. 67). 

Jan. 1, The union is effected. 

July 23. Robert Emmett's insurrection breaks 
out. Aug. 25. Emmett is arrested. Sept. 19. 
He is tried. Sept. 20. And executed. 

A gang of rioters, known as the Threshers, do 
great injury to tithe corn. 

Aug. 8. The repeal a^tation commences at 
Dublin. 



lEE 



IRE 



1811. 
1815. 
1821. 



1829. 
1832. 



1843. 
1844. 



Dec. 26. Daniel O'Connell originates the 

Roman Catholic Board. 
Insurrectionary movements occur in Tip- 
perary. 

Aug. 11 to Sept. 16. George IV. visits Ireland. 
Diu'ing the last three months of the year 
the country is disturbed by terrible out- 
rages, which occur chiefly in the counties 
of Limerick, Mnyo, Tipperary, and Cavan. 

Whiteboy outrages- are very frtquent, and 
tlie failiu'e of the potato crop causes a 
famine. 

June 27. The cun-ency is assimilated with 
that of Great Britain by 6 Geo. IV. c. 79. 

April 13. The Roman Catholic Emancipation 
Bill is passed (10 Geo. IV. <;. 7). 

Aug. 7. The Irish Reform Bill is passed (2 & 3 

Will IV. c. 88). 
July 31. The first Irish Poor Law Bill is 
passed ( 1 & 2 Vict. c. 56). 

Jan. 1. Murder of Lord Norbnry. 
March 16. The first of the great repeal 
meetings assembles at Trim. 

Jan. lo— Feb. 12. Trial of Daniel O'Connell 
and others at Dublm for sedition. He is 
foimd guQty, and sentenced to a year's 
imprisonment, and a tine of £2,000. 

Sept. 23. The Irish National Board of Educa- 
tion is established. Tlie laUure of the 
potato crop occasions another famine, and 
government expends more than £850,000 
in the relief of the suflerers. The country 
is in a very unsettled state. 

April. Food riots occur in Tipperary. April 30. 
JNlr. Smith O'Brien is committed to the 
custody of the sergeant -at -arms, for a 
breach of parliamentary order. July 29. 
Smith O'Brien secedes fi-om the Repeal 
Association. 

Jan. and Feb. Great destitution prevails. 
Feb. 26. The Temporary Relief Act is 
passed. March 24. A general fast is ob- 
served, in conseiiuence of the Irish famine. 
May 15. Death of Daniel O'Connell, at 
Genoa. The relief afforded to Ireland by 
government amounts to £10,000,000. 

The French revolution this year creates 
intense excitement in Ireland. April 3. 
Smith O'Brien hi-ads a deputation of Irish 
malcontents to Paris, where he Is cooUy 
received. May 13. John Mitchell is ar- 
rested. May26. He is sentenced to fourteen 
years' transportation. July 26. The Habeas 
Corpus act is suspended. July 29. Smith 
O'Brien's rebellion is suppressed by the 
police. Aug. 5. He is arrested at Thui-les. 
Aug. 12. AiTest of Meagher and others. 
Oct. 9. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and o hers 
are found guilty and condemned to death, 
but receive a commutation of sentence. 

July 9. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, McMamos, 
and others, are transported. July 12. A 
fatal affray between Roman Catholics and 
Orangemen occurs at Dolly's Brae. Aug. 1. 
The Queen visits Ireland. Oct. 25. The court 
for the sale of encumbered estates com- 
mencts its operations in Dublin {see Esr- 
ctiMBERED Estates Act). Towards the end 
of the year rent riots become vei-y common. 

March 12. Party processions are prohibited 
by 13 Vict. c. 2. Numerous murders of 
landlords by discontented tenants occur 
this year. 

March 30. The census of Great Britain and 
D'eland is taken. The population of Ireland 
is returned at 6,515,794. April 22. The Ro- 
man Cattiolic Defence Association is formed 
in Dnblin. May 5. Measures are com- 
menced for the establishment of a Roman 
Catholic university. May 25. The Right 
Hon. Richai'd Lalor Shell dies at Florence. 
June 5. McManus, having escaped from 
transportation, arrives at San Francisco. 
July 14. A monster meeting of the Irish 
Teuant League is held on the battle-field of 
the Boyne. 



1851. Aug. 1. The Dublin and Galway Railway is 

opened. 

1852. Jan. 1. The statutes of the synod of Thurles, 

prohibiting the Roman Catholic clergy 
from holding office in the Queen's col- 
leges, are iJublished. May 25. The escaped 
convict Meagher arrives at New York. 
June 1. Ireland is connected with Eng- 
land by submarine telegraph. June 10. 
The Cork exhibition is opened. June 24. 
Mr. Dargan originates the Dublin exhi- 
bition. {See Dublin I>-dustriai, Exhi- 
BrriON.) July 3. The magistrates disperse 
a great Tenant-right meeting at Warring- 
ton. July 14. Religious riots occur at 
Belfast. July 22. The Six-mile Bridge 
affair. {See Six-mile Bmdge.) Sept. 10. A 
meeting for the establishment of religious 
equality in Ireland is held at Dublin, by 
Irish members of parliament. 

1853. June 9. The convict Mitchell escapes from 

Van Diemen's Land. June 28. The income- 
tax is extended to Ireland by 16 & 17 Vict. 
c. 34. Aug. 29. The Queen visits Ireland. 
Oct. 4. The Tenant-right League holds a 
conference at Dublin. Nov. 2. Serions 
floods occur in the south of Ireland. Ex- 
tensive emigi-ation from D-eland takes 
place this year. 

1854. Feb. 26. Smith O'Brien receives a pardon, but 

is not permitted to return to the United 
Kingdom. Sept. 15. A railway train, in 
which a party of Orangemen is travelling 
from Londonderry to Euniskillen, is thrown 
off the line by obstructions placed there 
for the purpose : fortunately but few casu- 
alties are occasioned. 
185.5. Numerous murders occur this year. 

1856. May 3. Smith O'Brien receives a full 

pardon. July 7. Mutiny of the Tipperary 
militia. 

1857. Sept. Religious riots again occur at Belfast. 

1858. Aug. 8. Riots in Ealkenny, against the use 

of machine labour in agriculture. Sept. 
Destructive inundations occui- in many 
parts of Ireland. Dec. 12. Several an-ests 
of persons suspected of being members of 
the Phosnix Society take place at Belfast. 
Numerous assassinations and outrages occur 
this year. 

1859. March 7. Baron Poerio and other Neapolitan 

refugees arrive in Ireland. March 29. 
Religious riots in Galway. Sept. Religious 
revivals are common in the north of 
Ireland. 
1861. April 8. The census is taken, and the popu- 
lation returned at 5,764,543 persons. Aug. 
22 to 29. The Queen and Prince Albert visit 
Ireland. 

liOEDS-LIETTTENANT. 

During the earKer periods of its subjee- 
tion to English rule, Ireland was governed 
by officers of various titles, and most fre- 
quently by a lord chief justice. The fol- 
lowing is a Kst of the lords-Meutenant : — 



1185. Sept. John de Coui-cy, earl of Ulster. 

1252. Eaward, prince of Wales, afterwards Ed- 
ward I. 

1308. Jime 16. Pierce de Gaveston, earl of Corn- 
wall. 

1329. March 1. James Botiller, earl of Ormond. 

1331. June 3. Sir Anthony Lacy. 

1361. July 1. Lionel, duke of Clarence. 

1369. June 20. Sir William de Windsor. 

1380. Jan. 24. Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 

1382. Jan. 24. Roger Mortimer, earl of March. 

1383. Phmp de Courtney. 

1384. Dec. Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford (never 

went to Ireland). 
1389. Aug. 1. Sir John Stanley. 

441 



lEE 



1393. July. Thomas, duke of Gloucester (never went 

to Ireland). 
1395. July 4. Eoger Mortimer, earl of March. 

1398. Oct. 7. Thomas Holland, duke of Surrey. 

1399. Dec. 10. Sii- John Stanley. 

1401. Nov. 13. Thomas, duke of Lancaster. 

1413. Sept. 25. Sir John Stanley. 

1414 Nov. 10. Sir John Talbot. 

1420. Feb. 10. James Butler, earl of Ormond. 

1423. May 9. Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 

1427. Aug. 1. Sii- John de Grey. 

1429. Jan. Sir- John Sutton, Lord Dudley. 

1432. Sir- Thomas Stanley. 

1438. Lionel, Lord Wells (never went to Ireland). 

1443. James Butler, earl of Shrews Otut- 

1446. John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury. 

1449. July 5. flichard Phintagenet, duke of York. 

1453. May 1. James Butler, earl of Ormond. 

1459. Richard, duke of York (again). 

1462. Feb. 28. George, duke of Clarence. 

1478. Prince George, son of Edward IV. 

1478. May 5. Eichard, duke of York. 

1483. Prince Edward. 

1484. John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 

1485. Jasper of Hatfield, earl of Pembroke and 

duke of Bedford. 
1494. Sept. 11. Henry, duke of York, afterwards 

Henry VIII. 
1496. Aug. 6. Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
1498. Prince Henry (again). 
1520. Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 
1529. June 22. Henry Fitzi-oy, duke of Richmond. 
1560. May 6. Thomas, earl of Sussex. 
1599. March 12. Robert Devereujc, earl of Essex. 
1603. April 25. Sir Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy. 

1640. Jan. 13. Thomas Wentworth, earl of Straflbrd. 

1641. May 12. Robert Sidney, earl of Leicester. 
1643. Nov. 17. James Butler, marquis of Ormond. 

1647. April 15. Philip Sidney, Lord Lisle. 

1648. Sept. 27. James, marquis of Ormond (again). 

1649. Aug. 14. Oliver Cromwell. 
1658. Oct. 6. Henry Cromwell. 

1660. June. George Monk, duke of Albemarle. 
1662. Feb. 21. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 

1669. May 3. John Roberts, baron of Truro. 

1670. Feb. 4. John, Lord Berkeley. 

1672. May 21. Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 
1677. May 24. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 

1685. Oct. 1. Henry Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 

1686. Feb. 11. Richai-d Talbot, earl of Tyrconuel. 
1690. Sept. 4. Henry, Lord Sydney. 

169.5. May 3. Henry, Lord Capel. 

1700. Dec. 28. Lawrence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 

1703. Feb. 19. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 

1707. April 30. Thomas Herbert, earl of Pembroke. 

1708. Dec. 4. Thomas, Earl Wharton. 

1710. Oct. 26. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 

1713. Sept. 22. Charles Talbot, duke of Shrewsbury. 

1714. Sept. 21. Charles Spencer, earl of Sunderland 

(never went to Ireland). 
1717. Feb. 13. Charles, Viscount Townshend (never 

went to Ireland). 
1717. AprU 27. Charles, duke of Bolton. 
1720. June 18. Charles Fitzroy, duke of Grafton. 
1724. May 6. John, Lord Cartaret. 
1730. June 23. Lionel Cranfield Sackville, duke of 

Dorset. 
1737. April 9. William Cavendish, duke of Devon- 

shii'e. 
1745. Jan. 3. Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of 

Chesterfield. 
1747. Sept. 13. William, earl of Harrington. 
1750. Dec. 15. Lionel Cranfield SackviUe, daike of 

Dorset. 
1755. April 2. William, Lord Cavendish. 
1757, Jan. 3. John Russell, duke of Bedford. 
1761. April 3. George Dunk, earl of Halifax. 
1763. April 27. Sir Hugh Smithson Percy, after- 
wards earl of Northumberland. 
1765. Jime 5. Thomas, Viscount Weymouth (never 

went to Ireland). 

1765. Aug. 7. Francis Seymom-, earl of Hertford. 

1766. Oct. 6. George WiUiam Harvey, earl of 

Bristol (never went to Ireland). 

1767. Aug. 19. George, Lord Viscount Townshend. 
442 



lEO 

AJ). 

1772. Oct. 30. Simon, Earl Harcourt. 
1777. Jan. 25. John Hobart, earl of Buckingham. 
1780. Dec. 23. Frederick Howard, earl of Carlisle. 
1782. AprU 14. William Henry Cavendish Bentinck, 
duke of Portland. 

1782. Sept. 15. George, Earl Temple. 

1783. June 3. Robert Harley, earl of Northington. 

1784. June 3. Charles Mamiers, duke of Rutland. 
1787. Dec. 16. George, marquis of Buckingham^ 

late Earl Temple (again). 
1790. Jan. 5. John Fane, earl of Westmoreland. 
1795. Jan. 4 WUliam, Earl Fitzwilliam. 
1795. March 3. John Jeflries Pratt, Earl Camden. 
1798. June 20. Charles, Marquis ComwaUis. 
1801. May 25. Philip Yorke, earl of Hardwicke. 

1806. March 28. John Bussell, duke of Bedford. 

1807. AprU 19. Charles Lenox, duke of Richmond. 
1813. Aug. 26. Earl Whitworth. 

1817. Oct. 9. Earl Talbot. 

1821. Dec. 19. Marquis WeUesley. 

1828. March 1. Marquis of Anglesea. 

1829. March 6. Duke of Northumberland. 

1830. Dec. 23. Marquis of Anglesea (agaui). 

1833. Sept. 26. Marquis WeUesley (again). 

1834. Dec. 29. Earl of Haddington. ' 

1835. April 23. Marquis of Normanby. 
1839. AprU 3. Earl Fortescue. 

1841. Sept. 15. Earl de Grey. 
1844 July 26. Baron Heytesbury. 

1846. July 11. Earl of Bessborough. 

1847. May 26. Earl of Clarendon. 

1852. Feb. 27. Earl of Eglinton. 

1853. Jan. 4. Earl of St. Gennans. 
1855. Feb. 28. Earl of Carlisle. 

1858. March 12. Earl of EgUnton (again). 

1859. June 18. Earl of Carlisle (again). 

Ieidittm:.— This metal was discovered by 
Mr. Smitlison Tennant, a.d. 1803. 

lEOif. — Tubal Cain is spoken of as the 
"instructor of every artificer in brass or 
iron," B.C. 3204 (Gen. iv. 22). The manu- 
facture of the metal was practised by the 
Egyptians about B.C. 1706, and the ore was 
discovered on Mount Ida, by the Dactyli, 
about B.C. 1406. The Komans were ac- 
quainted with iron at an early date, and 
derived large quantities from Elba and 
Spain. Its manufacture was encouraged 
by them iu Britain, where iron-mines were 
ia operation B.C. 54. Bath became the 
great centre of the British manufacture 
about A.D. 120. The exportation of iron 
was prohibited by 28 Edw. III. c. 5 (1354), 
and the importation of manufactured iron 
goods which could be made at home waa 
restricted by 1 Eich. III. c. 12 (1483) . In 
consequence of the destruction of forests to 
obtain fuel for the manufacture, the erec- 
tion of iron-works was restricted by 23 Eliz. 
c. 5 (1581) . Lord Dudley obtained a patent 
for carrying on the manufacture with coal 
instead of wood in 1619 ; but owing to the 
opposition of other iron-masters, and the 
indifference of the government, he was 
unable to bring his invention to perfec- 
tion, and at his death it was forgotten. It 
was revived and successfully introduced at 
Colebrook Dale by Darby in 1713. Cort's 
patent for rolling iron was dated Jan. 17, 
1783, and for puddling, Eeb. 13, 1784. 
The hot-blast was discovered by NeUson 
in 1827. Bessemer's process for convert- 
ing crude iron into manufactured iron and 
steel without fuel, created great sensation 
in 1856, but did not fulfil the expectations 



lEO 

of its inventor. The following table exhibits 
the total produce of the various English iron- 
mines in 1858 : — 



South Staflfordshire and Worcestershire . . 597,809 

Durham 265,184 

Yorkshire (North Ridiiig) 189,320 

North Staffordshii-e 135,308 

Derbyshire 131.577 

Shropshire 101,016 

Yorkshire (West Riding) 85,936 

Northumberland 45,312 

Cumberland 26,264 

Gloucestershii-e 23,530 

Northamptonshire 9,750 

Lancashire 2,840 

Wiltshire and Somerset 2,040 

Scotland 925,500 

South Wales 886,478 

North Wales 28,150 

3,456,014 



Ikon Cage. — Louis XI. vras betrayed at 
Peronne, Oct. 10, 1468, by the Cardinal de 
la Balue, whom he had raised from a low 
condition, to Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 
and was compelled to sign an ignominious 
treaty, Oct. 14. On discovering his treachery, 
in 1469, Louis XI. coniined him for ten years 
in an iron cage eight feet square, in the 
Chateau d'Ouzain, near Blois. This piin- 
ishment was at that time common in Spain 
and Italy. For Bajazet'a confinement in a 
similar manner, see Angoea. 

iKOif Ceown of Lombaedy consisted of 
a band of gold, set with jewels and a thin 
circle of iron, which was said to have been 
made from a nail of the Holy Cross, given 
by Pope Gregory I. ; was first used in the 
coronation of Agilulph, king of the Lom- 
bards, A.D. 591, and afterwards in the coro- 
nation of Charlemagne in 774. It was used 
at the coronation of thirty-four sovereigns. 
Napoleon I. was crowned at Milan with this 
crown. May 26, 1805, when he instituted the 
order of the Iron Crown. It ceased in 1814, 
but was renewed by the emperor Francis of 
Austria, Feb. 12, 1816. 

Ieon- Mask, (the Man with the,) 
was a mysterious state prisoner in France, 
who always wore a black velvet mask, 
which completely concealed his face. He 
was at first coimned at Pignerol in 1662 
or 1666 ; he was removed to Exelles in 1681 ; 
to the island of St. Marguerite in 1687 ; and 
finally, in 1698, to the Bastille, where he died 
Nov. 19, 1703. He was everywhere attended 
by M. de St. Mars ; and although the slight- 
est attempt on his part to reveal his real 
name would have met with instant death, 
he was uniformly treated with the greatest 
courtesy and indulgence. Various attempts 
have been made to ascertain the identity of 
the man with the iron mask, but without 
success. Some afifirm that ,he was the duke 
of Vernandois, a natural brother of the 
dauphin. Voltaire pubhshed an aceoimt of 
him in 1751. In 1759 it was announced that 
he was the dulce of Beaufort ; and in 1768 
St. Foix suggested that he was the duke 
of Monmouth, who had been executed in 



ISA 

England. In 1770 he was identified with 
Count Mathioli, secretary to the duke of 
Mantua ; and shortly afterwards he was 
reported to be an illegitimate son of Anne 
of Austria by Cardinal Mazarin or the duke 
of Buckingham. The last theory on the 
subject appeared in 1837, and suggested 
that he was the statesman Foucquet, whose 
death was beheved to have occurred just 
before the mysterious prisoner arrived at 
Pignerol. He has also been considered as 
a twin brother of Louis XIV. 

Ieonmongers' Company. — This, the tenth 
of the twelve chief companies of London, 
was incorporated by Edward IV. a.d. 1463. 
The hall was erected from the designs of 
Thomas Holden in 1748. 

Ieok Ships.— In 1833 and 1834 two iron 
steamers were built by Mr. Fairbairn, of 
Manchester, for passenger traffic on the 
Humber ; and in 1836 iron-shipbuilding 
yards were opened at Millwall, on the Thames. 
In 1837 the General Steam Navigation Com- 
pany started the Hainbow, an iron vessel 
built by Mr. Laird, of Deptford, and the 
material has since been adopted in the 
construction of ships, and generally steam 



Ieeigation. — Brande states, " It is as 
old as human civilization, and some of the 
first machines which we read of in history 
are those for raising water from the Nile 
for irrigating the lands on its banks." So 
celebrated was Egypt for its fertility, that 
Abraham during a famine went there to 
procure corn, B.C. 1920 (Gen. xii. 10). The 
Spaniards were surprised at the canals and 
subterraneous aqueducts on a large scale 
which they found in Peru when they con- 
quered it in the 17th century. {See Canals, 
&c.) 

Iextk (Battle). — The British Auxihary 
Legion defeated the Carhst forces at this 
town, in Spain, May 17, 1837. Irun was 
captured and pillaged. 

Ievingites. — This sect was founded by 
the Kev. Edward Irving, who was born 
A.D. 1792, and joined the Scotch church in 
1819. In 1821 he removed to London, and 
created a great sensation by his preaching 
at Cross Street, Hatton Garden ; and in 
1825 he pubhshed " Babylon Foredoomed," 
and appeared as the founder of a new 
theological school. The first utterances of 
the "unknown tongue" in London were 
heard in 1830 ; and in 1833 Mr. Irving was 
expelled from the Scottish church for he- 
resy. He immediately established a church 
in Newman Street, and died Dec. 8, 1834. 
In 1835 the sect numbered seven congrega- 
tions in London ; and in 1838 the apostles, 
as certain of the new hierarchy were called, 
visited the continent vrith a view of diffus- 
ing their doctrines. The Hturgy of the sect 
was framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1847 ; 
and in 1852 Ughted candles and incense were 
prescribed as essential parts of the ritual. 
The church in Gordon Square was erected 
in 1853. 

Isabella (Hayti) .—Christopher Columbus 



ISA 

founded tMs city, named after the queen of 
Spain, A.D. 1493. It was abandoned when 
St. Domingo rose to importance. 

Isabella, St. (Order of). — This order of 
knighthood was founded by Ferdinand Vll. 
of Spain, March 24, 1815, and put xmder the 
patronage of St. Isabella of Portugal. 

IsAUEiA (Asia Minor) . — This country was 
invaded by the Eomans b.c. 78, and reduced 
to submission. The inhabitants afforded an 
asylum to the emperor Zeno during his exile 
from Constantinople, a.d. 475, and rebelled 
against Anastasius I. ia 493. Isauria was 
conquered by the Saracens in 650, but it was 
recovered by Leo III., the Iconoclast, who 
foimded the Isaurian dynasty of eastern em- 
perors, which lasted from 717 to 797. 

IscHiA (Mediterranean Sea) . — This island, 
which belongs to Naples, was colonized at a 
very early period by Eretrian and Chalcidian 
settlers, and by the SyracusansB.c. 474; but 
it was deserted in consequence of a violent 
eruption of Mount Epopeus, B.C. 470. Ischia 
was seized by the Saracens a.d. 813 and 847. 
It was sacked by the troops of Pisa in 1135, 
became the seat of a bishopric before 1179, 
and was taken by the emperor Heury VI. in 
1191. The last volcanic eruption took place 
in 1302. In 1495 Ferdinand II. sought refuge 
here from his rival Charles YIII. ; and, in 
1544, the island was plundered by the pirate 
Barbarossa. The duke of Guise seized it in 
1647 ; and it was taken by the Enghsh and Si- 
cilians in 1807. Ischia suffered severely from 
an earthquake Feb. 2, 1828. 

IsEENiA (Battle). — The Neapolitan forces 
were defeated by the Sardinians under Cial- 
dini, at this place, the ancient ^sernia, in 
South Italy, Oct. 17, 1860. 

Isle op Maw (Irish Channel) was governed 
by a succession of Norwegian kings, a.d. 1092 
till A.D. 1264, and was invaded by Alexander 
III., king of Scotland, in 1266, and the con- 
quest by the Scots was completed in 1270. 
They ruled it until 1290, when the inhabitants 
claimed the protection of Edward I., who 
immediately took possession. It was reco- 
vered by the Scots, under Eobert Bruce, in 
1332, and reconquered by the earl of Shaftes- 
bury in 1340. Henry lY . granted it to Sir John 
Stanley in 1403. James I. bestowed it upon 
WOham, sixth earl of Derby, in 1610. It fell, 
iu 1736, by inheritance, to James, second duke 
of Athol, who sold it for £70,000 to the British 
government, in 1765. A further sum of 
£133,000 was paid to the Athol family in dis- 
charge of revenue, in January, 1829. 

Isle of Palms (Pacific Ocean). — This 
island, situated in Choco Bay, was discovered 
by Pizarro a.d. 1527. 

Isle oe Pines (Pacific Ocean). — The 
French took possession of this small island 
A.D. 1853. 

Isles, (See of the,) which comprised the 
Hebrides and the Isle of Man, was erected 
a.d. 360, Amphibalus being the first bishop. 
lona {q. v.) was the seat of the bishopric, 
and the priests formed an important section 
of the church of the Culdees (q. v.)' This see, 
with the other Scotch bishoprics, was sup- 
444 



ISE 

pressed on the abolition of prelacy in Scot- 
land, July 19, 1689. Argyle and the isles 
were united into a distinct post-revolution 
bishopric in September, 1847. 

Islington (London). — This large parish 
is mentioned in Domesday -book as the vil- 
lage of Isendone. It was the scene of the 
arrest of Henry VI. by the earl of Warvrick 
A.D. 1465, and was frequently visited by 
Henry VIII., who pubhshed a proclamation 
for the preservation of the game here, July 8, 
1545. Queen Elizabeth also frequently visited 
the village. In 1666 its fields afforded shelter 
to about 200,000 persons, who were rendered 
houseless by the Great Fire. The first stone 
of St. Mary's Church was laid Aug. 28, 1751, 
and that of the New Independent College at 
Highbury, June 28, 1825. The Ishngton 
Literary and Scientific Society was esta- 
bhshed in February, 1833, and the building 
founded April 10, 1837. The new cattle- 
market was opened Jan. 9, 1849. The fii'st 
stone of the new buildings was laid March, 
1854, and they were opened June 13, 1855. 

IsLT (Battle) .—The French defeated the 
army of the emperor of Morocco at My, 
Aug. 14, 1844. 

Ismail (Moldavia). — This strongly-forti- 
fied town was taken by the Eussians Aug. 6, 
1770; Suwarrow stormed it Dec. 22, 1790, 
when a barbarous massacre of the inhabitants 
was perpetrated ; and it was again taken by 
the Eussians Sept. 26, 1809. It was finally 
ceded to Eussia at the peace of Bucharest, 
May 28, 1812. It was ceded to Moldavia 
by the 20th and 21st articles of the treaty 
of Paris, March 30, 1856. The Eussians 
blew up the fortifications before retiring. 

Ispahan, or Isfahan (Persia), formerly 
the capital, was taken by Timour a.d. 1387. 
The Turks captured it in 1547. Shah Abbas 
made it the capital of Persia in 1590. The 
Affghans seized it in 1722 ; it was retaken 
by Nadir Shah in 1727, and ceased to be the 
residence of the kings of Persia in 1794. 
Ispahan was devastated by an earthquake 
July 11, 1853. 

IsEAEL. — On the revolt of the ten tribes 
(1 Kings xii. 1 — 19), B.C. 975, the Jevrish 
territory was divided into the kingdoms of 
Israel and Judah. The kingdom of Israel 
lasted from b.c. 975 imtil the captivity of 
the ten tribes, B.C. 721. Some authorities 
assign the revolt of the ten tribes to B.C. 990. 
{See Jews and Judah.) 



974. Jeroboam I. sets \ip golden calves at Dan and 

Bethel (1 Kings xii. 28, 29). 
956. Ahijah denounces Jeroboam (1 Kings xiv. 7, 

&c.). 
953. Nadab is slain (1 Kings xv. 27). 
940. The king of Syria invades Israel (2 Chron. 

xvi. 4). 
929. Confusion prevails in Israel (1 Kings xvi. 

9-20). 
918. Jericho is rebuilt (1 Kings xvL 34). 
910. Elijah destroys the priests of Baal (1 Kings 

xviii. 40). 
901. Miraculous defeat of the Sviians (1 Kings xx.). 
895. Elijah is translated (2 Kings ii. 11). 
894 EUsha heals Naaman (2 Kings v. 14). 
893. Elisha performs various miracles. 



ISS 



892. The king of Syria besieges Samaria (2 Kings 

vi. 24). 
891. Elisha restores the Shunamite's son (2 Kings 

iv. 32—35). 
885. Hazael kills the king of Syria (2 Kings viii.lS). 
862. Jonah goes to Nineveh {Jonah i. 2 ; ii. 2 — 4). 
849. Israel is oppressed by the king of Syria 

{2 Kings xiii. 3). 
842. Israel is delivered from the Syrian oppression 

(2 Kings xiii. 5). 
838. Death of Elisha. Moabite invasion. 
822. Jeroboam TI. restores th9 coasts of Israel 

(2 Kings xiv. 25). 
793. Amos denounces the wickedness of Israel and 

other nations. 
784. Death of Jeroboam IT., followed by an inter- 
regnum of eleven years' duration. 
771. Pul, king of Assyiia, assails Israel (2 Kings 

XV. 19). 
740. Tiglath-Pileser carries off several Israelitish 

tribes into captivity (2 Kings xv. 29). 
725. The captivity of the ten tribes is predicted. 
723. Samaria is besieged by Salmaneser (2 Kings 

xviii. 9). 
721. The ten tribes are carried into captivity in 

Assyria (2 Kings xvil- 6). 

KINGS OP ISEAEIi. 





Authorized 








Version of 


Clinton. 


"Winer. 




Bng. Bible. 








B.C. 


B.C. 


B.C. 


Jeroboam I. ... 


975 


976 


975 


Nadab 


954 
953 


955 
954 


954 


Baasha 


9.53 


Elah 


930 
929 
929 
918 


930 
930 
930 
919 




Zimri 


928 






Ahab 


918 


Ahaziah 


898 


896 


897 


Jehoram 


896 






Jehu 


884 
856 


855 


884 


Jehoahaz 


856 


Jehoash 


841 




840 


Jeroboam II 


825 


823 


825 


1st Interregnum 








Zachariah 


773 


771 


772 


Shallum 


772 


770 


771 


Menahem 


772 


770 


771 


Pekahiah 


761 


759 


760 


Pekah 


759 


757 


758 


2nd Interregnum 








Hoshea 


730 


730 


729 


Samaria taken .. 


721 


721 


721 



Issus (Battles). — Alexander the Great 
defeated the Persians, led by Darius, near 
this city, in CQicia, in October, b.c. 333. 
Arrian states that 110,000 Persians fell in 

this battle. The emperor Severus defeated 

Niger at the same place a.d. 194. Hera- 

chus pitched his camp on this spot a.d. 622. 

IsTALiF (Affghanistan) . — This town was 
captured and destroyed by an EngUsh army 
Sept. 29, 1842. 

Isthmian- Games are said to have been 
instituted by Sisyphus, brother of Athamas, 
king of Corinth, B.C. 1326, and re-organized by 
Theseus, b.c. 1234. They were held regularly 
every third year from b.c. 584, and in the 
Isthmian solemnities, B.C. 228, the Komans 
were privileged to take a part. They were 
discontinued after the destruction of Corinth 
by Lucius Mummius, B.C. 146, and were re- 
established by Julius Caesar B.C. 60. They 



ITA 

finally ceased after the sack of Corinth by 
Alaric, king of the Goths, a.d. 396. 

IsTEiA, or HiSTEiA.— The inhabitants of 
this Adriatic peninsula are referred to by Livy 
as having been engaged in piracy, b.c. 301. 
Their territory was invaded without success 
by the consul M. Claudius MarceUus, B.C. 
183 ; but it was reduced to subjection by 
C. Claudius, b.c. 177. Istria subsequently 
passed under the domination of the Heruli, 
A.D. 476 ; of the Ostrogoths in 489 ; of the 
Greek empire in 522 ; of the Lombards in 
751 ; and of Charlemagne in 774. In 997 it 
formed a league with the towns of Dalmatia 
against the pirates of IJiTarenta ; and in 1420 
it was annexed to the territories of the 
Venetian republic. It was annexed to 
Austria by the treaty of Campo-Formio, 
Oct. 17, 1797 ; formed part of the kingdom 
of Italy in 1806 ; was declared an integral 
portion of the French empire by the treaty 
of Schcenbrunn, Oct. 10, 1809 ; and was 
ultimately restored to Austria by the treaty 
of Paris, May 30, 1814, and the congress of 
Vienna in 1815. 

Italian Eepttblic. — This title was given 
to the Cisalpine EepubUc, Jan. 25, 1802, 
when Napoleon Bonaparte was elected pre- 
sident for ten years. A new kingdom of 
Italy was erected March 18, 1805. 

Italy. — The etymology of the name Italia 
is very doubtful, some authorities deriving it 
from a mythical (Enotrian or Pelasgic chief 
called Italus, and others from an old Greek 
word signifying an ox, and applied to the 
country to indicate the numerous herds of 
cattle by which it was tenanted. Originally 
only the southern point of the peninsida was 
so distinguished. 



The mythic reign of Saturn is said to com- 
mence about this year. 

A colony of Arcadians, under CEnotrus, settle 
in Italy, and found the state of ODnotria, 
or Magna Grsecia (q. v.). 

A Pelasglan colony crosses from Greece into 
Italy. 

Evander conducts a band of Arcadian colo- 
nists into Italy. 

Reign of Latinus in Italy. 

JEneas arilves in Italy, and founds the city of 
Laviuium, which he makes his capital. 

Ascanius builds Alba Longa (q. v.). 

Tiberinus, king of Alba Longa, being defeated 
on the banks of the river Albula, drowns 
himself in its stream, which is named Tiber 
in consequence. 

April 21. Romulus founds Rome (q. v.). 



1240. 
1181. 



Odoacer abolishes the "Western empire, and 
founds the Gothic kingdom of Italy. 

The Lombards appear in Italy. 

The Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, seize Italy. 

March 5. Assassination of Odoacer. 

Justinian lays claim to Italy, and declares 
war against Theodatus, its Gothic sove- 
reign. 

The Franks appear in Italy. 

Italy is subjected to the Eastern empire by 
Belisarius. 

The Goths rcTOlt under Totila. 

July. Totila is defeated and slain by Narses 
at Tagina. 

Narses completes the overthrow of the Gothic 
monarchy in Italy, and establishes the 
exarchate of Ravenna. 

445 



ITA 



570. Alboin founds the kingdom of the Lombards. 

{See LOMBAEDY.) 
684 The Frank.s invade Italy, but are repelled by 

Antharis, king of the Lombards. 
595. The Lombards besiege Rome, and commit 

great ravages. 
600. Italy Is overrun by the Slaves and Avari. 
663. Constans II., emperor of the East, invades 
Italy, and is defeated by Grimoald, of 
Lomhardy. 
697. The Venetian republic is founded under its 

first doge. {See Venice.) 
728. A religious revolt in favour of image woi-ship 
and against Leo the Iconoclast, breaks out 
in Italy. 
752. The exarchate of Kavenna terminates. 
756. Pepin annexes Eavenna to the see of Eome. 
774. Charlemagne invades Italy, and overthrows 

the kint»dom of the Lombards. 
800. Dec. 25. Charlemagne is crowned emperor of 

the West, at Eome. 
818. Italy revolts from Louis le D6bonnaire, but 

is reduced to subjection. 
843. By the treaty of Verdun, Italy is allotted to 

Lothaire, emperor of the West. 
846. The Saracens invade Italy and sack Eome. 
875. Dec. 25. On the death of Louis II. the empire 
of the West reveits to Charles the Bald, 
king of Fi-ance. 
899. Italy suffers severely from Moslem and Hun- 
garian invaders. 
921. Eodoiph II. of Burgundy invades Italy. 
928. Italy is delivered from the Hungarians by 
payment of a ransom of ten bushels of 
sUver. 
9.51. Otho of Germany invades Italy. 
962. Feb. 2. Otho is crowned emperor of the West, 
Germany and Italy being united under one 
sovereign. 
982. July 13. Apulia and Calabria are restored to 
the Eastern empire by the battle of Basien- 
tello. 
1016. Italy is invaded by the Normans. 
1053. The Normans receive Calabria and Apiilia as 

afief oftheHoly See. 
1058. Robert Guiscard expels the Moors from Italy. 
1073. The dispute respecting papal investitures 

commences. (See Geksiaity.) 
1081. Henry IV. of Germany invades Italy, and 

overnms Tuscany. 
1090. Henry again invades Italy, and takes 

Mantua. 
1107. Milan becomes a republic. 
1110. Henry V. of Germany invades Italy with an 
ai-my of 30,000 men, to enforce his claim to 
the investitiu-e of the pope. 
1115. Matilda of Tuscany bequeaths her territories 

to the pope. 
1122. The dispute concerning the investiture ter- 
minates. 
1132. The emperor Lothaire invades Italy. 
1137. Eoger, king of Sicily, is expelled from Italy. 
1154. Oct. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) invades Italy. 
1167. The cities of Lombardy foi-m a league against 

Frederick I. 
1176. May 29. Frederick I. is defeated by the Lom- 
bard confederacy at Legnano. 
1183. The independence of the Lombard cities is 

secured by the peace of Constance. 
1190. Henry VI. of Germany invades Italy in 

pursuit of his designs on Sicily. 
1204. The feuds of the Guelphs and GhibeUines are 

intro'luced into Italy. 
1210. War commences between Venice and Genoa. 
1220. Frederick IT. of Gennany becomes king of 
Italy, and fixes the capital of his kingdom 
at Naples. 
1236. War again commences between the emperor 
and the Lombard league. 

1250. Dec. 13. Death of Frederick II. at Fiorenzuola, 

in Apulia. 

1251. Rise of the Medici family. 

1266. Feb. 26. Manfred, king of Sicily, is defeated 
and slain by Charles of Anjou at the battle 
of Grandella, near Benevento. 
446 



ITA 



A.D. 

1268. Conradin is defeated by Charles at the battle 

of Taghocozzo. 
1277. The Visconti establish their supremacy in 

Milan. 
1282. March 30. The Sicilian Vespers {q. v.). 
1296. Rise of the Neri and Bianchi factions at 

Florence. 
1305. The pope removes from Rome to Avignon, in 

France. 
1310. The emperor , Henry VII. visits Italy, and 

establishes his supremacy in Lombardy. 
1321. Death of the poet Dante. 
1328. The house of Gonzaga obtains the signiory of 

Mantua. 
1330. John of Bohemia, conducts an expedition into 

Italy. 
1336. The Italian condottieri, or free companies of 

hired poldiers, are first formed. 
1339. The Orsini and Colouna factions rage at 

Rome, and the Genoese elect their fii'st 

doge. 
1354. Charles IV. visits Italy. 
1361. Italy is overrun by the free-lances, who are 

thrown out of employment by the peace of 

Bretigny. 
1370. Lucca becomes an independent republic. 

1374. Death of Petrarch. The States of the Church 

rebel against the pope. 

1375. Death of Boccaccio. 

1377. Jan. 17. The seat of the papacy is restored to 
Rome. 

1373. The papal schism commences. 

1403. The republic of Pisa commences. 

1426. The wars between Milan and Venice com- 
mence. 

1447. Extinction of the Visconti. 

1454. Nearly the whole of Italy is involved in war. 

1464. Aug. 1. Death of Cosmo de Medici. 

1465. Peace prevails throughout Italy, Florence 

taking the lead in trade and commerce. 

1471. The Italian states form a league against the 

Turks. 

1472. The Turks enter Italy. 

1477. The Turks again invade Italy. 

1482. Italy is ravaged by a general war, provoked 

by the pope. 
1492. Death of lyorenzo de Medici. 

1494. Charles VIII. of France invades Italy. 

1495. The emperor, the pope, Spain, Venice, and 

Milan, form the league of Venice against 
Charles VIII. of France, who is compelled 
to evacuate Italy. 

1496. The emperor Maximilian leads an army into 

Italy. 

1499. Louis XTI. invades Italy, and obtains tem- 
porary possession of Milan. 

1508. The league of Cambray is signed against 
Venice. Maximilian again invades Italy. 

1510. Venice submits to the pope, after having lost 
all her Italian territories, and the league of 
Cambray is dissolved. 

1515. Francis I. of Frauce invades Italy, and gains 
the battle of Marignano (g. v.), Sept. 14. 

1517. General peace is restored to Italy. 

1519. Charles V. and Francis I. wage war in Italy. 

1523. The Italian league is formed against Francis I. 

1525. Feb. 24. Francis I. is made prisoner at the 
battle of Pavia {q. v.). 

1527. Death of Maehiavelli. 

1530. Charles V. completes the subjection of Italy, 
and is crowned emperor at Bologna, Feb. 22. 

1535. Italy is again the theatre of war between 
France and Spain. 

1544. The French are expelled from Italy by the 
peace of Crespy. 

1559. The peace of Cateau-Cambresis restores tran- 
quillity to Italy. 

1595. Death of Torquato Tasso. 

1616. The "Spanish Triumvirate" rules in Italy, 
Venice being in the power of Bedein.ar, 
Lombardy of Toledo, and Naples of Ossuna. 

1627. The war of the Mantuan succession com- 
mences. 

1631. April 6. Peace is restored by the treaty of 
Chierasco, 



ITA 



1642. Death of Galileo. 

1701. The French seize the Milanese, and commence 

the war of the Spanish Succession in Italy. 

1702. Philip of Spain obtains the Spanish posses- 

sions in Italy. 

1706. Sept. 7. The French, being compelled to raise 
the siege of Turin, evacuate Lombardy and 
surrender Naples. 

1713. April 11. The country undergoes a division 
by the treaty of Utrecht, which also termi- 
nates the war of the Spanish Succession. 

1720. Feb. 17. By the peace of London, Sardinia is 
ceded to Savoy, and Sicily is annexed to 
Naples, under the emperor of Austria. 

1733. The French, Spaniards, and Sardinians, are 
at war with the Austrians, in Italy, repect- 
ing the Polish succession. 

1737. Extinction of the Medici. 

1741. The Spaniards invade Italy under Montemar. 

1748. Oct. 18. The treaty of Aix-la-Chape.lle annexes 
Milan to the territories of the house of 
Austria, and restores the Italian conquests 
of France. 

1793. Jan. 13. Nice is annexed to France. Sept. 3. 
Naples declares war against France. 

1796. Bonaparte invades Italy, and founds the 

Cispatlane republic. Dec. 4. 

1797. Oct. 17. The treaty of Camoo-Pormio is signed. 

Venice is divided between France and 
Austria, and the Cisalpine republic is 
acknowledged. 

1798. The French agaia invade Italy, and imprison 

the pope, Feb. 23. 

1799. The Russians, under Suwarrow, gain many 

victories over the French in Italy. 

1800. May 31. Bonaparte, with 36,000 men, crosses 

the Alps into Italy, enters Milan June 2, 
and gains the gi'eat victory of Marengo 
{q. v.), June 14. 

1802. Jan. 25. The Cisalpine republic is remodelled 
as the Italian republic, under the presi- 
dency of Napoleon. 

1805. May 26. Napoleon is crowned king of Italy at 
Milan. Dec. 26. France obtains the Aus- 
trian-Venetian territories by the treaty of 
Presburg. 

1810. Italy is ravaged by a pestilence. 

1814. April 4. Dissolution of the kingdom of Italy. 

1831. Feb. An insurrection breaks out in Central 
Italy. 

1833. The "Young Italy" party excites several 
insurrections. 

1847. The whole country is the scene of agitations 

in favour of liberal and constitutional 
government. 

1848. March 18. Lombardy revolts against the 

Austrians. March 22. Venice joins the 
insurrection. March 23. The king of Sar- 
dinia joins the coalition against Austria. 
April 29. The pope declares war against 
Austria. June 29. Lombardy is annexed to 
Sardinia. 

1849. March 23. The Sardinians are defeated by 

the Austrians at the battle of Novara, in 
consequence of which Lombardy is restored 
to Austria. 
1859. Feb. 5. The Sardinian government borrows 
50,000,000 francs to secure the country 
against the expected attacks of Austria. 
April 23. An Austrian envoy demands 
the disarmament of Sardinia. April 26. 
Sardinia refuses, and the Austrians 
immediately ci;oss the Ticino. April 27. 
Victor Emanuel declares war against 
Austria, and a revohition is effected at 
Florence. May 3. A revolution occurs in 
Parma. May 12. The emperor Napoleon III. 
arrives at Genoa to assijme the command 
of his army against Austria. Battle of 
Montebello, May 20 ; of Palestro, May 31 ; 
of Magenta, June 4; and of Malegnano, 
June 8. (See these battles.) June 8. Louis 
Napoleon and Victor Emanuel enter 
Milan, and proclaim the annexation of 
Lombardy to Sardinia. 



ITA 



1859. June 11. The Austrian army crosses the Adda, 

and enters the Quadrilateral. June 13. A 
revolution in favour of Victor Emanuel 
breaks out at Modena. June 20. The pon- 
tifical troops take Perugia, and massacre 
the inhabitants. June 24. The battle of 
Solferino {q.v.). July 1. The allies cross the 
Mincio. July 8. An armistice is agreed to. 
July 11. A truce is signed at Villafranca. 
July 13. Tuscany protests against the treaty 
of Villafranca. Aug. 1. The allied armies 
cross the Mincio. Aug. 16. Tuscany de- 
clares in favour of a united kingdom of 
Italy under the sceptre of Victor Ema- 
nuel. Aug. 20. A treaty of alliance be- 
tween Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the 
Legations, is signed at Florence, and the 
national assemblies of Modena and Tus- 
cany declare in favour of annexation to 
Sardinia. Sept. 3. A majority of the 
Parmese vote in favour of annexing 
that duchy to Sardinia. Sept. 7. The 
assembly of the Komagna vote for the 
separation of that province from the tem- 
poral sovereignty of the pope. Oct. 31. The 
new kingdom of Italy is divided into 
seventeen provinces. Nov. 10. The treaty 
of Zurich is signed, which ends the Italian 
war. Nov. 18. Garibaldi announces his 
withdrawal from the service, and recom- 
mends the Italians to support Victor 
Emantiel. 

1860. Jan. 16. Count Cavour undertakes the forma- 

tion of a new ministry. Feb. 25. The French 
government demands from Sardinia the 
cession of Savoy. March 11 and 12. Tuscany 
and the Komagna vote in favour of their 
annexation to Sardinia. March 24. Savoy 
and Nice are ceded to France by a treaty 
signed at Turin. April 4. Revolution com- 
mences in Sicily (q. v.). May 5. Garibaldi 
embarks at Genoa for Sicily. May 18. The 
Sardinian government protests against 
the Sicilian expedition. June 8. The 
French troops evacuate Upper Italy. Aug. 
3. Victor Emanuel is proclaimed king of 
Italy in Sicily. Aug. 11. The revolu- 
tionary forces land in Calabria. Aug. 17. 
Insurrection commences at Naples [q. v.). 
Sept. 8. Garibaldi enters Naples. Sept. 9. 
Victor Emanuel is proclaimed king of 
Italy at Naples. Sept. 12. The Sardinians 
take Pesaro. Sept. 14. They take Perugia. 
Oct. 1. Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans 
at the battle of the Voltumo. Oct. 17. The 
first engagement between the Sardinian 
and Neapolitan troops takes place at 
Isemia {q.v.). Oct. 21. The Neapolitans 
vote in favour of the annexation of their 
country to the Sardinian states. Nov. 7. 
Victor Emanuel enters Naples. Nov. 9. 
Garibaldi retires to his private residence 
on the island of Caprera. Nov. 27. Gari- 
baldi's army is disbanded. 

1861. Feb. 14. The Sardinians under Cialdini take 

Gaeta (q. v.). Feb. 18. The first Italian par- 
liament is opened at Turin. Feb. 26. The 
parliament enacts that Victor Emanuel 
should assume the title of " King of Italy." 
March 30. Lord John Russell announces 
the recognition of the kingdom of Italy by 
the British government. June 6. Death 
of Covmt Cavour. June 12. He is suc- 
ceeded at the head of afikirs by Baron 
Eicasoli. June 24. Napoleon III. re- 
cognizes Victor Emanuel as king of 
Italy. Sept. 15. Victor Emanuel opens 
an exhibition of Italian industry at 
Florence. 



(See GrENOA, Lombaedt, Mh-aw, Modetta, 
Naples, Paema, Eome, Sardinia, Sicilt, 
TtrscANT, Venice, &c.) 

4A7 



ITC 



KINGS OF ITALTi 



Odoacer 

Theodoric 

Athalaric 

Theodatus 

Vitiges 

Hildibald 

Eraric 

TotUa 

Teias* 

Alboin 

Clepho 

Autharis 

Agiltilph 

Adaloald 

Arioald 

Rotharis 

Eodoald 

Aribert I 

Bei-tharit and Go- 

debert 

Grimoald 

Bertharit (agaui) . . 

CuBibert 

Lxiitpert 

Eagimbert 



A..D. 

Aiibertn 701 

Ansprand 712 

Luitprand 712 

HUdebrand 744 

Katchis 744 

Astolph 749 

Didier 756 

Lothatre 1 840 

Lotiis II 855 

Charles the Bald . . 875 

Carloman 877 

Charles the Fat.... 879 

Berenger 1 888 

Guy, with Berenger 889 

Lambert, ditto 894 

Louis of Aiies, ditto 900 
Eodolph of Bui'- 

gundy, ditto 921 

Hugh, count of Pro- 
vence 926 

Lothaire TI 947 

Berenger II 950 

Otho I. (Italy is an- 
nexed to the Ger- 
man empii-e) .... 962 



MODKttN KJITGDOM OF HAIT. 

A.D. 

Napoleon Bonaparte 1805-1814 



Victor Emanuel Feb. 26, 1861 

Itchingpoed (Treaty). — Edward the 
Elder concluded a peace with the Danes at 
Itehingford, a.d. 906. 

Ithaca (Ionian Isles). — This small island 
is chiefly famous as having been the king- 
dom of Ulysses (B.C. 1215), whose feats at 
the siege of Troy, and subsequent adven- 
tures, form so large a portion of the Homeric 
poems. It became subject to the Tarentines 
A.D. 1207, to the Venetians in 1215, to the 
French in 1797, and in 1815 was placed 
under the protection of Great Britain, with 
the other Ionian Islands (q.v.). 

IvoET. — This substance has been used 
for ornamental purposes from the earliest 
periods. It was known to the Jews in the 
time of Solomon (1 Kings x. 22), B.C. 1000, 
and is often mentioned by Homer. Phidias 
(B.C. 440) was famous for his ivory statues 
plated with gold. 

IvET (Battle).— Henry IV. of France 
defeated the forces of the League, led by 
the duke of Mayenne, at this village, near 
Evreux, March 4, 1590. 



J"_ 

Jaca, or Jacca (Spain), belonged to the 
Vascones in the time of Ptolemy. It was 
taken from the Moors a.d. 795. The ancient 
fortress, captured by the French ra 1809, 
was wrested from them by the Enghsh in 
1814. It was unsuccessfiilly assailed by the 
revolutionary forces in September, 1822. 



* Teias was killed in 553, and Italy remained 
under the government of Narses until the establish- 
ment of the Lombard kingdom by Alboin. 
448 



JAC 

Jack Ketch. — A writer in Notes and 
Queries (2nd series, i. 72) refers for the 
origin of this cognomen to the following 
extract from Lloyd's MS. Collections in the 
British Museum : — "The manor of Tyburn 
was formerly held by Eichard Jaquett, where 
felons were for a long time executed; from 
whence we have Jack Ketch." 

Jacgbibt, or Breton Club (Paris). — 
One of the numerous pohtical associations 
that came into existence just before the 
first French revolution. The members at 
first styled themselves " Friends of the Con- 
stitution." When they met at VersaUles, they 
received the name of the Breton Club, from 
the fact that the deputies from Britanny took 
the lead in their proceedings. In October, 
1789, the sittings of the club were trans- 
ferred to the monastery of the Jacobin friars 
at Paris, when the pubUe were first admitted 
to its conferences. In 1790 this club in- 
creased rapidly in numbers ; in 1791 the 
funeral of Mtrabeau was attended by 1,800 
of its members ; and in 1792 it wielded a 
pernicious iafluence over the government, 
and assumed the title "The Society of the 
Friends of Liberty and Equahty." It was 
suppressed after the fall of Eobespierre 
in 1794. 

Jacobins. — This name, generally applied 
to the advocates of extreme democratical 
opinions, took its origin from the members 
of the Breton, or Jacobin Club, formed in 
Paris A.D. 1789. 

Jacobites. — This term was first used to 
describe a party in England which adhered 
to the cause of James II. after the revolu- 
tion of 1688, aud afterwards to those who 
continued to maintain sentiments of loyalty 
towards the house of Stuart, and sought to 
secure the restoration of that family to the 
Enghsh throne. The unsuccessful rebellions 
of 1715 and 1745 in Scotland were brought 
about by the agency of the Jacobites. A 
Jacobite plot, in which Atterbury, bishop of 
Kochester, was concerned, was discovered 
in 1723. 

Jacobites (Ecclesiastical History). — A 
Christian sect which arose during the 5th 
century, and maiatained that Christ had 
but one nature. They were thus named 
from Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa, 
and apostle of the East, who restored the 
sect about a.d. 545. From this man, 
Mosheim remarks, as the second father of 
the sect, all the Monophysites in the East 
are called Jacobites. Baradaeus died in 578. 
A small section of the Jacobites joined the 
Eoman CathoKcs in the 17th century, but 
the majority remained firm in the faith of 
their ancestors. Eiddle enumerates amongst 
the remains of oriental sects or Christian 
communities existing in 1837, the Syrian 
Jacobites living under their patriarch at 
Antioch. Eoger of Wendover mentions a 
new sect of preachers called "Jacobites," 
because they imitated the hfe of the apos- 
tles, who sprang up a.d. 1198, under the 
auspices of Pope Innocent III. They were 
mendicants, and suffered great privations. 



i 



JAC 

Mosheim believes the sect ceased to exist soon 
after the council of Lyons, in 1274. 

Jacob, St., (Battle,) was fought at this 
hamlet, near Basle, a.d. 1444, when the Swiss 
defeated a French force of superior numbers. 

Jacquaed Loom, for weaving figured 
fabrics, is named after its inventor, Joseph 
Marie Jacquard, who was born at Lyons, 
July 7, 1752, and died Aug. 7, 1834. He 
first conceived the idea of the loom in 1790, 
and in Sept. 1801, the jury of the exhibition 
of products of industry awarded him a 
bronze medal. In the same year he secured 
a ten years' patent for his loom. A net- 
making machine which he devised also 
brought him a gold medal, awarded at Paris 
in February, 1804. EngHsh manufacturers 
have recently effected important improve- 
ments on the Jacquard loom. 

Jacquerie, so called from the cant phrase 
Jacques Bonhomme, apphed to the pea- 
santry, was a terrible insurrection of this 
class against the nobles, that broke out in 
France, May 21, 1358. Many thousands of 
the unhappy insurgents were slaughtered, 
and the insurrection was speedily sup- 



Jaen (Spain), supposed to be the ancient 
Aurgi, is the capital of a province which 
nearly coincides with the Moorish kingdom 
of Jaen. It was captured, after a long siege, 
by Ferdinand, in 1243. The French general 
Cassagne captured and sacked Jaen in June, 
1808. Its cathedral was erected in 1525, on 
the site of a Moorish mosque demolished 
in 1492. A new road to Granada was com- 
pleted in 1828. 

Jaffa, or Yafpa (Syria). — This fortified 
town, the ancient Joppa, was probably 
founded by the PhcEnicians, about B.C. 1400. 
It was made a bishopric by Constantine I., 
A.D. 332 ; was captured by the caliph Omar 
in 636, and by the Crusaders in 1099. It 
was the scene of a great battle between the 
Saracens and King Baldwin of Jerusalem in 
1102. Eichard Coeur de Lion encamped 
here in 1191. Saladin attacked Jafi"a, July 
26, 1192. He was compelled to retire, but 
gained possession of the town in 1198. It was 
retaken, and strongly fortified by Louis IX. 
of France, in 1252. The Mameluke sultan 
Bibars took it in 1267. Bonaparte invested 
Jaffa March 4, 1799, and tOok it by storm 
March 7. Four thousand prisoners were 
put to death March 10, 1799. Mehemet 
Ah obtained possession of the city in 
1832; but it was restored to the Turks in 
1840. It suffered greatly from an earthquake 
Jan. 21, 1837, and again July 17, 1845. 

Jaicza (Bosnia) . — This important fortress 
having fallen into the hands of the Turks, 
was wrested from them in December, 1463, 
by Matthias, after a siege of three months. 
It was retaken by the Turks in 1528. 

Jalxtla (Battle).— The Saracens defeated 
the Persians in this battle, fought a.d. 637. 

Jamaica (West Indies).— This, the largest 
of the British West-Indian islands, was dis- 
covered by Columbus, May 3, 1494, and called 
by him St. Jago, after the patron saint of 
449 



JAM 

Spain. Jamaica, the Indian name, signifies 
the Isle of Springs. 



1509. The first Spanish settlement is established by 

John de Esquibal. 
1597. Jan. 29. Sir Anthony Shirley, commander of 

an English squadron, cajjtures the island. 
1655. May 3. The English, under Admiral Penn 

and General Venables, wrest Jamaica from 

the Spaniards. 
1661. Charles II. places the island under a governor 

and a council of twelve, appointed by the 

crown. 
1670. Spain recognizes the right of the English to 

Jamaica, by the treaty of Madfid. 
1674. About 1.200 colonists from Surinam settle in 

the island. 
1692. June 7. An earthquake destroys Port Eoyal, 

the capital, and occasions great destruction 

of life and property. 
1722. Aug. 28. A hm-ricane devastates the island. 
1728. The Magna Charta of Jamaica is passed. 
1734. Another hurricane does great damage. 
1738. The Maroons, a tribe formed of runaway 

slaves, obtain permission to form a settle- 
ment in the north of the island. 
1745. Feb. 2. About 900 negro slaves are detected 

in a conspiracy to destroy all the white 

inhabitants of the island. 
1795. The Maroons revolt, and are not reduced to 

subjection till March 21, 1796. 
1807. The slave trade is abolished. 
1815. Oct. A hurricane occasions gi-eat destruction 

of property and life, about 1,000 persons 

perishing in consequence. 
1819. The island is devastated by a hiu'ricane. 
1825. The bishopric of Jamaica is established. 
1831. Dec. 22. An alarming insurrection of the 

negroes breaks out, and the island is placed 

under martial law. 
1846. Another huiTicane. 
1850. The cholera carries off about 40,000 of the 

population. 
1856. The constitution is remodelled. 

James, (Epistle of,) is generally beheved to 
have been written by St. James the Just, 
bishop of Jerusalem, about a.d. 62. 

James, St. (Order), or the Order of 
St. James of the Sword, was instituted 
A.D. 1170, by Ferdinand II., king of Leon 
and Galicia. It was confirmed by the pope 
in 1175. The order undertook to defend the 
doctrine of the Immaculate Conception in 
1652. A branch of this order, admitting aU 
the rules of the original order, excepting 
that of chastity, was estabhshed by Denys, 
king of Portugal, in 1288. It was confirmed 
by Pope Innocent VIII, in 1486. 

James's (St.) Hall (London), designed 
by Owen Jones, consists of one large hall, 
140 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 60 feet 
high, with two smaller halls, each 60 feet 
square and 25 feet high. It was opened to 
the pubhe with a concert, in aid of the 
Middlesex Hospital, March 25, 1858. 

James's (St.) Palace (London), stands 
on the spot formerly occupied by an hospital 
for female lepers, founded by Gislebert, abbot 
of Westminster, a.d. 1100. Henry VIII. 
ordered the hospital to be pulled down in 
1530, and a mansion to be erected. It was 
finished in 1536. James I. presented it to 
his son Henry, prince of Wales, in 1612. 
Charles I. was kept a prisoner here for three 
days previous to his execution, Jan. 27-30, 
1649. It was made a royal residence after 
2 G 



JAM 

tlie destruction of Whiteliall Palace by fire, 
Jan. 4, 1698. It was partly destroyed by a 
conflagration Jan. 21, 1809. 

James's (St.) Park (London) was first 
inclosed and drained by Henry VIII. in 
1530. Rosamond's Pond was fiUed up ia 
July, 1770. A great display of fireworks 
took place in the park Aug. 1, 1814. Two 
pieces of cannon were placed here as trophies 
in 1816. Gas-lamps were first introduced into 
the park in 1822, and the " Chinese Bridge " 
was demolished in 1827. 

James's (St.) Theatee (London) was con- 
structed by Beazley, architect, for Braham, 
the celebrated singer, and opened in Dec. 
1835. 

James the Fiest, the only child of Lord 
Damley and Mary queen of Scots, was born 
at Edinburgh, June 19, 1566. He was pro- 
claimed king of Scotland, under the title of 
James YI., July 24, 1567, and was proclaimed 
king of England March 24, 1603. He mar- 
ried Anne, daughter of Frederick II. of Den- 
mark, ia 1590, and they were both cro^-ned 
at Westminster July 25, 1603. They had 
three sons and two daughters ; tIz., Henry, 
born Feb. 19, 1593, and died Nov. 6, 1612 ; 
Ehzabeth, born Aug. 19, 1596, married to the 
elector-palatine Feb. 14, 1613, and died Feb. 
13, 1662 ; Charles (see Chakles I.), and 
Eobert and Mary, who died in infancy. The 
queen died March 1, 1619, and James I. died 
at Theobalds, near Cheshunt, Sunday, March 
27, 1625. 

James the SECOifD, the second son of 
Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born at 
St. James's, Oct. 15, 1633; ascended the 
Enghsh throne on the death of Charles II., 
Feb. 6, 1685 ; and was crowned April 23. 
Whilst duke of York he married, first, Anne 
Hyde, daughter of Lord Clarendon. She 
died March 31, 1671 ; and Sept. 30 (JST.S.), 
1673, James married Mary d'Este, who out- 
liyed him, dying May 7, 1718. His family by 
his iii-stwife consisted of four sons, who "died 
in infancy, and two daughters, Mary (see 
William III. and Maey) and Anne (q.v.). 
His second wife bore liim five daughters, who 
died young, and one son, James Francis Ed- 
ward, or the Chevalier de St. George, known 
as the Pretender. James II. fled from White- 
haU Dec. 11, 1688. The throne was declared 
vacant Jan. 28, 1689, and WUliam III. and 
Mary became king and queen Feb. 13. The 
latest instrmnent of his reign entered on the 
patent roUs is dated Dec. 7, 188S. James II. 
died at St. Germain's, Sept. 6, 1701, and was 
bm-ied in the Benedictine monastery at Paris. 

Jane (Queen of England). — Lady Jane 
Grey was proclaimed queen against her wiU, 
July 10, 1553, Edward VI. having bestowed 
the crown upon her by letters patent, June 
21, 1553. Her reign commenced July 6, the 
day on which Edward VI. died. She relin- 
quished the title Jiolv 19. She was condemned 
to death Nov. 13, 1553, and beheaded Feb. 12, 
1554. The earhest public document of her 
reign that has been discovered bears date 
July 9, and the latest July IS. 

jAifESTiLLE (United States), founded A.D. 
450 



JAN- 

1836, made the chief town of Eock cotmty in 
1839, and was incorporated in 1853. 

Janista, or Joan NINA (Albania), supposed 
to occupy the site of the ancient Dodona 
(q. v.), was taken by the Normans a.d. 1082. 
The Turks captured it in 1432. The Alba- 
nians made an unsuccessful revolt in 1611. 
Ah Pasha, the Lion of Janina, made it his 
capital, and, on being pressed by the Turks, 
ordered it to be set on fiure, when it was 
almost entirely destroyed. Ali himself, who 
had retired, to the citadel, surrendered on a 
promise of pardon, in January, 1822. An 
intimation having been given to him that the 
sultan intended to put him to death, a des- 
perate contest ensued, in which Ah was slain, 
Feb. 5, 1822. 

Janissaeies, literally 'new troops.'— 
Turkish infantry was organized by Sultan 
Orcan, a.d. 1329, remodelled by Amurath I. in 
1360, and increased to the number of 100,000 
by Amurath II. in 1372. The corps was at 
first composed of 1,000 Christian children 
taken from their parents, compelled to em- 
brace the faith of Mohammed, and trained 
as soldiers. After a time, the Janissaries be- 
came masters of the empire; deposed Baja- 
zet II. in 1512 ; procured the death of Amu- 
rath III. in 1595 ; dethroned and executed 
Ormanll. in 1618 ; his successor, Mustapha I., 
in 1622; and strangled Ibrahim in 1649. 
Mustapha II. was deposed by them in 1695, 
Ahmed III. in 1705, SeUm III. in 1789, and 
Mustapha IV. in 1807. At last, after long 
and powerful efforts. Sultan Mahmoud II. 
succeeded in mastering the Janissaries, June 
15, 1826, when 15,000 of them were killed in 
the streets of Constantinople. By an impe- 
rial firman of June 16, 1826, the institution 
of the Janissaries was abohshed. 

Jan Maten (Arctic Sea) . — This island was 
discovered by the Dutch navigator whose 
name it bears, a.d. 1611. 

Janowitz (Battle). — A Swedish army, 
commanded by Torstenson, defeated the Im- 
periahsts at this place, in Bavaria, March 16, 
1645. The latter lost 8,000 men. 

Jansenists, the followers of Cornelius 
Jansen, or Jansenius, born 1585, at the 
village of Aequoi, near Leerdam, Holland. 
He was appointed, professor of theology at 
the university of Louvain in 1630, and made 
bishop of Ypres in 1636. He had scarcely 
finished his famous work " Augustinus," the 
labour of twenty-two years, when he died. 
May 6, 1638. The book was pubhshed by 
Libertus Fromont, at Louvain, in 1640, and 
created an extraordinary sensation. The 
Jesuits at once attaekedthe "Augustinus," 
which defended the doctrine of free grace, 
and the book was interdicted by the In- 
quisition in 1641, and by Urban VIII. in 
1642. The Jansenist doctrines prevailed 
in many parts of France and Holland ; the 
inmates of Port Eoyal {q. v.), a female con- 
vent near Paris, became celebrated for the 
ardour with which they took up the cause. 
The Jansenists became very numerous, and 
Clement IX. was compelled to sign a com- 
promise with the party in 1668, commonly 



JAU 

called the " Peace of Clement IX." Fresh 
disturbances arose in France after the revo- 
cation of the Edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685, and 
the Jansenists were excommunicated by the 
bull (termed Unigenitua) of Clement XI., 
Sept. 1713. The buU metwith great opposition 
in Holland and France ; led to an increase 
of Jansenism, and the establishment, in Hol- 
land, of a rehgious party called the " Pupils 
of St. Augustine," presided over, since 1723, 
by the archbishop of Utrecht and the bishops 
of Haarlem and Deventer. Leo XII. re- 
vived the old dispute by excommunicating, 
in 1825, the newly-elected archbishop of 
Utrecht and the bishop of Deventer. 

Jaktjaet, the first month of the year, was 
introduced into the Eoman calendar by 
Numa, about B.C. 700. By 24 Geo. II. c. 23 
(1751), the commencement of the legal year 
in this country was changed from< March 25 
to Jan. 1. It was called Wolf-monath by the 
Anglo-Saxons. 

Jakus. — This temple in ancient Eome, 
the gates of which were kept open in time of 
war, and closed in time of peace, is said to 
have been founded by Komulus. The gates 
were shut eight times ; namely, in the reign 
of Numa, B.C. 71-4 j at the end of the first 
Punic war, B.C. 235; after the battle of 
Actium, B.C. 30; after the Cantabrian war, 
B.C. 25 ; at the general peace under Augus- 
tus, B.C. 5; under Nero, A. D. 58 ; under Ves- 
pasian, A.D. 71 ; and under Grordian, a.d. 241. 

Jap AS" (Asia). — According to the native 
annals, the first emperor of Japan ascended 
the throne B.C. 660. Gold was discovered 
in the country a.d. 749 ; and in 1788 some 
invaders landed, and maintained themselves 
in Japan for eighteen years. The Mongol 
Tartars assailed Japan, and this invasion was 
first made known in Europe by Marco Polo, 
whose travels were published in 1298. He 
speaks of it under the name of Zipangu. It 
was accidentally discovered by the Portu- 
guese in 1542, one of their ships having been 
driven upon the coast in a storm. They 
obtained permission to bring an annual cargo 
of goods to the port of Bungo. The Jesuit 
Xavier landed in Japan in August, 1549. 
An embassy of Japanese Christians appeared 
before the pope at Kome in 1585. The 
native Christians were persecuted in 1590 
and 1597. A Dutch crew, piloted by Wil- 
liam Adams, an Englishman, anchored in 
the harbour of Bungo, April 12, 1600, 
and soon after their first factory was esta- 
blished at Firando. A cruel persecution 
against the native Christians broke out in 
1612, which continued tOl 1622, when a 
wholesale massacre ensued. A royal pro- 
clamation, issued in 1637, banished the 
Portuguese from the country, and prohib- 
ited all intercourse with foreigners. Com- 
munication was opened with Japan by the 
English, June 11, 1613 (see Jeddo), and they 
obtained certain commercial privileges, which 
were modified in 1616, restricting trade to 
the port of Firando. In 1623 the Enghsh 
withdrew from the country. The Russians, 
in 1804 and in 1811, made unsuccessful 



JEA 

attempts to open trade with Japan, and in 
1818 a similar attempt by the English failed. 
On the 8th of March, 1854, the Americans 
succeeded in negotiating a treaty of com- 
merce. The treaty of Jeddo (q.v.), signed 
Aug. 26, 1858, secured important privileges 
to England. 

Japanning. — This method of embellishing 
articles by coating them with a particular 
kind of varnish, was introduced into Europe 
from Japan ; whence the name. 

Jabnac (Battle). — The Huguenots were 
defeated at this tovra, in France, by Henry 
of Anjou, March 13, 1569. The priuce of 
Conde fell in this battle. 

Jasmine. — The common jasmine was im- 
ported into Great Britain from Circassia, 
before a.d. 1548. The Catalonian jasmine 
was introduced into this country from the 
East Indies in 1629, and the yellow Indian 
jasmine was brought from Madeira in 1656. 
The jasmine-flowered chironia was brought 
from the Cape of Good Hope in 1812. 

Jasst, or Yassy (Moldavia), the ancient 
Jassiorum Munieipium, the capital of the 
province, founded by the emperor Trajan, 
about A.D. 105, was conquered by the Turks 
in 1538, stormed by the Tartars in 1659, 
and dehvered by John Sobieski in 1686. 
The Russians took it in 1739 and in 1769, 
but on each occasion restored it to its native 
princes. A great fire destroyed part of the 
town, as well as the castle built by Trajan, 
in 1783. The Austrians occupied the place 
in 1788 ; and on Jan. 9, 1792, peace was 
concluded here between Russia and Turkey. 
The Russians again occupied the town from 
1807 to 1812. The city revolted in March, 
1821, and was sacked by the Janissaries 
Aug. 10, 1822. Two extensive conflagrations 
destroyed portions of the town in July, 1821, 
and August, 1827. The Russians occupied it 
in 1828, and quitted it May 11, 1834. 

Jaucoukt (Battle). — Louis III. of France 
defeated the Danes at this place, on the 
Somme, a.d. 881. 

Java (Indian Archipelago). — This island 
is spoken of by Marco Polo, a.d. 1298, 
although it had not been visited by that 
adventurous traveller. The Portuguese suc- 
ceeded in forming several settlements on the 
island in 1511. The Dutch made their first 
appearance in 1595, building a fort on the 
site of the present city of Batavia in 1610. 
They founded a church in 1621. At Bantam, 
in 1619, the English erected a factory, which 
was one of their first possessions in the East 
Indies. A landing having been eflfeeted Aug. 
4, 1811, the island was taken from the Dutch, 
Aug. 26, by an English force, under Sir 
Samuel Auchmuty and General "VVetheraU. 
It was restored Aug. 13, 1814. 

Jean de Luz (France). — The marriage of 
Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, infanta of 
Spain, was celebrated at this frontier town 
of the south of France a.d. 1660. In 
August, 1813, the French, under Marshal 
Soult, took up their position in front of 
this town, and erected strong fortifications. 
Lord Wellington resolved to attack them, 
2 6-2 



JED 

which he did Nov. 10, and had many hours 
of hard fighting. Sir Kowland Hill directed 
the movements of the British right, and 
Marshal Beresford those of the centre ; and 
the next morning the French were compelled 
to retire beyond the Nivelle. During the 
conflict the English made 1,400 prisoners, 
and took 51 pieces of cannon and six tumbrils 
of ammunition. 

Jedda, Jeddah, or Djidda (Arabia). — 
This town, the port of Mecca, visited by 
Bruce in 1796, was taken from the Wahabees 
by Mehemet Ah, a.d. 1811. The Moham- 
medans attacked the Christian residents of 
this town June 15, 1858, and murdered 
upwards of twenty, including the Enghsh 
vice-consul and the "wife of the French 
consul. The Cyclops, Captain Pullen, an- 
chored before the town July 23, and thirty- 
six hours were granted for the execution 
of justice on the perpetrators of the out- 
rage. IS'o satisfaction having been afi"orded. 
Captain Pullen bombarded the town on the 
25th and 26th, when he acceded to the 
request of the Turkish governor to withhold 
further hostihties imtll instructions were 
received from the Porte. On the 2nd of 
August the necessary firman arrived from 
the sultan, and eleven of the criminals were 
surrendered and executed. {See Djidda.) 

Jeddo (Japan), also written Jedo and 
Yedo, the capital of the empire, was visited 
by a company of Jesuit missionaries from 
Goa, led by the famous Francis Xavier, 
A.D. 1549. Captain Saris, of the Clone, 
bearing a letter and presents from James I., 
was received at the court of Jeddo in July, 
1613. In 1818 the captain of a small Enghsh 
brig entered the bay, but was compelled to 
leave without receiving a cargo ; and an 
.American ship was fired upon from the 
shore in 1831. On the 8th of March, 1854, 
the Americans succeeded in efiecting a com- 
mercial treaty. 

Jeddo, (Treaty,) was negotiated by Lord 
Elgin, and signed at Jeddo Aug. 26, 1858. By 
this treaty the ports of Hakodadi, Kanagawa, 
and Nagasaki were to be opened to British 
subjects on and from July 1, 1859 ; Nee-e- 
gataon and from Jan. 1, 1860; and Hiogo on 
and from Jan. 1, 1863. For purposes of trade 
it was also stipulated that British subjects 
should be allowed to reside at Jeddo after 
Jan. 1, 1862, and at Osacea after Jan. 1, 1863. 
Jelalabad (Aifghanistan) was taken by 
the British in 1839. Sir Eobert Sale, ^vith a 
few hundred troops, defended it against a 
numerous Aff'ghan force from November, 
1841, to April, 1842. The fortifications were 
destroyed, by order of General Pollock, in 
1842. 

Jemattlabad (Hindostan), formerly called 
Narasingha Augad}', a town containing a 
fortress of great natural strength built by 
Tippoo Saib, was taken by the Enghsh in 
1797. 

Jemmapes (Battle). — Dumouriez, at the 
head of a French army, defeated the Aus- 
trians at this village, in Belgium, Nov. 6, 
1792. The battle was warmly contested. 
452 



JEE 

Jena (Battle). — The left of a large 
Prussian army was defeated at Auerstadt by 
the French, Oct. 14, 1806, whilst the centre 
and right on the same day sustained a reverse 
from another portion of the French army at 
Jena. This battle sometimes goes by the 
name of Auerstadt, and sometimes by that 
of Jena. 

Jena (Germany) . — This town, in the duchy 
of Saxe-Weimar, is celebrated for its uni- 
versity, founded in 1547 by the elector John 
Frederick of Saxony. It was opened Feb. 2, 
1558. Jena was the capital of the duchy of 
Saxe-Jena from 1672 to 1690, and of the 
duchy of Saxe-Eisenach from 1690 to 1741. 

Jenneeian Institution (London) was 
founded in 1803. It was absorbed in the 
National Vaccine Estabhshment, foimded in 
1808. 

Jer&eaux (Battle). — The French, led by 
Joan d'Arc, wrested this town from the 
earl of Suffolk, who was taken prisoner, 
June 12, 1429. 

Jebicho (Palestine), the first city 
which fell into the hands of the Israehtes 
on their entrance into the Holy Land, 
was taken by Joshua (vi. 20) B.C. 1451. 
About B.C. 918, or 530 years after this 
event, Jericho was rebuilt by Hiel, the 
Bethehte (1 Kings xvi. 34) . Vespasian re- 
duced the city a.d. 68. Henry VIII. is 
said to have had a retreat called Jericho, 
at Blackmore, near Chelmsford. Hence 
the origin of the term "gone to Jericho." 

Jeeset (English Channel), originally 
called Stugia, was taken by the Normans 
about A.D. 850, and was united to the crown of 
England by WiUiam I. in 1066. King John 
visited the island in 1205. Mont OrgueH 
Castle, seized by the French in 1461, was 
retaken by the Enghsh in 1467. Jersey was 
taken by the Parhamentarians in December, 
1651, A French force seized it Jan. 4, 1781, 
but were made prisoners of war Jan. 6. 
Queen Victoria visited Jersey in 1846, and 
opened the Victoria College Sept. 29, 1852. 
Jerusalem (Latin kingdom). — This king- 
dom was foimded by the Crusaders at the 
close of the first Crusade. Godfrey of 
Bouillon was elected the first king, July 23, 
1099. In 1104 Baldwin I. effected the con- 
quest of Acre. He took Sidon, with the 
assistance of Sivard, prince of Norway, in 
1115 ; and in July, 1124, Tyre submitted to 
his arms. Saladin defeated the Latins at 
the great battle of Tiberias, fought in July, 
1187, and recaptured Jerusalem from the 
Christians the following October. Conrad 
de Montserrat claimed the kingdom on his 
marriage vrith Isabella, daughter of Ahneric, 
in 1190, but he was assassinated hx 1192, 
during the preparations for his corona- 
tion, and the succession devolved upon 
Henry of Champagne. On the death 
of Ahneric of Lusignan, in 1206, Mary, 
daughter of Conrad and Isabella, was the 
nearest heir, and she was accordingly 
married to John of Brienne, who assumed 
the sovereignty in 1206. In 1229 he was 
compelled to abdicate by Frederick II. o; 






1 



JEE 

Germany. Jerusalem was taken by the 
Mameluke sultan Bibars in 1260, and the 
last remnant of the kingdom was absorbed 
in 1291. 

LATIN- KINGS OF JERUSALEM, 
A.D. 

1099. Godfrey of Bouillon. 

1100. Baldwin I. 

1118. Baldwin II. C 

1131. Fulk, count of Anjou. 
1144. Baldwin III. 
1162. Almeric. 
1173. Baldwin IV. 

1185. Baldwin V. 

1186. Guy of Lusignan. 

1192. Henry, count of Champagne. 

1197. Altneric of Lusignan. 

1206. John of Biienne. 

1229. Frederick II., emperor of Germany. 

Jerusalem, or Hieeosolyma (Palestine) . 
— There is some probability that this is the 
Salem, a city of Sechem, of which Melchize- 
dek was king and priest (Gen. xiv. 18), b.c. 
1913. The name Jerusalem is first mentioned 
Josh. X. 1. The city was not finally wrested 
from the Canaanites tUl B.C. 1049, when David 
made it the capital of his kingdom, and called 
it " the City of David." 



1011. Solomon prepares to build the temple. 
1004. Completion and dedication of the temple. 
970. Shishak, king of Egypt, sacks Jerusalem. 
884. Jerusalem is sacked by the Philistines and 

Arabs in the reign of Jehoram. 
808. The inhabitants are put to the sword by 
the Israelites, after their victory at Beth- 



710, 



, The city is invested by the army of Senna- 
cherib, king of Assyria, in the reign of 
Hezekiah, and ia miraculously delivered, 
the angel of the Lord sla3^ng, in the 
camp of the besiegers, 185,000 men in one 
night. 

Taken by Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, after 
the battle of Megeddo. He held it two 
years. Pharaoh Necho dethrones King 
Jehoahaz, and lays Jerusalem under tribute 
of a hundred talents of silver and one 
talent of gold. The dethroned monarch 
is carried into Egypt, where he dies. 

, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, takes 
Jerusalem, and plunders the temple, carry- 
ing away the sacred vessels, together with 
the king and several thousands of his sub- 
jects. He raises Zedekiah, Jehoaiakim's 
brother, to the regal dignity. 

, Zedekiah rebels against the king of Babylon, 
who besieges Jerusalem, but raises the 
siege on the approach of the army of 
Pharaoh, king of Egypt. 

. The Chaldean army renews its attack on the 
city, and carries it by storm. Zedekiah, 
who takes to flight, is pursued, and cap- 
tured ; his two sons are slain, and his own 
eyes put out. The temple, after having 
been pillaged, is burned to the ground ; the 
whole city is destroyed, and the people 
carried captive to Babylon. 

. Cyrus issues a proclamation for the return of 
the captive Jews, who immediately proceed 
to the rebuilding of the temple. 

. The second temple is finished, and is dedi- 
cated. 

. Nehemiah rebuilds the wills of Jerusalem. 

. It is visited by Alexander the Great. 

. Ptolemy Soter captures Jerusalem. 

. Jerusalem is annexed, by treaty, to Egypt. 

. The walls of the city are razed by Antiochus 
Epiphanes, who sets up a statue of Jupiter 
in the temple. From this period the daily 
sacrifice is discontinued. 



JES 



63. It IS taken by Pompey ; and the Jews pass ' t 
A 4 m^^ " *^® dominion of the Romans. 
44. The walls are rebuilt by Antipater, father of f 
Herod the Great. 

A.D. 

70. Sept. 8. It is taken by the Romans, under * 

Titus, the temple and city being razed to f 

the ground. 
130. The emperor Hadrian rebuilds the city, when i 

it receives the name of ^lia Capitoliua. 
335. The church of the Holy Sepulchre is founded 

by Constantine. 
614. The Persians, under Chosroes II., take the 

city. 
637. It surrendei-s to the Saracens, after a long 

siege. 
1076. It is taken by the Turks. 

1098. Passes under the sway of the Egyptian 

caliphs. 

1099. July 15. After a siege of forty days, the 

Christian crusaders, under Godfrey of 
Bouillon, take it by storm. July 23. Godfrey 
of Bouillon is elected king. 

1187. Oct. 2. The city is taken by Saladin. 

1228. Delivered to the Christians by treaty. The 
emperor Frederick II. enters the city. 

1243. Jerusalem is taken and piUaged by the Cariz- 
mians. 

1517. The Ottomans gain possession of the city. 

1832. It is rendered subject to the pasha of Egypt. 

1841. Passes under the protection of the Turkish 
government. Nov. 7. The Rev. M. S. 
Alexander is consecrated bishop of England 
and Ireland in Jerusalem, by the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. The Queen, by 
license, assigns to his jurisdiction Syria, 
Chaldsea, Egypt, and Abyssinia ; and the 
new bishopric is placed under the pro- 
tection of England and Prussia. 

Jestee, or Fool. — The fool, according to 
Nares, was the inmate of every opulent 
house ; but the rural jester or clown seems 
to have been pecuhar to the country families. 
The clown in Shakespeare is generally taken 
for a licensed jester or domestic fool. The 
king's jester or fool was a member of the 
EngHsh court at a very early period. On 
this subject Douce remarks : " With respect 
to the antiquity of this custom in our own 
country, there is reason to suppose that it 
existed even during the period of Saxon his- 
tory ; but we are quite certain of the fact in 
the reign of WiUiam the Conqueror. An al- 
most contemporary historian, Maitre Wace, 
has left us a curious account of the preser- 
vation of William's life, when he was only 
duke of Normandy, by his fool Eoles. Men- 
tion is made in. Domesday Book of ' Berdic 
joculator regis.' " The allowance of cloth 
and a hst of the articles of clothing allowed 
to WiUiam, Henry the Fifth's fool, is given 
in Eymer's "Fcedera." In 1652 the long's 
fool is described as wearing a long coat and a 
gold chain. Douce considers it probable that 
Muckle John, the fool of Charles I. and the 
successor of Archee Armstrong, was the last 
regular personage of the kind. The Lord 
Mayor's state fool was compelled on Lord 
Mayor's day to leap, clothes and all, into a 
large bowl of custard. The patent of crea- 
tion of the Order of Fools, dated at Cleves, 
Nov. 12, 1381, is still in existence. The last 
mention of this order occurs in some verses 
pubhshed at Strasburg in 1520. The custom 
also existed on the other side of the Atlantic, 
453 



JES 

as the Peruvian and Mexican monarchs had 
their jesters. The Spanish conquerors had 
this officer in their train. Prescott speaks 
of Velasquez's jester as "a mad fellow, his 
jester, one of those crack-brained wits — 
half wit, half fool — who formed in those days 
a common appendage to every great man's 
establishment." 

Jesuits. — This society was founded by 
Ignatius Loyola, at tlie chapel of St. Mary, 
Montmartre, Paris, Aug. 16, 1534, and was 
coufirmed by a bull of Paul III., Sept. 27, 
lo4<0. The order was made independent of 
all civil and ecclesiastical supervision by a 
bull dated Oct. 18, 154S. Jesuit colleges 
were established at Antwerp and at Louvain in 
1552, and Ignatius Loyola died July 31, 1556. 
The Jesuits received permission to settle in 
Prance, Sept. 15, 1561; were banished from 
France, Jan. 8, 1595 ; and were allowed to 
return, Jan. 2, 1604. A decree banishing 
the Jesuits from England was issued ]S'ov. 15, 
1602. The university of Tyrnau, Austria, 
the first high school of the Jesuits, was 
opened 'Not. 13, 1635. A French edict was 
issued against the Jesuits Sept. 2, 1716, and 
they were banished from Portugal Sept. 3, 
1759. The Jesuit seminaries at Rome were 
dissolved Sept. 17, 1772, and the order was 
put down by a bull of Clement XIY., July 21, 
1773. They wex'e expelled from Austria, 
Oct. 1, 1773. The Jesuits were re-organized 
by Pius VII., Aug. 7, 1814, and a decree 
for their admission into Spain was issued 
May 29, 1815. They were expelled from 
Kussia, March 25, 1820, and from Switzer- 
land, Oct. 1, 1847. 

Jesuit's Bark. (See Bare:.) 

Jesus Colle&e (Cambridge) was founded 
A.D. 1496, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely. 
The building previous to that time had been 
used for the nunnery of St. Eadegund, 
founded by Malcohn IV. of Scotland. 

Jesus College (Oxford). — Queen Eliza- 
beth, on the petition of Hugh ap Rice, or 
Price, granted a charter of foundation for 
this college, June 27, 1571. The inner quad- 
rangle was completed in 1676. 

Jewellery, or the setting of precious 
stones, is an art of very ancient origin. 

Jewish JErx. — The Jews now date from 
the creation of the world, which they con- 
sider to have occurred 3760 years and three 
months before the commencement of the 
Christian asra. According to some autho- 
rities, they used the sera of the Seleucidse 
after they became subject to the kings of 
Sjria, and only abandoned it in the 15th 
century. 

Jewish Disabilities Bill. — Mr. Robert 
Grant's bill for releasing the Jews from their 
civil disabilities was rejected by the Lords 
Aug. 1, 1833 ; another, introduced by Lord 
John Russell, after passing the Commons 
May 4, 1848, met with a similar fate May 25. 
A third received the sanction of the lower 
house July 3, 1851, but was also thrown out by 
the Lords July 17. A similar bill passed the 
Commons April 15, 1853, and was again re- 
jected April 29 ; and after having been again 
4:54 



JEW 

approved by the Commons, was defeated by 
the Lords July 10, 1857. By 21 & 22 Vict, 
c. 49 (JiUy 22, 1858), the House of Commons 
was empowered to modify the oaths in such 
a manner that they might be taken by 
Jews; a-nd by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 6, 
1860), the words " upon the faith of a Chris- 
tian" were expunged permanently in the 
case of Jewish members. 

Jews. — Strictly speaking, this term can 
only be appKed to the subjects of the kings 
of Judah after the separation of the ten 
tribes ; but in itsusual acceptation it refers 
to the whole race of Abraham. 



1996. 
1921. 



1872. 

1856. 
1836. 
1821. 
1760. 
1728. 
1718. 

1706. 

1571. 
1491. 
14.51. 

1405. 
1343. 
3330. 
1285. 



12.52. 

1245. 
1187. 
1169. 
1156. 
1136. 
1143. 
1116. 

1095. 
1093. 
1081, 
1063, 
1060, 



1048, 
1040, 



1027. 
1017 
1015. 



Birth of Abraham. 

Abraham, by divine command, settles in 

Canaan. 
God makes a covenant with Abiaham. 
The covenant is renewed. 
Bii-th of Isaac. 
The sacrifice of Isaac is prevented by divine 

interposition. 
Marriage of Is^ac and Eebekah. 
Birth of Esau and Jacob. 
Death of Abraham. 
Jacob is blessed instead of Esau. 
Joseph is sold into Egypt. 
Joseph interprets the dreams of the butler 

and the baker. 
Jacob and his family remove to Egypt, and 

settle in Goshen. 
Birth of Moses. 

The exodus of the Jews from Egypt is effected. 
The Jews enter Canaan, under the leadership 

of Joshua. 
They become subject to Mesopotamia. 
They are subject to Eglon, king of Moab. 
Ehud restores them to freedom. 
They are in servitude to Jabin, king of 

Canaan. 
Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaanites, 

under Sisera, and restore the Israelites to 

independence. 
They are again enslaved by the Midianites, 

Amalekites, and other Eastern tribes. 
Gideon effects their deliverance. 
The Ammonites subdue the Jewish territory. 
Jephtha expels them. 

The Philistines reduce the Jews to slavery. 
Samson releases theiu. 
Samuel is called by the Lord. 
The Jews are again subjected by the Philis- 
tines. 
Saul is elected king. 
Saul is victorioiis over the Philistinea. 
Birth of David. 
David prevails over Goliath. 
David is compelled, by the jealousy of Saul, 

to take refuge in Gath. 
Death of Saul, and accession of David as king 

of Judah. 
David is acknowledged by all Israel. 
David wages war against the Philistines, and 

recovers the ark, which had been left in 

their hands. 
Birth of Solomon. 

The rebellion of Absalom and Sheba. 
David numbers the people. 
Adonijah rebels. Death of David, and acces- 
sion of Solomon. 

immences the erection of the 

temple. 
The temple is completed. 
Visit of the queen of Sheba to Solomon. 
Death of Solnmon. Revolt of the ten tribes, 

and division of the Jewish territory into 

the kingdoms of Isi-ael and Judah (q. v.). 

THE BABTLOITISH CAPTIVITY. 



603. Daniel interprets Nebuchadnezzar's first 
dream, and the golden image is set up. 



1014. Solomon 



JEW 



Jehoiachiu from cap- 



561. Evilmerodach 

tivity. 
539. Daniel intei-prets the handwriting on the 

wall to Belshazzar, who is defeated and 

slain by Darius the Mede the same night. 
530. Decree of Cyrus for the restoration of the 

Jews, who, under Zerubbabel, return from 

captivity. 
535. Foundation of the second temple. 
516. The second temple is completed. 
515. The second temple is dedicated. 
463. Artaxerxes stops the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 
458. He mariTles the Jewess Esther. 
457. Ezra is despatched to Judea. 
444. Nehemiah commences his twelve years' 

governorship of Judea, during which he 

rebuilds Jerusalem, and fortifies it with 

walls. 
420. The Old Testament canon ends this year. 

THE JEWS T7NDES THE GEEEK EMPIEE. 

BO. 

332. Alexander the Great, while on his march to 
attacks Jerusalem, is encountered by a pro- 
cession, led by Jaddua, the high-priest, and 
is impressed with so strong a sentiment of 
respect, that he enters the city, and per- 
forms a solemn sacrifice to the God of the 
Jews. 

320. Jerusalem is stormed, and taken by Ptolemy 
Soter. 

312. Antigonus wrests Judea from the power of 
Ptolemy. 

277. The Septuagint translation of the Scriptm-es 
is made by order of Ptolemy Philadeli^hus. 

216. Ptolemy Philopator massacres between 40,000 
and 60,000 Jews in Alexandria. 

203. Antiochus the Great, of Syria, besieges Phoe- 
nicia and Judea. 

200. The sect of the Sadducees is fonned. 

199. Phoenicia and Judea are recovered by the 
Egyptian general Scopas. 

198. Antiochus defeats Scopas, and takes the whole 
of Palestine from Egypt. 

170. Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, takes 
Jerusalem by assault, and massacres 40,000 
of the inhabitants. 

168. Apollonius, general of Antiochus, takes Jeru- 
salem, fortifies the city of David, and 
causes the temple to be dedicated to Jupiter 
Olympius. 

165. Judas Maccabeus commences his insurrection 
against the Syrians. 

163. Antiochus Eupator appoints Judas governor. 

160. Judas concludes the first treaty between the 
Jews and the Romans. 

156. The Syrians withdraw their claim to the 
obedience of the Jews, who are left at 
peace. 

144. Jonathan, prince of the Jews and high-priest, 
is taken prisoner by Ti-yphon, at Ptolemais, 
and put to death. 

130. John Hyrcanus subdues the Idujnseans, and 
compels them to adopt the Jewish faith. 

107. Hyi-canus's son Aristobulus assumes the title 

of king. 
95. The Pharisees provoke an insuiTection against 

Alexander Jannaans. 
70. Aristobulus II. deposes his brother Hyrcanus. 
63. The Romans, under Pompey, take Jerusalem, 
and restore Hyi-canus to the throne as a 
tributary prince. 

THE JEWS UlfDES THE EOMANS. 

B.C. 

57. Alexander, the eldest son of Aristobulus II., 
collects an army, and ravages the country. 

54. Crassus plunders the temple, to obtain treasure 
for the Parthian war. 

49. The deposed Aiistobulus is poisoned by the 
friends of Pompey. 

42. MaiTiage of Herod and Mariamne, grand- 
daughter of Hyrcanus, the Jewish high- 
priest. 



JEW 



40. The Parthians, under Pacorus, invade Judea, 
and restore Antigonus to the kingdom of 
his father Aristobulus. The Roman senate 
proclaims Herod king the same year. 

37. The Romans, under Herod and Socius, take 
Jerusalem, and cTOelly massacre mxmbers 
of the inhabitants. 

31. A dreadful earthquake destroys 30,000 persons 
in Judea. 

29. Herod puts his wife Mariamne to death. 

17. Herod commences the re-erection of the 
temple. 
4. Friday, April 5. The Nativity, four years be- 
fore the incorrect common computation. 

A.D. 

6. Augustus makes the whole kingdom into the 
Roman province of Judea. 

25. Pontius Pilate is appointed procurator of 

Judea. 

26. John the Baptist preaches to the Jews. 

27. Baptism of Christ. 

30. The Passion and Ascension of the Saviour. 
44. Judea is desolated by famine. 

65. The Jews revolt « gainst the Romans. 

68. Vespasian invades Judea. 

70. Titus destroys Jerusalem. 1,100,000 Jews are 
said to have perished during the sie^e, and 
97,000 to have been carried into captivity. 

So. The Jews refuse to pay a tax for the re- 
building of the temple of Jupiter Capi- 
tolinus. 
115, The Jews of Cyrene, Egypt, and Cyprus, rebel 

against the Romans. 
130. Hadrian rebuilds Jerusalem, which he calls 
JElia Capitoliua. The Jews rebel in con- 
sequence. 
135. The war is concluded, and the Jews are 
banished from Juriea, and cease to possess 
a national existence. 



SUBSEQUENT HISTOEY OP THE JEWS. 
A.D. 

202. They are severely persecuted by Septimius 

Severus. 
315. Constantino I. forbids them to persecute 

Jewish converts to Christianity. 
429. Theodosius II. prohibits them from erecting 

synagogues. 
612. The Jews in Spain undergo cruel persecutions. 
623. Mohammed expels them from Medina. 
712. They assist the Moors in the conquest of 

Spain. 
740. A Jewish kingdom is said to be established on 

the shores of the Caspian. 
750. Some Jews settle in England at this date. 
847. The Jews in the East ai-e persecuted by Sultan 
Motavakel. 
1096. The Crusaders, on their march to Palestine, 
massacre about 17,000 European Jews, at 
Treves, Cologne, and other Gei-man cities. 
1180. Philip Augustus banishes them from France. 
1189. Sept. 3. Vast numbers are murdered in 

England at the coronation of Richard I. 
1215. The Council of Lateran orders all Jews 
throughout Chi-istendom to adopt the 
costume called the Kouelle. 
1269. English Jews are prohibited from possessing 

freehold property. 
1290. Edward I. orders their expulsion from 

England. 
1391. The Spanish Jews undergo severe per- 
secution, and about 200,000 submit to 
baptism. 
1394. Charles VT. expels them from Prance. 
1492. The Jews are expelled from Spain. 
1505. All Jewish children in Portugal under four- 
teen years of age are ordered to be given 
up by their parents, and educated as 
Christians. 
1753. A bQl for the naturalization of Jews in 
England is passed ; but it is repealed the 
following year. 
1782. An edict for their limited toleration is issued 
in Austria. 

455 



JEW 



1791. Jews axe admitted as citizens of France, with 

equal rights as Christians. 
1796. The Jews are declared free citizens of the 

Batavian republic. 
1806. Napoleon I. assembles a sanhedrim at Paris, 

and coDfers certain civil privileges on the 

1809. The Society for Promoting Christianity 
among the Jews is founded at London. 

1812. Jews are admitted to civil rights in Prussia. 

1814. Jews are admitted as magistratea in Denmark. 

1835. Oct. 1. Ml-. Salomons is elected sheriff of 
London. 

1837. Nov. 9. Moses Mon+eflore receives the honour 
of knighthood from the Queen, being the 
first example of a Jewish knight. 

1840. Feb. 1. The Jews are persecvited at Damascus. 

1846. Aug. 18. Jews are placed upon tbe same footing 
as Protestant dissenrers, with respect to 
their places of worship, schools, &c., by 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 59, s. 2. 

1852. Sept. 3. The Jews are persecuted at Stockholm. 

1855. Sept. 29. Alderman Salomons is elected Lord 
Mayor of London, being the first Jew that 
has filled the oflBce. 
{See Jewish Disabilities Bill.) 

KINGS OE THE JEWS. 

109.5. Saul. 
1055. David (Judah). 
1053. Ditto (all Israel). 
1015. Solomon. 

975. The Jewish territory is divided into the two 
kingdoms of Judah and Israel (q. v. I. 

Hales gives the following list of kings and 
rulers : — 

BABTLOMAH DTNASTY. 



Nebuchadnezzar 586 I 

Eviknerodach 561 | 



MEDIAU AITD PERSLAif DTTTASTT. 



B.C. 

Darius the Mede . . 553 
Cyi-us the Persian . . 551 

Cambyses 529 

Darius Hystaspes . . 521 



Xerxes 

Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, or Ahas- 



JEWISH HIGH-PRIESTS. 



Eliashib 420 I Jonathan, or John . 

Joiada, or Judas. ... 413 | Jaddua, or Jaddus . 



2IACEDO-GKECIA2T DYNASTY. 
B.C. 



Onias 321 I Simon H 

Simon the Just 300 Onias III 

Eleazer 291 Jesus, or Jason . . . , 

Manasses 276 Onias, or Menelaus 

Onias II 250 1 

ASAMONEAN- PRDTCES. 



B.C. 

Judas Maccabeus . . 163 

Jonathan 160 

Simon 143 

John Hyrcanus I. . . 136 
Aristobulus I. and 
Antigonus 106 



Alexander 

nseus 

Alexandra . . . . 
Hyrcanus II. . . 
Aristobulus II. 



KOaiAlT DYNASTY. 
B.C. 

Hyrcanus EL (again) 63 | Antigonus 

IDtniOEAir KUTG. 



Eerod the Great 
456 



JOH 



Haep, or Jews' -Teump. — This mu- 
sical instrument, deriving its name from a " 
corruption of the French jeu frompe, toy- 
trumpet, is mentioned in a rare black-letter 
book, called " IS'ewes from Scotland," a.d. 
1-591, where it is related that one G-eilles 
Duncan, a servant-girl celebrated for her 
performance upon this instrument, played 
before King James YI. of Scotland. One 
M. Eulenstein excited considerable interest 
by performing on sixteen of these instru- 
ments at the Eoyal Institution, and various 
pubhc concerts. Fools used to play upon 
the Jews' -harp, to amuse the guests at 
taverns. It is also called Jaws' -harp, which 
Douce maintains to be its proper name, 
because played upon between the jaws. 

Jhansi (Hindostan). — This province be- 
came connected by treaty with the East-India 
Company a.d. 1804, and was made a tributary 
province in 1817. It was ceded to the British 
government in 1854. 

JiONPOOE, or JoANPOOE (Hindostan), 
the chief town of a district bearing the same 
name, which came into possession of the 
British a.d. 1775. The fort is of great 
strength, and was built in 1370 by the sultan 
of Delhi. On the sacking of Delhi by the 
triumphant hordes of Tamerlane in 1398, 
Jionpoor passed from under the royal sway, 
but was again annexed to the empire in 1478. 
In 1570, having become much dilapidated, 
the fort was put into a state of thorough re- 
pair by the governor of Bengal. 

Jo ACHiMiTES. — This heretical sect, founded 
by Joachim, abbot of Flora, in Calabria, was 
condemned by the Lateran council in 1215, 
and by the council of Aries in 1260, or 1261. 
The Joachimites were a branch of the Fra- 
ticeUi, or Spirituahsts. 

Joachim, St. (Order of) .—This equestrian 
order of Franconia was founded a.d. 1755, 
by an association of yovmger members of the 
German aristocracy. It was originally named 
the " Order of Defenders of the Honour of 
Divine Providence," and received its present 
title in 1785. Lord Nelson was admitted into 
this order April 3, 1802. 

JoHif (king of England), the youngest 
child and the fifth son of Henry II. and 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, was born at Oxford 
Dec. 24, 1166, and was crowned at West- 
minster May 27 (Ascension-day), 1199. 
He divorced his wife Isabel, the earl of 
Gloucester's daughter, in order to marry 
Isabel of Angouleme, who was crowned at 
Westminster, Oct. 8, 1200. By his second 
wife he had two sons and three daughters ; 
namely, Henry, afterwards king, and Eichard, 
duke of Cornwall, who was born in 1209, and 
died in 1271 . His daughters were Joan, mar- 
ried to Alexander II. of Scotland ; Eleanora, 
to the earl of Pembroke, and afterwards to 
Simon of Montfort ; and Isabel, to the em- 
peror Frederick II. John died at Newark 
Oct. 19, 1216, and was buried at Worcester. 

John's, St. (IN ewfoundland), the chief town 
of the island, was fortified by Queen Eliza- 
beth A.D. 1583, when she formally claimed its 
sovereignty. The French were" repulsed ia 



I 



JOH 

attacks upon St. John's in 1705, 1708, and 
1762. On the last occasion they obtained 
possession of St. John's. The garrison ca- 
pitulated to an Enghsh force Sept. 18, 1762. 
The town sujffered considerably from fires, 
in 1815, 1817, 1818, and June 9, 1846. On the 
last-mentioned occasion the town was almost 
entirely destroyed. 

John's (St.) College (Cambridge) was 
founded in 1511, in pursuance of the wiU 
of Margaret, countess of Kichmond, who 
died in 1509. 

John's (St.) College (Oxford). — ^King 
Henry VIII. granted St. Bernard's College, 
an educational establishment of the Cister- 
cians, founded in the time of Henry VI., to 
Christ Church, Oxford; and Sir Thomas 
White, a Muscovy merchant, twice lord 
mayor of London, purchased it in 1555, and 
founded St. John's College, March 5, 1557. 
Archbishop Laud added a second quadrangle, 
commenced in 1631 and completed in 1635, 
from a design by Inigo Jones. 

Johnston, or St. John's Town (Battle). — ■ 
Aymer de Valence defeated Bruce, who had 
incited the Scottish people to rebel against 
England, at this place, in Scotland, July 22, 
1306. 

Johobe (Malacca), the capital of an 
independent state of the same name, was 
founded by some refugees from the town of 
Malacca, which was captured by the Por- 
tuguese A.D. 1511. In 1608 the new prin- 
eipahty was conquered by the Portuguese, 
and in 1613 it passed into the power of the 
sultan of Acheen. 

Joint -Stock Companies Acts, — The 
registration, incorporation, and general 
management of joint -stock companies 
were regulated by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 110 (Sept. 5, 
1844), which was amended by 10 & 11 Vict. 
e. 78 (July 22, 1847). The Companies 
Clauses Consohdation Act, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 16 
(May 8, 1845), united into one act certain 
provisions usually inserted in acts with 
respect to the constitution of joint-stock 
companies. The dissolution and winding 
up of the aiFairs of companies were facilitated 
by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 45 (Aug. 14, 1848), which 
was amended by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 108 (Aug. 1, 
1849). The Limited Liability Act, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 133 (Aug. 14, 1855), enabled all joint- 
stock companies with a capital divided into 
shares of not less than £10 each, to obtain 
a, certificate of complete registration with 
limited Mability upon certain stated con- 
ditions. The laws relating to aU joint- 
stock companies, except those formed for 
purposes of banking and insurance, were 
consolidated and amended by the Joint- 
Stock Companies Act, 19 & 20 Vict. e. 47 
(July 14, 1856), which was again amended 
by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 14 (July 13, 1857), and 
by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 60 (July 23, 1858). 

JoNKOPiNG, (Treaty,) was concluded 
between Sweden and Denmark, at this town, 
in Sweden, Dec. 10, 1809. 

JouENAL DES Savants. — This Celebrated 
French review, estabhshed by Denis de 
Sallo, Jan. 5, 1665, was suspended in 1792. 



JUD 

It was re-estabhshed in 1797; again sus- 
pended in 1802 ; and resuscitated, with an 
annual subsidy of 25,000 francs, by Louis 
XVIII. in 1816. 

Journals of the Hottse op Commons. — 
The official record of the proceedings of this 
department of the legislative body com- 
menced Nov. 8, 1547. They were not kept 
with any degree of regularity until 1607. 

Journals op the House op Lords. — 
The record of the business in the House of 
Lords was commenced a.d. 1509. It was first 
ordered to be printed in 1767. 

Juan Fernandez (Pacific) . — This island 
was discovered by Juan Fernandez, a Spa- 
nish navigator, a.d. 1567. Alexander Selkirk 
having quarrelled with his captain in a bu- 
caneering expedition, was set on shore here 
in September, 1704. He remained in soh- 
tude four years and four months, and was 
rescued by an Enghsh vessel in February, 
1709. He arrived in England in 1711, and 
an account of his extraordinary adventures 
is said to have given Daniel Defoe the 
idea of the story of " Eobinson Crusoe," 
of which the first edition appeared in two 
volumes in 1719. In 1750 the Spaniards 
formed a colony here, and it was soon after- 
wards destroyed by an earthquake. 

Jubilee. — The Jews celebrated a jubilee 
every fifty years (Lev. xxv. 8), B.C. 1490. 
A jubilee once a century, for granting plenary 
indulgences, was first estabhshed by Boni- 
face VIII. A.D, 1300, Clement VI., in 1350, 
reduced the period of the jubilee to fifty 
years; Urban VI., in 1389, appointed it 
to be held every thirty-five years; and 
Sixtus IV., in 1475, reduced the term to 
twenty -five years. It has been observed 
with great regularity by the popes. The 
centenary of the Reformation was celebrated 
in Germany by a Protestant jubilee in 1617. 
The Shakespeare Jubilee was held at Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon, Sept. 6, 1769. A jubilee 
was celebrated in England at the commence- 
ment of the fiftieth year of George the 
Third's reign, Oct. 25, 1809. The close of 
the revolutionary war was celebrated in 
England by a jubilee, Aug, 1, 1814. 

Judah. — On the revolt of the ten tribes 
(1 Kings xii. 1 — 19), B.C. 975, the Jewish 
territory was divided into the kingdoms of 
Israel (q.v.) and Judah. The kingdom of 
Judah lasted from B.C. 975 to b,c, 606. {See 
Jews.) 



Rehoboam, king of Judah. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, invades Judah and 

plunders Jerusalem (1 Kings xiv. 25). 
Asa abolishes idolatry (1 Kings xv. 12). 
Asa defeats the Eihiopians (2 Chron. xiv. 

9-12). 
Asa induces the people to enter into a covenant 

with God (2 Chron. xv. 12). 
Asa obtains the aid of the king of Syria against 

Baasha (1 Kings xv. 16-20). 
Jehoshaphat joins Ahab against the Syi-ians. 
Jehoshaphat defeats a combined army of 

Ammonites, Moabites, and Syrians (2 Chron 

XX. 22). 
Ahaziah is slain at Jezreel (2 Chron. xx. 9), 
Queen Athaliah is slain (2 Kings xi. 20). 
457 



JUD 



856. Joash gives orders for the repairs of the temple 

(2 Kings xii. 4). 
840. Joash is kUled by his servants (2 Kings xii. 21). 
827. Aniaziah invades the Edomites, and slays ten 

thousand iu Mount Seir (2 Kings xiv. 7). 
70-5. Uzziah becomes a leper (2 Kings xv. 5). 
7-58. Isaiah begins to prophesy. 
742. Pekah, king of Isi-ael, and Rezin, king of 

Syria, invade Judah (2 Kings xvi. 5). 
741. Pekah ravages Judah (2 Chron. xxviii. 6). 
726. Hezekiah effects a reformation. 
713. Sennacherib invades Judah for the first time 

(2 Kings xviii. 13). 
712. Ambassadors from Babylon arrive in Judah. 

(2 Kings XX. 12 — 13). 
710. Sennacherib invades Judah for the second 

time. By divine interposition 18-3,000 of ! 

his soldiers perish in one night, and the I 

invaders retire (2 Kings xviii. 17, &c. ). I 

678. The king of Babylon places different nations j 

in ^maria, and expels the Israelites 

(2 Kings xvii. 24). 
643. Slanasseh is taken prisoner, and carried to 

Babylon, by the king of Assyria (2 Chron. 

xxxiii. 11). 
624. Josiah effects a reformation la religion 

(2 K'ngs xxii.). 
623. Josiah celebrates a solemn passover (2 Kings 

xxiii 21). 
609. Jeremiah predicts the captivity of the Jews, 

and the destruction of Jerusalem. 
606. Jeremiah predicts the seventy years' captivity. 

Fii-st reading of the Roll. Nebuchadnezzar, 

king of Babylon, takes Jerusalem and 

carries off several of the Jews into captivity 

in Babylon (2 Kiogs xxiv. and xxv.). 
605. Second reading of the EolL 
599. More captives caiTied into Babylon. 
597. Duration of the captivity and the restoration 

predicted. 

KINGS OF JUDAH. 





Authorized 








Version of 


Clinton. 


Winer. 




Eng. Bible. 








B.C. 


B.C. 


B.C. 




975 


976 


975 


Abijah 


9-58 
953 
914 


959 
956 
915 


9.57 


Asa 


955 


Jehoshaphat 


914 


Jeboram 


892 


891 


889 


Ahaziah 


885 


884 


885 


Athaliah 


884 


883 


884 


Jehoash 


878 


877 


878 


Amaziah 




837 


838 


Uzziah, or Aza- 1 
riah ; 


810 


808 


809 


Jotham 


758 


756 


758 


Ahaz 


742 
726 


741 
726 


741 


Hezekiah 


725 


Manasseh 


698 


697 


696 


Amon 


643 
641 
610 


642 
640 
609 


641 




639 


Jehoahaz 


609 


Jehoiachim 


610 


609 


609 


Jehoiachin, or 1 
Coniah / 


599 


598 


598 


Zedekiah 


599 


598 


598 


Jerusalem de- \ 
stroyed j 


588 


587 


586 



Jttdenbteg, (Armistice,) for six days, was 
signed at this place, tlie ancient Idunum, be- 
tween tlie French and the Austrians, April 
7, 1797. The preliminaries of peace were 
signed at Leoben April 17, and this led to 
the treaty of Campo-Formio, concluded 
Oct. 17. 

m 



JUL 

Judges were appointed by God to rule 
over the people of Israel (Judges ii. 16) B.C. 
1405. Joshua and the elders ruled from B.C. 
1451 to B.C. 1095. The govemment by judges 
lasted from B.C. 1405 to B.C. 1095 ; or, accord- 
ing to Hales, from B.C. 1564 to B.C. 1110. 

Judges of Assize. (-See Assize Couets.) 

Judicial Committee op the Pkity 
Council, composed of the lord president, 
the lord chancellor, and such members of 
the privy council as from time to time hold 
certain high judicial offices, was instituted by 
3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 41 (Aug. 14, 183-3). It is 
a court of appeal in ecclesiastical and mari- 
time causes. 

JuGGEEU-ATH, or the 'Lord of the World,' 
the name of a celebrated temple at Jugger- 
nath, in the province of Cuttack, India, com- 
pleted A.D. 1198. It came into the possession 
of the British in 1803. A pilgrim-tax, insti- 
tuted by Sir George Barlow in 1806, was 
repealed by Lord Auckland in 1839. The 
allovrance made by the East-India Company 
to the temple was "discontinued in June, 1851. 

Jugglers, adepts in the art of juggling, 
existed as early as B.C. 1491, when Pharaoh's 
magicians imitated the miracles ^Derformed 
by Aaron (Exod. vii. ) . The Chiuese and the 
Aztecs took great deHght iu witnessing the 
performances of jugglers. The practice of the 
art was attended with considerable danger 
in former times. A horse which had been 
taught to perform a number of tricks, was 
QODclemned to the flames and actually burnt 
at Lisbon, a.d. 1601. In 1739 a juggler in 
Poland was tortured until he confessed that 
he was a sorcerer, and was then hanged. 

JuGUETHiNE Wae was Waged by the 
Eoman repubhe against Jugurtha, king of 
N'umidia, B.C. 111. The consul Calphurnius, 
in the first year of the war, concluded a peace 
with Jugurtha, on condition that he should 
submit to Rome. It was not observed, and, 
B.C. 109, Aula having been defeated, entered 
into a treaty which the Eoman government 
disavowed. The struggle was conducted on 
the part of the Romans by the famous Caius 
Marius. Jugurtha was killed, and his do- 
minions made a Roman province, B.C. 106. 

Julian- Peeiod was first properly ex- 
plained by Joseph Justus Scahger, in his 
" De Emendatione Temporum," published at 
Paris A.D. 1583, and at Geneva in 1629. 
ScaUger corrected certain inaccuracies in 
that work in his "Thesaurus Temporum," 
&c. The period consists of 7980 years. It 
commenced B.C. 4714, and will close a.d. 
3266. HaUam says that Scahger was very 
proud of the invention, of which he confesses 
himself imable to perceive the great advan- 
tage. 

JiJLiCH, or Juliees (Prussia), the ancient 
Juliacum, so called from its supposed founder 
Julius Caesar, was, with the adjoining terri- 
tory, made a duchy a.d . 1356. On the extinc- 
tion of the ducal Hne in 1609, Maurice of 
K^assau seized the duchy. Several sovereigns 
laid claim to it, and Juliers was taken by the 
Spaniards in 1622. It was allotted to the 
count palatine of Ifeuburg by the peace of 



JUL 

the Pyrenees, N'ov. 7, 1659. The French 
seized it, and annexed it to France in 1794, 
and it was ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

July. — This month, which is now the 
seventh, was with the Eomans the fifth 
month of the year, being called QuintiUs. 
Mark Antony (b.c. 49 — a. d. 31) changed 
its name to Juhus, after Csesar, who was born 
in this month. The Anglo-Saxons called it 
Msed-monath, or "mead-month," because 
the meads were then in bloom. 

Jumpers. — This sect, akin to the Dancers 
of the 14th century, arose among the Welsh 
Calvinistic Methodists, about a.d. 1760. 
They received their name from their habit 
of jumping during the celebration of their 
rehgious rites. 

June was the fourth month in the old 
Eoman calendar. Numa (b c. 716 — 672) 
gave it the sixth place, which it has since 
retained. 

JuNiOB University Cltjb (London) was 
built A.D. 1837, Sydney Smirke being the 
architect. 

JuNius's Letters were published in the 
Public Advertiser under the signature of " Ju- 
nius." The first letter appeared Jan. 21, 1769, 
and the last, making the sixty-ninth, in Jan. 

1772. The first authorized edition, printed 
under the author's inspection, was pubHshed 
in London, March 3, 1772, and was issued vnth 
an index and a table of contents in March, 

1773. The question of the authorship of 
these celebrated pohtical letters has excited 
considerable controversy. They have been 
attributed to various persons, and the ques- 
tion remains undecided. 

JuNONiA. — These festivals, in honour of 
Juno, were instituted at Eome B.C. 4<30. 
The chief, called the Matronalia, was ob- 
served on the 1st day of March. 

Jury. — Trial by twelve compurgators, 
which was of canonical origin, existed in 
Anglo-Saxon times, and only resembled 
what is now known as trial by jury in the 
number of persons sworn. Under the name 
of Wager of Law, it continued to be the law 
of England until abolished by 3 & 4 WiU. IV. 
c, 42 (Aug. 14, 1833). Traces of trial by 
jury are found in the reigns of WiUiam I. 
and II., Henry I., and Stephen ; but it 
was not fully estabhshed until the reign of 
Henry II. Trial by jury was first adopted 
in criminal cases in the reign of John 
(a.d. 1189—1199), and was the established 
mode of dealing vsdth them at the end 
of the 13th century. Witnesses were ex- 
amined, and evidence was first laid before 
juries, in the reign of Henry VI. (a.d. 1422 
— 1461) ; but this change was not fully 
carried out tiU the time of Edward VL 
([a.d. 1547—1553). The laws respecting 
juries were remodelled by 6 Geo. IV. c. 50 
(June 22, 1825). 

Jury Court (Scotland) was estabhshed 
as subsidiary to the Court of Session by 55 
Geo. III. c. 42 (1815). Improvements were 
introduced into these courts, which were 
made a permanent part of the judicial 
establishment of Scotland, by 69 Geo. Ill, 



JtT 

c. 35 (1819). This court, as a separate tri- 
bunal, was abohshed by 1 Will. IV. c. 69 
(July 23, 1830). 

Justices in Eyre, or Itinerant Justices, 
the judicial representatives of the royal au- 
thority, were regularly estabhshed by the 
parhament held at Northampton Jan. 26, 
1176. They received a delegated power 
from the aularegia, and made their circuit 
round the kingdom once in seven years. By 
the 12th article of Magna Charta, in 1215, 
they were ordered to be sent into the 
country once a year. {See Assize.) 

Justices of the Peace. — Conservators 
(q. V.) of the peace received this title when, 
by 34 Edw. III. c. 1 (1360), the power of 
trying felonies was intrusted to them. From 
an entry in the Harleian MSS., it appears 
that the countess of Eiehmond, mother of 
Henry VII., was a justice of the peace. The 
form of the commission by which justices of 
the peace are appointed, was settled by the 
judges in 1590. The jurisdiction of justices 
at quarter sessions is defined by 6 & 6 Vict. 
c. 38 (June 30, 1842). The office is noticed 
in Scotland in the act of 1587. 

Justiciar of Scotland. — Geoffrey of 
MalevQle, in the reign of Malcolm IV. 
(a.d. 1153 — 1165), is the first person holding 
this office of whom any record remains. 

Justiciars. — These high officers were first 
appointed in the time of William I., and six, 
ad audiendum clamores populi in Curia Segis, 
were appointed at a parhament held by 
Henry II. at Windsor, in April, 1179. 

Justiciary (Chief), or Grand Justi- 
ciary. — An officer who acted as president 
of the Curia Eegis, or King's Court, in the 
absence of the king, was fijst appointed by 
William I. Henry III. made Hubert de 
Burgh chief justiciary for hfe about a.d. 
1227. The last who held the office was 
PhiHp Basset, appointed during the reign of 
Henry III. (a.d. 1216—1272). 

Justinian Code. — This ' comijilation of 
Eoman laws, ordered to be made by the 
emperor Justinian I., was promulgated 
April 7, 528 a.d. A revised edition was 
issued Nov. 16, 534. 

Just, or Yust, St. (Spain). — This cele- 
brated monastery of the order of St. Jerome 
was founded by two hermits from Placeutia, 
A.D. 1404, and confirmed by a papal buU in 
1408. It is remarkable as the retreat of 
the emperor Charles V. after his abdication 
of the crown. He arrived here Wednesday, 
Feb. 3, 1557, and died Sept. 21, 1558. The 
monastery was, in consequence, honoured 
with the title of royal. Its privileges were 
confirmed in 1562 by Phihp II., who sojourned 
here for two days in 1570. It was repaired 
by Phihp IV, in 1638 ; but was pillaged and 
burned by a party of Soult's foragers, 
Aug. 9, 1809. The destruction thus com- 
menced was continued by the church re- 
formers of Cuacos, who stole what the 
French had spared, July 4, 1821, and was 
completed by the monastic sequestrations of 
1835. 

JtJTEEBOCK (Prussia), — At this town 



JUT 

Tetzel commeneed tlie sale of papal indul- 
gences A.D. 1517. A conference was held at 
Jiiterbock in 1523, by the German Lutheran 
princes, to adopt measures against the eifects 
of the Edict of Worms. This conference 
resulted in the League of Torgau (1526). 
The Swedish general Torstenson defeated the 
Austrians under GaUas at this place iu 1644. 
Jutland (Denmark). — This peninsula was 
the cradle of the Danes and N"orthmen, whose 
ravages were for so long the terror of Europe. 
During the 10th and 11th centuries the entire 
surface was covered with forests. The Jutes, 
who established themselves in Kent and 
Hampshire, came from Jutland. It was 
overrun by WaUenstein a.d. 1627, and re- 
stored to Denmark by the treaty of Liibeck 
in 1630. The allies occupied the south of 
Jutland in 1813, and an armistice was con- 
cluded with Denmark Dec. 15, 1813. This 
led to a treaty between Denmark and Great 
Britain and Sweden, concluded at Kiel 
Jan. 14, 1814. 



KABBEtJAtrWETT AND HOEKS, OT HOOKS, 

the former signifying the Cod-fish party, 
and the latter the Fish-hooks, were two 
factions that arose iu the Netherlands about 
1347, soon after the death of William IV., 
" dividing," as the historian remarks, " noble 
against noble, city against city, father against 
son, for some hundred and fifty years, without 
foundation upon any abstract or intelligible 
principle." In the end, the Kabbeljauwen 
represented the city, or municipal faction, 
and the Hoeks the nobles, who were to 
catch and control them. The Hoeks were 
defeated ia a naval action July 21, 1490, by 
the fleet of the Kabbeljauwen, commanded 
by Jan von Egmont. 

Kagtjl (Battle).— The Eussians defeated 
the Turks in a great battle on the left bank 
of the river Kagul, or Kabul, Aug. 1, 1770. 

Kainlt (Battle).— The Eussians, after a 
severe struggle, defeated the Turks in the 
plaiu of Kainly, near Erzeroum, July 1, 
1829. 

Kaiseeslatjteett (Germany). — The castle 
of this very ancient town was built by 
Frederick I. (Barbarossa), who reigned 
from A.D. 1152— 1190. The French, under 
Hoche, failed in an attack upon the aUied 
army near this town, Nov. 28, 1793. A 
French army was defeatedhere by MoUendorf, 
May 24, 1794, with a loss of 3,000 men and 
several pieces of cannon. 

Kalaeat (WaUachia). — At the commence- 
ment of the Eussian war, a Turkish force of 
12,000 men took possession of this town, 
Oct. 28, 1853. An attempt made to dislodge 
them by a corps of Eussians, 20,000 strong, 
led to the spirited engagement of Citate, in 
which the Turks were victorious, Jan. 6, 
1854. They fortified the town, and main- 
tained their position tiU Austria entered the 
Principalities, by virtue of a treaty signed 
June 14, 1854. 



KAN 

Kaleidoscope. — This optical instrument 
was invented in 1814 by Sir David Brewster, 
and patented by him in 1817. 

Kalisch (Poland) was founded in the 
7th century, and its citadel was built by 
Casimir III., who reigned a.d. 1333—1370. 
Here the Eussians defeated the Swedes, 
Nov. 19, 1706 ; and the Eussians defeated 
the Saxon infantry, commanded by Eeynier, 
Feb. 13, 1813. The latter victory was fol- 
lowed by the " Treaty of Kalisch" between 
Eussia and Prussia, signed Feb. 28, 1813. 
A secret convention between the Austrian 
and Saxon commanders, to allow the troops 
of the latter a passage through the imperial 
territories, was concluded at this place about 
the end of March, 1813. A conference was 
held at Kalisch between the emperor of 
Eussia and the king of Prussia, in October, 
1835. 

Kalka (Battle).— The Mongols defeated 
the Eussians and the Cumans on the banks 
of this river, June 16, 1224. 

Kalttnga Fokt (Hindostan) was unsuc- 
cessfully attacked by the British under 
Major-General Gillespie, who fell in the 
assault, Oct. 31, 1814. A second storming 
party under Colonel Mawby also failed, 
Nov. 27, and the fort was evacuated by the 
Nepaulese garrison on the 30th. These 
events occurred during what is termed the 
Ghoorka war. 

Kamineieck or Kaminietz (European 
Eussia). — This town was founded by the 
sons of Olgherd, a.d. 1331, and was erected 
into a city in 1374. In 1672 it was seized 
by the Turks, to whom it was ceded in 1676. 
They surrendered it to the Poles in 1699. 
The Eussians took it in 1793, and demoHshed 
the fortifications in 1812 ; but they have since i| 
been rebuilt. 

Kamtschatka (Siberia) was discovered 
by some Eussians, who had been wrecked 
upon the coast, a.d. 1649. The Cossacks 
penetrated into the country in 1690, and 
the Eussians took possession in 1696, though 
they did not succeed in subjugating the 
inhabitants until 1706. Behring ascertained 
that it was a peninsula in 1728. 

Kandahae ( Afighanistan ), though said 
by some authorities to have been founded 
by Lohrasp, a Persian Mng, who flourished 
at a very early period, is generally sup- 
posed to have been founded by Alexander 
the Great, diiring his campaigns in Asia, 
B.C. 334 — 323. In the beginning of the 
11th century it was held by the AiFghan 
tribes, from whom it was taken by the Sultan 
Mahmoud of Ghiznee. Zenghis EJian seized 
it towards the commencement of the 13th 
century, and Timour in the 14th. In 1507 
the emperor Baber took it; but beingunable 
to retain possession, he again laid siege to 
it in 1521, and effected its capture after a 
determined resistance. In 1625 it fell tmder 
the power of Shah Abbas the Great, from 
whom it was recovered in 1649. In 1747 it 
was taken by Ahmed Shah, who made it the 
capital of Aflghanistan. The seat of govern- 
ment was, however, transferred to Cabul iu 



1774. During the Aft'ghan war, a British 
force occupied the town from 1839 to 1842. 

Kandy (Ceylon) was captured by Eajah 
Singha I., a.d. 1582. In February, 1803, it 
was seized by the British, who evacuated it 
June 24, after a most disastrous occupation. 
Kandy was once more conquered by the 
English, Feb. 14, 1815, and soon after ceded 
to Great Britain. (See Ceylon.) 

Kangaeoo Island (Gulf St. Vincent) 
was discovered by FHnders, a.d. 1802, and 
thus named by him from the numbers of 
kangaroos seen sporting about in every open 
spot. 

KAif&RAH (Punjaub), an important for- 
tress, taken a.d. 1010 by Mahmoud of 
Ghiznee, and recaptured in 1043 by the 
rajah of Delhi. It came into the possession 
of England on the annexation of the Punjaub 
in 1849. 

Kanoge (Hindostan).— This town in the 
province of Agra was anciently a place of 
great importance, and the capital of a pow- 
erful empire. Kajahs of Kanoge are men- 
tioned as early as a.d. 1008. It was con- 
quered by Mahmoud of Ghiznee in 1018, but 
did not long remain in his possession. It 
has lost aU its ancient renown, and is now 
notorious for the shelter its ruins afford to 
robbers and other criminals. 

Kansas (North America) formed part 
of Louisiana, purchased by the United States 
government from France, a.d. 1803. Kansas 
was erected into a territory in 1854, and ad- 
mitted into the Union fts an independent 
state in 1856. A convention to frame a con- 
stitution for the new state met in September, 
1857. A resolution to appoint a committee 
to investigate certain charges against Presi- 
dent Buchanan, of having used bribes and 
other influence in order to insure the success 
of a bill legalizing slavery in this state, was 
adopted by the House of Kepresentatives, 
March 5, 1860. 

Kapolna (Battle). — The Austrians de- 
feated the Hungarians in a series of en- 
counters near Kapolna, Feb. 26 and 27, 
1849. 

Karegites, or Chaeegites. — A Moham- 
medan sect, which repudiated the authority 
of Ali, A.D. 657. They were reduced to sub- 
mission in 659. Three of their number 
entered into another conspiracy against Ali, 
who was stabbed by one of them in a mosque 
at Cufa, and died two days afterwards, Jan. 21, 
661. The term Karegite, deserter, or rebel, 
was apphed to all who revolted from the lawful 
Imam. 

Kaknak (Egypt).— Nothing certain is 
known respecting the foundation of this 
temple, which contains sculptures, vdth in- 
scriptions, for the most part of the time of 
Eameses III., b.c. 1200. The great hall, 
however, is ascertained to' have been built 
by Sethee I., b.c. 1340. Fragments have 
been found bearing the name of Sesor- 
tasen I., b.c. 2080. 

Kaks (Asiatic Turkey) .—Once the capital 
of the Chorzene district, in Armenia, the 
residence of the Bagratid princes, a.d. 928— 



KEN 

961. It was exchanged by them in 1064, and 
has since been known linder the name of 
Kars. It contains a castle, built by Amu- 
rath III., A.D. 1586, and besieged in 1735 by 
Nadir Shah, who, after cutting off a Turkish 
army of 100,000 men, abandoned the en- 
terprise. The Russians blockaded the town 
for a few months in 1806. Paskiewitch 
laid siege to it July 7, 1828, and captured it 
July 15. The Turkish garrison, commanded 
by General Williams, held out gallantly 
against the investing army of Russia from 
June 16, 1855, tiU compelled by a famine to 
capitulate, Nov. 25. The general assault 
made by the Russians Sept. 29 was repulsed. 
Kars was restored to the Turks by the 
third article of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 
1856. 

Kashgae, or Cashgae (China), anciently 
called Sule, existed before the Christian sera, 
and after exchanging rulers several times, was 
conquered by the Chinese a.d. 1759, Marco 
Polo visited it about a.d. 1275. 

Katzbach (Battle). — Blucher defeated 
the French, commanded by Ney, on the 
banks of the Katzbach, Aug. 26, 1813. 

Keeling, or Cocos Islands (Indian 
Ocean), were discovered by Keeling in 1609. 

Kehl ( Germany ) was captured by the 
French, under Marshal ViUars, March 9, 
1703, and by the Duke de Berwick in Decem- 
ber, 1733. Moreau surprised the fort June 23, 
1796. The Austrians attempted to recover 
it by a coup de main, but failed, Sept. 18, 

1796. After a siege of fifty days, the French 
surrendered to the imperial general, Jan. 9, 

1797. Kehl was again given up to the 
French, April 21, 1797, and, by a decree of 
the senate, was annexed to the French 
empire, Jan. 21, 1807. It was finally restored 
to Baden by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 
1814. 

Kelat, or Khelat (Beloochistan). — This 
strongly-fortified tovm was stormed by the 
English on Nov. 13, 1839. The khan and 
several of his chiefs fell in the struggle. It 
was left under the care of a garrison of 
native troops, who surrendered, after a 
defence of three days' duration, to Meer 
Nusseer Khan, July 27, 1840. The Beloo- 
chees having plundered the town, abandoned 
it, and the British troops regained posses- 
sion Nov. 3, 1840. 

Kemaoon, Kumaon (Hindostan). — The 
whole of this district was ceded to the East- 
India Company by the convention of Almo- 
rah, April 27, 1815. 

Kemmendine (Burmah). — This fortified 
post was captured by the British troops 
June 10, 1824, during the Burmese war. 
The Burmese failed in an attempt to recap- 
ture the place, Dec. 1 in the same year. 

Kenilwoeth Castle ( Warvdckshire) . — 
This celebrated castle was buUt about 1123 
by Geoffrey de Chnton, on land granted for 
the purpose by Henry I. In 1172 it was 
garrisoned by Henry II. against his rebel- 
lious sons ; and in 1253 was bestowed for 
life upon Simon of Montfort, earl of Lei- 
cester. After the battle of Evesham (g, v.), 
461 



KEX 

Kenilwortli was held by Montfort's second 
son, Simon, and was taken by Henry III. 
after a six montlis' siege. In 1286 Eoger 
Mortimer held a great chivalric meeting or 
*' roTind table " in this castle, which was 
enlarged by John of Gaunt in 1391. In 
1414 Henry V. kept his Lent here, and 
received a present of tennis-balls from 
the French dauphin ; and Queen Elizabeth 
was entertained here with great magnificence 
by Eobert Dudley, earl of Leicester, ia 1575. 
She arrived July 9, and prolonged her visit 
for seventeen days. The decline of Keml- 
worth commenced during the civil wars, 
when it was given by Cromwell to some of 
his officers, by whom it was dismantled. It 
is now in ruins. 

Ket^net (Battle). — The Danes defeated 
Ethelred II. at Kennet, a.d. 1006. Ethelred 
retired into Shropshire, and assembled the 
witan, when it was determined to make a 
truce with the invaders to give them food 
and pay tribute. In the foUowiug year 
36,000 pounds of gold were paid. 

KENJfiiTGTGJf Common (Surrey). — On this 
common, near London, Jemmy 'Dawson was 
hanged, drawn, and quartered, July 30, 
1746. The Chartists, headed by Feargus 
O'Connor, held a memorable meeting here, 
April 10, 1848, which proved a complete 
failure as far as the objects of its projectors 
were concerned. Kennington Common was 
ordered to be inclosed and converted into 
a public pleasure-ground by 15 & 16 Vict, 
c. 29 (June 17, 1852). 

Kensal-Geeen Cemetehy (London). — 
The cemetery at this place, on the Harrow 
Eoad, was laid out by a joint-stock company 
incorporated by act of Parliament in 1831. 
It was opened Jan 31, 1832, and consecrated 
JS'ov. 2. 

Kensingtoh- Palace and Gabdens 
(London). — From the Close EoU, temp. 
Edward I., it appears that a council was 
held Aug. 23, 1302, "in the king's cham- 
ber at Kensington." Kensington House 
was the seat of Heneage Finch, earl of 
IS'ottiagham, whose son sold it to King 
WOliam III. soon after his accession, and 
he converted it into a royal palace. Queen 
Victoria was born here May 24, 1819, and 

held her first coimcil here in 1836. The 

Serpentine was formed between the years 
1730 and 1733, and the bridge over it, which 
separates the gardens from Hyde Park, 
was erected from the designs of Eennie in 
1826. 

Kent (England), on the coast of which 
Caesar lauded B.C. 55, was erected into a 
kingdom by Heugist, a.d. 455. Ethelbert, 
its king, A.D. 568 — 616, was the first Chris- 
tian monarch ia England. It was united to 
Wessex in 824. Alfred made it a county in 
886. 

Kent (Loss of the).— The Kent, East- 
Indiaman, 1,400 tons burden, carrying troops 
and passengers, amounting with the crew to 
637 souls, left the Downs in the middle of 
February, 1825, and after experiencing much 
bad weather in the Bay of Biscay, took fire 
462 



KET 

March 1. The flames spread with frightful 
rapidity, owing to the violence of the gale, 
and all on board were in expectation of 
perishing, when they were rescued by the 
Cambria, Captain Cook, bound for Mexico. 
Out of the whole number of people on 
board, 554 were saved, and the ill-fated 
vessel blew up at two o'clock on the morning 
of the 2nd of March. 

Kentish Petition, drawn up at the as- 
sizes at Maidstone, April 29, 1701, and signed 
by the grand jury, several magistrates, and 
freeholders, was presented to the House of 
Commons May 8. The petitioners besought 
that assembly to " drop their disputes, have 
regard to the voice of the people, and 
change their loyal addresses into bills of 
supply," The House refused to entertain 
the petition, and imprisoned WUham Cole- 
pepper and four other persons who had 
presented it. This act provoked a memo- 
rial, which charged the Commons, under 
fifteen points, -nith tyranny and oppression. 
A new parhament, which met Dec. 30, 1701, 
again committed Colepepper to prison, and 
passed resolutions in answer to the Kentish 
Petition, Feb. 26, 1702. 

Kentitckt (North America) was first 
visited by Europeans a.d. 1767, and settled 
in 1775. It originally formed part of Vir- 
ginia. A division took place in 1790, when 
its first constitution was framed, and Ken- 
tucky was admitted into the Union as an 
independent state in 1792. A new consti- 
tution was drawn up in 1799, and another ia 
1850. 

Keeaites. — Some Tartar tribes who were 
converted to Christianity in the early part 
of the 11th century. Their princes were 
known under the title of Prester John. 

Keebestee. {See Coebisdale.) 

Keeesztes (Battle). — Mohammed III. de- 
feated the Germans in the plain of Keresztea 
A.D. 1596. 

Keeguelen Land. {See Desolation" 
Island.) 

Keetch (Crimea), on the site of the 
ancient Pantieapseum, became a Milesian 
settlement about b.c. 500. Panticapaeum 
was the capital of the kingdom of Bosporus 
{q.v.). It was annexed to the Eoman em- 
pire B.C. 50. The Huns seized it a.d. 375, 
and the Genoese in 1280. They were com- 
pelled to abandon it by the Turks in 1473. 
These were displaced by the Eussians in 
1771, to whom the place was formally ceded 
in 1774. An expedition against the peninsula 
of Kertch was despatched from the Crimea 
by the allied forces of France and England, 
May 23, 1855. Kertch surrendered May 25, 
and was restored to Eussla by the 4th article 
of the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. 
Kertch is still called Bospor amongst the 
inhabitants of the Crimea. 

Ket's iNsrEBECTiON, SO caUcd from its 
leader, a tanner by trade, broke out at Wy- 
mondham, in Norfolk, in July, 1549. The 
insurgents having defeated a force sent 
against them, were dispersed by the earl of 
Warwick, Aug. 27. WiUiam Ket, or Knight, 



KEW 



KID 



the leader, and his brother Eobert, with other 
ringleaders, were tried at Westminster Nov. 
23, and were soon after executed. 

Kew House (Surrey) was made a royal 
residence by Frederick, prince of Wales (son 
of George 11.), who took it upon a lease from 
the Cappel family, a.d. 1730. He began to 
form the pleasure-grounds, then containing 
270 acres, and dying here March 20, 1751, the 
work was completed by his widow, Augusta, 
princess of Wales. George III. purchased 
Kew House about 1789. It was afterwards 
pulled down, and the furniture, &c., removed 
to Kew Palace (q. v.). 

Kew Palace akd Gaedens (Surrey). — 
This small red brick bmlding is of the date 
of James I. or Charles I. Queen Charlotte 
purchased it a.d. 1781. William Alton was 
appointed manager of the botanical garden 
of Kew in 1759, and the pleasure and Mtchen 
gardens were also placed under his care in 
1783. He pubhshed his "Hortus Kewensis, 
or a Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the 
Eoyal Botanical Garden of Kew," in 1789. 
Dr. HiU had pubhshed a catalogue of the 
plants in the exotic garden of Kew, in 1768. 
Sir William Chambers erected the old stove 
in 1760, and the orangery in 1761. The 
pagoda, commenced in 1761, was completed 
in 1762. A greenhouse for Cape plants was 
buUt in 1788, and another, for the vegetable 
productions of New Holland, was added in 
1792. The former has been pulled down; 
but the latter, greatly improved, is known as 
the Austrahan House. The conservatory 
was transferred here from Buckingham 
House in 1836. A committee was appointed 
in 1838, to inquire into the management, &c., 
of the Eoyal Botanical Gardens, and the 
report was presented in May, 1840. The 
gardens, pleasure-grounds, &c., were trans- 
ferred to the management of the Commis- 
sioners of Woods and Forests, and in 1841 
were thi'own open to the pubhc. The orna- 
mented gateway was erected in 1845-6. In 
1841 the orange-trees were removed to Ken- 
sington Palace from the orangery, which was 
considerably improved in 1842. The palm- 
house was finished in 1848. A wooden bridge 
built over the Thames at Kew in 1759, was 
replaced by the stone bridge in 1783. Sir 
W. J. Hooker, who effected great improve- 
ments in these gardens, published a popular 
guide in 1847. The small work has gone 
through several editions, and from it much 
of the foregoing information is derived. 

Keys. (See Locks.) 

Khandesh, or Cakdeish (Hmdostan), 
was an independent sovereignty from the 
early part of the 15th century tiH it was 
conquered by Akbar, towards the close of 
the 16th century. A famine, which carried 
off an immense number of the population, 
occvirred in 1803. It was 'annexed by the 
British government in 1818, although not 
finally tranquillized tiU 1825. 

Khaet (Battles). — The Eussians were 
defeated by the Turks under the walls of this 
town, in Asia Minor, July 19, 1829. Paslde- 
witch advanced ^vith another army, and de- 



feated the Turks at the same place, Aug. 20, 
1829. i- » & > 

Khaetoum, or Khaetum (Egypt), the 
capital of Nubia, consisted only of a few 
huts until 1821. It was made the seat of 
the government for Beledes-Sudan, when 
that district became an Egyptian province, 
A.D. 1822. An inundation occurred here in 
1850. 

Khiva (Asia) formed part of the ancient 
Kharazm, or Chorasmia, a country inhabited 
by the Chorasmii. The Chinese reduced 
them to subjection in the 2nd century of the 
Christian aera, and the Persians in the 8rd. 
It was erected into an independent kingdom, 
called Kharizm, in the 10th century, and was 
subdued by Zenghis Khan in 1218. Tamer- 
lane conquered it in 1379. The state under- 
went various changes ; was invaded by the 
Uzbeg Tartars, who succeeded in establishing 
themselves about the beginning of the 16th 
century. The Eussians sent an expedition, 
6,000 strong, against Khiva in 1839. They 
suffered a defeat in October; numbers 
perished in the snow, and only a few re- 
turned to Eussia. 

Khoi (Battle).— The Turks, led by 
Selim I., were defeated by Shah Ismael in 
this plain, near a fortified town of the same 
name, in Persia, a.d. 1514. 

Khoeassan (Persia), or Country of the 
Sun, was invaded by the Saracens, who over- 
threw the Sassanides dynasty, a.d. 641. 
Taher revolted, and estabUshed his sway in 
827 ; Tamerlane conquered it in 1383 ; Ismael, 
defeating Shakibek, took possession of it in 
1510; and it became a Persian province 
in 1768. 

Khybeb Pass (Affghanistan) . — By this 
route Alexander the Great, Tamerlane, 
Nadir Shah, and other conquerors, pene- 
trated into India, of which it has been 
termed the iron gate. The passage was 
forced by Colonel Wade, July 26, 1839. 
Keane's army retreated through it in 1840. 
Brigadier Wild, on his way to the rehef of 
Jelalabad, assailed the key of the pass 
Jan. 15, 1842; but for want of additional 
support was obhged to retire on Jan. 23. 
Major-General PoUock entered the pass 
April 5, and the rear of the force emerged 
from it April 14. The British army, after 
the subjugation of the Affghan chiefs, re- 
tired through this pass in October, 1842. 

Khyepoee (Hindostan). — By the treaty 
of Kiyrpore, between the East-India Com- 
pany and the ameers of Scinde, signed 
April 20, 1832, a free passage up the Indus 
and other rivers was secured to British ships. 
The ameer of Khyrpore ceded the place by 
treaty in 1838, and it was annexed by the 
British March 24, 1843. A commission to 
investigate an alleged forgery of certain 
documents by the ameer Ali Miirad, found 
him guilty of the act, Jan. 5, 1853. 

KiDDEEMiNSTEE (Worcestershire) was 
represented in parhament a.d. 1300. The 
privilege, subsequently lost, was restored 
by the Eeform Bill, June 7, 1832. It was 
incorporated by royal charter in 1637. 



KIE 

Kief, Kiev, or Kiow (European Eussia), 
tlie chief town of a government of the same 
name, is of great antiquity, and was a 
flourishing place during the 9th and 10th 
centuries. It was made a prineipahty in 
1157, annexed to Poland in 1386, and ceded 
in perpetuity to Eussia in 1686. The cathe- 
dral of St. Sophia was founded a.d. 1037, 
the Greek Academy, the oldest in Eussia, in 
1588, and the university in 1834. Kief was 
conquered several times by the Poles and 
Tartars, and was finally ceded to Eussia in 
1686. The celebrated fair is held annually in 
January. 

Kiel (Denmark) , the capital of Holstein, 
joined the Hanseatic League A.n. 1300. Its 
Tiniversity was founded in 1665. It was, with 
the duchy of Holstein, exchanged for other 
places by Eussia in 1773. An insurrection 
in favour of the independence of Sleswig and 
Holstein occurred here, and a provisional 
government was formed March 24, 1848. 

Kiel (Treaty) . — Concluded between Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Great Britain, at this 
town, Jan. 14, 1814. Denmark ceded Norway 
to Sweden, while the latter gave up Pome- 
rania and the isle of Eugen. Heligoland 
was assigned to England, and the king of 
Sweden engaged to use his best efforts to 
obtain for Denmark an equivalent for Nor- 
way at the general peace. The three con- 
tracting powers also entered into engage- 
ments for the prosecution of the war agaiast 
Napoleon I. 

Kieest, or Quieect-sue-Oise (France). 
^Councils were held here in Apiil or May, 
849 A.D. ; in 853 ; Feb. 25, 857 ; and m March, 
858. The nobles of France obtaiaed from 
Charles the Bald an edict, rendering here- 
ditary all fiefs, earldoms, and duchies, at a 
diet 'held at Kiersy, June 14r— 16, 877. 
HaUam remarks that in this reign the 
Church took the ascendant in national 
councils. 

KiLciTLLEM- (Battle). — General Dundas 
was defeated in an endeavour to dislodge 
the Irish rebels from their position at tins 
place, in Kildare, on the morning of May 24, 
1798. In consequence of their success, the 
insurgents immediately took up a position 
between KilcuUen and Naas, and attempted 
to intercept Dundas in his retreat. The 
English army having received reinforce- 
ments, the rebels were defeated in this 
second engagement, with the loss of about 
300 men. 

KiLDAEE (Bishopric) . — Thislrishbishopric 
was founded early in the 6th century, and 
was originally governed by archbishops. The 
first bishop was St. Conlaeth, who died 
May 3, 519. By the Church Temporalties 
Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), 
the see was annexed to Dublin. 

KiLDAEE (Ireland). — The abbey of 
St. Bridget, one of the oldest in Ireland, 
was founded about the 5th century. The 
*' sacred fire," extinguished for a short 
time in 1220, was kept burning till the 
Eeformation. The town was taken by the 
marquis of Ormond in June, 1649; and 
464 



KIL 

the Irish rebels were defeated at Kildare, 
May 29, 1798. 

KiLEEK-OEA (Bishopric). — ^No trustworthy 
account of the foundation of this small dio- 
cese exists. The first bishop of whom any 
record has been preserved is Christian, who 
died in 1254. From 1606 to 1617 Kilfenora 
was held by the bishop of Limerick. In 1661 
it was united to the archbishopric of Tuam, 
and formed part of that diocese till 1742, 
when it was held by the bishop of Clonfert. 
In 1752 it was annexed to KiUaloe. 

KiLiMAN DJAKO (Africa). — This, the 
highest mountain in Africa, was discovered 
by Dr. Krapf, a missionary, in April, 1848. 

Kilkenny (Ireland) became the site of 
an English settlement shortly after Eichard 
de Clare landed in Ireland," a.d. 1170. A 
cathedral was founded in the 12th century, 
and the town grew up around it. A castle in 
course of erection was destroyed in 1193, and 
the present edifice was founded in 1195. Par- 
Haments were frequently held here. The 
duke of Clarence held one in February, 1366, 
when severe enactments were made against 
the Anglo-Irish, and the Brehon law was 
suppressed. Kilkenny was surrounded by 
waUs in 1400, and was made a city in 1609. 
It was taken by Cromwell, March 28, 1650. 
William III. entered Kilkenny after the bat- 
tle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690. The precep- 
tory of St. John was founded in 1211, and 
the Dominican or Black Abbey in 1225. The 
grammar-school, founded in the 16th century, 
was endowed by the duke of Ormond in 1684. 
The episcopal palace was enlarged in 1735, 
and the St. James's Asylum was endowed 
in 1803. Disturbances, "which broke out in 
Kilkenny in April, 1833, were speedily sup- 
pressed. 

KiLLALA (Bishopric). — This Irish bishopric 
was founded by St. Patrick some time be- 
tween the years 434 and 441. In 1607 the 
see of Achonry was annexed to KiUala, and 
by the Church Temporalties Act, 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the united 
sees were added to the archbishopric of 
Tuam. 

KiLLALA (Mayo). — A French expedition 
arrived in the Bay of Killala Aug. 22, 1798. 
They landed 1,150 men, with four field-pieces, 
and arms, ammunition, and equipments, for 
distribution amongst the dissaffected. They 
reached BaUina on the 24th; and defeated a 
force sent against them at Castlebar {q. v.) 
on the 27th. They wer$ surroimded at Bal- 
linamuck {q. v.) Sept. 8. 

KiLLALOE (Bishopric). — The cathedral of 
this diocese was founded during the 7th cen- 
tury, and the first bishop was St. Flannan, 
the date of whose consecration is not known. 
About the year 1195 the sees of Eoscrea and 
Inis-Cathay were annexed to KiUaloe, and in 
1752 the bishopric of Kilfenora was also 
united. Bv the Church Temporalties Act, 
3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the sees 
of Clonfert and Kilmacduagh were united to 
those of KiUaloe and Kilfenora. 

KiLLALOE (Ireland), an ancient town, 
long the capital of the O'Briens of Tho- 



KIL 



Km 



mond, who built a bridge here across the 
Shannon, a.d. 1054. Near this place Sars- 
iield intercepted the artillery belonging to 
the royal army, destined for the siege of 
Limerick in 1691, The cathedral was rebuilt 
about 1160. 

KiLLiECRANKiE ( Battle ) . — Graham of 
Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, having erected 
the standard of James II. in Scotland, at- 
tacked and defeated the forces of Wilham III. 
in the pass of KiUiecrankie, near Blair Athol, 
July 17, 1689 (O.S.). Dundee, however, re- 
ceived a mortal wound and his death, and 
his followers dispersed. 

KiLMACDUA&H (Bishopric). — The see 
was founded by Colman MacDuagh, about 
A.D. 620. During the first five or six centu- 
ries of its existence, the succession of its 
bishops is exceedingly indefinite. It was 
annexed to Clonfert in 1602, and the two sees 
were added to Killaloe by the Church Tem- 
poralties Act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 
1833.) 

KiLMAiiTHAM Hospital (Dublin). — This 
institution, for the maintenance of old and 
disabled soldiers, was founded by charter, 
A.D. 1680, and completed in three years, at an 
expense of £23,559. The chapel was con- 
secrated in 1686. The abolition of this insti- 
tution was proposed in 1833 ; but objections 
having been made by the inhabitants of Dub- 
lin, the project was abandoned. 

KiLMALLocK ( Ireland ). — St. MaUoch is 
said to have founded an abbey at this place, 
in Limerick, in the 6th century. During the 
13th century a Dominican abbey was erected. 
In 1598 Kihnallock was besieged by the 
Irish, and reheved by the earl of Ormond. 
Several battles were fought in its vicinity in 
1641 and 1642. 

KiLMOKE (Bishopric). — This is one of the 
most modern of the Irish bishoprics. It 
was originally located at Brefny, and Bishop 
Hugh O'Finn, the earliest on record, died 
in 1136. The see was transferred to Kilmore 
in 1454, and in 1660 was united with Ardagh. 
It was again separated in 1742, and remained 
distinct, until it was permanently united to 
Ardagh by the Church Temporalties Act, 
3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833). The 
union was eflfected in 1839. 

KiLRxrsH (Battle). — The marquis of 
Ormond, lord-heutenant of Ireland, defeated 
the Irish, taking aU their baggage and ammu- 
nition, at Kilrush, in April, 1642. 

Kilsyth (Battle). — Montrose defeated 
the Covenanters at this place, in Stirling, 
Aug. 15, 1645. 

KiNBURX (Eussia) was attacked by a 
force of 5,000 Turks, commanded by Kap- 
Pasha, who were totally defeated by the 
Russians under Suwarrow, June 28, 1788. 
The combined French and English fleets 
bombarded it Oct. 17, 1855, , and compelled 
the garrison to surrender.' It was re- 
stored to Russia by the fourth article of, 
the treaty of Paris, signed March 30, 1856. 

Kinder Garteh". — ^This system of educa- 
tion for childi-en was introduced by Frede- 
rick Froebel, who was engaged to teach it 
465 



at Hamburg by Ronge in 1849, In 1851 
it was introduced into England by Madame 
Ronge, who established a Kinder Garten, 
or children's garden, at Hampstead. The 
" Practical Guide to the English Kinder 
Garten" was published in 1855. Great 
prominence is given in this system to the 
pastimes of the young, in which modeUing, 
drawing, and singing are introduced, and 
corporal punishment is altogether excluded. 

KiNGT. — This title, under different forms 
of orthography, exists amongst most of the 
northern nations of Europe. The old Latin 
title rex, a ruler, is the parent of the Itahan 
re, the Spanish rey, and the French roi. The 
I EngUsh word king is derived from the Teu- 
I tonic. By some writers the origin of the 
I kingly office is derived from Adam, who 
i "governed or commanded all mankind as 
long as he lived." Nimrod was the founder 
of the earliest postdiluvian kingdoms, namely 
those of Babylon and Assyria, about b.c. 
2247. Gibbon affirms that from the earliest 
period of history the sovereigns of Asia were 
known by the title of Basileus, or king. He 
also states that of the whole series of Roman 
princes in any age of the empire, Hanniba- 
hanus alone was distinguished by the title 
of king. This nephew of Constautine I., 
made king of Pontus a.d. 335, was assas- 
sinated by his cousins in 337. 

King- at-Arms.— England is placed under 
the heraldic jurisdiction of Clarencieux and 
Norroy, the two provincial kings-at-arms, and 
of Garter, who takes precedence of the other 
two indignity and importance. Clarencieux 
king-at-arms comprehends in his jurisdiction 
the whole of England south of the Trent, 
and Norroy presides over the districts north 
of that river. Clarencieux received his 
title from Lionel, son of Edward III., and 
duke of Clarence, and Norroy from his 
being the north king. The precise year in 
which they were instituted is unknown, but 
they were probably founded by Edward III. 
The office of Garter king-at-arms was created 

by Henry V. in 1417. Ireland is under 

the heraldic jurisdiction of Ulster king-at- 
arms, whose dignity was instituted by Ed- 
ward VI. Feb. 2, 1553. In Scotland, the 

Lyon king-at-arms is an officer of great 
antiquity. 

King George's or Nootka Sound (Aus- 
tralia), discovered by the Spaniards about 
A.D. 1774, was visited in 1778 by Captain 
Cook, who changed the name of the coast 
from Nootka to King George's Sound. The 
Spaniards in 1791 recognized the right of 
England to the possession of King George's 
Sound ; and Vancouver arrived here in 
April, 1792, having been sent by the En- 
ghsh government to receive from the Spa- 
niards the restitution of the territory, which 
he was to explore and survey. A settlement 
formed upon its shores in 1826 was trans- 
ferred to Swan River in 1830. Its capacious 
harbour is much frequented by whalers, and 
is used as a coaling station for steam-ships. 

King Henry's College. — {See Christ- 
church.) 

2 H 



KIN 

KiwG OF EifGLAina. — Egbert is usually 
believed to have assumed the title of king 
of England a.d. 827 ; but Sharon Turner 
regards Athelstan as the earliest prince vrho 
bore that title, which he states was instituted 
in 934. The plural number, as referring to the 
Idng, was first adopted by Kichard I. after 
his coronation, Sept. 3, 1189. John added 
the title of " Lord of Ireland ; " and in 1337 
Edward III. assumed that of " King of 
France." Henry VIII. received the title 
of " His Most Christian Majesty " from 
Pope Julius II. in 1513. He changed the 
title of "Lord of Ireland" into "King of 
Ireland" in 1542. The kingly office was 
abolished by the Long Parliament, March 17, 
1649 ; but the regnal years of Charles II. 
are always computed from the date of his 
father's death. The title of " King of 
France " was relinquished Jan. 1, 1801, 
when the royal style was proclaimed to 
be " Georgius Tertius, Dei gratia Britan- 
niarum Rex, Fidei Defensor," or George the 
Third, by the grace of God of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 
King, Defender of the Faith. Queen 
Victoria was proclaimed throughout British 
India by the title of " Victoria, by the grace 
of God of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland, and the colonies and 
dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, 
America, and Australia, Queen, Defender of 
the Faith," Nov. 1, 1858. 

King op Italy.— After the reign of 
Charlemagne, the title " King of Italy" was 
borne by the heirs to the imperial throne 
of the Western empire. It was conferred 
upon Victor Emanuel II. of Sardinia, with 
the style of " Victor Emanuel II., by the 
grace of God and by the will of the people, 
King of Italy, &c.," by the ItaUan parlia- 
ment, March 17, 1861. 

King op the Feench. — This, the original 
title of the French sovereigns, was changed 
into " King of France " by Philip Augustus 
(a.d. 1179—1223). The National Assembly 
ordered the old style to be resumed, Oct. 16, 
1789, and abolished royalty Sept. 20, 1792. 
Louis XVIII. revived the royal title, as 
King of France, in 1814 ; and Louis Philippe 
accepted the title of " King of the French " 
Aug. 9, 1830. Eovalty was abohshed in 
France Feb. 26, 1848 ; and Napoleon III. 
restored the title of emperor, Dec. 2, 1852. 

King of the Romans. — The emperor 
Henry II. assumed this title previous to 
his coronation, a.d. 1014, and was the first 
reigning prince of Italy or Germany to bear 
the title. It was borne for many years by 
the heirs of the emperors of Germany, and 
was first conferred upon Henry III.'s eldest 
son in 1055. Napoleon I. conferred the title 
of king of Rome upon his son, March 20, 
1811. 

Kings (Books of). — The two books of 
Kings, which originally formed only one 
book in the Hebrew, are supposed to have 
been written by Ezra before B.C. 444. 

King's College. {See Aberdeen.) 

King's College (Cambridge) was founded 



KIN 

by Henry VI., a.d. 1441. The first stone 
of the celebrated chapel was laid in Septem- 
ber, 1447. Henry VII. gave £5,000 towards 
the completion of the building in 1508, and 
his executors, under a power conferred by 
his wiU, gave a further sum of £5,000 in 
1513. The exterior was completed in July, 
1515, and the painted windows were designed 
in 1526. The screen and stalls were completed 
in 1534. Gibbs erected the Fellows' building 
in 1724. The new buildings were commenced 
in 1824, and finished in 1828. 

King's College (London). — The first 
steps for the foimdation of this educational 
estabhshment were taken at a meeting over 
which the duke of WeUington presided, 
June 21, 1828. The announcement that 
government had granted the ground origin- 
ally intended for the east wing of Somerset 
House for the site of the institution, free 
of expense for a thousand years, was made 
May 16, 1829. The charter of incorporation 
bears date Aug. 14, 1829 ; and the building, 
from designs by Smirke, was opened in 
1831. Mr. Marsden left the college a 
library, consisting of about 3,000 volumes, 
in 1835. 

King's College Hospital (London) was 
founded a.d. 1839. 

King's County (Ireland) formed part of 
a large extent of territory, known, amongst 
other names, under that of the kingdom of 
Offaly, or east and west Glenmallery, was 
confiscated to the crown by 3 & 4 PhU. & 
Mary, c. 2 (1556). One portion was named 
Queen's County, in honour of Queen Mary, 
and the other King's County, in honour of 
her husband Phihp. The native chieftains 
struggled against this settlement, and were 
subdued in 1600. Many of them took part 
in the revolt of 1641. 

King's Evil. — Touching for this disease 
is alleged to have been first practised by 
Edward the Confessor, who reigned from 
A.D. 1043 to 1066, and Evelyn, in his Diary, 
July 6, 1660, records that King Charles II. 
began to touch for the evil, "according to 
custom." A notice was issued May 14, 1661, 
that " his sacred majesty would continue the 
healing of his people during the month of 
May, and then give over till Michaelmas." 
In White's " Coronations of the Kings of 
France," it is related that Louis XVI. 
inunediately after his coronation at Rheims, 
in 1775, touched 2,400 individuals, who were 
sufi'ering from this disease, and healed them. 
Queen Anne was the last English monarch 
who touched for the evil, 1702 — 1714, 
Charles Edward touched a female child for 
the king's evil at Holyrood House, in 
October, 1745. The office for the ceremony 
appeared in the Litany as late as 1719. The 
Jacobites contended that the power of cure 
did not descend to Mary, William, or Anne. 

King's (or Queen's) Bench (England), 
one of the superior courts of common law, 
received its name from the fact that for- 
merly the sovereign presided in person, 
though he was never empowered to determine 
causes except by the mouth of his judges. By 



KIN 

28 Edw. I. c. 5 (1300), it was made a move- 
able eoiirt, attendant on the king's person, 
but it has seldom been held anywhere except 
at Westminster. During the Interregnum 
it was styled the Upper Bench. The Bail 
Court was erected as a branch of this court 
by 11 Geo. IV. & 1 WiU. IV. c. 70 (July 23, 
1830). 

CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING'S (OB 
queen's) bench IN ENGLAND. 
A.D. 

1268. March 8. Robert de Brus. 
1274. Ealph de Heugham. 
1290. Gilbert de Thomtou. 
1296. Koger de Brabazou. 

1316. WiUiam Inge. 

1317. June 15. Henry le Serope. 

1323. Hervey de Staunton. 

1324. Geoffrey le Scrojje. 

1329. May 1. Robert de Malberthorp. 

1329. Oct. 28. Henry le Sorope (again). 

1330. Dec. 19. Geoffrey le Serope (again). 
1332. March 28. Richard de WiiUghby. 

1332. Sept. 20. Geoffrey le Serope (again). 

1333. Sept. 10. Richard de WUughby (again). 

1334. Geoffrey le Serope (againr. 

1338. Oct. Richard de Wilughby (again). 

1340. July 24 Robert Parning. 

1341. Jan. 8. WiUiam Set. 

1346. Nov. 26. William de Thoi-pe. 
1350. Oct. 26. William de Shareshull. 
1357. July 5. Thomas de Setone. 
1361. May 24. Henry Green. 
1365. Oct. 29. John Kuyvet. 
1372. July 15. John de Cavendish. 
1381. July 22. Robert Tresilian. 
1388. Jan. 31. Walter de Clopton. 
1400 . Nov. 15. Sir William Gascoigne. 
1413- March 29. Wi'liam Hankford. 
1424. Jan. 21. Sir William Cheyne. 

1439. Jan. 20. Sir John Juyn. 

1440. April 13. Sir John Hody. 
1442. Jan. 25. Sir John Fortescue. 
1461. May 13. John Markham. 
1469. Jan. 23. Thomas Billing. 
1481. May 7. William Husee. 
1495. Nov. 24. John Fineux. 
1526. Jan. 23. John Fitz-James. 
1539. Jan. 21. Edward Montagu. 
1545. Nov. 9. Richard Lyster. 

1552. March 21. Roger Cholmley. 

1553. Oct. 4. Sir Thomas Biomley. 
1555. June 11. Sir William Fortroan. 
1557. May 8. Sir Ed was d Saunders. 
1559. Jan. 22. Sir Robert C^tlin. 
1574. Nov. 8. Sir Christopher Wray. 
1592. June 2. Sir John Popham. 
1607. June 25. Sir Thomas Fleeming. 
1613. Oct. 25. Sir Edward Coke. 
1616. Nov. 16. Sir Heniy Montagu. 
1621. Jan. 29. Sir James Ley. 

1625. Jan. 26. Sir Rauulphe Crew. 
1627. Feb. 5. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
1631. Oct. 24 Sir Thomas Richardson. 
1635. April 14. Sir John Bramston. 
1642. Oct. 10. Sir Robert Heath. 
1648. Oct. 12. Hei.ry RoUe. 
1655. June 15. John Glynne. 
1660. Jan. Richard Newdigate. 
1660. Oct. 23. Sir Robert Fuster. 
1663. Oct. 19. Sir Robert Hyde. 
1665. Nov. 22. Sir John Kelynge. 
1671. May 18. Sir Matthew Hale. 
1676. May 12. Sir Richard Kaynsford. 
1678. May 31. Sir WUliam Scroggs. 
1681. AprU 11. Sir Francis PemUsrton. 
1683. Jan. 22 Sir Edmund Saunders. 
1683. Sept. 29. Sir Geoige, afterwards Lord Jeffreys. 
1685. Oct. 22. Sir Edward Herbert. 
1687. AprU 21. Sir Robert Wright. 
1689. April 17. Sir John Holt. 
1710. March 16. Sir Thomas Parker (earl of Mac- 
clesfield). 
487 



A.D. 

1718. 
1724 
1733. 

1737. 
1754 
1756. 



1802. 
1818. 



KIN 



May 19. Sir John Pratt. 

Feb. 28. Sir Robert, afterwards Lord Raymond. 

Oct 27. Sir PhUip Yorke, afterwards earl of 

Hardwicke. 
June 14. Sir William Lee. 
April 20. Sir Dudley Ryder. 
Oct. 24. William Murray, Lord Mansfield, 

afterwards earl of Mansfield. 
June 9. Lloyd, Lord Keuyon. 
April 17. Edward Law, Lord Ellenborough. 
Nov. 2. Sir Charles Abbot, afterwards Baron 

Tenterden. 
Nov. 8. Sir Thomas Denman, afterwards Lord 

Denman. 
March. Lord Campbell. 
June. Sir Alexander Cockbum. 



King's (or Queen's) Bench (Ireland), 
was established by Edward I. towards the 
close of the 13th century. 

CHIEF JUSTICES OP THE KING'S (oE 
queen's) BENCH IN lEELAND, SINCB 
THE CLOSE OF THE 17tH CENTUET. 
A.D. 

1695. Sir Richard Pyne. 
1709. Alan Brodiick. 
1711. July 5. Sir Richard Cox. 
1714. Oct. 14. William Whitshed. 
1727. April 3. John Rogerson. 
1741. Dec. 29. Thomas Marlay. 
1751. Aug. 27. St. George Caulfield. 
1760. July 31. Warden Flood. 
1764 Aug. 24. John Gore, afterwards Earl Annaly. 
1784. April 2J. John Scott, afterwards earl of 

Clonmel. 
1798. June 13. Arthur Wolfe, afterwards Lord 

Kilwarden. 
1803. Sept. 12. William Downes, afterwards Viscount 

Downes. 
1822. Feb. 14. Charles Kendal Bushe. 
1841. Nov. 10. Edward Pennefather. 
1846. Jan. 23. Francis Blackburne. 
1852. March 1. Thomas Lefroy. 

King's (or Queen's) Bench Peison. — 
This debtor's prison is said to have been the 
gaol to which Judge Gascoigne committed 
Prince Henry in the reign of Henry TV. 
The office of marshal of the King's Bench 
was sold to a company of proprietors by the 
earl of Eadnor, Sept. 20, 1718, for £10,500. 
The prison was bmlt in 1751, enlarged 
in 1776, and burnt by the mob during 
the Gordon riots (q.v.) in 1780. The pre- 
sent building was erected in 1781. A fire 
broke out in this prison July 13, 1799, 
and was not extinguished until several 
apartments had been destroyed. The 
freedom of prisoners to live anywhere 
within the rules of this prison was abolished 
in 1835. By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 22 (May 31, 1842) , 
the Eleet and Marshalsea prisons were 
consolidated with the King's Bench, and the 
three received the name of the Queen's 
Prison. 

King's (or Queen's) Counsel. — The ap- 
pointment of this officer, beyond the usual 
law officers of the crown, is beheved to have 
originated dui-ing the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth. A warrant of James I., dated April 21, 
1603, speaks of Francis Bacon as " one of 
the learned counceU to the late queen, our 
sister, by special commandment," and con- 
firms him in the office ; and a patent exists 
of Aug. 25, 1604, by which he was formally 
appointed. 

2 H 2 



kin- 
King's Speech. — The iBrst speech from 
the throne is said to have been delivered 
by Henry I., a.d. 1107. 

KiNGSTOir (Canada) was settled a.d. 1783 
by the Dutch, who gave it the name of 
Esopas. It was incorporated in 1838. The 
seat of the government was transferred from 
Kingston to Toronto in 1844. 

Kingston (Jamaica) was bnilt a.d. 1693, 
in consequence of the destruction by an 
earthquake of Port Eoyal in 1692. It was 
nearly destroyed by fire, !Feb. 8, 1782 ; and 
the cholera carried off about one-eighth of 
the population in 1850. The railroad from 
Kingston to Spanish-town was opened in 
1845. 

KiK-GSTON--osr -Thames (Surrey) was the 
abode of royalty in the Anglo-Saxon period ; 
and between a.d. 902 and 979, seven kings 
were crowned at this place. The stone on 
which this ceremony was performed is still 
preserved. King John granted the town 
its first charter in 1199. In the reigns of 
Edward II. and III. (1307—1377) it re- 
turned members to parHament, a privilege 
it has not since enjoyed. Queen Ebza- 
beth's free grammar-school was founded 
in 1561. The bridge over the Thames was 
erected in 1827 ; the town-hall in 1838. Miss 
Burdett Coutts built a district church here 
in 1845. 

Kingstown (Ireland) was called Duuleary 
prior to the embarkation of George lY. for 
England, Sept, 3, 1821, when it received its 
present name in honour of that event. The 
construction of the harbour was commenced 
in 1817, from designs by Eennie, at a 
cost of nearly £800,000. It was connected 
with Dubhn by railway Dec. 17, 1834, 
and with Dalkey by atmospheric railway 
March 29, 1844. Queen Victoria embarked 
at this port, on her return from Ii-eland, in 
August, 1849. 

KiNSALE (Ireland). — This town, in the 
county of Cork, is a place of considerable 
antiquity. Sir John de Courcey erected a 
castle on the Old Head of Kinsale in the 
12th century ; and iu 1380 the English fleet 
defeated the combined naval forces of France 
and Spain in the harbour. A Spanish force 
landed here Sept. 23, 1601, and seized the 
town on behalf of the Roman CathoUc 
rebels ; but it was besieged by the English 
and recaptured, Dec. 28. In March, 1689, 
Kinsale was garrisoned by the French and 
Irish forces of James II., who held it tiU 
the end of 1690, when it surrendered to 
General Churchill, afterwards duke of Marl- 
borough. The prosperity of Kinsale has 
been in a declining condition since the peace 
of 1814. 

KiNTEiSHi (Battle). — The Eussians de- 
feated the Turks near this place, in the 
province of Erivan, March 15, 1829. 

KiOGE (Sea-fights).— In the bay of Kioge, 
on the coast of the island of Zealand, the 
Swedish fleet was defeated by a combined 
Dutch and Danish fleet, a.d. 1676. From 
the fact that the action took place near 
Bornhohn, it is often called by that name. 
468 



KIS 

A Swedish fleet having assailed a Danish 
fleet here, Oct. 4, 1710, one Danish ship 
of ninety guns blew up, and two of the 
Swedish flag-ships grounded on a sandbank, 
and \^ ere abandoned. The Swedish fleet re- 
tired Oct. 7. 

Kipzak, or Kapzak (Asia). — This plain, 
supposed to be the primitive seat of the 
Cossacks, was conquered by Toushi, son of 
Zengis Khan, a.d. 1219 ; and Baton estab- 
lished the Golden Horde in 1234. 

KiECHDENEEEN (Battlcs). — The French 
were defeated by the allies at this village in 
Germany, July 15, 1761. The first attack 
was made upon the EngUsh, commanded by 
the marquis of Granby, and both leader and 
men displayed extraordinary gallantry. The 
combat was renewed on the following day, 
when the French were again defeated. The 
French lost 5,000 and the allies only 1,500 
men in killed and wounded. These combats 
are sometimes mentioned under the name of 
the battle of ViUiugshausen. 

KiRCHHOLM (Battle).— Sigismund, king of 
Poland, defeated the Swedes at Kirchhobn, 
A.D. 1605. 

KiEKCALDT (Fifeshire). — This town was 
the seat of an ancient establishment of the 
Culdees. It was erected into a royal burgh 
A.D. 1334, when it was rendered subject to 
the abbot of DunfermHne and his successors. 
It became independent in 1450, and received 
a charter from Charles I. in 1644. 

KissENGEN (Bavaria).— The importance 
of this fashionable watering-place arose 
from the patronage of Louis, king of Bavaria 
(a.d. 1825—1848). The celebrated artesian 
weU, 2,000 feet deep, commenced in 1832, 
was completed in 1852. 

Kissing, as a rehgious act, was practised 
in the time of the patriarch Job, B.C. 2130, 
who protests (Job xxxi. 26) that he had not 
kissed his hand to the sun or to the moon. 
This mark of devotion was paid to Baal 
(1 Kings xix. 18), B.C. 910. It passed to 
the Greeks, and from them to the Eomans. 
Dr. Winsemius declares that the custom 
was unknown in England till the Princess 
Eowena, daughter of R engist, king of Fries- 
land, pressed herhpsto the cup, and saluted 
Vortigern with a "httle kiss," a.d. 449. 
From a passage in Eveh'n's Diary, it appears 
that men kissed each other in the streets of 
London towards the end of the 17th century. 
The Spanish conquerors found the custom 
prevalent in the Isew '\'\ orld. 

Kiss of Peace. — The osculum pads, or 
the solemn kiss of peace, was anciently given 
by the faithfid one to the other, as a testi- 
mony of theii- cordial love and affection. 
After the priest had given the salutation of 
peace, the deacon ordered them to salute 
one another with a holy kiss. It was also 
given before the Eucharist, until the 12th 
or 13th century, when the Pax (q. v.) was 
introduced. Towards the end of the 3rd 
century, the kiss of peace was given in bap- 
tism. It is said to have been omitted at the 
coronation of Stephen, a.d. 1135. Henry II. 
of England refused to give Becket the kiss 



KIT 



KNI 

consider that Pharaoh conferred the honour 
of knighthood upon Joseph when he put 
his ring on his finger and invested him in 
robes of dignity (G-en. xli. 42), b.c. 1715; 
but there is no evidence of the existence of 
any such institution until Eomulus estab- 
Hshed the equestrian order at Eome, about 
B.C. 753. Modern knighthood did not ori- 
ginate in this order, but in the tenure which 
compelled feudal vassals to hold their lands 
by furnishing armed men for the service of 
the sovereign, the obligation to furnish one 
soldier constituting one knight's fee. The 
earUest mode of conferring the honour of 
knighthood in England was the consecration 
of the novitiate's sword by the priest at the 
altar. The first knight created by the stroke 
of a sword was Athelstan, who was dubbed 
by Alfred the Great, a.d. 900. The chivalric 
element was not introduced into knighthood 
until the period of the crusades, when devo- 
tion to (xod and the fair sex became the 
chief characteristics of all good knights. 
Ecclesiastics were prohibited from conferring 
knighthood by a synod held in 1102. In the 
reigns of Edward YI. and Elizabeth, aU 
persons possessed of lands yielding a yearly 
income of £40 were compelled to receive 
knighthood or pay a fine ; and in 1626 
Charles I. recruited his exhausted exchequer 
by reviving this obsolete custom. The 
compensation exacted from those knights 
who declined to perform military service 
was abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 20 (1640), 
and the service itself was abolished by 12 
Charles II, c. 24 (1660). The following is a 
hst of the various orders of knighthood, the 
principal of which are noticed under their 
respective titles : — 

A.D. 

Albert (Saxony) 1850 

Albert the Bear (Anlialt Coethen) 1382 

Alcantara (Spain) H56 

Alexander Newsky (Eussia) 1722 

Andrew, St. (Russia) 1698 

Anne, St. (Russia) 1735 

Annunciada (Sardinia) 1355 

Antony, St. (Austria) 1382 

Antony, St. (Palestine) 370 

Apostolic Order of St. Stephen (Hungary) .... 1764 

Avis, St. Benedict of (Portugal) 1147 

Band, or Scarf (Spain) 1330 

Bath (England) before 1204. Revived 1725 

Bavarian Crown (Bavaria) 1808 

Bear (Austria) 1213 

Bee (France) 1703 

Belgian Lion (Holland) 1815 

Black Eagle (Prussia) 1701 

Blood of Our Savioui- (Austria) 1608 

Bourbon (Prance) 1370 

Brician (Sweden) 1366 

Broom Flower 1234 

Burgundian Cross (Palestine) 1535 

Calatrava (Spain! 1158 

Catherine, St. (Russia) 1714 

Catherine of Sinai, St. (Palestine) 1063 

Charles III. (Spain) 1771 

Charles XIII. (Sweden and Norway) 1811 

Charles Frederick (Baden) 1807 

Chase-horn (Wiirtemberg) 1702 

Christ (France) 1206 

Christ (Portugal) 1317 

Concord (Prussia) 1660 

Constantine (Two Sicilies) 1190 

Cordon Jaune (France) 1606 

Crescent 1288 and 1448 

Cross 1668 



of peace, at that time the usual pledge of 
reconciliation, in 1169. 

Kit-Cat Club (London). — This celebrated 
association was formed about a.d. 1700, and 
held its first meetings at a small house in 
Shire Lane. It originally consisted of thirty- 
uine noblemen and gentlemen distinguished 
for the warmth of their attachment to the 
house of Hanover. The duke of Marlbo- 
rough, Sir Kobert Walpole, Addison, Garth, 
and many famous men of the period, were 
enrolled on its list of members. The club 
is said to derive its name from Christopher 
Katt, a pastrycook, at whose house the 
members dined. 

KiTTS, St. {See Christopher's, St.) 

Klagenptjet (lEyria), the capital of 
Carinthia, belonged to the crown till a.d. 
1518, when Maximihan I. transferred it to 
the states of Carinthia, for the purpose of 
erecting a fortress. The House of Assembly 
was built in 1391. At various times the city 
has suffered from extensive fires. Those 
which occurred in 1535, 1723, and 1796, were 
very destructive. The place was taken by 
the French, March 29, 1797, and on the 30th 
Napoleon made it his head-quarters. A 
skirmish took place here between Chastellar 
and the Italian general Eusca, in Jtme, 1809. 

Klausenbueg (Transylvania), the capital, 
called Colosvar or Kolosvar by the Hun- 
garians, is believed to have been founded by 
the Eomans, and by them named Claudia, 
whence its modern Latin appellation of Clau- 
diopolis. A colony of Saxons settled here 
and enlarged the town a.d. 1178. The cathe- 
dral was built in fulfilment of a vow by King 
Sigismund, 1399. Matthias Corvinus Huni- 
ades, king of Hungary, was born here in 
1443. On a lofty eminence stands the cita- 
del, erected in 1721. 

KifEELEBS. — A third order of catechumens 
was distinguished by this name by the coun- 
cil of Neocsesareia, a.d. 314 or 315, and 
other councUs. Amongst the penitents was 
an order of kneelers or prostrators. 

Kneeling was practised as the ordinary 
posture of devotion from the earliest times. 
Amongst the primitive Christians, on the 
Lord's day, aU prayers were performed 
standing, but on other days some were said 
standing, some kneehng. 

Knight Eeeantkt is described by a writer 
in the " Enclyclopsedia Britannica" (vii. 536) 
as " a practical caricature of chivalry, which, 
by bringing it into contempt, exposed it to 
ridicule, and thus sealed the doom of an 
institution which, with all its follies, ab- 
surdities, and vices, has conferred essential 
benefits upon mankind." Cervantes wrote 
"Don Quixote," of which the first part was 
pubUshed in 1605 and the second in 1615, in 
ridicule of knight errantry. 

Knighthood. — The institution of knight- 
hood originated in the honour anciently 
bestowed upon svieh as excelled in horse- 
manship. Hence the Latin, French, Itahan, 
Spanish, and Dutch words for the English 
knight are aU derived from terms which 
signify ' horse.' Some zealous antiquarians 



Kiri 



K^v'I 



Cross of the South (Brazil) 18a2 

Crown of Wiiitemberg (Wiu'tembeig) 1818 

Crown Royal (Fi ance) 802 

Danebrog (De-nmark) 1219 

De la Calza (Venice) 1400 

Da la Scama (Spain) 1320 

Dog and Cock (France) 500 

D"ve (Spain) 1379 

Dragon overthrown (Anstiia) 1418 

Ducal House of Peter Fi-ederick Louis (Olden- 
burg) 1838 

Elephant (Denmark) 1458 

Elizabeth Theresa (Austria) 1750 

Eimine (France) 1450 

Faustin, St. (Hay ti) 1849 

Ferdinand, St. (Spain) 1811 

Ferdinand, St. (Two Sicilies) 1800 

Fidelity (Denmark) 1732 

Fools (German empire) 1381 

Francis (Two Sicilies) 1829 

FVancis Joseph (Austria) 1849 

Garter (England) 1344 

Generosity (Piussia) 1665 

Gennet (France) 726 

George, St. (Bavaria) 1729 

George, St. (Hanover) 1839 

George, St. (Lucca) : 1833 

George, St. (Russia) 1769 

George of the Reunion, St. (T^vo Sicilies) . . 1819 

Gerion, St. (Austria) 1190 

German Integrity (Saxe-Gotha) 1690 

Golden Fleece (Austria) 1429 

Golden Lion 1785 

Golden Shield (France) 1363 

Golden Spurs (Papal States) 1559 

Gregory the Great, St. (Papal States) 1831 

Guelphic Order (Hanover) 1815 

Henry the Lion (Brunswick) 1834 

Henry, St. (Saxony) 1739 

Hermmgilde, St. (Spain) 1814 

Holy Ghost (France) 1579 

Holy Sepulchre (Turkey) 1496 

Hubert, St. (Bavaria) 1444 

Iron Cro-mi (Austria) 1805 

Iron Cross (Prussia) 1813 

Iron Helmet (Hesse) 1814 

Isabella the Catholic (Spain) 1815 

James, St. (Holland) 1290 

James of CumposteUa, St. (Spain) 1175 

Januarius, St. (Two Sicilies) 1738 

Jesus Christ (Papal States) 1320 

Jesus and Mary (Papal States) 1615 

John, St. (Prussia) 1319 

Joseph, St. (Tuscany) 1807 

Knot (Naples) 1351 

Lady of Mercy (Spain) 1218 

Lamb of God (Sweden) 1564 

Legion of Honour (France) 1802 

Leopold (Austria) , 1808 

Leopold (Belgium) 1832 

Lily of Aragon (Spain) 1410 

Ijly of Navarre (Spain) About 1050 

Lion and tbe Sun (Pema) 1808 

Lion of Zachringen (Baden) 1812 

Loretto (Papal States) 1587 

Louis (Hesse) ] 807 

Louis, St. (Lucca) 1836 

Madonna of Guadaloupe (Mexico) 1853 

Malte, St. John of (Austiia) 1043 

Maria Theresa (Austria) 1757 

Mary Magdalene, St. (France) 1614 

Maurice and Lazarus, St. (Sardinia) 1572 

Maximilian (Bavaria) 1853 

Maximilian Joseph (Bavaria) 1806 

Medjidie (Turkey) 1852 

Merciful Brethren of the Holy Ghost (Papal 

States) * 

Merit (Prussia) 1740 

Merit (Saxony) 1815 

Michael, St. (Bavaria) 1693 

Michael and George, St. (England) 1818 

Military Merit (Hesse) 1769 

Military Merit (Russia) 1792 

MUitary Merit (Tuscany) 1841 

MUitary Merit (Wurtemberg) 1759 

Neighbourly Love (Austria) 1708 

470 



A.D. ■ 

Nichan (Tunis) * 

Nichani-Iftihar (Turkey) 1831 

Nicolas, St. (Naples) 1382 

Noble Passion (Gei-man empire) 1704 

Oaken Crown (Luxemburg) 1841 

Oak of Navarre (Spain) 722 

Olaf, St. (Norway) 1847 

Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vicosa 

(Portugal) 1818 

Our Lady of Montesa (Spain) 1317 

Patrick, St. (Bavaria) * 

Patrick. St. (England) 1783 

Pedro (Brazil) 1826 

Peter and Paul, St. (Papal States) 1520 

Pius (Papal States) 1847 

Polai Star 1743 

Porcupine (France) 1393 

Red Eagle (Prussia) 1734 

Redeemer (Greece) 1833 

Rosary of Toledo (Spain) 1212 

Rose (BrazU) 1829 

Koyal Louis (Bavaria) 1827 

Rue Crown (Saxony) 1807 

Rupert (German empire) 170I 

Saviour of the World (Sweden) 1561 

Savoy (Sardinia) 1815 

Saxe-Ernest (Saxe-Gotha) 1825 

Seraphim (Sweden and Norway) 1280 

Ship (France) 1269 

Sincerity (Prussia) 1705 

Stanislaus, St. (Russia) 1765 

Star (France) 1022 

Star (Sicily) 135I 

Stephen, St. (Tuscany) 1562 

Swan (Prussia) 1449 

Sword (Sweden and Norway) 1523 

Sword in uyprus (Sardinia) About 1200 

Sword-Bearers (Poland) . . 1200 

Templars (Palestine) 1119 

Teutonic Order (Austria) 1191 

Thistle (Scotland) 809 

Tower and Sword (Portugal) 1459 

TruxiUo (Spain) Before 1227 

Vasa (Sweden and Norway) 1776 

Vii-gtn Mary (Papal States) 1233 

White Cross (Tuscany) 1814 

White Eagle (Russia) 1634 

White Falcon (Saxe- Weimaa) 1732 

WiUiam (Holland) 1815 

Wing of St. Michael (Portugal) 1172 

Wolodomir, St. (Russia) 1782 



Knight-Mabshal. — Tke earl-marslial of 
England (q.v.) had a knight under him 
called the Knight- Marshal. In ordinances 
made by Henry VIII. at Eltham, a.d. 1526, 
directions were laid down for his attendance 
at court, &e, 

EJNiGHTS (Female). — Besides the orders 
of knighthood bestowed on men, there are 
several instituted for the honour of meri- 
torious ladies. The following table exhibits 
a list of these, the most imjDortant of which 
are noticed under their titles : — 

A.D. 

Amaranta (Sweden) 1645 

Anne, St. (Bavaria) 1784 

Catherine, St. (Russia) 1714 

Cordelifere (France) 1498 

Death's Head itioi 

Elizabeth, St. (Palatine) 1766 

iFabela, St. (Portugal) 1801 

Louisa (Prussia) 1814 

Maria Louisa (Spain) 1792 

Neighbourly Love (Austria) 1662 

Slaves to Virtue (Austria) 1662 

Staiiy Cross (Austria) 1668 

Theresa (Bavaria) 1827 

Ulrica, St. (Sweden) 1734 

Kkights of the Eouin) Table. — This 



KNI 

order is said to have been founded by King 
Arthur, a British prince, who was probably 
killed at the battle of Camelon, a.d. 542. 
Edward III., anxious to revive it, offered 
free conduct to persons from various parts 
of Europe, desirous of attending a solemn 
festival of the Eound Table, to be held at 
Windsor a.d. 1344. Philip VI., king of 
France, prohibited his subjects from at- 
tending, and announced his intention of 
holding a Bound Table at Paris. From 
this originated the order of the Garter 
(q.v.). 

Kkights of the Shiee. — The representa- 
tives in parliament of the English counties 
were first summoned about a.d. 1254, in the 
reign of Henry III., and in a more regular 
form Jan. 20, 1265. By 8 Hen. VI. c. 7 
(1429), and 10 Hen. VI. c. 2 (1432), amended 
by 14 Geo. III. c. 58 (1774), knights of 
the shire were to be elected by persons 
possessing a freehold to the value of forty 
shillings by the year vrithin the county. 

Knitting. — The art of knitting is said to 
have been invented during the 16th century. 
The French stocking -knitters were incor- 
porated into a guild Aug. 26, 1.527 ; and 
Queen Elizabeth received a present of a 
pair of black silk stockings in 1561, which 
gave her such satisfaction that she refused 
to wear any other kind. The first knitted 
woollen stockings in England were worked 
by Wilham Kider in 1664 ; and in 1577 the 
art of knitting seems to have been common 
throughout all England. 

Knives were, according to Anderson, first 
made in England a.d. 1563. Fosbroke 
states that towards the end of the 16th 
century they formed part of the accoutre- 
ments, and were worn by European women 
at the girdle. The Anglo-Saxons and the 
Normans carried about with them the met- 
sisx, or eating-knife. An Egyptian knife, 
with blade of copper, has been found in the 
catacombs of Sacarruh. 

Know-nothings. — This political party of 
the United States published its " Platform 
of Principles" June 15, 1855. Its distin- 
guishing features were the approval of sla- 
very and hostility to the Koman CathoUc 
church. 

KoLiN (Battle). — The Prussians under 
Fredei*ick the Great sustained a signal 
defeat from the Austrians under Marshal 
Daun, at this town, in Bohemia, June 18, 
1757. 

KoNGSBEEG ( Norway ),— The silver- 
mines in the neighbourhood, for which this 
town is celebrated, were discovered a.d. 
1623. 

KoNiGSBEHG (Prussia). — This city was 
founded a.d. 1255 by the knights of the Teu- 
tonic order, at the suggestion of Premislaus II. 
of Bohemia. The royal castle was erected 
in 1257, and the cathedral commenced in 
1332. In 1365 it joined the Hanseatic 
League, and in 1525 became the residence of 
the Prussian dukes, and the capital of the 
duchy. The university, founded in 1544, by 
the margrave Albert, is called the Alber- 



KOR 

tine in consequence. Konigsberg was sur- 
rounded by walls in 1626, and the citadel of 
Fredericksburg was built in 1657. The elector 
Frederick III. was crowned king of Prussia at 
this place in 1701. The plague raged here 
with great fury in 1709, and much damage 
was done by fires in 1764, 1769, 1775, and 
1811. The Eussians entered Konigsberg in 
triumph, Jan. 16, 1758, and the French seized 
it in 1807, and it was again fortified in 1843. 
The coronation of WiUiam I. of Prussia was 
celebrated here with great magnificence, 
Oct. 18, 1861. 

KoNiGSHOFEN, (Battle,) was fought at this 
place, in Germany, June 2, 1525, during the 
Peasant war, when the peasantry were de- 
feated by the imperial troops, and perished 
in great numbers. 

KoNiGSTEiN (Germany) was surrendered 
to the Prussians, after a blockade of some 
months, March 9, 1793. For about three 
months in 1849, the king of Saxony sought 
refuge here, on account of the revolutionary 
tendencies of his subjects. The fortress is 
considered impregnable, and at its foot 
stands the camp of Pirna (q.v.). 

KooM (Persia) was built by the Saracens 
about the beginning of the 9th centuiy. 
The Affghans destroyed it in 1722. It was 
at one time celebrated for its manufactures 
of sUk. 

KoKAN. — This word, signifying in the ori- 
ginal Arabic, ' that which ought to be read,' 
is the name given to the bible of the Moham- 
medans, which was prepared by Mohammed 
about A.D. 612, and collected and published 
by his successor Abubeker in 634. The 
divine authority of the book was denied by 
Djeab Ibn-Dirhem in 740, and by other 
heretics in 826 ; in consequence of which 
Haroun II. prohibited aU discussion on the 
subject in 842. The first Latin translation of 
the Koran was made in 1143. Hinckelmann 
pubhshed the Arabic text in 1696. Sale's 
English Koran appeared in 1734, and Savary's 
French version in 1753. Fliiegel's stereo- 
typed edition was published at Leipsic in 
1834. — The work contains 114 chapters 
and 6,000 verses, and its contents are divided 
into the three general heads of precepts, 
histories, and admonitions. 

KoRDOEAN (Central Africa). — This district 
of the jSigritia, long tributary to the king of 
Sennaar, was taken in the latter half of the 
18th century, by the king of Dar-Fur, from 
whom it was wrested by Mehemet Ali in 1820. 
Mehemet AU was confirmed in the possession 
of Kordofanby a firman issued by the sultan 
Feb. 13, 1841. 

KoKEiSH. — This cebebrated Arabian tribe 
was descended from Fihr, born about 200, 
and was elevated to importance by Kussai, 
born about 400. The custody of the Caaba, 
(q.v.) was usurped by the Koreishites in 400, 
and Mohammed was born a member of the 
tribe in 569. In 613 he was vigorously op- 
posed in his religious reformation by Ms 
fellow Koreishites, and a war resulted, which 
terminated in the total defeat of his oppo- 
nents ia 630. Miknan says the KoreisBte 
471 



KOE 



KUS 



tril^e was a kind of hierarchy, esercisiag 
religious supremacy. 

KoEifEUBUEG, (Treaty,) was concluded 
between Frederick III. , emperor of Germany, 
and Matthias, king of Bohemia, Dec. 1, 1477. 
Frederick agreed to invest him with the 
crown, and to pay 100,000 ducats towards 
the expenses of the war against Ladislaus VI. 

KosLiK, or CosLiN (Prussia), the an- 
cient Cholin, destroyed by fire a.d. 1718, 
was restored by Frederick William I. 

KosLov. [See Eupatobia.) 

KoTAH (Hindostan).— A treaty was con- 
cluded between the state of Kotah and the 
East-India Company, relative to the suc- 
cession, A.D. 1817. Kotah was the scene of 
the murder of Major Burton, of the 40th 
Bengal infantry, on the 15th of October, 

1857, during the mutiny, when his two sons 
also were put to death, and the Residency was 
plundered and bxirned. On the 30th March, 

1858, General Roberts assaulted the town of 
Kotah with complete success, and compara- 
tively trifling loss. 

KoTEiAH (Battle). — Lieutenant Marshall, 
at the head of 900 sepoys and 60 horse, 
defeated 4,000 Beloochees, posted among 
the hiUs of Kotriah, in Scinde, Dec. 1, 
1840, 

KouLEFTSCHA (Battle). — The Russians, 
after a desperate contest, in which victory 
wavered from one side to the other, defeated 
the Turks in the valley of Kouleftscha, 
June 11, 1829. 

KotrsADAC (Battle).— The Mongols defeat- 
ed the sultan of Iconiimi at Kousadac, a.d. 
1244. 

KouTCHorK -Kainaedji ( Bulgaria ) . — A 
treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey 
was concluded at this village, on the Danube, 
July 10, 1774 (O.S.). It was confirmed by 
the leaders of the armies, July 15. By an 
edict of Catherine II., March 19, 1775 
(O.S.), fixing a day of thanksgiving for the 
re-establishment of peace, the ratifications 
were said to have been exchanged at Con- 
stantinople Jan. 13, 1775 (O.S.). The 
Crimea was declared independent, and the 
free navigation of the Black Sea guaranteed. 
It is often called the treaty of Kainardji. 

KowNO (Russia) was reached by the in- 
vading army of iN'apoleon I., June" 23, 1812, 
and taken possession of by the advanced 
guard the following morning. The Russian 
commander Platoif captured 3,000 French 
soldiers here Dec. 12, and the miserable 
remnant of the " Grand Army" commenced 
their retreat from this point Dec. 13. 

Keajota (Wallachia).— The Russians suf- 
fered a defeat from the Turks near this town, 
Sept. 26, 1828. Here their army commenced 
its retreat from Turkey, April 24, 1854. 

KEASJfoi (Battle). — The Russians gained 
an important victory over the French army 
under Xapoleon I., near thistovra, in Russia, 
Nov. 17, 1812. No less than 6,000 prisoners 
fell into the hands of the conquerors, toge- 
ther with part of the emperor's archives. 

KEEMiyi>' (Moscow) was erected as a ! 

palace by the gz-and-duke of Russia a.d. 1 

472 ' 



I 1367, and fortified in 1492. Napoleon I. 

1 reached the new palace, built in 1743, 

Sept. 14, 1812. He remained here till the 

j 16th, when the conflagration reached the 

! Kremlin, and it was soon reduced to ashes. 

Another palace was bmlt upon its site in 

1816. 

Keetjtznach (Prussia). — This tovra was 
stormed by Gustavus Adolphus a.d. 1632. 
The French drove the Austrians from this 
I place Nov. 30, 1795. 

j KsoiA, or Keoja (European Turkey). — 
Amurath II. led two expeditions on a large 
scale against this town a.d. 1449 and 1450, 
and they were both unsuccessful. The Turks 
were repulsed in another attempt in 1477. 
By a treaty signed Jan. 26, 1479, the Vene- 
tians ceded Kroia to the Turks. 

Keotzka (Battle). — The Austrians were 

defeated by the Turks at this place July 22, 

1739. 

I KuifOBiTZA (Battle). — John Huniades 

\ defeated the Turks at this place, in the 

j Balkan, Dec. 24, 1443. 

' Ktjedistan (Asia) . — The ancient Cordyene 
or Gordyene, a district inhabited by the wan- 
dering tribes of the Carduchi. Originally 
subject to Persia, it was, in the time of Alex- 
ander the Great, annexed to Syria. The 
Parthians conquered it in the 3rd century 
before Christ. Lucullus passed the winter 
here b.c. 68, and Pompey annexed it to 
Rome B.C. 64. It again passed under the 
dominion of the kings of Persia, from whom 
: it was wrested by Galerius, a.d. 298. It was 
restored to Chosroes by Jovian, by the treaty 
I of July, 363, and it afterwards" fell to the 
' caliphs of Bagdad. In 1258 Kurdistan was 
j conquered by the Mongols, and in 1388 by 
the Tartars under Tamerlane. The greater 
i portion of the country was conquered by the 
j Turks in 1515, Persia retaining only about a 
j fourth. The Kurds remained in a state of 
1 insubordination. They massacred the Nes- 
torian Christians in 1846, destroying sixty- 
' seven towns and villages. The sultan dis- 
I patched an armj into Kurdistan in 1846, 
! when the murderers of the Christians were 
punished, and the country was reduced to 
subjection. 

Ktjeile Isles (Pacific Ocean). — This 

group of twenty-six islands was first dis- 

I covered by the Russians, a.d. 1713. Five of 

the islands were known in 1720, and the dis- 

I covery of the whole archipelago was com- 

I pleted in 1778. Captain Golownin, of the 

Russian navy, was sent to survey them in 

1811. The Russians formed a settlement on 

one of them, called Urup, in 1828, and the 

three southernmost islands of the group are 

occupied by the Japanese. 

KuEEACHEE (Hindostau) . — This seaport 
town of Scinde was bombarded and taken 
by the British, Feb. 3, 1839. It is celebrated 
for its pearl-fishery. 

Ktjsteix, or Ctjsteis- (Prussia). — This 
strongly -fortified town, on the Oder, was 
besieged Aug. 15, and burnt by the Russians 
Aug. 22, 1758. The battle of Zorndorf, near 
Kustrin, was fought between the Prussians 



LAA 

and the Russians Aug. 25, 1758. It lasted 
from nine in the morning until seven at 
night, and neither side could boast of having 
obtained a victory. The town was speedily 
rebxiilt by Frederick the Great. It was 
taken by the French in 1806, and occupied 
by them till March 30, 1814, when it sur- 
rendered to the aUies. The fortifications 
have been considerably strengthened since 
the peace of 1815. 



Xj. 

Laaland, or LoLLAND (Sea-fight). — The 
combined Dutch and Swedish squadrons 
defeated the Danes off this island in the 
Baltic, A.D. 1644. 

Labento (Battle). — The Greeks sustained 
a defeat from the IS'ormans, near_this river, 
in Italy, a.d. 1041. 

Labour (Festival of). — The annual cele- 
bration of this festival was fixed in the 
French Revolutionary calender of 1793 to 
take place on the 19th of September. 

Laboueers are defined as servants in agri- 
culture or manufactures, not hving within 
the master's house. The Statute of La- 
bourers, 25 Edw. III. St. 1 (1350), made 
various regulations respecting wages, and the 
penalties incurred by refractory servants, 
and prohibited labourers from moving from 
one county to another under pain of im- 
prisonment. HaUam (Middle Ages, ch. ix. 
pt. 2) remarks on this subject : " The Statute 
of Labourers in 1350 fixed the wages of 
reapers during harvest at threepence a day 
without diet, equal to five shillings at pre- 
sent; that of 23 Hen. VI. c. 12, in 1444, fixed 
the reapers' wages at fivepence and those 
of conunon workmen in building at three- 
pence-halfpenny, equal to 6«. 8d. and 4s. 8d.; 
that of 11 Hen. VII. c. 22, in 1496, leaves 
the wages of labourers in harvest as before, 
but rather increases those of ordinary work- 
men. The yearly wages of a chief hind or 
shepherd by the act of 1444 were £1. 4s., 
equivalent to about £20 ; those of a common 
servant in husbandry IBs. 4id., with meat and 
drink : they were somewhat augmented by 
the statute of 1496." The same writer comes 
to the conclusion, that the labouring classes, 
especially those engaged in agriculture, were 
better provided with the means of subsist- 
ence in the reign of Edward III. or of 
Henry VI. than they are at present. Con- 
spiracies of workmen to increase their wages 
or interfere with the prescribed hours of 
work, were made punishable by fines and 
the pUlory, by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15 (1548). 
Statutes relating to hiring, wages, keeping, 
&c., of labourers, were amended by 5 Eliz. 
c. 4 (1562), which prohibited masters from 
discharging their servants, or servants from 
quitting their employers until the term of 
service agreed upon had expired. It also 
plased the regulation of the amount of wages 
in the hands of the justices, sheriffs, mayors, 
&c., and compelled employers and employed 
to abide by the appointed rates under severe 



LAC 

penalties. In harvest time artificers were 
compelled to work, under pain of the stocks, 
and single women aged between twelve and 
forty years were at aU times hable to be 

sent to service. The Labourers' DweUings 

Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 1.32 (Aug. 14, 1855), was 
passed to faeihtate the erection of healthy 
and convenient houses for the working 
classes by pubhc companies. 

Labrador (North America) was dis- 
covered A.D. 1497, by Sebastian Cabot. 
Cortereal, a Portuguese, was the first who 
landed here, in 1500. The Moravians formed 
a settlement in 1771, with a view of Chris- 
tianizing the natives. Martin Frobisher, in 
1576, was the first Enghshman who made a 
voyage to Labrador. 

L A B TJ A K ( Indian Archipelago ) . — This 
island was ceded to the Enghsh government 
in 1846, and Sir James Brooke took posses- 
sion Oct. 28, 1848. 

Laburnum, or Golden" Chain Tree, was 
brought to tins country from the Alps before 
A.D. 1596. 

Labyrinth of Arsinoe, near Lake Moeris, 
in Egypt, said to have been constructed by 
the Imigs of Egypt, consisted of 3,000 cham- 
bers. Herodotus states that it was used as 
a burial-place for the kings of Egypt. Lep- 
sius explored it in June, 1843.- — The laby- 
rinth of Crete, near Cnosus, the retreat of 
the fabled Minotaur, is ascribed to Daedalus. 

The labyrinth of Lemnos, described by 

Pliny, was said to have been supported by 150 
columns. Dr. Hunt in vain endeavoured 
to find some trace of this labyrinth in 1801. 

The labyrinth near Chisrum, in Etruria, 

now Chiusi, is supposed by some authorities 
to be the tomb of Porsenna, who Hved B.C. 

508. The labyrinth at Hampton was 

erected in the 17th century. 

Laccadive Islands (Indian Ocean) were 
discovered by Vasco de Gama, a.d. 1499. 

Lace. — Beckmann is of opinion that lace 
worked by the needle is much older than 
that made by knitting. The art probably 
originated in Italy. The importation of lace 
into England was prohibited by a French 
law in 1483. Beckmann asserts that the 
knitting of lace is a German invention, due 
to Barbara Uttmann, of St. Annaberg, and 
that it was found out before 1561. The 
oldest pattern-book for making point-lace 
appeared at Frankfort-on-the-Maine in 1568. 
It was written by Nicholas Basseus. Some 
Flemish refugees introduced the manufacture 
of piUow-lace into Buckinghamshire about 
1626. Hammond, a framework knitter of 
Nottingham, first attempted to apply the 
stocking-frame to lace-making in 1768, and 
after undergoing various improvements, the 
process was brought to perfection by John 
Heathcoate, who patented his bobbin-net 
machine in 1809. Jacquard's apparatus was 
applied to it in 1839. Frost introduced the 
point machine in 1777. Morley's double 
locker machine was brought out in 1824. 

LACEDiEMON (Greece) . — The ancient name 
of Laconia, and of its capital city, Sparta 



LAC 



LAK 



Laconia, or Laconica (Greece). — This 
country was originally inhabited by the Le- 
leges, whose kingdom was founded about B.C. 
1516. Accordingto tradition, Laeedaemon, the 
king of Laconia, married Sparta, the daughter 
of his predecessor, b.c. 1490, and founded a 
city, which he named after his wife, while his 
kingdom was known by his own name. The 
Dorians of Sparta had made themselves 
masters of the whole of Laconia by the 
middle of the 8th century. They waged war 
against the Dorians in Messenia from B.C. 
743 to 724, and from B.C. 685 to 668, and 
the country was annexed to Laconia. {See 
Spaeta.) 

Lacteal Vessels. — Gaspar AseUius, pro- 
fessor of anatomy at Pavia, in dissecting a 
dog, July 23, 1622, discovered these vessels. 
He announced the fact in 1627. John Wes- 
ling gave the first delineation of the lacteals 
from the human subject in 1634. Pecquet 
discovered the common trunk of the lacteals 
and lym.phatics in 1647; and Jolyff'e, an 
EngHsh anatomist, discovered the distinc- 
tion between the lacteals and the lym- 
phatics in 1650, and published his discovery 
in 1652. 

Ladae (Asia). — This province of Thibet 
was seized by Gholab Singh, ruler of Cash- 
mere, A.D. 1835, and still forms part of his 
dominions. 

Lade (Sea-fight). — The Persians defeated 
the lonians off this island, near Miletus, 
B.C. 494. 

Ladeone, or MAEiANifE Islands (Pacific 
Ocean). — This group was discovered by 
Magelhaens, a.d. 1520. The Spaniards formed 
a settlement in the middle of the 17th cen- 
tury. Anson visited them in 1742. 

Lady. — The title properly belongs to the 
wives of knights and of all superior degrees 
except the wives of bishops. The term is 
derived from the Saxon Mcb/ dig, loaf-day, 
because it was foi'merly the custom for the 
mistress of the manor to distribute bread to 
her poorer neighbours at stated intervals. 
Fosbroke (Antiq.) remarks : " The ladies of 
knights and baronets were called Domince 
(whence Dame as a title of honour), and 
also MilifisscB, Knightesses, being sometimes 
so created by knights by a blow upon the 
back with a sword, and the usual cere- 
monies. (See Women.) 

Lady -Day, or The AififTiifCiATioif. — 
The 25th of March, the day on which the 
festival of the Annunciation of the Virgin 
Mary is held by the Church, received the 
name of Lady-Day in consequence of its 
being sacred to Our Lady. The feast is of 
great antiquity, dating, according to some 
authorities, from a.d. 350, and according to 
others, from the 7th century. Lady-Day 
was anciently considered the fil'st day of the 
year. The 1st of January was adopted as 
the beginning of the year in France in 
1564, in Scotland in 1599, and in England 
in 1752. 

Laffeldt, or Val (Battle) . — Marshal Saxe 
defeated the allied Enghsh, Dutch, and Aus- 
trian army at this village, in Holland, July 2, 
474 



1747. The allied army lost 6,000 men and 
sixteen gims, whilst the loss of the French 
amounted to 10,000 men. Louis XV., who- 
witnessed the battle, remai'ked : " The 
Enghsh have not only paid all, but fought 
aU." 

La Featta (Battle). — The Pisans were 
defeated by the Sicilians in this battle, 
A.D. 1135. 

Lagos (Africa). — This stronghold of the 
slave-trade was bombarded by a British 
squadron Dec. 26 and 27, 1851. The forces 
landed and took possession of the town, 
which had been deserted by the enemy, 
Dec. 28, 1851. 

Lagos (Sea-fight).— The Enghsh fleet, 
commanded by Admiral Boscawen, defeated 
the French fleet, with great loss, in this 
bay, near the seaport of the same name, in 
Portugal, Aug. 18, 1759. 

Lagosta (Adriatic). — An English force of 
300 men landed on this small island, then in 
possession of the French, Jan. 21, 1813. 
They made preparations to besiege the 
enemy's principal fort, which capitulated 
Jan. 29, when the whole island was sur- 
rendered to the Enghsh. 

La Hogite (France). — Edward III. landed 
at this place, near Cherbourg, July 10, 1346. 
A combined Dutch and Enghsh fleet engaged 
the French fleet, commanded by Tourville, 
off La Hogue, May 19, 1692. The enemy 
escaped in a fog, but chase was given, and 
the conflict was renewed May 21, when 
nearly the whole of the French squadron 
was destroyed. 

Lahoee (Hindostan), the capital of the 
Punjaub, was taken by Sultan Baber, and 
became the residence of its Mohammedan 
conquerors a.d. 1520. It was captured in 
1756, by "Jassa the Kalal," as he styled 
himself on a medal struck in conmiemoration 
' of the event ; and by Shah Zeman, king of 
! Cabul, in 1798, who bestowed it upon his bro- 
ther Eunjeet Singh, in 1799. A present of 
i horses from King WilHam IV. arrived here 
Jidy 17, 1831. A revolution occurred at 
I Lahore in 1844. A brigade of British troops, 
I under the command of Sir Hugh Gough, 
1 occupied the citadel Feb. 22, 1846, and a 
I treaty, placing the Punjaub under Enghsh 
! protection, was signed March 9, 1846. It 
was, with the Punjaub, annexed to British 
India, March 9, 1849. During the mutiny, 
Major Spencer and two native officers were 
murdered here in July, 1857. 

La Jaulnais (Treaty). — The repubhcans 
and the royalists in La Vendee entered into 
a treaty at La Jaulnais, for the termination 
of the civil war, and the pacification of the 
west of France, in 1795. 

Lake Eegillus (Battle). — Fought be- 
tween the Latins and the Eomans, according 
to the traditional account, B.C. 499, the for- 
mer being defeated. The exiled Tarquin 
was in the Latin army. Castor and Pollux, 
the Dioscuri, were represented in the popu- 
lar lays of Eome as appearing fighting in the 
Eoman ranks, under the form of two gigantic 
youths, mounted on white steeds. This 



LAM 

battle terminates the mythical pei-iod in the 
history of Kome. 

Lambeth Articles, nine in number, of 
an iiltra-Calvinistic character, were drawn 
up by Archbishop Whitgift, Nov. 10, 1595. 
He sought to impose them on the Church of 
England. They were suppressed by order 
of Queen Ehzabeth, and so well was the 
injunction executed that, for many years a 
copy of them could not be obtained. They 
were brought forward and rejected at the 
Hampton Court conferences, Jan. 14, 15, and 
16, 1604 ; but the Irish church adopted them 
in 1615. 

Lambeth Palace (London) was built by 
Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury, 
A.D. 1200, the property having come into 
possession of the see in 1197. Archbishop 
Boniface made considerable additions to it 
in 1250, and the Lollards Tower was built by 
Bishop Chicheley about 1443. The insur- 
rectionists, headed by Wat Tyler, entered 
the palace, killing the archbishop, Simon of 
Sudbury, and Sir Kobert Hales, June 13, 
1381. Burglars effected an entrance Aug. 8, 
1823. In 1833 Archbishop Howley made 
extensive improvements and additions, at a 
cost of £55,000. 

Lamego (Portugal), the ancient Lama- 
cum, or Lameca, was wrested from the 
Moors by Ferdinand of Castile, a.d. 1038. 
The cortes of Portugal assembled here in 
1143, The Portuguese rebels captured it 
Dec. 3, 1826. 

Lamian Wab. — ^Athens, in allianee with 
other Greek states, made war upon An- 
tipater, governor of Macedon, B.C. 323. 
He fled to the city of Lamia, in Thessaly, 
where he was besieged by the allies, whom 
he finally defeated at the battle of Cranon, 
B.C. 322. 

Lammas-Dat. — The 1st of August is so 
denominated, but the origin of the term is 
involved in obscurity. It is the day of the 
feast of St. Peter ad Vincula, or St. Peter 
in bonds, which was instituted a.d. 317, and, 
according to some authorities, received its 
title from the Divine commission to Peter, 
" Feed my lambs." Others state that it is a 
corruption of the Saxon Loaf-mass, because 
an annual feast was then celebrated to re- 
turn thanks for the first-fruits of corn. 
Lammas-day is one of the four cross quar- 
ter-days of the year, Whitsimtide being the 
first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
third, and Candlemas the fourth. 

La Molinella (Battle). — A sanguinary 
but undecisive battle was fought near La 
Molinella, between some Florentine exiles, 
assisted by the Venetians, and the Floren- 
tines, July 25, 1467. 

Lampedusa (Mediterranean). — This small 
island, the ancient Lopadussa, was made a 
state prison by the king of Naples a.d. 1843. 

Lampeteb (Wales). — the college of 
St. David, at Lampeter, Cardiganshire, for 
theological students, founded on the site of 
an ancient castle, by Bishop Burgess, a.d. 
1822, was erected in 1827, and incorporated 
in 1828. A supplementary charter, granting 



LAN- 
power to confer the degree of B.D., was ob- 
tained in August, 1852. 

Lamps are said to have been invented by 
the Egyptians ; and Herodotus notices a 
feast of lamps held annually in Egypt. The 
Jews made use of lamps in public festivals 
and reUgious ceremonies. The Greeks and 
Eomans made them of terra-cotta, bronze, 
and also of gold and silver. They were kept 
burning in sepulchres, a practice adopted by 
the Christians, and which gave I'ise to the 
fiction respecting perpetual lamps. Num- 
bers of lamps, of rich and elaborate work- 
manship, have been found in the ruins of 
Herculaneum, destroyed Aug. 24, a.d. 79. 
In the 14th century they were made of glass, 
and were much used in England. They were 
introduced into Ireland in 1375. The Ar- 
gand lamp was invented in 1789, and an 
endless variety has since sprung into ex- 
istence. 

Lawaek (Scotland) was the site of a 
Eoman encampment, of which traces are 
still to be found. Here the states of the 
reahn were convoked by King Kenneth, 
A.D. 978. It was a royal burgh when Mal- 
colm II. came to the throne, a.d. 1003. The 
Covenanters pubMshed their testimony at 
Lanark in 1682. 

Lancashiee (England). — The south of 
Lancashire is said to have been inhabited 
by the Segantii, or Setantii, i.e. " dwellers 
in the country of water." It formed part 
of Northumberland from a.d. 547 to 926. 
It contains several traces of Eoman roads 
and stations. The successors of Wilham, 
earl of Ferrers, who took the title of earl of 
Derby, held the office of lords of the coimty 
tiU 1265, when their lands were forfeited and 
bestowed upon Edmund, son of Henry III., 
who became first earl of Lancaster. Eiots 
occurred in many parts of Lancashire in the 
spring of 1826. 

Lancaster (Duchy of). -r- The dukedom 
of Lancaster was created by Edward III., in 
favour of Henry Plantagenet, March 6, 1351, 
and was bestowed upon his son, John of 
Gaunt, Nov. 13, 1362. It was made a 
county palatine. The duke was to have 
jura regalia, and power to pardon treasons 
or outlawries, and make justices of the 
peace and justices of assize within the 
county. The lordship of Eipon was an- 
nexed to it by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 16 (1645) ; 
and the revenue having dechned, other lands 
were annexed to it by 2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, 
c. 20 (1555). The courts of the duchy of 
Lancaster were instituted by Edward III. 
in 1376. The management of the revenues 
was entrusted to them. Henry BoHngbroke 
was duke of Lancaster on his accession to 
the crown as Henry IV., Sept. 30, 1399. In 
the first year of his reign he procured an act 
of parhament, ordering that the duchy of Lan- 
caster, &c., should remain to him and his heirs 
for ever. It was declared forfeited to the 
crown in 1461, and was vested in Edward IV. 
and his heirs, kings of England, for ever. 

Lancaster (England), the Eoman 
Longovicus, according to the " Monumenta 
475 



LAN 

Britannica," received a charter from King 
John (a.d. 1199 — 1216), with increased pri- 
■vileges from Edward III. The castle, now 
a gaol, was originally built in the 11th 
century. The army of the Pretender oc- 
cupiedt he town three days, Nov. 6 — 9, 1715. 
It was taken by Prince Charles Edward 
Nov. 24, 1745. The railroad to Preston was 
opened June 30, 1S40, and the railroad to 
Carhsle Dec. 16, 1846. 

LAifCASTEE (Pennsylvania) was founded 
A.D. 1730, and incorporated in 1818. The 
sessions of Congress were removed here on 
the capture of Philadelphia in 1777. It was 
the chief town of the state from 1799 to 
1812, when that dignity was transferred to 
Harrisburg. Franklin College was estab- 
lished in 1787. 

Lancasteeian" Schools. — Joseph Lancas- 
ter opened his first school at the age of 
eighteen, iu the Borough Eoad, London, in 
1798. He adopted Dr. Bell's monitorial sys- 
tem, which he brought to such perfection that 
in 1802 he was able to teach 250 boys, with no 
other assistance than that afforded by the 
senior pupils. Lancaster pubhshedmmierous 
pamphlets in recommendation of the plan, and 
obtained influential friends, by whose assist- 
ance he founded the British and Foreign 
School Society in 1805. In 1806 he obtained 
an interview with George III., who imme- 
diately subscribed £100 a year towards the 
extension of the system ; and in 1808 he 
resigned his school into the hands of 
trustees, in consequence of which it assumed 
the importance of a pubhc institution. Owing 
to imprudence iu the conduct of his aifairs, 
Lancaster was compelled to emigrate to 
America in 1818 ; and he died at New- 
York, in very reduced circumstances, Oct. 
24, 1838. 

Lancastee Souis-D (Arctic Sea) was dis- 
covered by Bylot and Baffin, July 12, 1816, 
and named after Sir James Lancaster. 

Lancasteians a^d Yoekists. — The sup- 
porters of Henry VI., of the house of Lan- 
caster, and of Edward, duke of York, 
afterwards Edward IV., who contended for 
the crown of England a.d. 1455 — 1461, were 
respectively known by these titles. The 
struggle is also designated the War of the 
Koses, the red rose having been the emblem 
of the Lancastrian, and the white of the 
Yorkist party. 

Land. — The provisions usually inserted in 
acts authorizing the taking of lands for 
pubhc undertakings were consoUdated by 
the Lands Clauses ConsoHdation Act, 8 Vict. 
C.18 (Mays, 1845). 

Landau (Bavaria). — This town, founded 
by Eodolph of Habsburg, was made a 
free city of the empire in the 14th cen- 
tury. The fortifications were commenced 
by Vauban in 1680, and the town was almost 
entirely destroyed by fire in 1686. Louis of 
Baden invested Landau June 16, 1702, the 
citadel surrendered Sept. 9, and the whole town 
was captured Sept 10. Tallard besieged it in 
1703, and completed its reduction Nov. 14 
Marlborough obtained possession of it 
4i7Q 



LAN 

Nov. 23, 1704. The Austrians expelled the 
French in 1743. It was frequently assailed 
towards the close of the 18th century, and it 
was besieged in 1793 by the Austrians and 
Prussians, who were eventually compelled to 
abandon the tmdertaking. It was ceded to 
France by the treaty of 1814, but was re- 
stored to Germany by that of 1815. 

Landed Estates Couet. — This court was 
erected by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 72 (Aug. 2, 1858), 
to facilitate the sale and transfer of lands in 
Ireland. The sittings were appointed to be 
held in Dubhn, under the presidency of three 
judges, who were inehgible as members of 
parhament. The authority of the court 
commenced Nov. 1, 1858. 

Landen (Battle). — At this village, in Bel- 
gium, WUliam III. was defeated by Marshal 
Luxemburg, with a loss of 12,000 men, 
July 19, 1693 (O.S.). It is sometimes called 
the battle of Neerwinden. 

Land&eave. — -This title originated in the 
10th century, and was first used in Alsace. 
Albert III. was the first of the Habsburg 
family who styledhimself landgrave of Alsace. 
The margraves of Thuringia assumed the 
title in the 11th century. The collateral 
branch of the house of Hesse took it in 1263. 

Landeect (Flanders). — Francis I. cap- 
tured this town in 1543, the emperor 
Charles V. failed in an attempt to recapture 
it during the same year, and Prince Eugene 
besieged it but without success in 1712. The 
prince of Orange invested it April 16, 1794, 
and it surrendered April 30. The French 
retook it July 17, 1794. 

Landshtjt (Bavaria). — The Prussians 
were defeated by the Austrians near this 
town, June 23, 1760. The attack was made 
in the dead of night, and the result was a 
complete victory. The university of Ingold- 
stadt, removed here in 1800, was transferred 
to Munich in 1826. 

Land-Tax. — The Danegelt (q.v.) was a 
species of land-tax. The rate now known by 
the name was first levied by 4 WiU. & Mary, 
c. 1 (1692), to dsfray the expenses of the 
war against France. The original rate was 
three shillings in the pound on the rental, 
and the tax was continued every year, most 
frequently at four shillings iu the pound, 
until it was made perpetual by 38 Geo. III. 
c. 60 (June 21, 1798). The sum fixed by 
this act as the amount of the land-tax was 
£2,037,627. 9s. Old. The provisions of 
several acts for the redemption of the land- 
tax were consolidated by 42 Geo. Ill, c. 
116 (June 26, 1802). 

Lanfanan (Battle). — Earl Siward de- 
feated Macbeth, king of Scotland, at this 
place, in Scotland, July 27, 1054. 

Langees (France), the ancient Ande- 
matunnum or Lingomma Civitas, was occu- 
pied and made the head-quarters of the 
Prussian and Russian armies during the 
campaign in France, a.d, 1814. {See Lin- 

GONFM CiVITAS.) 

Langside (Battle). — Mary, queen of 
Scots, having escaped from Lochleven, 
May 2, 1567, raised some troops, which were 



LAN 

defeated at Langside, near Glasgow, May 13, 
1567. 

Lang-ttage. — The origin of language is 
veiled in obscurity. Some writers contend 
that it was revealed from heaven; others 
that it is the fruit of human invention. The 
latter opinion was prevalent amongst the 
Greek audKoman philosophers and authors. 
Hobbes says: "The first author of speech 
was God himself, that instructed Adam how 
to name such creatures as he presented to 
his sight (Gen. ii. 19), for the Scripture 
goeth no further in this matter. But this 
was sufficient to induce him to add more 
names, as the experience and use of the 
creatures should give him occasion, and to 
join them in such manner by degrees, as to 
make himself understood ; and so by suc- 
cession of time so much language might be 
gotten as he had found use for, though not 
so copious as an orator or philosopher has 
need of." The French, Spanish, and ItaMan 
languages are derived from the Latin. Fran- 
cis I. ordered the French language to be used 
in aU pubhc acts, but the change was not 
fuUy eifected until 1629. HaUam asserts 
that no industry has hitherto retrieved so 
much as a few hues of real ItaUan, tiU near 
the end of the 12th century. The transfor- 
mation of Anglo-Saxon into modern English 
was gradual. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 
closes with a notice of the events of a.d. 1155. 
The French language, which was spoken 
amongst the higher classes in England from 
the Conquest, tell into disuse in the reign of 
Edward III., who banished JSTorman French 
from the courts of law in 1362. According 
to a recent estimate, there are 3,014 lan- 
guages and general dialects in the world ; viz. 
587 in Europe, 937 in Asia, 226 in Africa, 
and 1,264 in America. Amongst the most 
celebrated linguists may be mentioned Arias 
Montanus, the Spaniard who completed the 
Antwerp Polyglot Bible in 1572 ; and James 
Crichton, commonly called the Admirable 
Crichton, who died in his twenty-third year 
in 1584 ; both of whom are said to have 
known from twelve to fifteen languages. 
SirWiUiam Jones, born in London, Sept, 28, 
1746, is beheved to have known twenty-eight 
languages ; Joseph Caspar Mezzofanti, born 
at Bologna, Sept. 17, 1774, whom Byron 
termed a " walking polyglot, a monster of 
languages, and a Briarseus of parts of 
speech," is said to have known a hundred 
and twenty languages. Though this state- 
ment may be exaggerated, he was conver- 
sant with above fifty, and was the greatest 
Unguist the world ever knew. Barthold 
George Niebuhr, born at Copenhagen, 
Aug. 27, 1776, was in 1807 acquainted with 
twenty languages, and afterwards increased 
the number. 

Langtjedoc (France), under the Romans, 
formed a portion of GaUia Narbonensis, and 
enjoyed the freedom of Italy. In the Mid- 
dle Ages it was known as Septimania, from 
its seven cathedral churches. It was ceded 
by Honorius to the Goths a.d. 409. The 
Saracens, who had succeeded them, were 



LAO 

driven out by Charles Martel in 725. In 
the 11th and 12th centuries the Albigensian 
opinions prevailed in Languedoc. Part of 
Languedoc was ceded to ' France in 1229, 
and the remainder was annexed in 1270. 
Languedoc had its own provincial assembly, 
and retained the right of regulating its 
own taxation till 1789. Above 100,000 Hu- 
guenots, of whom about 10,000 perished at 
the stake, were put to death after the 
revocation of the edict of jS^antes. The 
inhabitants of Languedoc took up arms on 
the sudden return of Napoleon I, from Elba 
in 1815. 

LAifGiTE d'Oc and Lakgue d'Oil, or 
d'Oui. — In the 11th century two languages 
were spoken in France, the former the 
Provencal, or the Romance, in the south, 
and the latter the Langue d'Oil, or d'Oui, 
in the north. The use of the Langue d'Oc 
began to dechne towards the end of the 
13th century. 

Lan-sdowit (Battle). — The royalists de- 
feated Sir William Waller at this place, 
near Bath, July 5, 1643. 

Lansquenets, or lance-men, from 
lanzkneehte, founded by Maximilian I. 
(1493 — 1519) : they played an important part 
in the European wars of the sixteenth 
century. 

Lanteews, or LAifTHOKNS, were made of 
horn by the Greeks and Romans ; sometimes 
skin was used, to allow of the transmission 
of the light. Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne, 
mentions a glass lantern, a.d. 703. Asser, 
in his hfe of Alfred (a.d. 871—901), relates 
that this king ordered a lantern to be con- 
structed of wood and white ox-horn, which, 
when planed thin, is almost as transparent 
as glass. Lanterns for mihtary purposes are 
said to have been devised by the emperor 
Comnenus in 1180. 

Lanthanitju. — This metal was discovered 
by Mosander, who gave it this name be- 
cause it had been so long concealed, a.d. 
1839. 

Laocook. — This celebrated Greek statue 
was the production of the Rhodian sculptors, 
Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, 
who flourished in the reign of Titus, a.d. 79 
to 81. It was found among the ruins of the 
baths of Titus at Rome, a.d. 1506, and is 
preserved in the Vatican. The subject of 
the group is the death of the Trojan priest 
Laocoon and his two sons by serpents, sent 
against them by Minerva (^neid, ii. v. 
200). 

Laodicea, or Laodiceia (Syria), formerly 
called Diospolis and Rhoas, was rebuilt, and 
named after his wife Laodice, by Antiochus 
Theos, B.C. 260. To the church of this city 
one of the seven epistles (Revelations iii.) 
was addressed, a.d. 90. It suifered fre- 
quently from earthquakes, and was nearly 
destroyed by one in 494. It was captured 
by the crusaders in 1199, and by the sultan 
of Egypt in 1287. It was called Laodiceia 
ad Lycum, to distinguish it from Laodiceia 
Combusta, built by Seleucus I., and named 
after his mother Seleuca. 

477 



LAO 

Laon (Combats). — Napoleon I, sustained 
a check at this place, in the north of France, 
from the aUies, under Blucher, March 9 
and 10, 1814.. The French lost 6,000 men 
and 46 cannon in the conflict, and were com- 
pelled to retreat to Soissons. The allies lost 
about 4,000 men. 

Laos' (France). — This ancient town of 
France is beheved by some to be identical 
with the Bibrax spoken of by Csesar. It 
received Christianity in the 3rd century, 
and was the scene of an ecclesiastical coun- 
cil in 948. The fine Gothic cathedral was 
consecrated Sept. 6, 1114. In 1419 Laon j 
was taken by the Enghsh, who restored it to 
the French in 1429. Henry IV. of France 
took it after several engagements in 1594, 
and erected a citadel and other fortifica- 
tions. The celebrated leaning tower, which 
was displaced by an earthquake in 1696, was 
removed in 1832. 

LAPLAifD (Europe). — This, the most 
northern country of Europe, is first spoken 
of in the works of Saxo Grammaticus, who 
flourished ia the 12th century, and it was 
very imperfectly known even in the 16th 
century. Lapland was originally divided 
into Russian, Danish, and Swedish Lapland; 
but the three districts were united in 1814. 
Admiral Little explored the northern coasts 
of Lapland in 1822 and 1823. 

Lakgs (Battle). — At this place, on the 
Clyde, Alexander III. of Scotland defeated 
the Norwegians, led by their king Haco, 
Oct. 3, 1263. 

Laeissa (Turkey), the Turkish Yenitcher, 
the capital of Thessaly, is supposed to have 
been founded by Acrisius, B.C. 134i, and 
took part with the Athenians in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, B.C. 431 — i04. Antiochus made 
an unsuccessful attempt to take it B.C. 191, 
and Bohemund failed in a similar efibrt 
A.D. 1083. 

La Eoche Abeille (Battle) . — The Roman 
CathoMc forces were defeated at this place, iu 
France, by the Protestants, under Coligny 
and Henry de Beam in 1569. 

La Roche Dakien (Battle). — Charles of 
Blois, duke of Britanny, was defeated and 
made prisoner at this place, in France, by 
Jane of Montfort, June 20, 1347. 

La Rothieee (Battle), fought at this 
place, in France, between the French, com- 
manded by Napoleon I., and the aUied Aus- 
trian, Prussian, and Russian army under 
Blucher, Feb. 1, 1814. The contest was 
waged vrith great heroism on both sides; 
but the French were at length compelled to 
withdraw, leaving the field of battle in the 
possession of the aUies. The French lost 
6,000 men, and 73 pieces of cannon. 

Laswaeee (Battle). — A desperate en- 
counter between the British, commanded by 
Lord Lake, and the Mahrattas, occurred at 
this village, near Delhi, iu Hindostan, Nov. 1, 
1803. The former were victorious. 

Latakia, or Ladikiteh (Syria), the 

ancient Laodiceia ad Mare, was founded by 

Seleucus Nicator, about b.c. 300, and named 

after his mother. DolabeUa took refuge 

478 



LAT 

here from Cassius, and was the cause of 
much destruction to the city a.d. 43. The 
remains of an aqueduct, built by Herod the 
Great about b.c. 10, are still to be seen ; and 
a triumphal arch, beheved to have been 
erected in honour of Septimius Severus, 
about A.D. 200, is in a state of great perfec- 
tion. It was nearly destroyed by an earth- 
quake May 16, 1796. 

Lateean" (Rome). — This name, derived 
from the old Roman family of the Laterani, 
whose chief was executed by Nero (a.d. 54 — 
68), was apphedto their palace, presented by 
Constantine I. to the popes. Gregory XI., on 
restoring the seat of the papacy from Avig- 
non to Rome, in 1377, took up his abode at 
the Vatican. The church of St. John of 
Lateran, bidlt by Constantine I., is cele- 
brated for the councils held in it Oct. 5 — 31, 
649; Nov. 1, 864; in August, 900; Feb. 12, 
1111; March 18—23, 1112; March 5, 1116; 
March 18 to April 5 (ninth general), 1123; 
April 20 (tenth general), 1139 ; March 5—19 
(eleventh general), 1179 ; Nov. 11—30, 1215 ; 
and Mav 3, 1512, to March 16, 1517. Every 
newly elected pope takes possession of this 
church in great state, and bestows his blessing 
upon the people from its balcony. The greater 
part of the palace was destroyed by fire in 
1308. A new palace, adjoining the church, 
was built by Sixtus V. in 1586. 

Latham House. — The countess of Derby 
defended this place against the parliamentary 
forces from February until May, 1644, when 
it was relieved by Prince Rupert. The par- 
liamentarv force's assailed and captured it 
Dec. 4, 1645. 

Lathe. — Diodorus Siculus attributes the 
invention of this instrument to a nephew of 
Daedalus, named Talus, about b.c. 1240; but 
Phny states that it was first used by Theo- 
dore of Samos, about B.C. 600. The clas- 
sical authors make frequent mention of the 
lathe. 

Latins, or Latini, signified originally the 
inhabitants of Latium {q.v.), which, ac- 
cording to the legend, received a band of 
emigrant Trojans xmder ^neas, shortly after 
the Trojan war. The aborigines of Latium 
were at that time ruled by a king called 
Latinus, and after his death they formed 
with the Trojan colony one people, imder the 
name of Latini. For some time the Latins 
waged war against Rome; but were finally 
subdued b.c. 338, from which period, as a 
separate nation, the Latins disappear from 
history. The Roman franchise was bestowed 
upon aU people of Italy who were alhes of 
Rome, B.C. 91, and thus the last distinction 
between the Latins and the Romans was ob- 
hterated. The term was afterwards adopted 
by the Romans themselves. 

Latitat. — This writ, formerly employed in 
personal actions in the King's (or Queen's) 
Bench, was abohshed by 2 Will. IV. c. 39 • 
(May 23, 1832) . The name was derived from 
a supposition that the defendant lurked and 
was hid, and could not be found in the county 
of Middlesex (in which the court is held) , to be 
taken by bill, but had gone into some other 



LAT 

county, to the sheriff of which this writ was 
directed, to apprehend him there. — Wharton. 

Latitude and Longitude. — Eratosthenes, 
the hbrarian of Alexandria (b.c. 223 — 194), 
made some advance towards an accurate 
measurement of latitude, and, after him, 
Hipparchus, B.C. 162, who showed how lon- 
gitude might be determined by attention to 
echpses of the sun and moon. The principles 
laid down by Hipparchus were successfully 
apphed by Ptolemy, a.d. 140, in his great 
geographical work. A reward of 1,000 
crowns was offered by the kmg of Spain, 
A.D. 1598, for the discovery of a method of 
determining longitude ; and about the same 
time the States-general of Holland offered 
10,000 florins for the same object. The 
British government offered £20,000 for a 
like purpose in 1714, and £5,000 for a 
chronometer to keep time within certain 
hmits. Harrison, after much delay and 
many disputes, gained the prize for his 
timepiece in 1767. Eewards of various 
amounts have been granted from time to 
time by parhament for unproved timepieces. 
The act of 1774 was repealed by 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 66 (July 15, 1828). A method of finding 
the longitude by means of the electric tele- 
graph was brought to perfection by Airy in 
1847. 

Latitudinakians. — This term was used 
about the close of the 17th century to de- 
signate certain divines who endeavoured to 
act as mediators between EpiscopaUanism and 
Presbyterianism. Hales, ChiUingworth, and 
Tillotson belonged to this party. In the 
reign of Charles II. (1660—1685) the Lati- 
tudinarians attained the highest positions in 
the Church. 

Latium (Italy) . — This country of central 
Italy derived its name from the city Latium, 
which was founded by King Latinus b.c. 1240. 
.Sneas settled here with a colony of Trojans 
B.C. 1181, and the new colonists and abori- 
ginal inhabitants, having united into one 
nation under his government, were known 
as the Latins. They formed a confederacy 
of towns, vrith Alba Longa {q.v.) at their 
head ; and after the destruction of that 
town by the Komans, B.C. 665, the whole 
territory was reduced to subjection. The 
Latins rebelled b.c. 502, and a treaty was 
concluded between them and the Komans 
B.C. 493, by which their independence was 
acknowledged, and an alliance concluded 
between the two powers. In consequence 
of the grovring power of the Romans, how- 
ever, the Latins assisted the Campanians in 
the war of b.c 340, and shared in the defeat 
at the foot of Mount Vesuvius. Furius 
Canullus finally defeated them at the battle 
of Pedum, b.c. 338, and the confederacy 
was subsequently broken up. 

Lattee-dax Saints, or Moemonites. — 
This sect was founded at Palmyra, in North 
America, by Joseph Smith, Sept. 22, 1827, 
the day on which, according to his own 
statement, he came into , possession of the 
Golden Bible, or the Book of Mormon, 
published at Palmyra in 1830. The first 



LAV 

edition that appeared in Europe was at 
Liverpool, in 1841. The first conference of 
the sect was held at Payette, June 1, 1830. 
They removed to Kirtland, in Ohio, soon 
after. In 1831 they founded the city of 
Zion, in Missouri, but were expelled the 
state, and took refuge in Illinois in 1838, 
whereupon they built the " holy city" of 
Wauvoo. The foundation of the Mormon 
temple was laid April 6, 1841. Smith was 
shot by a mob which broke into the prison 
of Carthage, where he was confined, June 27, 
1844. In 1847 the Mormons, expelled from 
Illinois, undertook a pilgrimage to the Great 
Salt Lake Valley, which they reached July 24, 
1847. The territory of Utah was admitted 
into the Union Sept. 19, 1850. An expedition 
was sent against the Mormonites from the 
United States in 1857, for the purpose of 
reducing them to subjection. An arrange- 
ment was, however, effected without a col- 
lision. The first Mormon mission to Eng- 
land was despatched in 1837, and in five 
years many converts had been made. 

Laudanum is mentioned in a manuscript 
diary, October, 1601. {See Opium.) 

Laurel. — The common laurel was brought 
into this country from the Levant, before 
A.D. 1629 ; the Portugal laurel from Por- 
tugal before 1648 ; and the Alexandrian 
laurel from Portugal before 1713. The 
royal bay-tree was brought from Madeira 
in 1665, and the glaucous laurel from China 
in 1806. 

Laurentalia. — These festivals were in- 
stituted at Rome about b.c. 621. They 
were held in honour of Acca-Larentia, nurse 
of Eomulus and Remus, or of a courtezan 
who flourished in the reign of Ancus Martius. 
They commenced Dec. 23. 

Laurustinus. — This shrub was brought 
to England from the south of Europe before 
A.D. 1596. 

Lausanne (Switzerland), the capital of 
the canton Vaud, was a Roman station. 
The cathedral, founded in the 10th, was not 
completed until the 13th centuiy. Rodolph I. 
had an interview here with Gregory X. Oct. 6, 
1275. In the church of St. Francis a council 
was held, April 16, 1449. The university was 
founded in 1535. A memorable controversy, 
which terminated in the adhesion of the 
north-western portion of Switzerland to the 
Reformation, took place ia the cathedral in 
1536. The academy was founded in 1537, 
and printing is said to have been carried 
on here in 1556. Gibbon selected it as a 
residence, a.d. 1783. The French seized 
Lausanne Jan. 28, 1798. 

Lautul^ (Battle). — The Samnites de- 
feated the Roman army, commanded by 
Fabius, at this pass, between Tarracina and 
Fundi, B.C. 315. 

Laval (France) . — This town was gradually 
formed round an old castle, destroyed by the 
Northmen in the 9th century. It was 
rebmlt, and was captured by Lord Talbot 
A.D. 1466, but the French regained posses- 
sion in the following year. The Vendeans 
captured it in 1793, and in October of that 
479 



LAV 

year, their leader, Laroehejaquelein, defeated 
the republican forces at a . short distance 
from the town. The ancient church was 
bidlt in 1040. 

La Valetta (Malta) . — This city was com- 
menced by Sir John de Valette, grand master 
of the Knights of Malta, a.d. 1566, and 
finished Aug. 18, 1571. It capitulated to 
the French fleet under Admiral Brueys, 
June 12, 1798, when Malta and its depend- 
encies were ceded to the republic. In the 
month of September following, the inhabit- 
ants rose in revolt, and the Trench garrison 
retired within the walls of the fortress, where 
they were blockaded by the English, and 
were compelled by famine to surrender, 
Sept. 5, 1800. 

Lavaite (France), one of the strong- 
holds- of the Albigenses, was captured by 
Simon of Montfort, a.d. 1211, when a whole- 
sale slaughter ensued. 

La Yexdee (France). — The inhabitants 
of this portion of France rose against the 
revolutionary party in 1791, and erected the 
standard of royalty March 10, 1793. Led 
by Laroehejaquelein, the Yendeans stormed 
Thouars, taking 6,000 prisoners. May 15, and 
estalilished the royalist ascendancy July 15. 
So powerful did they become, that they 
formed three coi-ps of 12,000 men each. The 
first, under Bouchamps, was called the army 
of Anjou; the second, \inder D'Elbee, was 
called the grand army ; and the third, under 
Charette, was called the army of the marshes 
or fens. Numeroiis reverses followed, and 
Marceau, with Tilly and Kleber, annihilated 
then- army at Savenay, Dec. 22. The final 
pacification of the province was effected 
by the treaty of Lucon, Jan. 17, 18U0, 
nearly 1,000,000 victims having fallen in 
the struggle. During the " Hundred Days " 
the inhabitants of this district again rose in 
support of the Bourbon cause, but their 
army was defeated at Croix de Yie in 1815. 

Lavender was introduced into England 
from the south of Europe before 1568 a.d. 
To lay in lavender was formerly a cant 
phrase for pawning. The plant was con- 
sidered an emblem of affection. 

La VIS (Battles). — The Austrians defeated 
the French in an attack upon their position 
near this river, in the Itahan Tyrol, iS'ov. 1, 
1796. The French gained a victory over the 
Austrians on the same river, March 20, 1797. 
The Tyrolese sustained a defeat here in 1809. 

Law. — The earhest system of laws was 
perhaps that which Phoroneus iatroduced 
in Argos, B.C. 1807. The Jewish laws were 
promulgated by Moses, b.c. 1491. Lycurgus 
legislated for Sparta, B.C. 817; Draco for the 
Athenians, B.C. 621; and Solon B.C. 594. 
The civd or Koman law was founded by 
Servius Tulhus, B.C. 566, and amended by 
the Twelve Tables, b.c. 450 (see Codes). 
The ancient Britons were governed by 
certain fixed laws, which were framed by 
their chiefs and Druids, and Sir William 
Dugdale states that Malmutius Diinwallo, 
who began to reign B.C. 444, was the first 
British lawgiver. Ethelbert pubhshed a 
430 



LAY 

system a.d. 600, and Ina one in 692. Alfred 
arranged the common law (q. v.) in 886. 
Athelstan promulgated a code in 928, and 
Edgar in 970 ; and in 1050 Edward the Con- 
fessor consolidated the British, Saxon, and 
Danish laws into a single system, which was 
confirmed by Wfiham the Conqueror in 
1070. Stephen's charter of general hberties 
was granted in 1136. Canon law (q. v.) was 
introduced into England in 1140, the Con- i 
stitutions of Clarendon (q. v.) were esta- 
bhshed in 1164, and Magna Charta (q. v.) 
was granted in 1215. The English laws were 
much improved by Edward III., who has 
been caUed the English Justinian. Law 
pleadings were ordered to be in EngUsh in 
1362, and in 1379 the civil law was superseded 
by the common law, except in the ecclesi- 
astical courts. The Incorporated Law 

Society was formed in 1823, and the building 
in Chancery Lane was erected in 1827. A 
charter of incorporation was granted 
Dec. 22, 1831, and the institution was 
formally opened July 4, 1832. A new 
charter was granted Feb. 26, 1845. 

Lawn was introduced into England during 
the reign of Elizabeth (1558—1603), being 
used for the large ruffs then in fashion. 

Laweence, St. (North America). — This 
gulf was first explored by Cortereal, a.d. 
1500. 

Law's Bank (Paris) originated in the per- 
mission obtained by a daring speculator, 
named John Law, to establish a bank in Paris, 
May 20, 1716. It was dissolved by the regent, 
andmergedinto the Eoyal Bank, June 24, 1718. 
A patent, granting possession ofthe country of 
the Mississippi, was secured at the same time. 
It took the title ofthe Company ofthe Indies, 
and the mint of France was handed over to 
it July 25, 1719. The right of farming the 
whole of the pubhc revenue was conceded to 
this company Aug. 27. In the month of 
November the shares were sold at sixty 
times their original price. It was ascer- 
tained, May 1, 1720, that the bank had 
issued notes representing a sum of one hun- 
dred and ten milhons sterhng, and an edict 
was issued, reducing them in value one-half, 
May 21. Immediate ruin followed, and John 
Law resigned his office of eomptroHer-general 
May 29, 1720. Law died in poverty. 

Lawxees. — Previous to the Norman eon- 
quest few persons were learned in the law, 
except clergymen, who were permitted to 
practise it without restraint until 1217, when 
Eichard Poore, bishop of Sahsbury, prohi- 
bited them from pleading in secular courts. 
(See Attoenet, Baeeistee, &c.) 

Laybach (Austria), the ancient ^mona, 
was taken by the French, March 17, 1797, 
and again June 3, 1809. It was recaptured by 
the Austrians in July, 1809. A congress was 
held here, attended by the emperors of Eus- 
sia and Austria, and the kings of Prussia 
and Naples, Jan. 8, 1821. They signed a 
treaty, in which they engaged to oppose the 
revolutionary movement in Naples, Feb. 2, 
1821. This treaty formed the subject of an 
animated discussion in both houses of the 



LAY 

English parliament Feb. 19 and 21, 1821. The 
congress of Laybach broke up May 21, 

Lay Beothees A]yD Sistees. — Uneducated 
persons, admitted into the convents to assist 
in the harder kind of work. The practice 
commenced in the 11th century. 

Latee's Conspibact. — This conspiracy 
to seize the Tower, the Bank, and the Ex- 
chequer, and to proclaim the Pretender, was 
formed by a young barrister named Layer, 
Bishop Atterbury, Carte the historian, 
another non-juring clergyman, named Kelly, 
Plunkett the Jesuit, and others, in 1722. The 
papers of the conspirators were intercepted, 
and Kelly was arrested May 21. Layer 
and others were taken shortly afterwards. 
Atterbury was seized Aug. 24. A select 
conunittee was appointed to examine into 
the matter. Layer was found guilty, and 
executed at Tyburn, May 17, 1773._ AbiU of 
pains and penalties was passed against Atter- 
bury, and it received the royal signature 
May 27. 

Lazaeetto. — This name, applied to 
the buildings where crews and passengers of 
ships suspected of contagion perform qua- 
rantine, is derived from St. Lazarus, the 
Eatron saint of lepers. The first was esta- 
lished at Venice during the plague of 1423. 
By 6 Geo. IV. c. 78, s. 18 (June 27, 1825), 
persons escaping from a lazaretto are Mable 
to a penalty of £200. 

Lazaeites. — This order of priests, founded 
by Vincent de Paul a.d. 1624, and charged 
with the care of the sick, was confirmed by 
Urban VIII. in 1631. They exerted much 
influence in Prance during the period imme- 
diately preceding the political changes of 
1830. 

Lazaeo, St. (Battle).— The French and 
Spaniards attacked the Austrian and Pied- 
montese camp at St. Lazaro, about two-and- 
twenty nules from Piacenza, at eleven at 
night, June 4, 1746. After a well-contested 
struggle of nine hours' duration, the French 
and Spaniards were compelled to retire, 
leaving 6,000 kiRed, and nearly 9,000 wounded 
on the field of battle. 

Lazi.— This Slavonian tribe inhabited 
Colchis, in Asia Minor, to which they gave 
the name of Lazica. They first appear ia 
history a.d. 456, when their king, G-obazes, 
was defeated by the emperor Marcian, They 
were converted to Christianity in 522, and 
rebelled against the Komans in 542, but re- 
turned to their allegiance in 549. lu 550 
they were attacked by the Persians, who 
subdued a great part of the country in 553. 
The Persians were finally defeated by the 
combined eff'orts of the Roman and Lazic 
troops in 556. 

Lazzaeoni. — This name is derived from 
Lazarus, the sick man mentioned in the 
Gospels, and is used to designate the lower 
orders of the people in Naples. The hos- 
pital of St. Lazarus is devoted to the service 
of the poorer classes, or lazzaroni. They 
aided MasanieUo in the revolution of 1647. 
They elect yearly a head or chief lazzaro, 
who is formally acknowledged by the govern- 
481 



LEA 

ment, which, by this means, is better able to 
control and wield at wiU his turbulent ad- 
herents, amounting to 50,f 00 or 60,000. 

Lea. — The Danes sailed up this river and 
built a fort, probably near Ware, a.d. 895. 
The Londoners were defeated in an attack 
upon it in 896. In the same year Alfred cut 
another channel for the water, and thus left 
the Danish fleet aground, whereupon the 
Danes retired into Shropshire. 

Lead is frequently spoken of in the Old 
Testament during the time of Moses, e.g. 
1490, and was in general use amongst the 
Greeks and Romans. Pliny, in his Natural 
History, a.d. 74, describes the manufacture 
of lead pipes. Lead-mines in this country 
were worked by the Romans B.C. 54. The 
ancients poisoned their wines with lead. 
Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water 
were invented by Robert Brook in 1538. 
Pattinson's process for extracting the silver 
from lead, which in thirty years effected 
a saving of 200,000 ounces of the more 
precious metal, was introduced in 1829. 

Leadenhall Maeket ( London ) . — In 
1309 the LeadenhaU. was a manor-house, 
owned by Sir Hugh NeviUe. It was sold in 
1408 to Sir Richard Whitington, by whom it 
was afterwards presented to the corporation 
of London. In 1419 Sir Simon Eyre erected 
a granary, or market of stone ; and ia 1466 
a fraternity of sixty priests was established, 
to perform service every market-day. The 
chapel was not taken down tiU 1812. 

Leagues. — The most important leagues 
mentioned in history are the following :—' 



323 to 189. The jEtolian League. 
280 to 146. The Achaean League. 

A.D. 

1167. April 7. The Lombard League is signed at 
Puntido, between Milan and Bergamo. Its 
object is the maintenance of Italian in- 
dependence against the pretensions of 
Frederick Barbarossa, who was compelled 
to sign the treaty of Constance in June, 
1183, and to recognize the freedom of the 
Lombard cities. A second league was 
formed March 2, 1226, against Frederick II., 
who was compelled to retire to Naples. 

1465. The league of the Public Good is formed 
by the French nobles against Louis XL, 
who is compelled to sign the peace of 
Conflans Oct. 5. The league is dissolved in 
1472. 

1508. Dec. 10. The league of Cambray is signed by 
the pope, the emperor, and the kings of 
France and Spain, against Venice. 

1511. Oct. 4. The Holy League is formed by the 
pope, England, Spain, the Venetians, and 
the Swiss, against France. 

1526. May 22. The league of Cognac, also called the 
Holy League and the Clementine League, 
was concluded against the emperor Charles 
V. by the pope, the Venetians, and the 
Fi-euch. 

1530. Dec. 31. The league of Smalcald is concluded 
by nine Protestant princes and eleven im- 
perial towns, against Charles V. and the 
Roman Catholics. 

1538. The league of Nuremberg is formed by the 
emperor and the Roman CathoUc princes 
of Germany. 

1566. League of the Beggars, or Gueux (q. v.), against 
the introduction of the Inquisition into 
-, Holland. 

2 I 



LEA 



1576. The league, or Holy Unioii, of the French 
Roman Catholics against Protestantism. It 
originated at Peronne, in 1576, and after 
carrying on long civil wars with Henry 
TV. , of Navarre, was dissolved at Paris, in 
1593. 

1610. The leagues of Halle and "Wurzburg are 
respectively formed hy the Protestants and 
the Roman 'Catholics. 

1638. The Solemn League and Covenant is formed 
in Scotland. {See CovENAifTEKS.) 

1686. July 9. The league of Augsburg, between 
Austria and the majority of the German 
states, is formed against France. 

Leap Yeae, or Bissextile. — The name 
given to every fourth year in the Julian 
calendar, B.C. 46. In leap year February is 
made to consist of twenty -nine, instead of 
twenty-eight days. Under this arrange- 
ment the years were made a little too long, 
and to rectify this error, three leap years 
are omitted during the course of four cen- 
turies in the G-regorian calendar. Thus 1800 
was not a leap year, and 1900 will not be ; 
2000 win be a leap year, and 2100, 2200, and 
2300 will not. The Bissextile, or Blssextus 
dies, that is, the sixth day before the calends 
of March, t'lvice over, was placed in the 
Eoman calendar between the 24th and 25th 
of February. By 21 Hen. III. (1175), the 
bissextile da)', and the day immediately pre- 
ceding it, were to be considered legally as 
one daJ^ 

LEAENiifG-. — The golden period of Grecian 
learning was the age of Pericles, who died 
B.C. 429. The reign of the emperor Au- 
gustus was so distinguished for learned 
men and brilliant authors, that it is usual to 
characterize the asras most remarkable for 
learning as ''Augustan ages." During the 
6th centuiy after the destruction of the 
Western empire, learning dechned, and 
was almost exclusively restricted to eccle- 
siastics. Classical learning was revived 
in the Anglo-Saxon church about a.d. 668. 
The 10th century is usually looked upon 
as the darkest period of human history. 
The revival of learning after the period of 
depression significantly known as the " Dark 
Ages," took place in the loth century. 

Lease. — This word is derived from the 
French laisser, to let or give leave, and 
signifies a conveyance creating an estate for 
life, for a stated period, or at will. During 
the reign of Edward III. leases were some- 
times extended to several hundred years. 
The conveyance by lease and re-lease ori- 
ginated soon after the Statute of Uses, 27 
Hen. VIII. c. 10 (1535). Leases required 
by law to be ia writing, were declared void 
unless made by deed, by 8 & 9 Yict. c. 106 
(Aug. 4, 1845). Leases and sales of settled 
estates were facUitated by 19 & 20 Vict. 
0. 120 (July 29, 1856), which was amended 
by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 2, 1858). 

Leather. — It is related, Gen. iii. 21, that 
our first parents were clothed with skins 
before they were turned out of the garden 
of Eden, and this may pei'haps be considered 
as the origiaal suggestion of the manufacture 
of leather. It was in use among oriental 



LEE 

nations for shoes, girdles, &c.; and with the 
Greeks and Romans for numerous articles 
of di'ess, as well as bottles and other vessels 
for containing liquids. The Romans seem to 
have obtained the art of tanning from Cor- 
dova in Spain, whence the name Cordovan 
leather. It was used for clothing by the 
ancient Britons, who also exported it in con- 
siderable quantities. A customs duty was 
imposed upon leather by 27 Hen. VIII. 
c. 14 (1535). A duty was laid upon it by 
8 & 9 Will. III. c. 21 (1697), and an export 
duty of 12d. per cent, was imposed by 9 Anne, 
c. 6 (1710). By 11 Geo. IV. c. 16 (May 29, 
1830), aU duties and drawbacks upon this 
article were repealed. Leathern money is 
said to have been used by the Romans, and 
during the IVIiddle Ages in Italy, and even in 
England. 

Lebanoh", Mount (Syria), was subject to 
the kings of Tyre, in the reign of Solomon 
(B.C. 1015 — 975). It fell under the sway 
of the Mardaites, who rebelled against the 
Saracens, a.d. 677, and became a stronghold 
of the Assassins about 1190. 

LECHiEUM (Battle). — Agesilaus II. of 
Sparta defeated the Athenians and their 
allies at Lechseum, iu the Isthmus of Corinth, 
B.C. 393. 

Lectisteeniitm. — This sacrificial ceremony 
was first observed at Rome, B.C. 400, accord- 
iug to Livy. 

Lectoure (France), the ancient Lactora, 
belonged to the counts of Armagnae, until 
besieged by Louis XI., who captured it in 
1474, when, in spite of a pledge to the con- 
trary, the count and the inhabitants were 
put to the sword. 

Lectures. — The publication of lectures 
without the consent of the lecturer is pro- 
hibited by 5 & 6 Wm. IV. 0. 65 (Sept, 9, 
1835). 

Ledos (Battle).— The Saracens were de- 
feated by the Spaniards at Ledos, a.d. 793. 

Leeds (Battle). (-S'ee Winwidfield.) 

Leeds (Yorkshire), Saxon Loidis, was a 
Roman station, and probably fell into the 
hands of the Danes about a.d. 850. It was 
first celebrated for its manufactures about 
the begitming of the 16th century, and re- 
ceived its fij-st charter in 1627, which was 
renewed, with additional privileges, in 1673. 
A large portion of the population was cut 
oif by pestilence in 1644-45. Shenfield's Free 
Grammar-school was estabhshed in 1552; 
St. John's Church was founded ia 1634; the 
Coloured-Cloth Hall was bmlt in 1758, the 
White-Cloth Hall ia 1775 ; the theatre and 
the general infirmary were erected in 1771 ; 
the Old Libraiy was established in 1768 ; 
the Literary and Philosophical Society in 
1820; and the Mechanics' Institution in 
1825, They were miited in 1842, The Town- 
hall, constructed to contain 8,000 persons, 
for which the town-council voted £5,000 to 
purchase an organ, and £8,500 to erect a 
dome, was completed at a cost of £102,000, 
and opened by Her Majesty Sept, 7, 1858. 
This borough was enfranchished by the 
Reform Act of 1832. 



LEG 

Legacy. — The legacy duty was first 
imposed by 36 Geo. III. c. 52 (April 26, 
1796). All gifts by will were ordered to be 
deemed legacies by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 76, s. 4 
(Aug. 4, 1845). The law of legacies was 
amended, and the legacy duty was extended 
to real property, by 16 & 17 Vict. e. 51 
(Aug. 4, 1853) . 

Legantine CoNSTiTUTioifS, ecclesiastical 
laws made in national synods, held in Eng- 
land during the reign of Henry III., about 
the years a.d. 1220 and 1268. The first 
synod was held under Cardinal Otho, legate 
of Gregory IX. ; and the second under 
Cardinal Othobon, legate from Clement IV. 

Legates. — The Eoman ambassadors were 
so called, and the term was also applied to 
officers who accompanied the Roman gene- 
rals in their expeditions to render advice 
and assistance. After the division of the 
provinces of the empire by Augustus, B.C. 
27, the imperial provinces were governed by 
legates. During the Middle Ages the term 
was apphed to ambassadors of the popes 
being cardinals. Other papal ambassadors 
of high rank were called nuncios. The first 
legate that ever appeared in England came 
at the invitation of William I. Legatine 
courts were established by Wolsey, under 
the pope's authority, to relieve him of part 
of the duties of the lord-chancellorship ; and 
he was himself made papal legate in 1517. 

Leghorn (Tuscany). — This celebrated 
seaport-town owes all its importance to the 
patronage of the Medici family, having been 
at the commencement of the 13th century 
an insignificant fishing village. In 1421 it 
was ceded to the Florentines by the Genoese, 
and in 1551 its population only numbered 
749. The first stone of the new walls was 
laid by Francesco I., March 28, 1577. The 
castle was founded by Ferdinand I. in 1595, 
and the Latin School was established in 1663. 
An earthquake did great injury to the city 
in 1741, A large public school was esta- 
blished in 1746. Leghorn was seized by the 
army of the French republic June 28, 1796, 
and retained tiU 1799, when the French 
were compelled to withdraw. It was, how- 
ever, retaken by General Clement in 1800. 
The bishopric of Leghorn was erected in 
1806. In 1813 the city was finally restored 
to Tuscany. It was seized and plundered 
by insurgents, April 22, 1849, but was 
recovered from them by the Austriaus, 
May 12. An alarm of &ce at the theatre 
occasioned the death of sixty-two persons 
in June, 1857. 

LEGioif, a body of men in the Eoman 
army, as formed by Eomulus b.c. 720, 
consisted of 3,000 soldiers. The number 
was increased Ijy Servius TuOius to 4,000, 
B.C. 578; and a further augmentation 
brought it up to 5,000 foot 'and 30Q horse, 
B.C. 558. Gibbon is of opinion that, after 
undergoing numerous changes, the consti- 
tution of the legion was dissolved by Con- 
stantine. 

Legion oe Honotje.— This order of merit, 
as a recompense for civil and mihtary ser\ices, 
483 



LEI 

was inaugurated by Napoleon I., July 14, 
1802. The subject had been brought before 
the council of state in May, 1801, when a 
vote in its favour was carried by a slender 
majority. The first crosses were distributed 
at the head-quarters of the grand army at 
Boulogne, Aug. 16, 1804. It was reconsti- 
tuted by Louis XVIII. in 1816. 

Legitimists. — This term was given in 
France to the supporters of the eldest 
branch of the Bourbon family in 1830. 

Legnano (Battle). — Frederickl., emperor 
of Germany, was defeated at this place, near 
Verona, by the forces of the Lombard League, 
May 29, 1176. By this victory the Lorn- 
bard cities secured their independence. 
Frederick I. concluded a truce of six 
years with the Lombard League in 1177, 
and the treaty of Constance terminated 
the dispute. The French captured Legnano 
in 1510. 

Leicester (Leicestershire), believed to 
be the Eoman Eatae, was founded by a 
British king, according to some authorities 
Lear, and became one of the Danish burghs 
about A.D. 878. Since the time of Edward I., 
1272 — 1307, it has returned two members to 
parliament. Henry V. held a pariiament 
here April 30, 1414. Eichard III. was 
buried in the Grey Friars monastery, 
Aug. 25, 1485. In the abbey, buHt 1143, 
Cardinal Wolsey died, Nov. 29, 1530. During 
the parliamentary wars, the town was taken 
by Charles I., May 31, 1645, and recovered 
by Fairfax, June 17, 1645. Charles II. 
ordered the destruction of its waUs in 1662. 
The manufacture of stockings, for which the 
town is noted, was introduced in 1680. On 
the inquiry into the state of the municipali- 
ties, the corporation refused to deliver up 
the required documents and to submit to 
examination, Sept. 24, 1833. 

Leighlin (See of). — This Irish bishopric 
was founded by St. Laserian, a.d. 632. It 
was united to Ferns in 1600, and ui 1835 the 
two dioceses were united with Ossory. 

LEiNiis'GEif (Germany), formerly a 
county, gave the title of prince to the fine, 
A.D. 1779. The priucipality lost its posses- 
sions on the left bank of the Ehine in 1803, 
and was mediatized in 1806. 

Leinstee (Ireland). — This eastern pro- 
vince of Ireland formed at the time of the 
Enghsh invasion (1170) a distinct kingdom, 
under Dermot. An order for the settlement 
of Leinster was made in 1550. In 1691 it 
was erected into a dukedom in favour of 
Meinhard, son of the duke of Schomberg, 
but the title became extinct in 1719. It was 
revived, and conferred upon James Fitz- 
gerald in 1766. 

Leipsic (Battle). — The French army 
imder Napoleon I., amounting to about 
166,800 men, was attacked at this place by 
290,450 of the aUied forces under Prince 
Schwartzenberg, Blucher, and other gene- 
rals, Oct. 16, 1813. The battle was renewed on 
the 18th and 19th, when the French were com- 
pelled to retreat, leaving 25,00u prisoners in 
the hands of the allies. The total loss of the 
2 I a 



LEI 

French was upwards of 60,000 men, and that 
of the allies 46,804 men. After the battle, 
the victors entered Leipsic, and Napoleon I. 
commenced his retreat towards the Ehine. 

Leipsic (Saxony). — This city, which is 
of Wendish origin, was destroyed by Wra- 
tislaus II., duke of Bohemia, a.d. 1082, and 
after having been rebuilt, was again razed 
by Otho IV. in 1212. The celebrated 
university was founded by German seceders 
from the university of Prague in 1409. A 
fire destroyed about 400 houses in 1420. In 
1519, Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt held a 
theological discussion here. The book trade, 
for which Leipsic is so famous, commenced in 
1545. The town-hall was erected in 1556. 
In 1680 and 1681 the plague carried ofi" 
3,000 of the inhabitants. Leipsic was 
taken by the Prussians in 1745, by Fer- 
diaand of Bruns^vick in 1756, and by the 
French in 1806. The booksellers' exchange 
has been erected since 1834. Political 
disturbances took place here in 1830, 1831, 

1848, and 1849. -A imion between the 

German Protestants was signed at Leipsic 
in February, 1631. The elector of Saxony 
concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa at 
this place. May 18, 1745, and a convention 
between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and 
Kussia, was signed here Oct. 21, 1813. 

Leipsic, or Beeitenfeld (Battles). — The 
imperial army, commanded by Tilly, was 
defeated by the Saxons and Swedes in the 
plain of Leipsic, Sept. 7, 1631 (JSr.S.). The 
Austrians left 7,000 on the field of battle, and 
5,000 were taken prisoners. All their baggage 
and artillery were lost. The Swedish gen- 
eral, Tortonsen, defeated the Austrians near 
the same place in 1642. 

Leieia (Portugal). — This ancient town 
is the seat of a bishop, and the first print- 
ing-press in the peninsula was established 
here a.d. 1466. In July, 1808, the town was 
taken by the French, who destroyed it in 
1811. It was restored in 1813, and was 
wrested from the Miguelites, Feb. 15, 1834. 

Leith (Scotland). — Called Inverleith in 
the charter granted by David I. for the 
erection of Holyrood Abbey, a.d. 1128. The 
earl of Hertford burned the town in May, 
1544. In 1560, some French troops, sent to 
espouse the cause of Mary queen of Scots, 
fortified Leith. They capitulated to the 
English army, and a treaty was signed at 
Edinburgh, July 6, which provided that they 
should all leave Scotland. An extraordinary 
convention of superintendents and ministers 
was held here in January, 1572, and they 
drew up the agreement of Leith. The first 
newspaper printed in Scotland was the 
Mercurius Politicus, which appeared at Leith 
in October, 1653. A dock was commenced 
in 1720, a small quay in 1777, and the wet 
docks in 1800. The Trinity-house was erected 
in 1817, the town-haU in 1828, and the new 
pier in 1852. 

Lembeeg (Galicia). — This once strongly- 
fortified city resisted a Eoman force a.d. 1666, 
;and a Turkish army in 1672. Charles XII. 
of Sweden stormed it a.d. 1704. Ponia- 
484 



LEN 

towski captured it in 1809. The town-haU 
was built in 1835. 

Lemkos (^gasan Sea) is said to have been 
peopled by a Thracian tribe, whose descend- 
ants were expelled by the Tyrrhenian Pe- 
lasgians. It fell under the Persian yoke 
B.C. 505, and was subjected to Athens by 
Miltiades, b.c. 489. The Macedonians ob- 
tained possession for a short time, and it 
again passed under the Athenian yoke. It 
was celebrated for its labyrinth. {See Sta- 

TIMES-E.) 

Lemueia. — This festival for the souls of 
the departed was instituted b.c. 722, by 
Romulus, to appease the manes of Remug. 

Lens (Battle). — The Austrians and Span- 
iards were defeated by a French army under 
Conde, in this battle, fought Aug. 9, 1648. 
The French captured one himdred colours 
and thirty-eight pieces of cannon. 

Lent is derived from an Anglo-Saxon 
word, signifying Spring. Much controversy 
has been excited amongst learned men re- 
specting the original duration of this fast, 
some contending that it lasted forty days, and 
others only forty hours. Bingham believea 
it probable that it was at first a fast of forty 
hours, or the time our Saviour lay in the 
grave ; that is, the Friday and Satiu'day 
before Easter. It is said to have been 
instituted in the time of the Apostles, 
though it is not mentioned in the New 
Testament, and appears to have been first 
enjoined a.d. 136. Consisting at first of 
only a few hours, it lasted a whole week, 
if not more, in the time of Dionysius of 
Alexandria, about a.d. 250. At Rome, 
about the same time, it lasted three weeks ; 
and by the fifth canon of the council of 
Nicsea, June 19 — Aug. 25, 325, was increased 
to six. Then it received the name of 
Quadragesima, or the Forty Days Fast, 
because it commenced forty days before 
Easter. In reality its duration was only 
thirty -six days, aU the Sundays being 
omitted. The duration of Lent differed 
very much in the early churches. Lent is 
said to have been first observed in England 
in 640. By 2 & 3 Edw. TI. c. 19 (1548), all 
former laws relating to fasts were repealed, 
and a penalty of ten shiUings, or ten days' 
imprisonment, was ordered to be inflicted 
on those that ate meat at Lent and on other 
fasts. The penalty was doubled for a second 
offence. By 5 Eliz. c. 5 (1563), it was enacted 
that whosoever should notify that eating of 
fish, or forbearing of fiesh, was of any 
necessity for the saving of the soul of man, 
or that it was the service of God, otherwise 
than as other politic laws are and be, 
should be pimished as spreaders of false 
news. The same statute laid down regula- 
tions for the observance of fasts. Victuallers 
were not allowed to seU flesh in Lent by 
27 EKz. c. 11 (1586). The last statute on 
the subject was 35 Eliz. c. 7 (1593). Several 
proclamations having reference to this 
subject were issued, and the encouragement 
of the navy and fishery was generally set 
forth as the ground of these regulations. 



LEO 

Leoben (Styria). — The preliminaries of 
a treaty of peace between Austria and France 
were signed at the castle of Eckenwald, near 
this tox-m, April 18, 1797. {See Campo- 
FoRMio, Treaty.) 

Leon (Spain). — The city of Leon is said to 
have been founded by the Eomans in the 
1st century of the Christian sera. It was 
anciently called Legio, and received its 
present name on its capture by the Goths 
A.D. 586. It was afterwards seized by the 
Moors, from whom it was taken in 722, and 
became the capital of the Christian kingdom 
of Leon, which was foimded in 913 by 
Ordono II. The city was taken by the 
Moor Al Mansur in 996, and remained in 
his power until his defeat at Calatanazor in 
998. In 1037 the kingdom of Leon was 
annexed to Castile ; and with the exception 
of the intervals from 1065 to 1072, and from 
1157 to 1230, never recovered its indepen- 
dence. Leon was erected into a bishopric 

ia the 3rd century. Its first bishop died in 
312, and the see was refounded in 910. The 
cathedral was commenced about 1199. The 
French under Soult entered Leon Dec. 21, 
1808, and destroyed many of the old build- 
ings. Councils were held here in 1020, 

1091, and 1114, 

KINGS OP liEOBT. 



A.D. 

Ordono TI 913 

Froilall 923 

Alfonso IV. 924 

Eamiro II 927 

Ordono III 950 



Sancho 1 95-5 

Bamiro III. 967 

Bermuda II 982 

Alfonso V. 999 

Bermuda III 1027 



Leonine Verses. — This pecuhar species 
of Latin versification has been traced to the 
3rd century. 

Leontium (Sicily), founded by colonists 
from Naxos, B.C. 730, fell under the yoke 
of Hippocrates, b.c. 498, and of Hieron, 
B.C. 476. It sohcited the aid of the Athenians 
against the Syracusans in 427, when Gorgias, 
the eminent sophist, acted as ambassador for 
his native city. In one of its streets Hierony- 
mus was assassinated by Dinomenes, b.c. 263. 
It passed under the Koman sway, with the 
whole island, a.d. 201. 

Lepanto (Greece). — The ancient E^au- 
pactos (g. v.), called by th# Greek peasants 
Epakto, was destroyed by an earthquake in 
the reign of Justinian I., about 550 a.d. 
Another tovsTi, built upo'ti its site, was be- 
sieged A.D. 1475 by the Turks, who withdrew 
after having lost 30,000 men, ia a siege of 
about four months' duration. The Turks 
seized Lepanto in August, 1499. The town 
sustained several sieges, and was restored to 
Venice by the treaty of Carlowitz in 1699. 
The Greeks captured the town and citadel 
of Lepanto, May 9, 1829. 

Lepanto (Sea-fight). —The combined 
Spanish and Italian fleets, under the com- 
mand of Don John of Austria, defeated the 
Turks in a great naval battle in the Gulf of 
Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571. Cervantes, the author 
of Don Quixote, received a wound in this 
action, by which he was deprived of the use 



LET 

of his right hand during the remainder of 
his fife. By some Italian authors this is 
called the battle of Curzolari, from a group 
of islets of this name at the mouth of the 
Acheloiis. 

Leprosy. — This contagious disease ori- 
ginated in Egypt and Arabia at a very early 
period. It is frequently alluded to in the 
Scriptures ; and special regulations were 
prescribed concerning those afflicted with it 
by the Mosaic law, B.C. 1491 (Lev. xiii.). 
Christ healed a leper in Galilee a.d. 28. It 
was known to the Greeks and Romans, and 
is described by Hippocrates (b.c. 460 — 357) 
and Galen (a.d. 130—200). The Crusaders 
iatroduced many lepers into Europe, where 
the disease raged with such virulence during 
the Middle Ages, that almost every town had 
its lazar-house for the reception of lepers. 
In 1225, during the reign of Lotiis VIII., 
there were in France no fewer than 2,000 of 
these institutions. Since the commencement 
of the 17th century the disease has almost 
entirely disappeared from Europe, where it 
is now limited to the most northern and 
southern countries. It was very prevalent' 
ia the Faroe Isles in 1676, and five persons 
were found to be afieeted with it in Great 
Britain in 1736. The last case mentioned in 
this island was described by Dr. Edmonston 
in 1809. 

Lerida (Spain). — The ancient Ilerda was 
taken during the civil war by Juhus Caesar, 
B.C. 48, and destroyed by the Franks' 
A.D. 256. The town was restored, and 
became the scene of frequent struggles 
between the Moors and the Spaniards. It was 
besieged Oct. 2, 1707, and taken by assault; 
Oct. 12. Suchet took it by storm May 13, 
1810. The Spaniards regained possession in 
1814. 

Letters op Marque. — These commis- 
sions, authorizing private persons to equip 
vessels of war, or privateers, on their own 
account, against an enemy, in time of war, 
were first issued in this country in 1295. The 
cases in which they might be granted were 
specified by 4 Hen. V. c. 7 (1416). By 33 
Geo. III. c. 66, s. 9 (June 17, 1793), they 
may only be issued to ships belonging to 
British subjects; or by 41 Geo. III. c. 76 
(June 27, 1801), to royal vessels in the Cus- 
toms service. The abohtion of privateering 
was resolved upon by Great Britain, Au- 
stria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and 
Turkey, at the congress at Paris, AprO. 16, 
1856. 

Letter-writing.— It is exceedingly doubt- 
ful whether epistolary communication was 
known in the Homeric age, which is assigned 
by various chronologists to different periods 
between b.c. 1184 to 684. David wrote a 
letter to Joab, and despatched it by Uriah, 
B.C. 1035 (2 Sam. xi. 14, 15), and Jezebel 
wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed 
them with his seal, B.C. 899 (1 Kings xxi. 8). 
The classical authors regard Atossa, queen 
of Darius Hystaspes, who flourished in the 
6th century B.C., as the inventor of letter- 
writing. 



LET 



LIB 



Lettuce was introduced into England 
about A.D. 1540. 

Leucadia (Ionian Islands) came into pos- 
session of the Corinthians, who called it 
Leucas, from its white cliifs, b c. 700. They 
cut through an isthmus, and converted Leu- 
cadia into an island. The canal was, how- 
ever, quite choked up, according to Poiybius, 
B.C. 218. Subsequently it was cleared out, 
a,nd a bridge thrown across, it is believed by 
Augustus, about B.C. 17. Leucadia was taken 
by the Turks a.d. 1467, audit surrendered to 
the Venetians Aug. 21, 1717. An English 
force under General Oswald displaced the 
Erench, March 22, 1810. The fort of Santa 
Maura, erected near the town in the Middle 
Ages, was destroyed by an earthquake in 
1825. Sappho's Eock, where the poetess is 
said to have made her desperate leap, B.C. 
590, and the tomb of Artemisia, B.C. 352, 
are in this town. The town is sometimes 
called Santa Maura, from the fort. 

Letjctka (Battle). — TheThebans defeated 
the Spartans in a gi-eat battle at this village 
of Boeotia, B.C. 371. By this victory the 
supremacy of Sparta was destroyed. 

Leutheu-, or Lissa (Battle). — The Prus- 
sians, after an obstinate contest, defeated 
the Austrians at the village of Leuthen, in 
Silesia, Dec. 5, 1757. The Austrians with- 
drew through Lissa. 

Levant. — The countries situated on the 
eastern shores of the Mediterranean have 
received this name, from the French lever, to 
rise, because the sun rises in that direction. 
A Levant eorapauy of merchants was char- 
tered in 1581, and a second in 1593. The 
great Levant Company was established in 
1605. 

Levelleks, a party who desired that "all 
degrees of men should be levelled, and an 
equahty should be estabhshed, both in titles 
and estates, throughout the kingdom," ob- 
tained the supremacy in the army of the 
Long Paiiiament in 1647. They denounced 
all existing forms of government, and cla- 
moured for the blood of Charles I. They 
raised an insurrection in 1649, and Crom- 
well took measures to suppress them. (See 

ACEPHALI.) 

LEVEEiAif Museum.— This fine collection 
of obiects of natural history was formed by 
Sir Ashton Lever, who estaLihshed it at Lei- 
cester House, Leicester Square, in 1775. 
Not being efficiently supported. Sir Ashton 
was compelled to dispose of it by lottery in 
1785. It was won by Mr. Parkiuson, who 
sold it by auction, in 7,879 lots. The sale 
lasted from May 5 to July 18, 1806. 

Lewes (Sussex), one of the most ancient 
towns in England, was fortified by the Saxons, 
and the ISTormans built its castle soon after 
the Conquest. The royal army was defeated 
by the barons at this place. May 13, 1264, 
Henry III. having been made prisoner. Soon 
after the battle, Px-ince Edward entered into 
a treaty, caUed the Mise of Lewes. 

Lexin&ton (Battle). — During the night 
of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent a small 
force from Boston to destroy some mili- 
486 



tary stores collected at Lexington (Mas- 
sachusetts) by the rebels. This service was 
performed on the morning of April 19, and 
led to other collisions in the neighbourhood. 

LEXijr&To:N^ (Kentucky), founded a.d. 
1776, was the chief town of Kentucky until 
1792, when Frankfort was made the capital of 
the state. Lexington was incorporated in 
1782. 

Letden (Holland), the ancient Lugdunum 
Batavorum, withstood two celebrated sieges 
by the Spaniards iu 1573 and 1574. The first 
commenced Oct. 31, 1573, and was raised 
March 21, 1574, by Louis of Nassau. Valdez 
returned with 8,000 Walloons and Germans, 
May 26, 1574. Valdez ottered pardon to the 
citizens, on condition of an immediate sur- 
render, July 30 ; but they still held out, 
although reduced to extremities by want of 
prorisions. A flotilla of vessels, fitted out 
at Zealand for the relief of the city, broke 
through the dykes, and, assisted by an 
inundation, caused by a violent equinoctial 
gale, Oct. 1 and 2, entered the city Oct. 3, 
and Leyden was saved. The inhabitants had 
suttered severely from famine and pestilence, 
and, in acknowledgment of their heroism, the 
prince of Orange founded the university in 
1575. The round tower called the Burg, in the 
centre of the town, is supposed to have been 
built about a.d. 450 ; St. Panoras Church 
was erected in 1280, and St. Peter's iu 1315. 
The town-haU was founded in 1574. Here 
Arminius published his views, which led to 
the controversy bearing his name, Feb. 7, 
1604. In Jan. 1795, Leyden was taken pos- 
session of by the French, who held it till 1813. 

Libel. — The Roman laws treated libel as 
a capital offence, and during the latter period 
of the empire similar severity was extended 
to the possessors of libellous documents. 
Hallam (England, ch. xv.) remarks, — "The 
law of hbel has always been indefinite — an 
evil probably beyond any complete remedy, 
but which evidently renders the liberty of 
free discussion rather more precarious in its 
exercise than might be vdshed. It appears 
to have been the received doctrine in West- 
minster HaU, before the Eevolution, that no 
man might pubhsh a writing reflecting on 
the government, nor upon the character, or 
even capacity and fitness, of any one employed 
in it." Fox's Libel Bill of 1792 effected a 
salutary change. WiUiam Pryune was fined 
£5,000 for having written the " Histiio-Mas- 
trix," expelled from the university of Oxford 
and the bar, was exposed in the pillory, and 
committed to the Tower in August, 1633. 
He was, with Henry Burton and Robert 
Bastwick, condemned in the Star Chamber 
for hbels, June 14, 1637, and they were set in 
the pfllory and mutUated, June 30. A resolu- 
tion adopted in the House of Commons, that 
privilege of parliament should not extend to 
cases of hbel, was agreed to by the Lords 
Nov. 29, 1763. Major John Scott, a mem- 
ber of the House of Conamons, was repri- 
manded by the House for a hbellous pubhca- 
tion in one of the morning papers, May 18, 
1790. By 60 Geo. HI. c. 8 (Dec. 30, 1819), 



LIB 

offenders convicted a second time were liable 
to banishment for such term of years as 
the court before which the case was tried 
might order. This penalty was repealed by 
11 Geo. IV. & 1 Wm. IV. c. 73 (July 23, 
1830). The libel laws were amended and 
mitigated by 6 & 7 Viet. c. 96 (Aug. 24, 
1843). 

LiBEBiA (Africa). — This free republic was 
founded AprU 25, 1822, by some negro 
colonists, who had settled on the island of 
Sherboro in 1820, and were compelled to re- 
move, from the unhealthiness of the climate. 
A constitution was framed in 1839. The 
independence of the colony, declared in 
1847, was formally recognized by France 
and England in 1848. 

Libertines. — Considerable controversy 
has been excited respecting the synagogue 
of the Libertines, mentioned as existing 
at Jerusalem a.d. 37 (Acts vi. 9). Some 
writers believe it refers to the Libertini, or 
the children of freedmen ; and other autho- 
rities believe the Libertines to have been the 
inhabitants of Libertina, a city near Carthage. 

Libertines, or Spirituals, sometimes 
called Spiritual Libertines, who defended 
impure morals vdth a profession of Christian 
faith, appeared in Flanders in the 14th and 
15th centuries. The sect spread into France, 
and received encouragement from Margaret, 
queen of Navarre, in 1533. One of this sect, 
James Gruet, an opponent of Calvin, was 
put to death at Geneva in 1550. 

Libraries (Free). — Powers were granted 
to town-councils to establish free libraries, 
"by a rate levied with the consent of a ma- 
jority of two-thirds of the voters, by 13 & 14 
Vict. c. 65 (Aug. 14, 1850). The city of 
London is specially included in a subsequent 
act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 70), July 30, 1855. 
Manchester sanctioned the levying of a rate 
for this purpose Aug. 20, 1852 ; and Liver- 
pool followed the example by opening such an 
institution under a special act, Oct. 18, 1852. 

Library. — From an inscription in the 
Memnonium at Thebes, which is ascribed 
to the 14th century B.C., it appears that a 
library, or " haU of books," formed a part 
of that palace. This is perhaps the most 
ancient institution of the kind on record. 
The earliest libraries throughout Christen- 
dom were those attached to churches. 



650. Saidanapalus V. prepares a series of inscribed 
tablets, or a library in clay, for public 
instruction. 

537. Pisistratus founds a public library at Athens 
about this year. 

322. Aristotle bequeaths his collection of books to 
Theophrastus. 

298. Ptolemy Soter founds the Alexandrian library. 
(See Alkxandria. ) 

197. Death of Attalus I., founder of the library of 
Pergamus. 

167. Paulus JSinUius establishes the first library 
at Rome. 
28. The Palatine Library is founded at Rome. 

a.d. 

330. Constantine founds a librai-y at Constanti- 
nople. 

389. The library of the Serapeum of Alexandria 
is destroyed. 



LIB 



596. St. Augustine brings nine volumes into Eng- 
land, which form the nucleus of the first 

English library. 
650 (about). The library of Fleury is founded. 
724. The librai-y of Reichenau is founded. 
744. Charlemagne founds the monastic library of 

Fulda. 
820. The library of St. Gall is founded. 
1215. The library of Salamanca university is 

founded. 
1350 to 1364. John II. founds the Imperial Library 

at Paris. 
1352. Petrarch presents his library to Venice. 
1366. The library of Prague university is founded 

by the emperor Charles TV. 
1413. Andreas von Stommow establishes a library 

at Dantzic. 
1440. The library of Ratisbon is founded. The 

library of Vienna is founded, and also 

that of UJm. 
1445. Nuremberg library is founded. 
1447. Pope Nicholas V. founds the Vatican Library 

at Rome. 
1473. The library of Glasgow university is founded. 
1475. Thomas Scott, bishop of Lincoln, builds the 

library of Cambridge university. 
1490. The Corvinian Library, fonned by Matthias 

Coi-vinus, king of Hungary, nimibers nearly 

50 000 volumes. 
1531. Strasburg university librai-y is established. 
1533 to 1559. Christinn III. of Denmark founds the 

Royal Library of Copenhagen. 
1534. Albert of Brandenburg begins the Royal 

Library of Kcinigsberg. 
1540. Gustaviis Vasa founds the Royal Library of 

Stockholm. 
1543. The library of Leipsic university is founded. 
1550 to 1579. Albert V., duke of Bavaria, founds 

the library of Munich. 
1556. The Dresden library is founded. 
1558. The Ducal Library of "Wolfenbtittel is 

founded. 
1562. The library of Tubingen university is founded. 
1580. The library of the Escorial is founded. {See 

EscoBXAX.) A town library is founded at 

Ipswich. 

1601. The librai-y of Trinity College, DubUn, is 

founded. 

1602. The Bodleian Library (q.v.) is founded at 

Oxford. 

1603. Humphi-ey Chetham founds the first free 

library at Manchester. 
1609. The Antwerp libraiy is founded. 
1629. Padua university library is established. 
1635. The library of Sion College is founded. 
1638. The Harvard Library is founded at Cambridge, 

Massachusetts. 
1650. The Berlin library is founded. 
1660. The royal public library of Hanover is 

founded. 
1690. The library of Bologna university is founded. 
1692. The Ashmolean Library is bequeathed to 

Oxford university. 
1696. The library of the university of HaUe is 

founded. 
1700. The Cottonian Library {q. v.) is purchased for 

public use. 
1703. The university library of Heidelberg is 

founded. 
1714. The Imperial Library of St. Petersburg is 

founded. 
1731. Franklin founds the first American subscrip- 
tion library at Philadelphia. 
1734. The library of Gottlngen is founded. 
1737. The Royal Library at Paris is opened to the 

public, 
1749. The Ratclifl'e Library is opened at Oxford. 
1753. The Harleian Library {g. v.) and the collection 

of Sir- Hans Sloaue are purchased by the 

nation. 
1796. Feb. 29. The National Library of Portugal 

is founded. 
1802. The library of Count Szechenyi forms the 

foundation of the Pesth libi-ary. 
1823. The libraiy of George III. is given to the 

nation by George IV. 

487 



LIB 



1824. A library for the city of London is founded 
at GuildhaU. 

1830. Tlie library of the Taylor Institution at 

Oxford is founded. 

1831. The Arundel Library is added to the British 

Museum. 
1836. The Royal Libraiy of Brussels is founded. 
1845. Oct. 28. The Grenville Library is bequeathed 

to the British Museum. 
1850. Aug. 14. The Public Libraries Act is passed 

(13 & 14 Vict. c. 6.3). 
1852. The burgesses of Manchester establish a free 

public library, under the act of 1850. 

Oct. 18. A free library is opened to the 

public at Liverpool. 

1855. July 30. The Public Libraries and Museums 

Act is passed (18 & 19 Vict. c. 70). 

1856. A public library is founded in Melbourne, 

Australia. 
1861. July 11. The citizens of London reject, by a 
large majority, a proposition to establish a 
free public library in the city. 

LrBTJEisriA (niyria) received Yatinius as its 
proconsul B.C. 47. A revolt against the 
Roman rule was suppressed by Octavius 
B.C. 35. The hght galleys of the Liburni 
rendered important assistance to Axigustus 
at Actium, Sept. 21, 31 b.c. Charlemagne 
absorbed Libumia iato his empire a.d. 788. 

Libya (Africa) is mentioned by Homer 
B.C. 962, and described by Herodotus B.C. 
484. The Phoenicians are said to have colo- 
nized it B.C. 2080, and endeavoured to mono- 
pohze its commerce B.C. 600. Cambyses, 
king of Persia, led an expedition into Libya 
B.C. 526, and Ptolemy Philadelphus and 
Euergetes caused it to be explored for pur- 
poses of trade. The Eomans assigned the 
country to Ptolemy Physcon, b.c. 164. (See 
Afeica.) 

Licences. — Gaming-houses were first 
ordered to be licensed by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9 
(1541), which was repealed by 2 & 3 PhU. & 
Mary, c. 9 (1555). Alehouses were licensed 
by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1552) ; wine- 
retailers by 12 Charles II. c. 25 (1660) ; tea 
and coffee dealers by 15 Charles II. c. 11, s. 15 
(1663) ; spirit-merchants by 2 Geo. II. c. 28 
(1729); auctioneers by 17 Geo. III. c. 50 
(1777) ; post-horse masters by 19 Geo. III. 
c. 51 (1779) ; maltsters by 24 Geo. III. 
sess. 2, c. 41 (1784) ; and tobacco dealers by 
29 Geo. III. c. 68, s. 70 (1789). The General 
License Act is 9 Geo. IV. e. 61 (July 15, 
1828) . Licences for refreshment-houses are 
regulated by 23 Vict. c. 27 (June 14, 1860), 
which came into operation July 1. 

Licensee op Plats was first appointed 
by 10 Geo. II. c. 28 (1736). Brooke's 
" Gustavus Vasa " was the first play the 
performance of which was prohibited by this 
officer. 

Lichfield (Bishopric). — A bishop's see, 
estabhshed at this town a.d. 669, was raised 
to the dignity of an archbishopric by a 
synod held at Calchutense, or Celchyth, in 
liorthumberland, in 787. The dignity was 
suppressed by the synod of Cloveshovense, 
or Chff, Oct. 12, 803. The see removed to 
Chester ia 1075, and to Coventry in 1102 ; 
was restored to Lichfield in 1129, when it 
was called the bishopric of Lichfield and 
488 



LIE 

Coventry. The latter name was discon- 
tinued in 1837. 

Lichfield (Staffordshire). — This ancient 
city, to which Edward II. granted a charter 
of meorporation, was, with the suburbs, con- 
stituted a distinct county by Queen Mary, 
A.D. 1553. The cathedral, founded in 1148, 
suffered greatly during the civd wars, the 
parhamentary army having captured the 
town March 2, 1643, and was restored in 1661. 

LiCHTENBEEG- (Germany). — In 1816 this 
territory was ceded by Prussia to the duke 
of Saxe-Coburg, who made it a principality, 
naming it Lichtenberg, after an ancient castle. 
In 1834 it was restored to Prussia for an an- 
nual rent of 80,000 dollars. 

LiciNiAN Law, restricting the quantity 
of land which any citizen of Rome might 
possess to 500 jugera, or about 330 acres, 
was proposed by the Roman tribune C. 
Licinius Stolo, B.C. 376, and was carried 
B.C. 367. 

LiEBAir, (Treaty,) annulling the federal sub- 
jection of the duchy of Prussia to Sweden, 
was concluded S^ov. 10, 1656. 

Liechtenstein (Germany). — This prin- 
cipahty, the smallest of the states forming 
the Germanic confederation, belongs to one 
of the most ancient houses in Europe. 

Liege (Belgium). — A bishop's see, estab- 
hshed at Tongres a.d. 97, was transferred to 
Maastricht in 383, and to Liege in 713. Its 
bishop became a prince of the empire in the 
10th century. One of its bishops, expelled 
in 1406, recovered possession of the towTi 
in 1408. It was stormed by the duke of 
Burgundy, and burned Oct. 30, 1468. 
Louis XrV. took Liege in 1688. Marl- 
borough obtained possession of the city 
Oct. 13, 1702 ; the citadel surrendered 
Oct. 23 ; and a detached work, called the 
Chartreuse, Oct. 29. The French, who 
assailed it without success in the summer 
of 1705, obtained possession Oct. 10, 1746, 
The French, under General Dumouriez, 
took possession of Liege, after defeating 
the Austrians in the vicinity, Nov. 28, 
1792 ; but they were in turn beaten with 
great loss, March 4, 1793. It was annexed 
to France in 1795. The Cossacks captured 
it January, 1814. Liege formed part of the 
Netherlands in 1814, and was added to 
Belgium in 1830. The cathedral was built 
in the 8th century, and the university was 
founded by the king of Holland in 1817. 

LiEGNiTZ (Silesia), the capital of a gov- 
ernment of the same name, was the scene of 
I the Mongol victory over the Poles and the 
I Teutonic Knights, a.d. 1241. It was taken 
in 1757 by the Austrians, who were defeated 
here by Frederick II. of Prussia, Aug. 15, 
1760. An aUied Prussian and Russian army 
1 defeated the French at Wahlstatt, near this 
j town, Aug. 17, 1813. The old castle was 
nearly destroyed by fire in 1834. 

LiESNiA, orLESNO (Battle).— The Russians 
defeated the Swedes near this town, at the 
junction of the Punca and the Sossa, Oct. 8, 
1708. The Swedish general Ldwenhaupt 
with inferior numbers repulsed the Russians 



LIF 

at the first charge, Oct. 7. The battle was 
continued on the next day ; the Russians 
advanced no less than five times ; numbers 
at last prevailed, and Lowenhaupt passed 
the Sossa during the night of Oct. 8, having 
with 10,000 men maintained an arduous con- 
flict with 40,000 Eussians during two days. 
Lifeboat. — A patent for a lifeboat was 

f ranted to Lukin a.d. 1785. It was improved 
y Greathead, who launched his first hfeboat 
Jan. 30, 1790; and for his services in this 
matter he received a grant of £1,200, 
June 31, 1802. The Society of Arts voted 
him their gold medal and 50 guineas in 1804. 
A prize of a hundred guineas, offered by the 
duke of Northiunberland for the best model, 
was awarded to Beeching of Yarmouth in 
1850. 

LiFE-BtrOT. — In 1818, Lieut. Cook received 
a gold medal from the Society of Arts, for 
the invention of a hfe-buoy. 

Liee-Pke server. — Various apparatus 
for the preservation of Hfe from shipwreck 
have from time to time been invented. A 
paper kite was employed to effect commu- 
nication with the shore in 1740, and in 1791 
the Society of Arts published an account of 
Lieutenant BeU's system. Captain Manby's 
attention was directed to the subject by 
witnessing the death of sixty-seven per- 
sons within fifty yards from the shore, 
when the gun -brig Snipe was wrecked at 
Yarmouth, Feb. 18, 1807. He vowed to 
devote his hfe to the prevention of similar 
catastrophes in future, and invented the 
method of communication from the shore 
by means of a mortar and rope, which now 
bears his name. The apparatus was first 
employed Feb. 12, 1808, when it saved the 
crew of a brig. Captain Manby died Nov. 18, 
1854, with the knowledge that he had been 
the means of saving more than 1,000 lives, 
E. W. Laurie, of Glasgow, patented several 
improvements in apparatus to be employed 
for the preservation of human life, July 9, 
1849. 

Light. — Pythagoras, and the Platonists 
were the first whose speculations on this 
subject are recorded. Little definite know- 
ledge on the subject was obtained until 
the law of the refraction of fight was dis- 
covered by WiLlebrord SneU, or SneUiiis, 
a mathematician of Lej'den, a.d. 1621, and 
was made public by Descartes in 1637. 
Its compound nature was discovered by 
Newton while experimenting on the pris- 
matic spectrum, about 1666. Bradley, astro- 
nomer royal, detected its aberration Dec. 21, 
1725, and discovered the cause in Sept. 1728. 
{See Optics.) 

Lighthouse, or Pharos. — The Colossus 
of Ehodes, built by Chares about B.C. 290, 
is supposed by some writers to have answered 
the purpose of a Mghthouse. These edifices 
received the name of Pharos from the fight- 
house erected on the island of Pharos, for 
the purpose of fighting the harbour of Alex- 
andria, B.C. 283. It was constructed by 
order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The Tour 
de Corduan, the first modern fighthoase, was 



LIG 

founded at the mouth of the Garonne in 
1584, and completed in 1610. 

Lighting of Streets. — It is doubted 
whether any system of fighting the thorough- 
fares existed among the Greeks and Eomans, 
though they iUuminated their cities on pubfic 
festivals. Antioch was probably fighted by 
artificial means in the 3rd century. The 
governor of Edessa ordered lamps to be kept 
burning during the night, about a.d. 505. 
Paris is said to have been the first modern 
city in which the streets were fighted. An 
order to the inhabitants to keep lights burn- 
ing after nine in the evening was issued in 
1524, in 1526, and in 1553. Maitland contends 
that a similar order was issued in London in 
1414. Vases containing pitch and rosin were 
used for this purpose in October, 1558. The 
Abbe Laudati secured a twenty years' 
privfiege of letting out torches and lan- 
terns for hire, in Paris in March, 1662. 
Householders in London were required to 
hang out a fight when it was dark in 1668. 
Parliamentary authority was granted for 
lighting the streets by contract in 1736. By 
another act of parfiament, passed in 1744, 
great improvements were made in the sys- 
tem of fighting the streets of the city of 
London. Lighting the streets was intro- 
duced at the Hague in 1553, at Amsterdam 
in 1669, at Hamburg in 1672, at Berfin in 
1679, at Copenhagen in 1681, at Vienna in 
1687, at Hanover in 1696, at Leipsic in 1702, 
at Dresden in 1705, at Cassel in 1721, at 
Brunswick in 1765, and at Zurich in 1778. 
{See Gas.) 

LiGHTNiiTG Conductors. — The ancient 
Eomans regarded persons or places struck 
by fightning with horror, befieving them to 
be devoted to the wrath of Heaven. They 
surrounded places struck in this manner by 
a wafi, and buried things with mysterious 
ceremonies. Some authors befieve that they 
possessed the knowledge of conducting fight- 
ning. Modern lightning conductors, for the 
protection of buildings, were suggested by 
Franklin immediately after his famous elec- 
tric experiment in 1752. Dr. Watson erected 
the first in England, at Payneshfil, in 1762. 
A plan; was submitted to the Admiralty 
by W. Snow Harris,, for protecting ships 
from the effect of fightning, in 1821. It was 
adopted, and its inventor was rewarded with 
a pension, a grant of £4,000, and knighthood. 
The plans for the protection of the Houses 
of Parfiament were furnished by him. Pro- 
fessor Eichmann, of St. Petersburg, was 
kiUed in his room by a shock from a con- 
ductor in 1753. 

LiGNT (France) was captured by the 
Spaniards June 5, 1544, Here Napoleon I. 
defeated the Prussian army under the com- 
mand of Blucher, Jime 16, 1815, and com- 
peUed them to retreat to "Wavre. The Prus- 
sians lost 20,000, and the French 10,000 men 
in this battle. 

LiGUEiA (Italy) was inhabited by an an- 
cient people caUed the Ligures, of whose 
origin nothing authentic has been recorded. 
They first oame into collision with the Ro- 



Lia 

mans B.C. 237, and P. Lentulus Claudinus 
celebrated a triumph over them b.c. 236. 
The Ligurians allied themselves with the Car- 
thaginians, and commenced open hostilities 
by attacking Placentia and Cremona, Eoman 
colonies, b.c. 200. A long series of wars, 
extending over a period of eighty years, 
ensued between the Komans and the Ligu- 
rians. Several tribes were reduced to sub- 
jection before B.C. 173 ; others held out, and 
one tribe in the Maritime Alps was not re- 
duced to obedience until B.C. 14. The Lom- 
bards overran the country a.d. 569. 

Li&UEiAN Eeptjblic— The French created 
a revolution in Genoa early in 1797, and by 
a convention stipulated at Monte BeUo, June 
5 and 6, this repubhc placed itself under the 
protection of France. Napoleon Bonaparte 
gave it the name of the Ligurian repubhc. 
The formal surrender of its liberties, and its 
annexation to France, was made at Milan, 
June 4, 1805. The inhabitants revolted, and 
proclaimed the restoration of the Ligurian 
repubhc, April 3, 1849. The revolt was sup- 
pressed April 11. 

Lilac, a favourite flowering shrub, was 
introduced into this country before or during 
the reign of Henry YIII. (a.d. 1509—1547) ; 
as " six hlac-trees, which bear no fruit, but 
only a pleasant smell," are enumerated in the 
list of trees in the palace gardens at Norwich, 
taken by order of Cromwell. 

Lille, or Lisle (Conference). — Lord 
Mahnesbury was despatched here early in 
July, 1797, to resume the negotiations for 
peace with the French government, which 
had been suddenly broken off in December, 
1796. The demands of England were mode- 
rate. The French plenipotentiaries required 
the recognition of the French repubhc, and 
the renunciation by George III. of the title, 
king of France. After the revolution at Paris 
■ of the 4th September, the former plenipoten- 
tiaries were recalled, and two repubhcans 
sent, who required Lord Mahnesbury to pro- 
duce authority from the Enghsh government 
to surrender all the conquests made during 
the war, or to quit Lille within twenty-four 
hours. Lord Malmesbtiry broke up the con- 
ference and withdrew. 

Lille, or Lisle (France) , was founded and 
walled in by the count of Flanders, a.d. 1030. 
Phihp II. of France burned it in 1213, and 
it was besieged and taken by Philip the Fair 
in 1297. Lille was united to the crown of 
Spain in 1496, and was taken by Louis XIV. 
The Huguenots failed in an attempt to capture 
it in 1581, and the French besieged it in 1645. 
Louis XIV. took it from the Spaniards in 
1667, and it was ceded to France by the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, May 2 (O.S.), 1668. The 
alhes having besieged it Aug. 13, 1708, the tovra 
capitulated Oct. 24, and the citadel Dec. 10. 
The alhes are said to have had 17,000 killed 
and wounded during the siege. It was re- 
stored to France by the treaty of Utrecht, 
1713. The allied army threatened it in 1744. 
The Austrian army besieged Lihe Sept. 24, 
1792, but were compelled to retire Oct. 8. 
Louis XVIII. found refuge here for a few 
490 



LIM 

days, on the escape of Napoleon I. from Elba 
in 1815. The collegiate church of St. Peter 
was built in 1066, and the town-hall in 
1430. 

Liltb^um: (Sicily), the modern Marsala, 
was built by the Carthaginians B.C. 397. 
Pyrrhus besieged it for two months unsuc- 
cessfully, B.C. 276. The Eomans laid siege to 
it during the first Punic war, B.C. 250, and it 
capitulated b.c. 241. The port was blocked 
up with stones by Charles V., to protect it 
from the Barbary pu-ates, in the 16th century. 
(See Maesala.) 

Lima (Peru) was founded by Pizarro as 
his capital, under the name of Ciudad de los 
Eeyes, or the City of the Kings, Jan. 6, 1535. 
Here he was assassinated, Sunday, June 26, 
1541 . The inhabitants revolted against Gene- 
ral Santa Cruz, July 29, 1838. It has suffered 
severely from earthquakes, more particularly 
in 1746 and 1759, andjwas devastated by yellow 
fever in 1854. The archbishopric was founded 
in the 16th century. 

LiMBUEG (Belgium).— The French demo- 
hshed the outworks of this town, in the pro- 
vince of Liege, a.d. 1675. Marlborough 
invested Limburg Sept. 10, 1703, and the 
garrison surrendered Sept. 27. It was the 
capital of the old duchy of Limburg. 

LiMBTJEG (Belgium and Holland). — This 
province is supposed to have been occupied 
by the Eburones, in whose territories Julius 
Caesar quartered a legion B.C. 54. The Ebu- 
rones attacked the Eoman camp, and massa- 
cred nearly aU the troops. Caesar returned 
B.C. 53, and exterminated the Eburones. The 
country was formed into a duchy, which was 
annexed to Burgundy a.d. 1472, and formed 
one of the United Provinces . It was ceded to 
Finance in 1795, and was soon after restored 
to the Netherlands. After the revolution of 
1830, the province of Limburg was divided 
between Belgium and HoUand. 

LiMBUES (Germany). — The Prussians were 
driven from this town, on the river Lahn, in 
the duchy of Nassau, by the French, Nov. 9, 
1792. The Prussians regained possession of 
Limburg in a few days. The French drove 
the Austrians from Limburg in June, 1796, 
and the Austrians recovered the town Sept. 16 
in the same year. 

Lime or Dbummoitd Light, invented by- 
Captain Thomas Drummond, was first prac- 
tically apphed in the survey of Ireland, com- 
menced a.d. 1824, and is described by the in- 
ventor in the Philosophical Transactions for 
1826. He recommended its appUcation to 
hghthouses in 1830. 

Lime or LiNDEisr-TEEE. — This handsome 
tree is not indigenous to this country, but it 
existed here as early as the middle of the 
16th century. 

LiMEEiCK (Bishopric) . — The reputed 
founder of this Irish diocese is St. Munchin, 
of whom httle more is known than his name. 
Sir James Ware, however, contends that it 
was erected by Donald O'Brien about the 
time of the Enghsh invasion. Gille, or Gille- 
bert, A.D. 1106, is the first bishop of whom 
anything is known. 



LIM 

LiMEBiCE (Ireland) . — This city, the capital 
of the county of the same name, is said to 
have been a place of some repute in the 5th 
century. It was first attacked by the Danes 
A.D. 812, and was captured by them about the 
middle of the 9th century. Donald 0' Brien 
founded the cathedral about the period of the 
English invasion, and built a convent for Black 
nuns about 1174. King John visited Limerick 
in 1210, and erected Thomond Bridge over 
the Shannon, and in 1314 the suburbs were 
burnt by the Scotch, under Edward Bruce. 
The fortifications were completed in 1495. 
The bull against Elizabeth was placed on the 
gates in 1570. In 1641 Limerick was seized 
by the confederate Eoman Catholics, under 
Lords Muskerry and Skerrin, and in 1643 it 
became the head-quarters of the Irish pa- 
pists. Ireton took it after a six months' siege, 
Oct. 27, 1651, and died there the following 
"Nov. 26. William III. commenced the siege 
of Limerick Aug. 9, 1690, and after a great 
expenditure of Hfe, was compelled to raise 
it Aug. 30. It was, however, renewed the 
following year by General Ginkell, who 
finally succeeded in taking the city. A truce 
was agreed upon Sept. 23, 1691, and the cele- 
brated treaty of Limerick {q.v.) was signed 
Oct. 3. The Custom-house was erected in 1769, 
the Exchange in 1778, the gaol and lunatic 
asylum in 1821, and the City Infirmaryin 1829. 
The lace manufacture, for which Limerick is 
celebrated, was introduced in 1829. The 
finest building is the bank, erected in 1840. 
The worlfhouse was built in 1841 . Serious 
riots occurred here June 15, 1830. The 
mob attacked the provision warehouses, 
flour -mills, &c., doing damage to the extent 
of £10,000. 

Limerick, (Treaty,) called the Pacification 
of Limerick, was signed at Limerick Oct. 3, 
1691. It put an end to the authority of 
James II. in Ireland. By the first article the 
Eoman Catholics were to enjoy such privi- 
leges in the exercise of their religion as were 
consistent with the laws of Ireland, or such as 
they did enjoy in the reign of Charles II. A 
general amnesty was granted to aU persons 
willing to remain in Ireland. They were to 
have all their estates, and all the rights, pri- 
vileges, and immunities, which they enjoyed 
iu the reign of Charles II., free from for- 
feitures, or outlawries incurred by them. The 
garrison were permitted to march out with 
the honours of war, and to take service iu 
the French army. About 12,000 men were 
conveyed to France, and enlisted under the 
banner of Louis XIV. They formed the 
Irish Brigade, so celebrated in the conti- 
nental wars of the 18th century. "William III. 
ratified the treaty in February, 1692. The 
English parliament accepted the treaty, but 
the Irish parliament declared that General 
Ginkell and the lords justices had exceeded 
their powers, and, in 1695, passed an act 
putting their own construction upon the terms 
of the convention. Sir Henry Parnell brought 
forward a motion in the House of Commons, 
March 6, 1828, for an address to the king, 
praying that this treaty might be laid before 



LIN 

the house. This led to an animated discussion 
respecting the obhgations it imposed upon 
England to remove the disabilities of the 
Eoman Catholics. 

Limited Liability. — The Habilities of 
members of joint-stock companies, with a 
capital divided into shares of not less than 
£10 each, for the debts of their company, 
were limited upon certain conditions by 
18&19Yict. c. 133 (Aug. 14, 1855). The 
act did not apply to Scotland. It was amended 
by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 47 (July 14, 1856) ; 20 & 21 
Vict. c. 14 (July 13, 1857) ; and by 21 & 22 
Vict. c. 60 (July 23, 1858). 

Limoges (France), the Augustoritum of 
the Eomans, was, in their time, the chief town 
of the Lemovices, who joined Vereingetorix 
against Julius Caesar, B.C. 52. It was the 
capital of the province of Limousin, and Avas 
taken by Edward the Black Prince a.d. 
1370. The Black Prince was shortly after 
compelled to retire to England, on account 
of ill-health ; and the capture of this 
town, in which he is said to have displayed 
great cruelty, was his last military exploit. 
Its cathedral was commenced in the 13th, 
and the church of St. Michel-aux-Lions was 
built in the 15th century. Councils were 
held here in 848, 1029, Nov. 18, 1031, and 
in 1182. 

LiMOUSiir (France). — This province, in- 
habited by the Lemovices, was wrested from 
the Visigoths by Clovis I. , king of the Franks, 
A.D. 507. It was included in Gnienne, and 
afterwards made a separate province, for the 
possession of which the kings of France and 
England waged frequent war. Eichard I. 
lost his life from a wound received whilst 
besieging the castle of Chains- Chabrol, iu 
Limousin, March 26, 1199. It was united to 
the French crown by Henry of Navarre in 
1589. Turgot was intendant of the Limousin 
from 1761 to 1773. 

LiNCELLES (Battle). — General Lake de- 
feated the French at this viUage, in the 
Netherlands, Aug. 18, 1793. 

LiNCOLif (Battles).— Ealph, earl of Ches- 
ter, and Eobert, earl of Gloucester, attacked 
and defeated Stephen at Lincoln, Sunday, 
Feb. 2, 1141. Stephen was captured and 
imprisoned in Bristol Castle. Matilda was 
acknowledged as "Lady of England" at 

Winchester, April 7. A French army 

that had been sent over to assist the rebel- 
lious barons against Henry III., was attacked 
and totally defeated by the earl of Pembroke 
a,nd Peter, bishop of Winchester, at Lincoln, 
Saturday, May 20, 1217. Eoger of Wendover 
states that in derision of Louis, son of Philip 
Augustus of France, and the barons, this was 
called the battle of the Fair. 

LiNCOL]>r (Bishopric). — The two sees of 
Leicester and Lindisse were erected in 680, 
and were united in 873. In 886 the seat of 
the diocese was fixed at Dorchester, and 
about the year 1078 it was transferred to 
Lincoln. The see of Ely was created out of 
Lincoln in 1108, that of Oxford in 1541, and 
that of Peterborough in 1541 ; and in 1837 it 
was further reduced by the annexation of 
491 



Lm 



LIN 



several districts previously under its juris- 
diction to other sees. 

LiifcOLN (Lineobisliire), the Eoman Lin- 
dum, was a station of the Eomans. " New- 
port Gate" is a ruin of a Eoman archway 
erected a.d. 418. The castle was founded by 
WiUiani I. in 1086. A charter of incorpora- 
tion was granted to Lincoln by Henry II. 
(1154 — 1189). Stephen was captured here 
by the earl of Chester, and many of the 
citizens were slaughtered Feb. 2, 1141. Lin- 
coln was taken by the Parhamentarians under 
the earl of Manchester, May 5, 1644. The 
city was represented in parhament in the 
reign of Henry III. (1216—1272). The 
cathedral, founded by William I. in 10S6, 
was burnt down in 1126, and was afterwards 
rebuilt. St. Peter's Church was bmlt in 
1723. The famous beU, Great Tom, cast 
in 1610, cracked in 1827, was broken up in 
1834. 

LiN-coLW College (Oxford), founded 
by Eichard Flemmyng, bishop of Lincoln, 
Oct. 13, 1428 A.D., was extended by Eo- 
theram, also bishop of Lincoln, in 1479. 
Other emoluments were added by Crewe, 
bishop of Durham, in 1718, and l)r. Hut- 
chins in 1781. The largest quadi-angle was 
erected in the 15th century, the small court 
was bxiilt by Sir Thomas llotherham in 1612, 
and the chapel was built in 1631 by Arch- 
bishop Wilhams, who had the illuminated 
windows brought from Italy in 1629. The 
college was repaired in 1818. 

Lincolnshire (England) . — A Saxon king- 
dom, called Lindsey, subordinate to Mercia, 
occupied the same extent of country as Lin- 
colnshire. The Danes obtained permanent 
possession of Lindsey a.d. 877, and it was 
soon after merged in the Anglo-Saxon king- 
dom of England. 

Lincoln's Inn (London) .—The earl of 
Lincoln erected a palace here a.d. 1229, 
whence the name. It was used by the 
bishops of Chichester as a palace until 1310, 
when a law school was established. Queen 
Ehzabeth made a grant of the fee simple of 
Lincoln's Inn to the benchers. The hbrary 
of Lincoln's Inn was commenced in 1522, 
and the chapel was erected from the designs 
of Inigo Jones in 1626. The haU and the 
new buildings were opened by Queen Yic- 
toria, Oct. 30, 1845. 

Lincoln's-Inn Pields (London). — Lord 
Wilham Eussell was beheaded in Lincoln's- 
Inn Pields, July 21, 1683. The square was 
enclosed in 1737. 

Lincoln's-Inn Fields Theatee (Lon- 
don). — This theatre was situated on the 
south side of Lincoln's Inn, at the back of 
the present Eoyal College of Surgeons. The 
first was originally a tennis-court, which was 
converted into "the Duke's Theatre" by 
Sir WiUiam Davenant, and opened in 1662. 
The second theatre was built by Congreve 
and others, and opened with the first per- 
formance of " Love for Love," April 30, 
1695. It was pulled down by Christopher 
Eich in 1714, and the new theatre was opened 
after hig decease by his son John, Dec. 18, 
492 



1714. The "Beggar's Opera" was first 
played in this house Jan. 29, 1728. Lincoln's- 
Inn Theatre was converted into a barrack in 
1756, and was finally taken down Aug. 28, 
1848. 

LiNDispAENE. {See Holt Island.) 

Lindsey, or Lindum Island (Lincoln- 
shire). — This province was, according to 
Bede, converted to Christianity by PauUnus, 
A.D. 628. The Danes seized Lindsey a.d. 
838, and again in 993. A bishop's see was 
estabhshed at Lindisse, supposed to be Stow, 
in Lincolnshire, in 680. It was removed to 
Lincoln in 1078. 

Linen was woven at a very early period. 
Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine 
linen (Gen. xH. 42), e.g. 1715. The Egyptians 
had attained high perfection in the art of 
manufacturing Imen B.C. 700, and exported 
it, according to Herodotus, B.C. 478. It was 
used in Britain prior to the Eoman invasion, 
B.C. 55. In Ireland it was woven in the 
11th century. The trade was much im- 
proved by French refugees in 1685, and en- 
couraged by the establishment of a " Linen 
Board," which was abohshed in 1828. Pos- 
broke (Antiq. 472) remarks : " Strutt ob- 
serves, that the manufacture of hnen in this 
country was not carried to any extent before 
the middle of the 17th century ; was in its 
infancy even in the time of Charles II. (1661 
— 1685) ; was imported from Flanders, and 
was very dear. . . . D'Arnay says, that 
it was not common in the west in the 8th 
century : that table linen was very rare in 
England in the 13th and 14th centuries. 
. . . Anderson traces some fine hnen 
made in England in 1253 ; a company at 
London in 1386; a manufacture in Nor- 
mandy in 1422 ; and in Ireland in 1430, which 
was advanced by the French Protestant 
refugees about 1696. In 1445 we find fine 
linen for surplices and the altar, at 8d. the 
eU. Eheims supphed us with most of our 
finest hnens in the 14th century." Ma- 
chinery was first used in this manufacture 
in 1725. Linen was manufactured in Scot- 
land early in the 18th century, and a board 
of trustees for its encouragement was formed 
in 1727. The duty on hnen was abohshed 
by the commercial treaty signed with France, 
Jan. 23, 1860. 

LiNGHiEBA (Sea-fight). — The Venetians, 
assisted by the Spaniards, defeated the 
Genoese off this place, in Italy, Aug. 29, 
1353. 

LiNGONUM CiviTAS, or Andematunnum 
(Gaul). — Constantius Chlorus defeated the 
Alemanni at this town, a.d. 298. AttUa 
destroyed the town in 407. It was rebuilt 
by the Burgundians, and became the capital 
of a country called, in old French, Langone. 
Louis VII. 'made it a duchy. The cathedral 
was founded in 380. 

Linlithgow (Battle). — During the mi- 
nority of James V. of Scotland, the charge 
of his person was intrusted to certain peers 
in rotation. He came of age (fourteen years 
old) in April, 1525 ; but the earl of Angus 
stiU continued to control his actions, until his 



i 



LIN 

tjTanny became so excessive that a party 
was formed against him by the earl of Lenox 
and others in 1526. The two armies encoun- 
tered each other at the bridge of LinMthgow, 
about midsummer, when Lenox was lolled 
and his forces were defeated. 

LiNsr^Asr Society (London) was 
founded a.d. 1788, and incorporated March 26, 
1802. The hbrary andherbarium of Linnaeus, 
now in possession of the society, were pur- 
chased for £1,000 by Dr. Smith. The Trans- 
actions of the society were first pubhshed 
in 1791. 

Linn^aW System. — The classification of 
plants according to their stamens and pistils 
was accomphshed by the great Swedish 
naturalist, Charles Linn^ or Linnaeus, who was 
bomatEashult,Mayl3,1707 (O.S.), and died 
at Upsal, Jan. 10, 1778. It was originally 
pubhshed in the Hortus Uplandicus in 1731, 
and at once estabhshed the reputation of 
its author. The Species Flantarum was pub- 
lished in 1753. 

Liirz, or Lintz (Austria), the ancient 
Lentia, at one time a Roman station, was 
purchased by the margrave of Austria, 
A.D. 1036. Fardinger, the peasant leader, 
made an unsuccessful attack upon it in 1626 ; 
and it was entered by the army of the elector 
of Bavaria, where he was declared duke of 
Austria, in 1741. The town-hall was built 
in 1414, and Trinity column was erected 
by Charles VI. in 1723. The fortifications 
were improved after a plan by Prince Maxi- 
milian d'Estein 1850. 

Lion and Unicoen (Heraldry) were 
first adopted as supporters of the royal arms 
of England on the accession of James I., 
A.D. 1603. The former was previously the 
supporter of the Enghsh, and the latter of 
the Scottish shield. 

Lioppo (Battle). — Garibaldi defeated the 
Neapohtans at this place, in Italy, May 16, 
1860. 

Lip ABA, the modern Lipari, was founded 
on one of the Lipari islands by the Rhodians 
and Cnidians, b.c. 580. Agathocles ravaged 
it B.C. 304. The Carthaginians captured it 
B.C. 264, and made it a naval station. C. 
AureHus captured it B.C. 251, and it was 
annexed to the Eoman empire. Attains, 
who attempted to make himself emperor, 
was banished here a.d. 416. Robert, king of 
Naples, captured it in 1839. Khair Eddin 
Barbarossa seized the town and carried 
the inhabitants into slavery in 1544. 

Lipaei Islands (Mediterranean Sea). — 
This volcanic group, consisting of seven 
principal islands, was known to the ancients 
under the names of the ^oliae, Hephaestiae, 
or Vulcanise Insulse, and of the Liparenses, 
from Lipara, the largest of the group, said to 
have been so called from Liparus, one of its 
early kings. The group was colonized by the 
Dorians, about b.c. 580, 

LiPPAtr, (Battle,) foughtdurmg the Hussite 
war, at this place, near Prague, May 28, 1434. 
The two Procops fell in the encounter, in 
which the Taborites were defeated. 

LippE (Germany). — This town was built 



LIS 

in the 12th century, and took its name 
from the river Lippe, near which Varus, 
and his three legions, were slaughtered by 
the Saxons, under Arminius, a.d. 9. It was 
made a principalitj^ Bernard VIII., who 
died in 1563, was the first to assume the 
title of count, and he divided his possessions 
amongst his three sons, who founded the 
lines of Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-Brake, and 
Lippe-Biickeburg, or Schaumburg. The line 
of Lippe-Brake became extinct in 1709. The 
Aulic ruler of Lippe-Detmold took possession 
of the whole of Lippe-Brake ; but the 
council, in 1734 and 1737, divided it between 
Lippe-Biickeburg, or Schaumburg, and 
Lippe-Detmold, and the houses entered 
into a convention on the subject in 1748. 

Lisbon (Portugal) received from Julius 
Caesar the rights of a municipium, with the 
title of FeHcitas Julia, and was also called Oli- 
sipo. It was taken from the Romans by the 
barbarian hordes, a.d. 409. The Moors took it 
in 711, and it was wrested from them by Al- 
fonso, king of Portugal, in 1147. It was made 
the seat of the government in place of Coimbra 
in 1433, and was taken by the duke of Bragan9a 
in 1640. The city was nearly destroyed by an 
earthquake, when 30,000 or 40,000 persons 
lost their lives, Nov. 1, 1755. Lisbon was in 
possession of the French from Nov. 30, 1807, 
till Sept. 15, 1808, when they retired in ac- 
cordance with the terms of the convention 
of Cintra (q.v.). The duke of Wellington 
landed here April 22, 1809, upon taking 
command of the army for the liberation of 
the peninsula. A mausoleum in the Enghsh 
cemetery is erected over the grave of Fielding 
the novelist, who died here in 1754. The Bank 
of Lisbon suspended payment Dec. 7, 1827. 
Insurrectionary movements occurred here 
March 1, and lasted to March 5 and April 25, 
1828. The troops revolted against Don 
Miguel, Aug. 21, 1831, on which occasion 
300 fives were lost. A mutiny amongst a 
portion of the garrison occurred Feb. 13, 
1838. 

Lisbon (Treaty). — A treaty of peace 
between Spain and Portugal was concluded 
at Lisbon, through the mediation of England, 
February 13, 1668. Spain recognized the 
independence of Portugal. 

LiSBUSN (Ireland). — Sir Fulk Conway 
erected a castle at Lisburn, a.d. 1610, and 
the town was built by one of his descendants 
in 1627. It was destroyed by the Irish rebels 
in 1641, and was burned in 1707. 

LisiETJX (France). — The inhabitants of this 
town, the ancient Noviomagus, afterwards 
caUed Lexovii, joined in the GaUic struggle 
against Caesar b.c. 52. The Saxons pillaged 
it in the 4th, and the Normans in the 8th 
century. It has been frequently besieged. 
Councils were held here in 1055, and ia 
October, 1106. 

LisMOEE (Bishopric) . — This Irish bishop- 
ric was founded by St. Carthagh about 
A.D. 631. Attempts were made to unite it 
with Waterford in 1225 and 1326 ; and the 
union was finally effected by Edward III. 
Oct. 2, 1363. 



LIS 

LisMOEE (Ireland) . — This city, in the county 
of Waterford, is celebrated for its castle, 
which was founded by King John \yhen earl 
of Moreton, a.d. 1185. In 1189 it was 
seized by the natives, and in 1589 was granted 
to Sir Walter Ealeigh, by whom it was 
sold to Sir Eichard Boyle, first earl of Cork. 
Lismore was unsuccessfully besieged by the 
Irish rebels in 1641 and in 1643, but it was 
taken by Lord Castlehaven in 1645. 

LissA (Adriatic Sea). — This island, the 
ancient Issa, was colonized by Dionysius the 
Elder, B.C. 387. ItwasbesiegedbyAgron,king 
of Dlyria, B.C. 232, but was liberated B.C. 229. 
The Venetians wrested it from the Normans 
A.D. 1073. In more modern times Lissa is 
famous as the scene of a victory over the 
Frenchfleet, gained by Sir W. Hoste in 1811. 

Lissa (Battle). {See Leuthen.) 

Lissus (Ulyria), now called Alessio or 
Lesch, was founded by Dionysius the Elder, 
circ. B.C. 385. Scanderbeg, after his victorious 
campaign in Albania, died at this town, 
Jan. 17, 1467, a.d., and it was taken by the 
Turks in 1476. 

LiSTOWEL (Ireland) was captured by Sir 
Charles Wihnot a.d. 1600. 

Litanies, or Eo&atiou-s, formerly a 
general name for prayers, were instituted by 
Mamercus, bishop of Yienne, in France, 
about A.D. 450, and estabUshed by a decree 
of the councU of Orleans, July 10, 511. 
Gregory I. instituted such forms at Eome, 
one in particular under the name of Litania 
septiformis, in 698. Henry Till, ordered a 
litany or procession to be set forth in Enghsh, 
" because the prayers being in an unknown 
tongue, made the people negh'gent in coming 
to church," June 8, 1544. Hallam says it 
had been translated into English in 1542. 
In the Common Prayer Book of 1549, the 
Litaliy was placed between the Communion 
office and the office for baptism. In 1552 
it was placed in its present position ; and it 
was used as a distuict service till 1661. 

LiTEEAEY Club. (See Club, the.) 

Liteeaey Fukd (London). — The Eoyal 
Literary Fund was founded by David Wil- 
liams, A.D. 1790, and incorporated in 1818. 
Its object is to relieve authors who have 
been reduced to want through age or misfor- 
tune. At the anniversary meeting, April 12, 
1304, the prince of Wales, afterwards 
George IV., was proposed as a patron. 

Lithium. — This metal was discovered by 
AriVedson, a.d. 1817. 

LiTHO&KAPHT. — This art was invented by 
Alois Senefelder, a native of Prague, who 
produced a piece of music, his first im- 
pression from stone, a.d. 1796. He secured a 
patent for his invention in several German 
states, extending over fifteen years, in 1800, 
and pubhshed a work on the subject in 1817. 
A partnership was entered into, and estab- 
hshments were formed in London and Paris, 
in 1799, but they did not succeed. Another 
at Munich in 1806 was more prosperous ; 
and the inventor was ultimately appointed 
to the inspectorshixD of the Eoyal Litho- 
graphic Establishment, in October, 1809. The 
494 



LIT 

Society for the Encouragement of Arts in 
London voted Senefelder their gold medal 
in 1819. 

LiTHOTOMT. — The operation of cutting 
for the stone was practised by Ammonius of 
Alexandria about B.C. 250, and by Celsus 
about A.D. 17. They employed the method 
known as the less apparatus. The high 
operation was first practised at Paris by 
Colot in 1475 ; the greater apparatus, so 
called from the numerous instruments em- 
ployed, was invented by Johannes de Eomanis 
in 1590, and pubhshed by Marianus Sanctus 
in 1524. The lateral operation was invented 
by Franco before 1561, and was taught at 
Paris by Fr^re Jacques in 1697. {See 

LlTHOTHITT.) 

LiTHOTBiTT. — This Operation is believed 
to have been practised by the surgeons of 
Alexandria before the Christian asra, though 
it was first suggested in modern times by 
Gruithuisen, a Bavarian surgeon, who con- 
structed an apparatus for the purpose, 
A.D. 1812. Great improvements have been 
since effected in the apparatus. 

LiTHUAifiA (Eussia) occupied by a 
savage people, whose origiu is tmknown, 
A.D. 1009, was conquered by the Knights 
Sword-bearers, and the Knights of Jerusalem 
in the 13th century. Having united the 
independent tribes, and concentrated his 
power, Eiugold assumed the title of grand- 
duke in 1230, and was succeeded by has son 
Mendog, who embraced Christianity in 1252, 
though he abjured it in 1255. Witenes ac- 
quired the supreme power in 1282, which he 
transmitted to his son Ghedemin in 1315. 
Jaghellon came to the throne in 1381 ; and 
on condition of receiving in marriage Hed- 
wige, daughter of the king of Poland, 
together with the crown of that country, 
he consented to become a Christian, and was 
baptized with his nobles and many of his 
subjects, Feb. 14, 1386. At the diet of 
Lublin, in 1569, the two countries were 
formally united. Part of it passed vtnth 
Poland under the sway of Eussia, Feb. 17, 
1772, and the remainder in March, 1794. 
The ancient serpent - worship is said to 
have prevailed in Lithuania till late in 
the 15th century. An insurrection, which 
was soon suppressed, occurred in Lithu- 
ania in 1831. The peasants took part with 
Eussia, during the Pohsh revolt of 1848. 

Little Eoce (United States). — This town 
in Arkansas was founded a.d. 1829. 

LiTUEGiES were used in the Temple service 
of the Jews in the time of the Apostles, and 
according to Mosheim, among the early 
Christians, "each indi\idual bishop pre- 
scribed to his own flock such a form of jjublic 
worship as he thought best." Uniformity in 
the churches of a province was agreed to 
at various councils, and amongst others at 
those of Agda, Sept. 11, 506, and of Gironne, 
June 8, 517. The Breviary of the Eomish 
church was ia use about the middle of the 
5th century. Henry VIII.'s " Primer" was 
pubhshed in 1535. The Litiu'gy, compiled 
under the superintendence of Cranmer, by 



LIT 

order of Edward VI., was issued in 1549, and 
revised by a resolution of parliament, April 29, 
1559. The English Liturgy in its present 
form was established by an act of parhament, 
which received the royal assent May 19, 
1662. 

LiTVATOEOE, (Treaty,) was concluded be- 
tween Austria and the Ottoman empire, a.d. 
1606. The Turks relinquished their claim to 
tribute from Hungary, and, for the first time 
in the history of their diplomacy, conde- 
scended to conclude peace with the formaU- 
ties used by the other nations of Europe. 

LiVEEiES were not assumed by the 
trade companies of London before the reign 
of Edward I. ; but they afterwards became 
so dangerous as party badges, that they were 
regulated by 16 Eich. II. c. 4 (1392), and by 
20 Eich. II. c. 2 (1396). The practice was 
forbidden in the first and seventh years of 
Henry IV.' s reign ; again by 13 Hen. IV. 
c. 3 (1411) ; by 8 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1468), and by 
other statutes. They were, however, allowed 
at coronations, and in great public cere- 
monies. In consequence of these restric- 
tions, the companies were compelled to 
obtain the king's licence before adopting 
liveries. 

LivEEPOOL (Lancashire). — The origin of 
this important town, and even the etymology 
of its name, are involved in great obscurity. 
Baines (Hist, of Liverpool, p. 58) considers 
the first portion of the name to be derived 
from the Gothic word "lide" or "lithe," the 
sea; but other authorities regard it as the 
waterfowl called the " liver," which they state 
to have abounded on the shores of the Mersey 
at an early date. The site of Liverpool was 
granted by Wifiiam I. to Eoger of Poitou. It 
was afterwards purchased by King John, and 
passed through the hands of the earls of Derby 
and Chester, until it was granted to the house 
of Lancaster by Henry III. On the acces- 
sion of Henry IV. it became the property 
of the crown, and it continued to be so untU 
it was sold by Charles I. in 1628. 

A.D. 

1171. Henry II. embarks from Liverpool on his 

expedition to Ireland. 
1190. Liverpool is first mentioned in a deed of this 

year. 
1202. Liverpool castle is founded by King John, 

most probably about this year. 
1207. Aug. 28. King John grants a charter to Liver- 
pool, erecting it into a free burgh. 
1229. March 24. Henry III. erects it into a free 

burgh for ever. 
1335. June 3. Edward III. orders a fleet to assemble 

at Livei-pool, in readiness to attack the 

Scots. 
1356. May 19. The first mention of a mayor of 

Liverpool is made under this date. 
1361. The plague rages fear-fully. 
1424. A quarrel takes place in Liverpool between 

the retainers of Thomas Stanley and Sir 

Richard Molyneux. 
1548. The plague carries off many of the inha- 
bitants. 
1561. The old haven, which was founded in the 

reign of Edward IIL, is totally destroyed 

by a tempest. 
1571. The inhabitants petition Queen Elizabeth in 

behalf of her "poor decayed town of 

Liverpool." 



1635. 
1643. 



1710. 
1715. 
1745. 

1749. 

1752. 
1772. 
1778. 
1785. 
1791. 
1795. 

1799. 



LIV 



Charles I. sells the lordship of Liverpool to 
the corporation of Loudon, in liquidation 
of his debts. 

Liverpool is ordered to pay ship-money. 

April. Liverpool is taken by the parlia- 
mentary forces. 

June 24. It is taken by the royahsts, under 
Pilnce Eupert. 

June 24. Liverpool becomes a distinct parish. 

(about). The old custoui-house built. 

Messrs. Blundell and Stithe found the Blue- 
coat Hospital. 

The first dock is completed. 

The castle is finally destroyed. 

Eight compauies of volunteers are enrolled 
to oppose the Pretender. 

The towu-hall is founded. March 25. The 
infivmn-ry is opened. 

The Seamen's Hospital is founded. 

Tue theatre is opened. 

The first Liverpool dispensaiy is founded. 

King's dock is constructed. 

The hospital for the blind is established. 

The interior of the town-hall is destroyed by 
fire. 

The Liverpool Athenaeum, the first institution 
of the kind in the country, is opened. 

Sept. 14. A fire destroys property to the 
amount of nearly £1,000,000 sterling. The 
Lyceum is founded. 

The Exchauge is founded. 

The Corn -exchange is founded. 

Oct. 25. The statue of George III. is com- 



1811. 

1814. 
1815. 
1816. 
1821. 
1822. 
1823. 
1824. 
1825. 
1826. 
1828. 
1830. 



1834. 
1836. 



1846. 

1847. 

1851. 
1854. 
1855. 



Feb. 11. The tower of St. Nicholas's church 
falls, and kills twenty-eight persons. Aug. 
The Academy of Aits is opened. 

July 5. The first number of the Liverpool 
Mercury is published. 

The Royal lustitution is founded. 

The Wellington Rooms are bmlt. 

Gas is introduced. 

July 19. Prince's dock is opened. 

March. St. John's market is opened. 

The Marine Humane Society is founded. 

The present infirmary is opened. 

The Mechanics' Institute is founded. 

The old dock is closed. 

Aug. 12. The new Custom-house is founded. 

Sept. Clarence dock is opened. Sept. 15. 
The railway to Manchester is opened, and 
the occasion is attended by the accidental 
death of Mr. Huskisson. The Lunatic 
Asylum is erected. 

April 13. Brunswick dock is opened. May 22, 
The cholera appears in Liverpnol. 

Aug. 18. Waterloo dock is opened. 

Sept. 8. Victoria and Trafalgar docks are 
opened. 

July 4. The railway to Birmingham is com- 
pleted. The Statistical Society is founded. 

Sept. 17. The railway to Loudon is opened. 
Oct. 31. The Preston railway is opened. 

Jan. The Royal Bank Is opened. Jan. 7. 
A stoi-m does great damage. 

Sept. 23. A fire destroys property to the value 
of £700,000. 

Jan. The Collegiate Institution is opened. 

July 31. Prince Albert lays the foimdation 
of the Sailors' Home. 

Mr. Huskisson's statue is erected. Oct. 
Several serious commercial failures occur. 

Oct. 9. The Queen visits Liverpool. 

Sept. 18. St. George's Hall is opened. 

Feb. 19. Serious bread riots take place, 15,000 
persons being thrown out of employment 
by protracted frosts. Oct. 10. The duke 
of Cambridge is entertained by the mayor 
at the town -hall, and the town is illu- 
minated. 

April 15. The Free Library and Museum are 
founded by Mr. WiUiam Brown. Nov. 
Numerous fail\u-es occur. 

Oct. 12. The Association for the Promotion 
of Social Science meets at Liverpool. 
495 



LIV 

A.D. 

1860. April 29. The Sailors' Home is destroyed by 
fire. Oct. 8. The Free Libi-aiy and Musetun, 
erected by Mr. Brown, are opened, and 
presented by him to the town of liver- 
pool. 

LiVEEPOOi, ADMiifiSTEATiOH". — Mr. Per- 
ceval having been assassinated as he was en- 
tering the lobby of the House of Commons, 
May 11, 1812, new ministerial arrangements 
became necessary. A motion for an address 
to the Prince Eegent, praying his royal high- 
ness to take such measures as might be best 
calculated to form an efficient administration, 
was carried in the House of Commons May 21, 
by 174 to 170. The marquis of Wellesiey re- 
ceived instructions to form an administration 
June 1, and on the 3rd he declared that 
his efforts had been unsuccessful. The earl 
of Liverpool announced that he had under- 
taken the task June 8. The cabinet, formed 
pi-incipally of members of the Perceval 
administration, was thus constituted : — 

Treasury Earl of Liverpool. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. 

President of the Council . .Earl of Han-owby. 

Privy Seal Earl of Westiuorland. 

Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. N. Vansittart. 
Home Secretary Viscount Sidmouth. 

rVisc. Castlereagh, after- 
Foreign Secretary < wards Marquis of Lon- 

( donden-y. 

Colonial Secretary Earl Bathurst. 

Admiralty Viscount Melville. 

Board of Control E.arl of Buckinghamshire. 

Ordnance Earl Mulgrave. 

Without ofllce Marquis Camden. 

The duke of Eichmond was lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland. Mr. Charles Bathhurst was 
made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 
with a seat in the cabinet, in 1813. The Hon. 
W. WeUesley Pole, master of the mint, was 
admitted to a seat in the cabinet in 1815. 
Mr. Canning became president of the Board 
of Control, m place of the earl of Bucking- 
hamshire, in 1816. Mr. F. J. Kobinson, 
afterwards Yiscount Goderich, and ulti- 
mately earl of Eipon, was admitted into the 
cabinet as treasurer of the navy and presi- 
dent of the Board of Trade hi 1818. The 
duke of Wellington was made master-general 
of the ordnance Jan. 1, 1819, in place of 
Earl Mulgrave, who retained a seat in the 
cabinet without office. Mr. Canning resigned 
the Board of Control in June, 1820, and the 
post was given to Mr.'C. Bathurst, who was 
also chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
Loi'd Maryborough succeeded the Hon. 
W. Wellesiey Pole as master of the mint, in 
1821. Sir Eobert Peel took the Home Office 
in January, 1822, in place of Viscount Sid- 
mouth, who retained a seat in the cabioet, 
without office ; and the Board of Control 
was taken from Mr. C. Bathurst and in- 
trusted to Mr. C. W. W. Wynne. The 
death of the marquis of Londonderry, 
Aug. 12, 1822, induced Mr. Canning to re- 
sign the governor-generalship of India, to 
which he had been appointed, and he ac- 
cepted the foreign secretaryship Sept. 16. 
Mr. P. J. Eobinson was made chancellor of 



LOA 

the exchequer Jan. 81, 1823, in place of 
Mr. N". Vansittart, who had resigned, and 
was created Lord Bexley, March 1. He was 
appointed to the chancellorship of the duchy 
of Lancaster in place of Mr. C. Bathurst. 
Mr. HusMsson as treasurer of the navy, and 
president of the Board of Trade, obtained a 
seat ia the cabinet in 1825. The earl of 
Liverpool was attacked by apoplexy, Satur- 
day, Feb. 17, 1827, and a new ministry was 
formed in AprU. The earl of Liverpool 
died Dec. 4, 1828. {See Can^ning Admisis- 

TEATION.) 

Livonia (Eussia) was visited by some 
Baltic traders from Bremen, a.d. 1158. A 
mission of German monks converted the 
natives to Christianity in 1186. The " Bro- 
thers of the Sword" subdued the country in 
1237. Kettler, the last grand master of 
the order, abdicated his power in favour of 
Poland in 1561. It was transferred to Sweden 
by the treaty of Ohva, May 3, 1660. Peter 
the Great of Eussia made himself master of 
the country in 1710, and it was finally an- 
nexed to Eussia by the treaty of Nystadt, 
Aug. 30, 1721. Alexander II. hberated the 
serfs of Livonia Sept. 24, 1818. 

LtANDAPP (Bishopric). — According to 
tradition, this bishopric was created by King 
Lucius about a.d. 180, and Elvanus was the 
first bishop. Dubritius, who is said to have 
died in 612, is the first bishop respecting 
whom anything is certainly known. The 
deanery of Llandaff was founded and en- 
dowed in Nov. 1843. 

Llandewtee (Battle). — Llewelyn, who 
had made a descent into the marches, was 
defeated and slain near the town of Llan- 
deweyer, or Llandeilo-Fawr, Caermarthen- 
shire, Dec. 11, 1282. 

LLEEEifA (Battle). — Lord Combermere 
defeated a French army commanded by 
Drouet, near this town, in Spain, April 11, 
1812. 

Llotd's (London). — ^A number of mer- 
chants who were in the habit of congregat- 
ing at a coffee-house kept by a person 
named Lloyd in Abehurch Lane, Lombard 
Street, to transact business, early in the 
18th centiiry, afterwards removed to Pope's- 
Head Alley, and thence to the Eoyal Ex- 
change in 1774. On the destruction of the 
Eoyal Exchange by fire, the business was 
transferred to the South- Sea House, Old 
Broad Street, Jan. 10, 1838, and thence 
to the Eoyal Exchange, Oct. 28, 1844. 

LoADSTO:sE. — The attractive power of the 
natural magnet was known to the ancient 
Greeks in Homer's time, B.C. 962, and it is 
alleged to have been known by the Chinese 
B.C. 1000. The directive power of this sub- 
stance was probably discovered in Europe 
about A.D. 1150, although a Chinese vmter 
describes it a.d. 1111. The ISTeapohtans 
maintain that it was adapted to the compass 
for maritime purposes by a citizen of Amal- 
phi in 1302. 

LoAis^o (Battle).— The French defeated 
an Austrian and Sardinian army in the valley 
of Loano, lSo\, 23, 1795. 



LOA 

LoAXS. — Loans to the public on parlia- 
mentary security, resorted to in place of aids 
or benevolences (q.v.), originated in 1382, 
when Kichard II. demanded the loan of 
£40,000 for the defence of the kingdom, and 
the merchants refused to lend because they 
had formerly been subjected to prosecutions 
under pretence of having defrauded the sove- 
reign. Cardinal Wolsey resorted to forced 
loans as a means of recruiting his exchequer 
in 1522 and 1525, and parHament afterwards 
released the king from aU obligation to pay 
the debts so contracted, by 35 Hen. VIII. 
c. 12 (1543). Charles I. demanded loans 
from his subjects in 1626, and an act of 
council was passed, requiring a general 
loan from the subject. Necker (1776 — 1790) 
introduced loans into the French financial 
system. 

LoBATJ (Germany). — This island in the 
Danube was captured by Napoleon I. May 19, 
1809, and the French army retired here 
after the battle of Aspern, May 22. A coun- 
cil of war was held by Napoleon at ten at 
night. Extensive works were erected by the 
French, who crossed to the opposite bank of 
the river, July 2 — 4. 

LoBos, or Seal Islands (Pacific Ocean), 
were discovered by the Spaniards, towards 
the end of the 16th century, though the 
Americans pretend to have discovered them 
in 1823. Lord Anson visited the islands, 
Nov. 10, 1741. The guano for which they 
are celebrated, was noticed in Acosta's 
work on the Indies, pubhshed at Seville in 
1590. 

LocHLEVEN Castle (Kinross-shire), said 
to have been founded by Congal, son of 
Dongart, king of the Picts, in the 5th 
century, was the prison to which Mary, 
queen of Scots, was conveyed after the 
battle of Carberry-hiU, June 16, 1567. She 
made her escape by the aid of George 
Douglas, May 2, 1568, 

Locks and Keys. — The most ancient lock 
and key known is one discovered by Bo- 
nomi at Khorsabad, which is believed to 
be upwards of 4,000 years old. It is of 
wood, and exceedingly clumsy. Locks and 
keys were used by the Israelites at a very 
early period, as appears from Judges iii. 
23—25 (B.C. 1343). The classical authors 
attributed the invention to the Lace- 
daemonians, whose celebrated lock was a 
padlock in principle. Numerous bronze 
and iron keys, differing little from the more 
common kinds in use at the present day, 
were found at Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
The most beautiful and ingenious mediaeval 
locks and keys are those of the 16th century. 
The first patent for their improvement was 
granted to George Black, May 27, 1774, 
but no great advance was made until Barron 
patented his " double-acting tumbler lock," 
Oct. 31, 1778. Bramah's lock was patented 
April 23, 1784 ; Chubb's original lock, Feb. 3, 
1818; NeweU's American Parantoptic lock 
was invented in 1841, and patented in England 
April 15, 1851, and Hobbs's protector lock 
was patented Feb. 23, 1852. 
497 



LOG 

Locomotive. — The idea of the construc- 
tion of a locomotive was thrown out by 
"Watt A.D. 1759, and he patented one in 
1784. Richard Trevithick made one for 
the Merthyr Tydvil Railway in 1804, and 
Brunton another of a different description 
in 1813. George Stephenson's locomotive 
with toothed wheels, was tried at West 
Moor, KUhBgworth, July 25, 1814. The 
utihty of locomotives may be considered to 
have been fully established when the 
"Rocket," the joint production of the two 
Stephensons, performed its experimental 
trip on the Liverpool and Manchester Rail- 
way Oct. 6, 1829. 

LocRi, or LocEi Epizephteii (Italy). — 
This celebrated city, the modern Gerace, was 
founded by a colony of Locrians from 
Greece, B.C. 710, 683, or 673, according to 
different authorities, and received a written 
code of laws from Zaleucus, B.C. 660. Tra- 
dition states that 10,000 of its inhabitants 
totally defeated 130,000 Crotoniats at the 
battle of the Sagras, B.C. 510. Much uncer- 
tainty prevails respecting the alleged victory. 
Locri was enriched by the territory of Cau- 
lonia, B.C. 389, and by that of Hipponium in 
B.C. 388; but the latter city was taken by 
the Carthaginians B.C. 379. Dionysius the 
tyrant retired to Locri on his expulsion 
from Syracuse, B.C. 356, and established an 
arbitrary and oppressive government. The 
inhabitants assisted the Carthaginians against 
the Romans in the second Punic war, B.C. 216, 
and their city was invested by the consul 
Crispinus, who was compelled to raise the 
siege by Hannibal B.C. 208. It was, how- 
ever, taken by Scipio B.C. 205, and never 
regained its former importance. It existed 
in the 6th century of the Christian aera, 
and was probably finally destroyed by the 
Saracens. 

LocRis, or LocEiANS. — The Locrians, ac- 
cording to Chnton, were a tribe of Leleges 
who existed before the time of Amphictyon 
(B.C. 1521), but derived their name from his 
grandson Locrus. They soon became inter- 
mingled with the Hellenes, and in historical 
times are distinguished into eastern and 
western Locrians. The eastern Locrians 
are mentioned by Homer as accompanying 
Ajax to the Trojan war, but the western 
Locrians do not appear tiU the Peloponnesian 
war, when they were in a semi-barbarous 
condition. They promised to assist the 
Athenians against the JEfcolians, B.C. 426, but 
afterwards submitted to Sparta, and joined 
the ^tolian League. The second sacred 
war was undertaken against them b.c. 339, 
and they, with their allies the Thebans and 
Athenians, were defeated by Philip of Mace - 
don, at Chaeroneia, Aug. 7, B.C. 338. 

Locusts formed one of the ten plagues 
of Egypt, B.C. 1491. A swarm of these 
insects invaded Italy, and being drowned in 
the sea, produced a pestilence, which carried 
off' nearly a million men and beasts, a.d. 591. 
In Venice 30,000 persons perished on account 
of a famine caused by their depredations in 
1478. A cloud of locusts entered Russia, and 
2 £ 



LOD 

were found lying dead in heaps to a depth of 
four feet in 1650. This island was visited by 
a large number in 1748. Barbary in 1724, 
and South AMea in 1797, suffered to an 
alarming degree from their ravages. 

LoDi (Battle). — IS^apoleon Bonaparte de- 
feated the Austrians in a hotly-contested 
battle at the bridge over the Adda, at Lodi, 
May 10, 1796. For his bravery in this action 
Napoleon Bonaparte received the name of 
"Le Petit Caporal," by which he was after- 
wards known in the Trench army. 

LoDi (Italy). — The ancient Laus Pompeia 
stood near this town. It became a republic, 
and was destroyed by the Milanese a.d.1112. 
The emperor Prederick I. built Lodi about 
five mUes from the site of Laus Pompeia, in 
1158. The duke of Urbino took Lodi in 
June, 1526. The French occupied Lodi in 
1800. Napoleon I. made Melzi duke of 
Lodi in 1807. The church of the Incoronata 
was founded in 1476. 

Lodi (Treaty). — A treaty of peace was 
signed at this place, between Sforza, duke 
of Milan, and the Venetians, April 5, 
1454. 

LoGAEiTHMS, the invention of Baron 
Napier of Merchiston, were first made 
known to the learned world by his Latin 
work, "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis 
Descriptio, seu Arithmeticarum Supputa- 
tionum MirabiUs Abbreviatio," pubhshed 
A.D. 1614. Henry Briggs, of Gresham Col- 
lege, London, made some improvements 
upon them, and printed a set of tables in 
1618. Gunter appUed them to navigation 
in 1620. 

Logic— Aristotle (b.c. 384—322) was for 
many years almost the only authority in 
matters of abstract reasoning ; the first 
who ventured to originate a new system of 
thought being Marius Nizolius, who pub- 
lished his work " De Veris Principiis, &c." 
in 15.53. Acoucio's treatise, "De Methodo," 
appeared in 1558, and Lord Bacon's "Novum 
Organum" in 1620. Hobbes' system was 
published in 1655, in his " Elemexita Philo- 
sophise," and Gassendi's " Syntagma PhUo- 
sophicum" appeared in 1658, two years after 
the death of the author. Locke's views on 
logic were announced in the "Essay on the 
Human Understanding," which was pub- 
lished in 1690, and the Cartesian system was 
pubhshed in the posthumous works of Des- 
cartes in 1701. Amongst modern writers on 
logic may be mentioned Archbishop "VMiately, 
whose "Elements of Logic" appeared in 
1826 ; John Stuart Mill, whose " System of 
Logic " appeared in 1843 ; Sir Wihiam Ham- 
ilton, and Dr. Latham. 

LoGiEEiAX Ststem. — This system of musi- 
cal instruments was invented by John Ber- 
nard Logier, born at Hesse-Cassel in 1780. 
In 1797 itLe first tui-ned his attention to the 
formation of a system for facUitating the 
acquirement of music. He obtained a patent 
for the chiropast in 1814, and his system was 
soon after adopted in Dubhn. Academies 
on this plan were estabUshed in England and 
Scotland, and one was opened in London in 



LOL 

1816. The system flourished from 1817 to 
1827. Logier died in 1846. 

LoG-iiNE is known to have been used in 
navigation as early as a.d. 1570. Bourne 
mentions it in 1577. 

LoGOGRAPHic PEiifTiKG. — A mode of 
printing with types expressing entire words 
or common radices and terminations, instead 
of single letters, was invented by Mr. Walter, 
of the Times, and Mr. Henry Johnson, about 
the year 1778, and was described in a work 
pubhshed by Mr. Johnson in 1783. The 
Daily Universal Hegister, a four-page paper, 
designed to introduce this new system of 
printing to the pubhc, appeared Jan. 13, 
1785. The price was 2\d., and its name waS 
changed to that of the Times, Jan. 1, 1788. 

Logwood. — This dye was introduced into 
England soon after the accession of Queen 
Ehzabeth; but owing to the fugitive cha- 
racter of the tints it produced, was prohi- 
bited and ordered to be forfeited and burnt 
by 23 Ehz. c. 9 (1581) . This act was repealed 
bV 13&14 Charles IL c. 11, s. 26 (1662). 
The English logwood-cutters formed their 
settlement on the Bay of Campeachy about 
1667. 

LoiEE (France). — On the banks of this 
river, the ancient Liger or Ligeris, Julius 
Csesar defeated the Turones B.C. 57. The 
Danes ascended the river as far as Tours a.d, 
838 and in 882. The embankments of the 
Loire gave way, causing a great loss of hfe 
and destruction of property in 1846, and in 
Jmie, 1856. 

LoJA, or LoxA (Spain). — Ferdinand be- 
sieged this town July 1, 14S2, raised the 
siege in 14S3, and returned and captured it 
in 1486. 

LojEEA (Sea-fight). — A Genoese fleet of 
fifty-nine galleys, conunanded by Antonio 
Grinialdi, attacked an Aragonese squadron of 
twenty -two vessels at Lojera, on the north- 
ern coast of Sardinia, Aug. 29, 1353. The 
Spaniards were on the point of surrendering, 
when the Venetian fleet under Pisani came 
to their assistance, and completely changed 
the fortune of the day. Only eighteen of the 
Genoese galleys were saved from destruction 
or capture, and the total loss of the van- 
quished in killed, woxmded, and prisoners, 
amounted to nearly 5,000 men. This defeat 
struck a deathblow at the power and renown 
of Genoa. 

LoLLAEDS. — The origin of this term, ap- 
pHed to a rehgious sect of the 14th century, 
is by some authorities derived from the Ger- 
man lallen, loUen, or lullen, " to sing in a low 
voice ; " and by others is referred to Walter 
Lollard, who was burnt ahve at Cologne a.d. 
1322. The early Lollards tended the sick and 
followed the dead to the grave, chanting in 
mournful tones. They were constituted a 
rehgious order through the influence of 
Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472. Jxilius 
conferred further privileges upon them in 
1506. The name was also apphed to the 
society of itinerant preachers estabhshed by 
Wyclfffe in England in 1379, and his fol- 
lowers. IJnhceused preachers, or Lollards, 



LOM 

were ordered to be imprisoned until they 
justified themselves according to the law and 
reason of the Holy Ghost, by 5 Eich. II. 
St. 2, c. 5 (1381) . Henry IV., under pretence 
that they conspired againt him, punished 
• them with great severity. By 2 Hen. IV. 
c. 15 (1401), no person was allowed to preach 
without the bishop's licence, and heretics 
who refused to recant were to die at the 
stake. A similar act was passed in Scot- 
land in 1425. WiUiam Sautre was burnt at 
London, under the Enghsh statute, Feb. 12, 
1401. Thomas Badby, a LoUard, was exe- 
cuted in April, 1410. Sir John Oldcastle, 
commonly called Lord Cobham, was con- 
demned as a heretic Sept. 25, 1413. He 
escaped from the Tower, was captured in 
Wales in 1418, and executed in London 
in the month of December in the same 
year. 

LoMBAED Merchants arrived in London 
from Italy for the purpose of prosecuting 
their trade of usury, a.d. 1229. Edward III., 
then about to enter upon a war with France, 
issued a commission for seizing aU their estates 
in 1337. The company of Lombard Merchants 
was made answerable for the debts of their 
fellows by 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 23 (1352). 
The street in which they took up their 
residence in London is named Lombard 
Street after them. 

LoMBAEDT (Italy).— The fertile plains of 
Lombardy were originally peopled by the 
SieuH, who were expelled by a tribe of Celtse 
about B.C. 1400. The Etruscans estabhshed 
their authority over the country about 
B.C. 1000, and retained it tmtil expelled 
by the Gauls B.C. 506, when it received 
the name of GaUia Cisalpina. {See Gaul.) 
It was ravaged by Attila a.d. 452, became 
subject to the Heruh in 476, was conquered 
by the Ostrogoths in 489, by the troops of 
the Eastern empire under Narses in 554, and 
by the Longobardi (q.v.), from whom it 
received its name, in 568. The empire of 
the Longobards was terminated by Charle- 
magne in 774, when Lombardy, with the rest 
of the peninsula, formed the Frankish king- 
dom of Italy. Lombardy submitted to Otho 
the Great in 961, and during his reign, and 
that of his successors, the cities gradually 
adopted independent forms of government, 
each possessing separate laws and customs. 
In 1002 they elected Ardouin, marquis of 
Ivrea, as king, in opposition to the Germans, 
who nominated Henry II., and the country 
was in consequence involved in war tiU the 
death of Ardouin in 1015. On the death of 
Henry II. in 1024, the Lombards again 
made futile efforts to obtain an independent 
sovereign. A civil war between the " gentle- 
men " of Lombardy and Eribert, archbishop 
of Milan, commenced 1035, and lasted till 
Conrad II. promulgated his' feudal edict in 
1037. In 1107 Milan became a republic, and 
Lodi, Cremona, Verona, Genoa, Pavia, and 
other cities, soon followed her example, and 
asserted their new-born independence by 
rushing into civil war. During the 11th and 
12th centuries they united to form the Lom- 



LON 

bard leagues against the German emperors. 
(See Leagues.) They were afterwards deso- 
lated by the contentions of the Guelphs and 
Ghibelhnes, which they sought to escape by 
purchasing protection from Charles of Anjou, 
king of Sicily (1265—1285) . The history of 
Lombardy is, after this period, the history 
of the several republics of which it was com- 
posed, until the peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe, 
Oct. 18, 1748, by which the greatest part of 
the country was attached to the house of 
Austria. In Oct. 1796, Bonaparte erected 
Lombardy into the Transpadane republic, 
which was incorporated with the Cisalpine 
republic in June, 1797, and formed part of 
the Italian repubhc in 1802, and of the 
kingdom of Italy in 1805. The Lombardo- 
Venetian kingdom was created by the allies, 
and given to Austria, in lieu of her Flemish 
territories, by the treaty of Paris, Nov. 20, 
1815. In March, 1848, Lombardy revolted 
from Austria, and joined the king of Sar- 
dinia, but it was reduced to subjection by 
the battles of Custoza, July 23, 1848, and of 
Novara, March 24, 1849. By the peace of 
ViUafranca, July 11, 1859, the emperor of 
Austria ceded nearly all Lombardy to the 
emperor of the French, who transferred it 
to Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia. {See 
Italt.) 

LoifATO (Battle). — ISTapoleon Bonaparte 
defeated the Austrians at this town, ia 
Lombardy, Aug. 3, 1796. 

Lois^DON- (Bishopric) . — Tradition asserts 
that an arcmepiscopal see was estabhshed at 
London by Theanus, during the reign of King 
Lucius, A.D. 180, and that sixteen prelates 
completed the number of archbishops. When 
I Pope Gregory dispatched Augustine to Eng- 
land in 596, it was his intention that London 
I and York should form the metropolitan sees 
'■ of the country; but Augustine estabhshed 
j his seat at Canterbury. MeUitus became the 
{ first bishop of London in 604. He was ex- 
pelled in 616, and had no successor tiU 656, 
when Cedd was consecrated by Finan, bishop 
of JSTorthumbria. By an order in council 
dated Aug. 8, 1845, the county of Hertford 
and part of Essex were separated from 
the diocese of London and annexed to 
Kochester. 

LoifDoiT (Canada) wasfounded a.d. 1826. 
It was the scene of extensive conflagrations 
in 1844 and 1845. 

LoNDOif (England) is first mentioned 
under the name of Londinium, by Tacitus, 
in his description of the revolt of the Bri- 
tons in the reign of Nero, a.d. 61. Tacitus 
speaks of it as having been at that time famed 
as the resort of traders, and for its aflBuence 
and commerce. In the time of Ammianus 
MarceUinus, a.d. 362, it was called Augusta, 
an appellation frequently bestowed upon great 
cities, and in the Chorography of Eaveiina it 
is styled Londinium iiugusta. Pennant de- 
rives the name from Llyn din, — Uyn being, in 
Celtic, a lake, and din a town. Julius Caesar 
does not mention London by name, though it 
probably existed when he invaded England,- 
B.C. 54. 

2 E 2 



L0I7 



A.D. 

52. By some authors, London is said to have 
been founded about this year. It probably 
existed before this time. 
61. The first undoubted mention of London is 
made this year. 
803. Loudon is surrounded by walls. 
605. A council is held at Loudon by Augustine. 
610. Ethelbert, king of Kent, founds St. Paul's 

church. 
839. The Danes destroy London. 
886. London is rebuilt by Alfred the Great. 
948. Sept. 8. A council is held at London. 
962. St. Paul's is burat and rebuilt. 
1078. Gundulph. bishop of Rochester, commences 
the White Tower, in the Tower of London. 
1087. A great fire destroys St. Paul's and other 

buUdings. 
1101. Henry I. grants the city a charter. 
1103. Sept. A council is held at London. 

1107. Aug. 1. A council is held at London. 

1108. May 24. Another council is held at London. 
1118. The Knights Templars settle in Holbom. 
1127. A council is held at London. 

1129. Aug. 1. Another councU assembles. 

1136. Jan. A council is held. 

1138. Dec. 13. Another council is summoned. 

1142. Another council is held in mid-Lent. 

1151. A council is held. 

1154. Another council is held. 

1156. London is now established as the capitaL 

1166. A council is held at London. 

1175. May 18. A council on discipline is held. 

1176. March 14. A tumultous council assembles. 

Old London bridge is commenced. 

118-5. March 18. Another council is held. 

1189. An edict is issued that all houses are to be 
built of stone up to a certain height, and 
covered with slate or tUes. Henry Fitz- 
Elwyne is chosen first lord mayor. 

1200. A council is held at London. 

1209. London bridge is finished. 

1211. The Tower ditch is commenced. 

1213. Aug. 25. A council is held. 

1222. St. Paul's steeple is erected. 

1226. Jan. 13. A p.apal bull is rejected at a council 
held at London. 

1232. Another council is held. 

1237. Nov. 19, 21, and 22. A councU is held by the 

legate Otho. 

1238. May 17. A council is held. 

1244. Feb. 22. A subsidy is granted to the king by 

a council held at London. 

1245. Henry III. rebuilds the east -end and the 

Tower at his own expense. 

1246. Dec. 1. A council is hi;ld at London to con- 

sider the FOi-e's demand for a third of 

the revenues of the English clergy. 
12.55. Jan. 13. Another council is held. 
1257. Hemy III. repairs the city walls. Aug. 22. 

A council is held. 
1259. The Hanse merchants of the Steelyard receive 

peculiar privileges in London. 
1261. May 16. A councU is held at London. 
12G8. Apiil 16. Another councU. 
1282. Five arches of London bridge are destroyed 

by the severe frost. March 1. A council 

assembles at London. 

1285. The great conduit in Wettcheap, for the con- 

veyance of water from Tyburn to London, 
is commenced. 

1286. April 30. A council is held at London. 
1291. A council is summoned at London, 
1297. Jan. 14. Another council. 

1304. Geoflrey de Hartlepool is appointed first 

recorder of London this year. 

1305. Sept. 15 to Oct. 5. Edward I. assembles a 

council for the purpose of establishing peace 
between England and Scotland. 

1321. Dec. Another council is held at London. 

1329. Feb. A council assembles at London. 

1342. Oct. 10. A council is held at London on 

ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 

1343. March 19. A council is held against abuses. 
1349. The plague is said to have carried off 50,000 



LQ-^ 



A.D. 

1355. London, for the first time, sends four mem- 

bers to parliament. 

1356. May 16 to 24. The clergy grant a tenth of 

their revenues to the king for one year, at 

a council held at London. 
1381. June 15. Wat Tyler is killed in Smithfield. 

(See Wat Ttler's iNSURREcnoir.) 
1S82. May. A council is held at London. 
1391. April 28. Another council assembles. 
1394. The aldermen are elected for life. 
1397. Feb. 19. A council at London against the 

followers of Wyclifi'e. 
1401. Jan. 26 to March 8. Another council against 

the Wycliffites. 
1406. The plague destroys more than 30,000 of the 

population. 
1408. July 23. A council is held at London. 
1411. The GuildhaU is buUt. 
1413. A council against Sir John Oldcastle and the 

Lollards breaks up June 26. 
1415. Moorgate is built. 
1450. Jack Cade's rebellion [g. v.). 
1453. The first lord mayor's procession by water 

occurs this year. 
1471, Falconbridge threatens London, and blUTis 

half the houses on the bridge. 
1502. Fleet ditch is made navigable. The first 

lord mayor's dinner is held at Guildhall 

this year. 
1512. St. Paul's school is foundpd. 
1517. E\-il May -day. (See Apprestticbs.) 
1529. The period of the lord mayoralty is limited 

to one year. 
1538. Parish registers are first ordered to be kept 

by Lord CromwelL 
1548. Old Somerset House is founded. 
1553. Bridewell is given to the city for charitable 

purposes. June 26. Christ's Hospital (j. v.) 

is founded. 
1562. The first Bill of Mortality is published. 
1566. June 7. The first stone of the Royal Exchange 

is laid. 
1568. The first conduit for conveying Thames water 

is made at Dowgate. 
1577. Aug. 24. William Lambe completes a conduit 

at Holbom Cross, which receives in conise- 

quence the name of Lamb's Conduit-fields. 
1580. July 27. A royal proclamation prohibits the 

erection of any new house or tenements, 

" where no former house hath been known 

to have been," within three miles of the 

city gates. 
1682. The first conveyance of Thames water to 

private houses by means of leaden pipes 

is accomplished by Peter Moriis. 
1598. Stow's Survey of London and Westminster ia 

published. 

1603. Sept. 16. James I. issues a proclamation 

against "multitudes of dwellers" in and 
aliout London. 

1604. The plague ravages violently. 

1605. The gunpowder plot [q. v.). 

1608. June 10. The new Exchange in the Strand 
is founded. Sept. 24. Whitefriars and 
Blackfriars are made sanctuaries, by a 
warrant under the privy seal. 

1611. May 9. Thomas Sutton purchases the Charter 
House, and establishes the school. 

1613. Sept. 29. Completion of the New River {q. v.). 

1625. The plague again ravages London. 

1630. July 24. The erection of new buildings within 
three miles from the city gates, on ground 
previou.'ly unoccupied, is again prohibited. 

1633. Nov. 15. The Green-coat School in TothiU 
Fields is erected by letters patent. 

1635. Inigo Jones superintends the laying out of 
Lincoln's inn Fields. 

1643. London is fortified. 

1647. Sept. 25. The lord mayor and aldei-men are 
committed to the Tower. 

1649. March 24. The Puritan soldiery pull down 

Salisbuiy - court theatre, the Fortune 
theatre, and the Cockpit in Drury Lane. 

1650. Cromwell allows the Jews to settle in London. 
1652. The tirst coffee-house is opened in London. 



A.D. 

1661. 



1671. 
1672. 



1684. 
1685. 



LON 



April 14. The Maypole in the Strand is 
erected. 

April 8. Opening of Drury-lane theatre {q. v.). 
April 22. The Koyal Society {q. v.) is incor- 
porated. 

The year of the. great plague. The mortality 
is estimated at lOO.OOO persons. Nov. 7. 
The London Gazette is commenced, being 
called at first the Oxford Gazette. 

Sept. 2. The gi-eat Are commences. It rages 
lor several days, and destroys 13,000 houses 
and 89 churches. Sept. 13. A proclamation 
is issued for rebuilding the city. 

The Rebuilding Act is passed (19 Charles II. 
c. 3). Nov. 15. The Common Council pass 
an act for the prevention of fires in time 
to come. 

Temple Bar is rebuilt. 

The Monument is commenced. 

May 29. A new conduit and a statue 
of Charles IL are erected in Stock's- 
market. 

June ai. The first stone of new St. Paul's is 
laid. 

The Bagnio, in Newgate Street, is built and 



1705. 
1708. 

1709. 

1711. 

1710. 

1715. 
1722. 
1726. 
3728. 

1729. 
1730. 
1732. 



1749. 
1752. 
1753. 
1754. 
1756. 



March 25. The penny post is introduced. 

Frost-fair is hela on the Thames. It is ended 
Feb. 5. 

The French Pi-otestant silk- weavers settle in 
Spitaltields. 

April. Bridgewater House, Barbican, is de- 
stroyed by fire. 

The Bank of England is incorporated, and 
Seven Dials built. June 24. Glass lights 
are first used for the public Illumination 
of London. 

The privilege of sanctuary claimed by fraudu- 
lent debtors in Whitefriars, the Savoy, the 
Minories, &c., is abolished by 8 & 9 Will. 
III. c. 27. 

The first workhouse in London is erected in 
Bishopsgate Street. 

Nov. 26. The great storm of this year does 
considerable injury in London. 

AprU 9. The Haymarket theatre is opened. 

May fair is abolished, and Bartholomew fair 
restricted to three days. 

Nov. 5. Sacbeverel's celebrated sermon is 
preached in St. Paul's. 

Fifty new churches are ordered to be erected 
by 10 Anne, c. 11. 

The South-Sea Company is formed. {See 
South-Sea Bubble.) 

The Maypole in the Strand is taken down. 

The Chelsea water -works are formed. 

The old East- India House is built. 

The city conduits are taken down and de- 
stroyed. 

Tyburn Road is changed into Oxford Street. 

The Serpeutine is fomied by Queen Catherine. 

June 7. Vauxhall Gardens {g.v.) are opened 
as a place of public entertainment. Aug. 3. 
The first stone of the Bank of England is 
laid. Dec. 7. Covent-Garden theatre {q. v.) 
is opened. 

The Wew Exchange in the Strand is taken 
down. Sept. 30. Stock's-market is removed 
to Farringdon Street, and called Fleet- 
market {q. v.), and Fleet ditch is covered 
In. 

Oct. 17. The charter of the Foundling Hos- 
pital is obtained. Oct. 25. The first stone of 
the Mansion House is laid. 

The fliBt circulatlug library is established in 
London by Mr. Bathoe. 

April 7. Ranelagh Gardens are opened. 
Dec. 13. London Stone is removed to its 
present, site in Cannon Street. 

Jan. 16. The bottle-conjurer {q. v.). 

Parliament Street is built. 

Establishment of the British Museum {q. v.). 

MfU-ch 22. The Society of Arts is formed. 

May 10. Whitfield's chapel, Tottenham Court 
Road, is founded. 



LON 



1757. King's (or Queen's) Bench prison is built. 

1758. The houses are removed from London bridge. 
1760. Oct. 31. Blackfriars bridge is founoed. 
1761-2. The Cock-Lane ghost (3. v.). June 29. The 

City Road is opened. 
1764 June. The houses of London are first num- 
bered. 

1765. Feb. 12. Almack's Assembly-rooms are 

opened. Nov. 7. A dreadful fire occurs in 
Bishopsgate Street. 

1766. Signboards are removed. 

1768. Dec. 10. The Royal Academy {q.v.) is esta- 



1770. 
1771. 



1772. 

1777. 
1779. 
1780. 
1786. 
1789. 

1791. 
1794. 



1813. 
1814. 
1815. 



1819. 
1821. 



1831. 
1832. 
1833. 
1835. 



May 31. Alderman Beckford lays the founda- 
tion-stone of Newgate {g. v.). 

March 27. The lord mayor. Brass Crosby, Esq., 
is committed to the Tower by a warrant 
of the Speaker of the House of Commons. 

April 28. The Pantheon is opened. 

Portland Place is built. 

Tattersall's is established. 

The Gordon riots {q. v.). 

Somers-town is commenced. 

Dec. 19. A market is established in St. George s 
Fields. 

Camden-town is commenced. 

Coldbath-Fields prison is opened. 

The East- India House is built. 

The London docks are opened. {See Docks.) 

Jan. 2. The public funeral of Lord Nelson. 

Jan. 28. Gas is first employed in the streets 
of London in Pall Mall. 

The Mint is completed. Oct. 11. The first 
stone of Waterloo bridge is laid. The 
Egyptian Hall is built. 

Regent Street is commenced. 

Sept. Southwark bridge is commenced. 

May 4. The first stone of the London Institu- 
tion, Finsbury Circus, is laid. 

June 4. Vauxhall bridge is opened. 

The Burlington Arcade is built. 

The Bank of England is completed by Sir 
John Soaue. 

March 15. The first pile of New London bridge 
is driven. May 10. The National Gallery 
(3. V.) is opened. Dec. 2. The first stone of 
the London Mechanics' Institute, South- 
ampton Buildings, is laid. 

March 2. The Thames Tunnel is commenced. 
Buckingham Palace is begun this year. 

April 30. London University is founded. The 
Turnpike Act (7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 24) is passed, 
which removes twenty-seven turnpikes in 
one day, June 14. 

June 24. The new Corn Exchange is opened. 

Sept. 10. King's College, Strand, is com- 
menced. Sept. 23. The new Post-ofiice is 
opened. Sept. 29. The new police com- 
mence duty. Nov. 20. New Fleet (Farring- 
don) Market is opened. 

June 22. The pillory is used for the last time 
in London. Omnibuses are introduced this 
year. 

Aug. 1. New London bridge is opened. 

Feb. 14. The cholera first appears m London. 

Jvdy 2. Hungerford Market is opened. 

The duke of York's column is completed. 
Oct. 21. Lord Brougham lays the first stone 
of the City of London Schools. 

Dec. 14. The railway from London to Dept- 
ford is completed. 

July 13. Buckingham Palace is first inha- 
bited. Nov. 9. The Queen dines at Guild- 
hall. 

Jan 10. The Royal Exchange is destroyed by 
fire. April 9. The Natioual Gallei-y is 
opened. Sept. 17. The London and Bir- 
mingham Railway is opened. Dec. 28. 
The London and Greenwich Railway is 
opened. 

July 1. The Great Western railway is opened 
as far as Twyford. 

Jan. 10. The penny postage comes into opera- 
tion. April 10. The model prison is founded 
at Pentouvilie. 



LOK- 



LOIT 



1840, 
1841, 



1842. 
1843, 



1847. 
1848. 



May 11. The London and Southampton Eail- 
way is opeued. 

May. London Library is established. June 30. 
The Great Western Railway Is opened to 
Bristol. Oct. 30. A great fire breaks out in 
the Tower. 

Jan. 17. The new Royal Exchange is founded. 

March 25. The Thames Tunnel is opened. Nov. 
30. The statue of George IV. is erected in 
Trafalgar Square. Dec. The Nelson statue 
is placed in Trafalgar Square. 

Feb. 7. The railway to Dover is opened. 
Aprd. Fleet Prison is taken down. May 1. 
Trafalgar Square is opened. Oct. 28. 
The Royal Exchange is opened by the 
Queen. 

Jan. 1. The new Building Act comes into 
operation. April 18. Hungerford suspen- 
sion-bridge is opened. June 9. New Oxford 
Street is opened. July 30. The railway to 
Cambridge and Ely is completed. Aug. 18. 
A terrible fire rages in Aldermanbury. 
Sept. Penny steamboats commence running 
on the Thames. Oct. 30. The Queen opens 
Lincoln's-Inn New Hall. Model lodging- 
houses are first established this year. 

Sept. 29. 'J he Wellington statue is erected at 
Hyde-Park Corner. Oct. 21. Twopenny 
omnibuses commence ruuning. 

April 19. The new portico of the British 
Museum is opened. 

April 10. The great Chartist meeting is held 
on Kennington Common. July. Street 
orderlies are introduced. 

Jan. 23. The baths at St. Martin's in-the-Fields 
are opened. Oct. 30. The Coal Exchange is 
opened by Prince Albert. The cholera re- 
appears this year. 

March 21. The lord mayor gives a grand 
banquet at the Mansion House to the 
mayors of Great Britain and Ireland. 
March 29. St. Anne's Church, Lime- 
house, is destroyed by fire. Aug. 6. The 
Great Northern Railway is opened to 
Peterborough. Sept. 4. 'J'he workmen at 
Barclay's brewery attack the Austrian 
general Haynau. Nov. 25. A meeting is 
held in Guildhall to protest against the 
establishment of a Romish hierarchy in 
England. 

May 1. Opening of the Great Exhibition 
{q.v.). July 2. The Queen and Prince 
Consort attend a civic banquet at Guild- 
hall in honour of the Exhibition. Oct. 30. 
The corporation give Kossuth an oflScial 
■B elcome in Giiildhall. 

Nov. 18. The public funeral of the duke of 
Wellington takes place in St. Paiil's. 

July 27. The London cabmen "strike" for 
two or three days. Oct. 5. Special religious 
services are held for averting the cholera. 

Jan. 1. The Irvingite church is opened in 
Gordon isquare. June 19. The king of 
Portugal visits the city. July 18. A public 
meeting is held against the mode of per- 
forming the ritual of the Established 
Church at St. Paul's, Knightsbridge, and 
St. Barnahas', Pimlico. July. The cholera 
reappears in London. Oct. 30. Opening of 
the Working Men's College, Red -Lion 
Square. Nov. 2. A great meeting in aid of 
the Patriotic Fund is held at the Mansion 
House. 

Feb. 22. Bread riots occur in the east of 
London. April 19. The emperor and em- 
press of the French pay a state visit 
to Guildhall. May 6. A meeting in fa- 
vour of administrative reform is held in 
the London Tavern. June 11. Smithfield 
Market is closed. June 13. The New Cattle- 
market is opened by Prince Albert. June 
24. Riots in Hyde Park (q.v.) against the 
Sunday Trading BiU. July 21. The statue 
of Sir Robert Peel, in Cheapside, is un- 
cuvered. 



1855. Aug. 14. The Metropolis Local Management 

Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120, is psssed. Nov. 5. 
The ratepayers reject a proposition to est;v- 
blish free libraries and museums. Nov. 30. 
A meeting is held at Willis's Rooms to 
establish a Nightingale Fund. 

1856. April 29. Peace is ofBcially proclaimed in the 

metropolis. May 29. Magnificent displays 
of fireworks are exhibited in the parks in 
celebration of the peace. July 9. The 
Guards make their public entry into Lon- 
don. Sept. 3. The British Bank stops pay- 
ment. Oct. 19. A false alarm of fire at the 
Surrey Music Hall leads to the death of 
eight persons, and the serious injui-y of 
about thirty. 

1857. June 22. The Educational Conference meets 

in London. June 24. South Kensington 
Museum is opened. Nov. 12. In conse- 
quence of numerouH commercial faihn-es 
the Bank Charter Act is suspended. Dec. 
12. More than 3,000 persons are out of 
work in Spitalfields. 

1858. Jan. 1. London is divided into ten postal 

districts. Jan. 31. The Great Eastern is 
launched. March 27. Fifteen lives are 
lost at a fire in Bloomsbury. July 12. 
About 100 persons are injured, and several 
killed, by the explosion of a firework 
manufactory in the Westminster Road. 
Aug. 2. In consequence of the foul state of 
the Thames, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 104, is passed 
for its purification. Nov. 30. The city 
commissioners accept the offer of S. Gumey, 
Esq., M.P., to erect free drinking-foun- 
tains (q.v.) in the metropolis. 

1859. May 25. A deputation from the city memo- 

rializes the premier against English inter- 
vention in the Italian question. July 
18. Much injury is done in Loudon 
by a violent storm. July 25. Vaux- 
hall Gardens are closed. Aug. 6. The 
strike of the builders, &c., of the metro- 
polis commences, its object being the 
reduction of the length of the working day 
from ten to nine hours, without a diminu- 
tion of wages. It continues until Novem- 
ber. Aug. 16. Mr. Spurgeon's Tabernacle 
at Newington, Surrey, is founded by Sir 
Morton Peto. Aug. 21. The disturbances 
at St. Geoige's-in-the-E^t, in consequence 
of the alleged Romish tendencies of the rec- 
tor, commence. Sept. 22. The metropolis 
is divided into twenty districts for ecclesias- 
tical purposes. 

1860. March 7. The Floral Hall, Covent Garden, 

is opened with a grand volunteer ball. 
May 30. A ti-ain breaks through the walls 
of the Great Northern terminus at King's 
Cross, and injures several people in the 
public street. June 23. A volunteer rifle 
review is held in Hyde Park. Aug. 26. A 
fire in Long Acre destroys St. Martin's 
Hall and other buildings. Dec. Much dis- 
tress is occasioned by the severe frosts. 

1861. April 8. The decennial census of Great Bri- 

tain and Ireland is taken, and the popula- 
tion of Loudon is retui-ned at 2,803,034 souls. 
April 15. The first street tramway is opened 
in Victoria Street. June 5. The new gar- 
dens of the Royal Horticultural Society at 
Kensington are opened by Prince Albert. 
June 22. A terrible fire in Tooley Street, 
Southwark, occasions the death of Mr. 
Braidwood, the superintendent of the fire 
brigade, and the destruction of property 
worth about £2,000,000. June. Another 
strike commences in the building trades. 
July 11. The ratepayers again refuse a 
free library. Sept. 2. A collision on 
the North London RaUway occasions the 
loss of fifteen lives. Sept. 5. A destruc- 
tive fli-e breaks out in Paternoster Row. 
Oct. 31. The prince of Wales opens the 
Middle Temple library. 



LOX 

" London (Gates) . — The old Koman gates of 
London were four in number, viz., Ludgate, 
said to have been built by King Lud B.C. 66 ; 
Aldgate, named on account of its antiquity ; 
Cripplegate ; and Dovrgate. Besides these, 
were Bishopsgate, which was built before 
A.D. 685; Aldersgate; Newgate, which was 
erected by Henry I., or Stephen ; Moorgate, 
built in 1415 ; and Temple Bar, which was 
rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren in 1670. 

London (Treaties). — Three treaties were 
concluded at London between Louis XII. 
of France, and Henry VIII., Aug. 7, 1514. 
The first provided for an alliance, offensive 
and defensive, between France and England ; 
the second for a marriage between Louis XII. 
and Mary, theyoungestsisterof Henry VIII.; 
and the third secured to Henry VIII. the 
payment annually, for ten years, of 100,000 

gold crowns, in satisfaction of arrears. 

A treaty between Eussia, France, and Eng- 
land, for the settlement of the affairs of 
Greece, was concluded at London July 6, 
1827. 

London Bridge. — The first bridge over 
the Thames at London was built of wood, 
about A.D. 994, and stood lower down the 
river, near Botolph's wharf. It was nearly 
demolished by Olaf, king of Denmark, in 
1008, and the ruins were carried away by a 
flood in 1091, In 1097 Will. II. imposed a 
heavy tax for its reconstruction. The new 
bridge, destroyed by fire in 1136, was 
restored in 1163. The old stone bridge was 
commenced by Peter of Colechurch in 1176, 
and was completed in 1209. It was 926 feet 
long, 40 feet wide, and about 60 feet above 
the water, and stood upon nineteen pointed 
arches, between which were massive piers. 
A handsome stone chapel, dedicated to St. 
Thomas Becket, stood upon the centre pier, 
and appears to have been the only building 
erected upon the bridge at its foundation, 
though in course of time a row of houses on 
each side of the road was added. The entire 
construction was defended by a drawbridge. 
A fire, which occurred here July 10, 1212, 
occasioned the death of more than 3,000 per- 
sons, and did considerable damage to the 
bridge itself; and in 1282 the frost destroyed 
five of the arches. The custom of placing 
the heads of traitors over London Bridge 
was commenced by Edward I. in August, 
1305. A celebrated passage of arms between 
an English and a Scotch knight took place on 
the bridge April 23, 1390 ; and on the occa- 
sion of the entry of Eichard II. and his con- 
sort into London, Nov. 13, 1395, nine persons 
were killed here, owing to the excessive crowd- 
ing. The drawbridge tower was erected in 
1426, and the great gate and tower on the 
Southwark side of the river, together Math 
two arches of the bridge, fell in Jan. 14, 1437, 
but without causing any loss of life. The 
houses on the bridge were burnt by Falcon- 
bridge during his attempt on London, May 14, 
1471, and six houses were also destroyed by 
fire Nov. 21, 1504. In 1577 the drawbridge 
tower was rebuilt, the heads were removed 
to Traitors' gate, the famous Nonsuch House 



LON 

was erected about 1579, and in 1582 the water- 
works were established. A fire which broke 
out Feb. 13, 1633, destroyed more than a 
third of the houses on the bridge ; but the 
Great Fire of 1666 did comparatively little 
damage. The bridge gate, and several other 
buildings, were also burnt down, Sept. 8, 1725. 
Owing to the insecure state of the bridge, the 
houses were removed in 1757, and a tempo- 
rary wooden bridge was erected, and opened 
in October. This temporary bridge was de- 
stroyed by fire April 11, 1758. The drawbridge 
was removed in 1760, and in 1800 active exer- 
tions were made for the erection of an en- 
tirely new bridge. Nothing was done, how- 
ever, till June 15, 1822, when the corporation 
offered three premiums for the best designs, 
and in December, Messrs. Fowler, Borer, 
and Busby were declared the successful com- 
petitors. The design ultimately adopted, 
however, was that of Mr. John Eennie. The 
rebuilding of the bridge was officially referred 
to parliament Feb. 19, 1823, and was ordered 
to be carried into effect by 4 Geo. IV. c. 50 
(July 4, 1823). The first pile was driven 
March 15, 1824; the foundation-stone was 
laid by Lord-Mayor Garratt, June 15, 1825, 
and the bridge was opened by WiUiam IV. 
and Queen Adelaide, Aug. 1, 1831. The con- 
tract for building the bridge was £506,000. 
The dimensions are as follows : — 

Ft. in. 

Span of centre arch 150 6 

Height of ditto ft-om high water 29 6 

Piers 24 

Span of second and fourth arohes 140 

Height of ditto from high water 27 6 

Piers 22 

Span of the abutment arches 130 

Height of ditto from high water 24 6 

Abutments 73 

Clear water-way 690 

Length of bridge, including abutments ..928 

Ditto, without abutments 782 

Width of bridge from parapet tot -g „ 

parapet J 

Width of carriage-Wrt,y 36 

Width of each foot- way 9 

Total height of bridge on east side") g„ „ 

from low water J 

LoNDONDEERT, or Deret (Ireland) . — This 
city, situated in the county of the same name, 
originated in a monastery founded about 
A.D. 646. Its early history is httle but a 
record of repeated assaults and conflagra- 
tions by the Irish and Danes. The great 
church was built in 1163 ; and in 1198 the 
town was taken by John de Courcey. In 1311 
it was granted by Edward II. to Eichard de 
Burgh. The first English garrison was sta- 
tioned in Londonderry in 1566. In 1568 the 
town and fort were much injured by an ex- 
plosion in the powder magazine, which caused 
the English to leave the place ; but it was re- 
occupied in 1600. In 1608 the town was burnt 
by Sir Cahir O'Doherty, and in 1613 it received 
a charter. The town-haU was erected in 1622, 
and the cathedral was completed in 1633. On 
the breaking out of the rebellion of 1641, Lon- 
donderry became the asylum of the Irish Pro- 
testants, who successfully defended the place 
against the royalists in 1649. The memor- 



LON 

sihle siege by James II. commenced April 20, 
1689, and terminated in the retreat of the 
besiegers, July 30. During the interval, 
3,200 of the defenders died from wounds or 
starvation, and the assailants lost about 8,000 
men. The town-hall having been burnt 
during the siege, was rebuilt in 1692. The 
court-house was commenced in 1813, and the 
county gaol was completed in 1824. The 
colossal statue of the Eev. George Walker, 
who had conducted the defence in 1689, was 
inaugurated Aug. 12, 1828. The London- 
derry Literary Society was estabhshed in 
1834. 

LoNDOir IifSTiTUTiOTr. — This institution 
for educational purposes was established 
A,D. 1806 in the Old Jewry, where Professor 
Porson, who was the first librarian, died in 
1808. It was incorporated April 30, 1815. 
The first stone of the present building in 
Finsbury Circus was laid May 4, 1815, and 
it was opened April 21, 1819. 

LoNDOif Stone. — Camden considers this 
stone to be the central milestone from which 
the British highroads radiated ; but Stow 
states that " the cause why this stone was 
set there (in Cannon Street), the time when, 
or other memory hereof, is none." The stone 
was removed from the south to the north 
side of Cannon Street, Dec. 13, 1742 ; and in 
1798 it was again removed, and built into the 
outer wall of St. Swithin's Church, Cannon 
Street. 

LoNDOif Unttebsitt. — Thomas Campbell, 
the poet, suggested the foundation of a col- 
lege on the principle of free admission to aU 
sects and denominations, in a letter to Lord 
Brougham, ^vritt9n in the year 1825, and 
ground for the estabhshment of an institution 
of this kind was obtained by a deed of settle- 
ment dated Feb. 11, 1826. The first stone 
of the London University, in Grower Street, 
was laid April 30, 1827, "and the institution 
was opened Oct. 1, 1828. An appUcation 
having been made for a charter April 25 and 
26, 1834, a special meeting of the proprietors, 
to consider the proposals of the government, 
was held Dec. 2, 1835, and the University of 
London was incorporated in 1836. This 
charter was renewed and extended in 1837, 
1849, and 1856. 

Lone Star Society. — The English news- 
papers of Aug. 21, 1852, announced the for- 
mation, in Alabama and other Southern 
American States, of a society called the 
order of the Lone Star, of which the object 
was " the extension of the institutions, the 
power, the influence, and the commerce of 
the United States over the whole of the 
Western hemisphere, and the islands of the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans." 

LoNGAEA (Italy). — On the approach of an 
allied French and German army, a portion 
of the citizens of Yicenza took refuge in a 
large cavern called the grotto of Masano, 
or Longara, in the mountains near 
their city, in 1510. L'Herisson, a French 
captain, finding it impossible to force a 
passage into the cavern, lighted faggots at 
the entrance, when all the iomates, amount- 
504 



LOX 

ing to 6,000, with the exception of one 

young man, were smothered. In more 

modem times 700 Arabs were destroyed in 
a similar manner by the French generals in 
Alsreria (q.v.). 

Longevity. — The Antediluvians attained 
an extraordinary age, many of them num- 
bering nearly a thousand years. Methu- 
selah, who lived the longest, was 969 yeara 
old when he died. ]S"oah was 5lX) years old 
when Shem, Ham, and Japhet were bora 
(Gen. V. 32), and son[ie of his descendants 
exceeded what are now considered the ordi- 
nary limits of human existence, though no 
one born after the Deluge passed the age 
of 464 years, or one half of that attained by 
some of the antedilurians. Terah, the last 
who exceeded 200, died B.C. 1921, and since 
his time but few instances are recorded of 
persons living beyond the term fixed upon 
in Scripture as the ordinary limit of human 
existence; "the days of our years are 
three-score years and ten, and if by reason 
of strength they be fourscore years, yet is 
their strength labour and sorrow." Alison, 
referring to modern times (Hist, of Europe, 
1815-52, vol. V. p. 408), states that the oldest 
inhabitants of the globe known to authentic 
history have been found amongst the slaves 
of the AVest Indies, and speaks of one in 
Jamaica who attained the age of 180 years. 
The following Hst contains a selection of the 
best-authenticated cases of longevity, though 
the evidence on which some of these rests 
is far from being satisfactory. 



Hales. 


English 
Bible. 




Died 
aged 


BC. 

5181 


B.C. 

3874 
3769 
3679 
3609 
3544 
3382 
3317 
3130 
2948 
2048 
2346 
2311 
2281 
2247 
2217 
2185 
2155 
2126 
1921 
1»?0 
1822 
1716 
1689 
16 ^5 
1451 


Adam 


Years. 


4976 
4786 
4616 


Scth 

Enos 


912 
905 
910 






895 


4289 


Jared 


962 


4124 
3937 
3755 


Enoch was ti-anslated 


365 

9f)9 


Lamech 


777 


2805 
3153 
3018 
2888 


:^,iih 


950 




600 




438 


S.i]ah 


4:^3 




464 


2624 
2492 




239 


Eeu 


239 






230 


2283 
2075 




148 


Tf rah 


205 


2016 
1978 
1899 


Sarah .. . 


127 




175 


Isaac 


180 


1846 




147 






no 


1608 




120 







Died aged 
A D. Yeais. 

66. Marcus Androgenetts (killed in b»tt]e) 107 

95. ApoUonius of Tyana 130 

271. Galen 140 

491. Sc. Patrick 122 

500. Attila, k*ng of the Huns 124 

973. <;larenbaldus 168 or 148 

973. Swarlingus 143 



LOIf 



LOIf 



Died aged 
A.D. Years. 

974. Tugarua 115 

14th century. Sir Ralph Vernou, called " old 
Sir Ealph," or Sir Kalph the Long 

Liver 150 

1566. Lewis Coruaro, of Padua 104 

1588. Jan. 28. Thomas Cam, London 107 

1612. Countess of Desmond 145 

1635. Thomas Parr, Winnington, Shropshire 152 
1648. Thomas Damme, Leighton, Cheshire .. 154 
1652. "William Mead, M.D.,Hert:ord8hire .. 148 

1656. James Bowles, Kenilworth .... 132 

1668. WUliam Edwards, Glamorganshire 168 

1670. Henry Jenkins, Yorkshire 169 

1671. Robert Montgomery, Skipton 127 

1685. Gustavus Holme, bover 132 

1691. Mrs. Eckelston, King's County, Ireland 143 

1706. John Bayles, Nurthamptou 126 

1711. Jane Scrimshaw, London 127 

1714. William Wakeley, Shropshire 124 

1715. May 31 Elizabeth Lewis, Herefordshire 141 
1724. Peter Zartan, Hungary 1 85 

1731. William Edie, Edinbui-gh 120 

1732. William Lelaud, Ireland 140 

1734 John Ronscy, Scotland 138 

1739. Margaret Patten, London 137 

1740. James Grasmay, Hungary 125 

1741. John Rovin, Hungary 172 

1741. Wife of John Rovin, Hungary 164 

1743. Mary Prymm, London 121 

1743. Peter Mestanea, Spain 130 

1747. Jonas Surtngton, Norway 159 

1749. Mrs. Bowles, Berkshire 124 

1749. Alexander Bennet, Down, Ireland .... 125 

1749. Joseph Battlesworth, Cornwall 130 

1753. Don Andrew Bueno, Badajoz 124 

1753. Evan Peirce, >'orth Wales 120 

1753. Andrew Schmidt, Upper Silesia 124 

1757. William Sharply, Roscommon, D-eland 138 

1757. John Walney, Gla.-gow 124 

1757. Robert Pan-, Shropshire 124 

1757. Alexander McCulloch, Aberdeen 132 

1758. David Grant, Kinross, Scotland 127 

1758. Catherine Giles, Belfast 122 

1759. James Sheile, KOkenny, Ireland 136 

1759. Hannibal Camoux, M^i-seilles 121 

1759. Donald Cameron, Scotland 130 

1760. Elizabeth Hilton 121 

1761. Jan. Charles CuttreU, Philadelphia, 

N. America 120 

1761. Jan. Mrs. Charles Oottrell, ditto 115 

1761. July. John ^ e well, Ireland 127 

1761. Elizabeth Marchant, Ireland 133 

1762. Catherine Brebner, Aberdeen 124 

1762. John Noon, Gal way, Ireland 129 

1763. John Michaelstone 127 

1763. Elizabeth Taylor, London 131 

1763. George Kirton, Yorkshire 125 

1763. Matthew Hubert, Treland 121 

1763. Owen C.arollan, Ii-eland 127 

1765. Edfflebert Hoff, New York, U.S 128 

1765. Margaret Foster, Cumberland 137 

1766. Thomas Wiuslow, Ireland 146 

1766. Mr. Dobson, Hatfield 139 

1766. John de la S'^met, Vii-gtnia, U.S 130 

1766. John King, Cambridgeshire 130 

1767. John HUl, Edinburgh 130 

1767. Francis Ange, Maryland, U.S 134 

1768. Francis Consit, Yorkshire 150 

1768. Catherine Noon, Ireland 136 

1769. John Brookey, Devonsh re 134 

1769. Mr. Butler, Kilkenny, Ireland 133 

1769. Margaret Foster 137 

1771. John Gough, Ireland 129 

1772. Mrs. Keith, Gloucestei-shire 133 

1772. Christian Drackenburg, Denmark 146 

1772. Mi-s. Clum, Lichfield 138 

1773. Cnarles Mc Tiudly, Ireland 143 

1775. Peter Garden, Aberdeen '. 131 

1776. Mr. Moval. Dumfriesshire, Scotland . . 136 
1776 (about). Mi-s. Phillips 126 or 124 

1 777. Ann Foster, Newcastle 132 

1780. Louisa 'r ruxo (negress), S. America 175 

1780. Robert Mc Bride, Bcutland 130 

1780. Mr. Evans, London 139 

1780. William Ellis, Liverpool 131 



A.D. 

1784, 
1785, 
178.5, 
1787, 
1790. 

1791, 
1793 
1796, 

1797, 
1798, 
1804. 
1805, 
1806. 



1812. 
1813. 
1813. 
1814. 
1818. 
1818. 
1824. 
1826. 
1827. 
1836. 
1845. 
1848. 
1848. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1855. 
1858. 



Died aged 
Years. 

Mary Cameron, Invemess-shii'e 128 

John Maxwell, Cumberland 132 

Cardinal de Salis, Spain HO 

Jonas WaiTen, Ireland 167 

Johu Jacob, the " Patriarch of Mount 

Jura " 128 

Jonathan Hartop, Yorkshire 138 

Mr. Robertson, Edinburgh 137 

Mrs. Thompson, Dublin 135 

Charles MacMin, the actor, London .... 107 

April 2. Isaac Ingall, Sussex 120 

Thomas Mar-tin, Yorkshire 130 

John Tucker, Hamp^hire 131 

Catherine Lopez (negress), Jamaica. . . . 134 

Ml-. Creek, Thurlow, Suffolk 125 

Joseph Rann (negro), Jamaica 140 

Mr. Ci-obaUy, D-eland 128 

Flora Macdouald, Isle of Lewes, Scot- 
land 120 

Anne Wignell (negress), Jamaica 146 

Mai-y Meigan, Ireland 129 

John GiUey, Maine, U.S 124 

Mary Inues, Isle of Skye 127 

David Ferguson, Kent 124 

William M'Kein, Virginia, U.S 130 

John Madili 'X, Gloucestershire 121 

Ann Mullholland, Ireland 122 

Rebecca Fury (negress), Jamaica 140 

John Cuffee (negro), Virginia, U.S 120 

Bridget Dsvine, Manchester 147 

Daniel Alkin, Canada West 120 

Mrs. Moran, Ireland 121 

Richard Domer, Ireland 125 

Viscount GardiuvUle 113 

Feb. 24. David Kenuison, N.A 117 

Oct. 15. Judy (a slave), N.A 110 

M. A. Provencal, Fi-ance 119 

James Nolan, Ireland 116 

Patrick Sweeney, Ireland 119 



Loifo Island (Bahamas) was discovered 
by Christopher Columbus a.d. 1492. With 
the group to which it belongs it was seized 
by the Spaniards a.d. 1781, and was restored 
to the British by the treaty of Versailles, 
1783. 

LoN& Island (Battle). — The English, 
under General Home, routed the American 
revolutionary forces, commanded by General 
Putnam, at the village of Flat Bush, in Long 
Island, Aug. 27, 1776. The Enghsh lost 61 
killed and 257 wounded, and the rebel army 
2,000 men. 

Long Island (IS'ew York) . — Captain Wey- 
mouth discovered Long Island, a.d. 1605. 

Longitude. {See Latitude.) 

LoNGJUMEAU, (Treaty,) was concluded 
between the Huguenots and the Koman 
Catholics, March 23, 1568. It was a mere 
stratagem on the part of the Eoman Cathohcs 
to weaken their opponents, and was speedily 
broken. It was called the Hi-grounded 
Peace. 

Long-lived Administeation, also called 
the Short-lived Administration, held office 
Feb. 11 and 12, 1746. The Pelham, or 
Broad-Bottom Administration, having re- 
signed office Feb. 10, 1746, the earl of Bath 
accepted the Treasury, with Lord Carhsle as 
privy seal, Lord Granville as one of the 
secretaries of state, and Lord Winchelsea 
at the Admiralty. George III. was not, 
however, satisfied with the ministerial ar- 
rangements, and the Broad -Bottom Ad- 
ministration (q.v.) was restored to office 
Feb. 12. 

505 



LON 

LoN&OBAEDi. — The name of this German 
tribe of barbarians is derived either from the 
length of their beards or from the circum- 
stance of their inhabiting the plains beside 
the Elbe, — horde or bord signifying a "fertile 
plain by the side of a river." They are stated 
by the ancient authors to have been a branch 
of the Suevi; but Paxil Warnefrid, who wrote 
in the time of Charlemagne, and was himself 
a Longobard, asserts that they originally 
migrated from Scandinavia. They first 
appeared in history during the reign of 
Augustus, when they were settled between 
the Elbe and Oder, and but little more was 
heard of them till the reign of Justinian 
(a.d. 527 — 565), by whom they were invited 
into Noricum and Pannonia. Under their 
chief Alboin, they invaded Italy in 568, and 
speedily reduced the greater portion of the 
country to subjection, estabhshing their 
kingdom of Lombardy, which composed 
the modern states of Venice, the Tyrol, the 
Milanese, Piedmont, Genoa, Mantua, Parma, 
Modena, j Tuscany, a large portion of the 
papal states, and the greatest part of the 
kingdom of Naples. (See Lombaedt.) 

Loifa Pakliament, summoned by 
Charles I., met at Westminster, Tuesday, 
Nov. 3, 1640, and continued its sittings until 
it was dissolved by Cromwell, April 20, 1653. 
The journal of this parhament terminates 
Tuesday, April 19. It was said of this par- 
liament, that "many thought it never would 
have a beginning, and afterwards that it 
never would have an end." 

Loif&WY (France), fortified by Vauban, 
has sustained several sieges. The Prussian 
army invested it Aug. 20, 1792, and it surren- 
dered Aug. 24. 

Loo (Holland) .— WiUiam III. ratified the 
peace of Kyswick at his hunting seat of Loo, 
Sept. 20, 1697. A treaty between Great Bri- 
tain, Prussia, and Holland, was concluded 
here under the auspices of WiUiam Pitt 
in 1790. 

Loo-Choo, Lekeyo, or Lieott-Kieotj 
IslajS^ds (Pacific Ocean). — Captain Brough- 
ton visited these islands, then little known to 
Europeans, a.d. 1797. 

LooDiAifA (Hindostan). — This town and 
the district came into possession of the Bri- 
tish A.D. 1836, through the failiu'e of the line 
of succession. 

LooKiNG-GtASSES are mentioned Job 
xxxvii. 18, B.C. 2337, and Exodus xixviii. 8, 
B.C. 1490, and were probably made of polished 
metal. Praxiteles, who flourished about 
B.C. 320, is said to have made a mirror of 
silver, and the American Indians were found 
to possess such articles, made from a kind 
of vitrified lava, plane, concave, and convex, 
A.D. 1492. Beckmann gathers from Pliny 
that they were manufactured of glass by the 
Sidonians, a.d. 77. He quotes a treatise of 
1279, by John Peckham, a Franciscan monk of 
Oxford, in which mirrors are particularly de- 
scribed, and as having the back covered with 
lead. The Anglo-Sason women wore them 
at their girdles. A process for silvering 
was patented by Drayton, November, 1843. 
506 



LOR 

Loom is found depicted on the tombs at 
Thebes, about b.c. 2000, the invention having 
been ascribed to the goddess Isis. It was in 
use in ancient Greece and Rome, especially 
amongst the females of a family. In India and 
China it has been in use, ia a rude form, from 
theearliest period. Among the Anglo-Saxons, 
too, its structure was exceedingly simple. 
Improved apparatus was introduced into 
England by the Flemings, of whom Gervaisse 
says that weaving is their "natural" busi- 
ness. A number of these people estabhshed 
themselves at Norwich a.d. 1132, and John 
Kemp, with a body of workmen from Flan- 
ders, came over at the invitation of Ed- 
ward III., A.D. 1331. A method for the 
apphcation of mechanical power to the 
hand-loom was submitted to the French 
Academy of Sciences by M. de Gennes, 
A.D. 1678, although it does not appear to 
have been carried into efi'ect. A machine 
was patented by the Eev. Dr. Cartwright, 
which imitated the three movements ia 
weaving, a.d. 1785, and another in 1787; 
but all these failed, and after an expenditure 
of £40,000, that gentleman received a grant 
of £10,000 from parliament as compensation 
in 1809. The first power-loom for cotton- 
weaving was erected near Glasgow in 1798. 
Jacquard exhibited his machine at Paris in 
September, 1801, and an electric loom was 
constructed in 1854 by M. BoneUi, director- 
general of the Sardinian telegraphs, which he 
brought to England in 1859. 

Loeca (Spain), the ancient Eliocroca, was 
besieged several times during the Moorish 
occupation of a part of Spain. The bridge 
was built in 1847. 

LoED Chambeelaiit, and Loed Gkeat 
Chambeelaiit. (See Chambeelain.) 

Loed Chaxcelloe (Scotland) was ori- 
ginally the king's conscience-keeper, issuing 
his writs for the remedy of injustice, and 
became the chief judge of the Court of 
Session at its establishment, a.d. 1533. 
The office was abohshed at the Union, 
March 6, 1707. 

Loed High Admieal. (See Admieal, 
Lord High.) 

Loed High ChancelT;0e op Estglakd. — 
The office of king's chancellor has been 
traced back as far as the reign of Ethelbert, 
kin g of Kent (a.d. 568 — 61 5 ) . It was usually 
held by an ecclesiastic, and frequently by the 
king's chaplain. The first chancellor after 
the Conquest was Arfastus, bishop of Helm- 
ham, whose name occurs in a charter dated 
1068. The office assumed a judicial charac- 
ter in the reign of Henry I., and sustained 
a change in its constitution under Henry III., 
who appointed an officer empowered to act 
as a chancellor, but without possessing that 
title, his special province being the custody 
of the seal. The first charter making this 
distinction is dated June 14, 1232. The 
chancellor assumed the title of chancellor of 
England in 1266, and of lord chancellor in 
the reign of Edward II. By 5 Ehz. c. 18 
(1562), the offices of lord chancellor and lord 
keeper were declared identical. The vice- 



LOR 



LOE 



chancellor (q.v.) was appointed by 53 Geo. 
III. c. 24 (March 23, 1813). The salaries of 
the chief officers of the lord chancellor are 
regulated by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 87 (July 1, 1852) . 
The lord chancellor takes precedence of all 
the other law officers of the realm, ranking 
next to the archbishop of Canterbury, 

I/OBD HiaH CHANCELLOBS AND I,OED 
KEEPEES OF ESTGLAND. 

■William L 

A.D. 

1068. Arfastus. 

1070. Obbert. 

1074. Osmuud. 

1078. Maurice. 

1083. William "Welson. 

1085. William Gififard. 
William II. 

1087. William Giffard (continued). 

1090. Eobert Bloet. 

1093. Galdric. 

1095 (about). William Giffard (again). 
Henry I. 

1100. William Gilfard (continued). 

1101. Roger, 

1103. William Giffard (again), 

1104. Waldric. 
1108. Ranulph. 
1124. Geoffrey Rufus. 

Stephen. 

1135. Roger Pauper, 
1139. Philip. 

Robert de Grant, 

Henry II. 

1154. Thomas Becket. 
1173. Ralph de Warneville, 
1181. Geoffrey Plantageuet. 
Bichard I. 

1189. William de Longchamp, 

1198. Eustace. 
John. 

1199. Hubert Walter, 
1205. Walter de Grey. 
1213. Peter de Rupibus, 

IOTA / Walter de Grey (again), 
■^^^*- 1 Richard Marisco. 
Henry III. 

1216. Richard Marisco (continuedj. 
1226. Ralph de Nevill. 
1238. Simon Normanus (keeper). 
1240. Richard Crassus (keeper). 
1244. Silvester de Everdon (keeper). 

1246. John Mansel (keeper). 

1247. John de Lexinton (keeper). 

1248. John Mansel /again, keeper). 
1250. William de Kilkenny (keeper), 
1255. Henry de Wingham (keeper), 

1260. Nicholas de Ely (keeper), 

1261. Walter de Merton. 
1263. Nicholas de Ely. 
-,„,.-( Thomas de CantUupe. 
■^'"'°-\ Walter Giffard. 

1267. Godfrey Giffard. 

1268. John de Chishull (keeper), 

1269. Richard de Middleton. 
1272. John de Kirkeby (keeper), 

Edward I. 

1272. Walter de Merton. 

1274. Robert Burnell. 

10Q9 f William de Hamilton (keeper). 

^■^^'^- 1 John de Langton. 

Tmo f Adam de Osgodby (keeper), 

1302. 1 -^yjijij.^^ ^g Grenefleld, 

1304. WUliam de Hamilton, 

1307. Ralph de Baldock. 
Edward II. 

1307. Ralph de Baldock (continued), 

John de Langton. 

iQin / Adam de Osgodby (keeper). 
^•^^"- (. Walter Reginald. 

1311. Adam de Osgodby (keeper). 

1312. Walter Reginald (again, keeper). 



1343. 



1314. John de Sand ale. 

1318. John de Hotham. 

1320. John Salmon. 

1323. Robert de Baldock. 

1326. William de Ayremynne (keeper), 

1326. Henry de CUtf (keeper). 
Edward III. 

1327. John de Hotham (again). 

( Henry de Cliff i ,t„„„^,.„v 

1328.< William de Herlaston / ^^^®P"^'- 

( Henry de Burghersh. 
1330. John de Stratford. 

1334. Richard de Anngerville, or Bury. 

1335. John de Stratford (again). 

1337. Robert de Stratford. 

1338. Richard de Bynterworth. 
( John de St. Paul ) 

1339.-C Michael de Wath Mkeepers). 

( Thomas de Baumburgh ) 

{John de St. Paul (keeper). 
John de Stratford (agaiu). 
Eobei-t de Stratford. 
Sii- Robert Burghchier, or Bouchier. 
1341. Sir Robei-t Paming. 

John de Thoresby ^ 
John de St. Paul Mkeepers), 
Thomas de Brayton ; 
^Robert de Tadiugton. 
1345. John de Offord, or Ufford. 
fDavid de Wollore 
I John de St. Paul ) 

1349. H Thomas de Brayton > (keepers) 
Thomas de C'otyngham ) 
L John de Thoresby. 
1356. William de Ediugton. 
1363. Simon Langham. 
1367. William de Wykeham. 

1371. Sir Robert de Thorpe. 

1372. Sir John Knyvet. 
1377. Adam de Houghton. 

Richard II. 

1377. Adam de Houghton (continued), 

1378. Sir Richard le Scrope. 

1379. Simon de Sudbury. 

( Hugh de Segrave (keeper). 
1381. < William de Courteneye. 

I Sir Richard le Scrope (again). 

(Hugh de Sesrave \ 
William de'Dighton Mkeepejs), 
John de Waltham ) 
Robert de Braybroke. 
1383. Sir Michael de la Hole. 
1386. Thomas de Arundel. 
1389. William de Wykeham (againj. 
1391. Thomas de Arundel (again). 
1396. Edmund de Stafford, 
looa /Thomas de Arundel (again). 
^'^^^- (.John de Scarle, 
Henry IV. 

1399. John de Scarle (continued). 

1401. Edmund de Stafford (again), 

1403. Hemy de Beaufort. 

1405. Thomas Langley. 

1407. Thomas de Arandel (again). 

I4if) /John Wakering (keeper). 

■^■*^"-l. Sir Thomas Beaufort. 

1412. Thomas de Arundel (again). 
Hemy V. 

1413. Henry Beaufort. 

1417. Thomas Langley fagain). 
Henry VI. 

1422. Thomas Langley (continued). 
1422 ■[ ^i"^**^ Gaunstede (keeper). 

■ 1. Thomas Langley (again). 
1424. Hem-y Beaufort (again). 
1426. John Kempe. 
1432. John Stafford. 
1450. John Kempe. 

1454. Richard Neville. 

1455. Thomas Bourchier. 

1456. William Waynflete, 

1460. George Neville. 
Edward IV. 

1461. George Neville (continued). 
lAAT S Robert Kirkham (keeper). 
^^'' X Robert Stillington. 

5or 



LOE 



LOE 



(John Morton \ 

Henry Bourchier V (keepers). 
John Morton (again) ) 
Lawrence Booth. 
1474. Thomas Rotheram. 
, .__ / John Alcock. 

' (.Thomas Rotheram (again). 
Edwai-d V. 

1483. Thomas Kotheram (continued) 
1483. John BusselL 
Richard ITI. 

1483. John Russell (continued). 
1485. Thomas Barowe (keeper). 
Hemy VII. 

148.5. John Alcock. 
148t). John Morton. 
1.500. HeiiryDene. 
1502. William Wai-ham (keeper). 
1504. WiUiam Warham. 
Henry VIII. 

1509. William Warham (continued). 
1513. Thomas Wolsey. 
1529. Sir Thomas More. 

1532. Sir Thomas Audley (keeper). 

1533. Sir Thomas Audley. 

1544. Thomas, Lurd Wriothesley (keeper). 

1545. Thomas, Lord Wriothesley. 
Edward VI. 

1547. Lord Wriothesley (continued). 
, _ ,_ r William Paulet (keeper), 
^^"^'-t Richard, Lord Rioh. 
15.51. Thomas Goodrich (keeper). 

1552. Thomas Goodi-ich. 
Mary. 

1553. Stephen Gardiner. 
1556. Nionolas Heath. 

Elizabeth. 

1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon (keeper). 
1.579. Sir Thomas Bromley. 
1587. Sir (Ihristopuer Hatton. 

1591. William, Lord Burleigh. 

1592. Sir John Puckering (keeper). 
1596. Sir Thomas Egerton (keeper). 

James I. 

1603. Sir Thomas Eserton (continued as keeper) 
1603. Sir Thomas Egeiton. 

1617. Sir Francis Bacon (keeper). 

1618. Sir Pi-ancis Bacon. 
1621. John Williams. 

Charles I. 

1625. John Williams (continued). 
1625. Sir Thomas Coventry. 

1640. Sir- John Finch. 

1641. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 
1643. Parliamentary Commission. 
]645. Sir Richard Ljune. 

1646 I ^^^ ^'^^'^ °^ Salisbury. 

■ \ Parliamentary Commissioners. 
1648. Parliamentary Commissioners, 
uterregnum* 

( Bulstrode Whitelocke. 
1649. ^^ John L'Isle. 

( Richard Keeble. 

( Bulstrode Whitelocke. 
1654 < Sir- Thomas Widdrington. 

( John L'Isle. 
1 cKc / Nathaniel Fiennes. 
1S^8-1 John L'Isle. 

( Bulstrode Whitelocke. 
1659.< Nathaniel Fienues. 

i. John L'Isle. 
1659. William LenthaU. 

{John Bradshaw. 
Thomas TyrrelL 
John Fountain. 
1659. Bulstrode Whitt- locks. 
1060. William LenthaU (again). 
/ Sir Thomas Widdrington. 
J Thomas Tyrrell. 



1660. 



\ John Fountain. 

V. Edward Montague, earl of Manchester. 



* During the Interregnum the holders of the Great 
Seal were styled Lords Commissiouets. 
508 



The Restoration. 

16.57. Sir Edward Hyde. 

1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, knt. and bart. 

1672. Anthony Ashley, Lord Shaftesbury. 

1673. Sir Heneage Finch (keeper). 
1675. Heneage (Lord Finch). 
1682. Sir Francis North (keeper). 

James IL 

1685. Lord Guildford (continued). 
1685. Lord Jeffreys. 
William and Mary. 

( Sir John Maynard ) 
1690. < Sii- Anthony Keck Mcommigsioners). 

( Sir Will. Rawlinson ) 

( Sir John Trevor \ 
1690. < Sir Wm. Rawlinson > (commissioners). 

( Sir Geo. Hutchins j • 
1693. Sir John Somers (keeper). 
1697. Lord Somers. 
1700. Sir Nathan Wright (keeper). 
Anne. 

1702. Sir Nathan Wright (continued). 
1705. Right Hon. William Cowper (keeper). 
1707. Lord Cowper. 

( Sir Thomas Trevor ) 
1710. < Robert Tracy Mcommissioners). 

( John Scrope ) 

1710. Sir Simou Harcourt (keeper). 

1713. Lord Harcourt. 
George I. 

1714. Lord Harcourt (continued). 
1714 Lord Cowper. 

f Robert Tracy ) 

1718.< Sir John Pratt Mcommissioners). 

( Sir James Montague ) 
1718. Lord Parker. 

( Sir Joseph Jekyll ■) 
1725. < Sir Jeffrey Gilbert Mcommissioners). 

I Sir Robert Raymond ) 
1725. Sir Peter King (afterwards Lord King). 
George II. 

1727. Lord King (continued). 

1733. Hon. Charles Talbot. 

1737. Pliilip Yorke. Lord Hardwicke. 

( Sir John WUlis ) ,„„„„,,,. 

1756.^ Sir Sydney Stafford Smj-the } '^°„-^Y 

( Sir John Eardley Wilmot ) s^ollers^ 
1757. Sir Robert Henley (keeper). 
George III. 

1760. Lord Henley (continued as keeper). 

1761. Lord Henley. 

1762. Lord Camden. 

1770. Hon. Charles Yorke. 

{Sir Sydney Stafford Smythe 
Hon. Hemy Bathurst 
Sir Richard Aston 

1771. Hon. Henry Bathurst. 
1778. LordThurlow. 

1783.|s^^^^raeH^"?Ashu.tl(— r 
( Sir Beaumont Hotham j sioneis). 

1783. Lord Thurlow. 

( Sir James Eyre ) /--_,-_^o 

1792. <^ Sir William Henry Ashurst V 'ff°J"rf" 
I Sir John Wilson ) si*'"''^)- 

1793. Lord Loughborough. 
180L LordEldon 

1801). Hon. Thomas Erskine 
1807. Lord Eldon (^ain). 
George IV. 

1820. Lord Eldon (continued). 
1827. John Singleton Copley {created Lord 
Lyndhurst). 
WiUiam IV. 

1830. Lord Lyndhurst (continued). 

1830. Lord Brougham. 

1834. Lord Lyndhurst (again). 

( Sir Launcelot .Shadwell ) /o^mmSo 

1835.-^ Sir Chas. Christopher Pepys V ' i°™irT* 

{ Sir John Bernard Bosanquet ) ^lonersj. 

1836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys (Lord 

Cottenham). 
Victoria. 

1837. Lord Cottenham (continued). 
1811. Lord Lyndhurst (again). 
1846. Lord Cottenham (again). 



(commis- 
sioners). 



(commis- 
sioners). 



1852. 
1852. 



1861, 



LOE 



( Heniy, Lord Langdale 

< Sir LauDcelot Shad well 

( Sir Eobert Mousey Kolfe 

Sir Thomas Wilde (created Lord Truro) 

Lord St. Leonards. 

Lord Ci-anworth. 

Lord Chelmsfoi-d. 

Lord Campbell. 

Lord Westbury. 



LoBD High Chan-cemoe op Ieeland. — 
The appointment of this officer is coeval 
■with the Enghsh government in Ireland ; but 
the earUest lord chancellor whose name has 
been preserved is Stephen Kidel, noticed 
in 1186. Deputies, or vice-chancellors, also 
formed part of the ancient estabhshment of 
Ireland. 

LOBS HIGH CHANCELLOBS OF IBELAH^S. 

A.D. 

1186. Stephen EideL 
Henry III. 

1219. John de Worchley. 

1230. Fromond le Brnn. 

,„„„/ Ralph Nevill. 

^'''^''•XGeoSrey TurviHe (Vice-Chancellor), 

1235. Alan de Sancta Fide. 

1236. Robert Luttrell. 
,„.,_ / Geoffrey Turville. 

■^^"^'-t Ralph, bishop of Norwich, 
1245. William Welward. 
1249. Ralph (again). 
1259. Fromond le Bnm. 
Edward I. 

1272. Fromond le Brun (continued). 
1283. Walter de Fulburu. 
1288. William de Braerlaco. 

1292. Thomas Cantock. 

1293. Walter de Thomburg. 

1294. Adam Wodington. 

1295. Thomas Cantock (again). 
Edward II 

1307. Thomas Cantock (continued). 
1314. Richard de Bereford. 
1317. William Fitz-John. 
1321. Roger Outlaw. 

1325. Alexander de Bicknor. 

1326. Roger Outlaw (again). 
Edward III. 

1330. Adam de Limberg. 

1331. William (prior of St. John's, Dublin). 
■,„..„ /Adam de Limberg (again). 

■^^^''- (. Rogei Outlaw (again). 
1334 Adam de Limberg (again). 
1335. Roger Outlaw (again). 
1337. Thomas Charlton. 
,009 / Robert de Hen ningberg. 
■^'*^°- I John de Battail (keeper). 
,qoQ / Roger Outlaw (again). 
•^^''•'- (.Thomas Charlton (again). 
-.oAi f Robert de Askeby. 
•^^^- (, John le Archer. 

1342. Roger Darcy (keeper). 

1343. John de Battail (keeper, again). 

1344. John le Archer (again). 
1346 ■[ •'^o^'^ Morice, or Morys. 

" l Roger Darcy (keeper, again). 
1349. John le Archer (again). 
i^nn S William Bromley (keeper). 
"^''- 1 John de St. Paul. 

1354. Richard deAssheton. 

1355. John de St. Paul (again). 

1356. Ji.hndeFrowyk. 
f Thomas Burley. 

1357. < Friar John de Mora "I (Demity 

( William Draitou J Chauceliovs). 
1359. Thomas Burley. 
1363. Richard de Assheton (again). 

1366. Thomas Scurlock. 

1367. Thomas le Reve. 

1368. Thomas Burley. 
1370. John de Botheby. 



LOR 



1372. William Tany. 

( John de Botheby (again). 
1374. <^ William Tany (again). 

( John Keppock. 
Richard II. 

,.,„_ f Robert de Wikeford, or Wickford. 
^'*'^- \ Alexander P"i»""+ 



1379. John Colton. 

1380. William Tauy (again). 

1381. Ralph Chene, or Cheney (keeper). 
1385. Robert de Wikeford (again). 

("Robert Sutton (Vice-Chancellor). 
-joofl J Alexander Balscot (again), 
idsso. 1 Thomas de Everdon (Vice-Chancellor 

L Thomas de Everdon (keeper). 

1387. Richard White. 

1388. Sir Robert Preston (keeper). 

1389. Alexander Balscot (again). 
1388. Sir Robert Preston. 

1392. Robert Waldby. 

1393. Richard Northalis. 

1394. Alexander Balscot (again). 

1395. Robert Waldby (again). 
["Alexander Balscot (again). 

TQoi? J Robert de Braybroke. 



■ 1 Robert Sutton (deputy keeper). 
LThomas Cranley. 
Henry IV. 

1399. Thomas Cranley (continued). 

1400. Alexander Balscot (again). 

1401. Thomas Cranley (again). 

1402. Thomas de Everdon (deputy, again). 
( Richard Rede ) 

1405.< John Bermingham Mdeputies). 

( Robert Sutton (again) J 
1407. Laurence Merbury (deputy). 

1410. Patrick Ban-et. 

1411. Robert Sutton (deputy, again). 

1412. Thomas Cranley (again). 
Henry V. 

1413. Sir Laurence Merbury (again). 
,.,(./ Thomas Cranley (again). 
^*^^- X Patrick Ban-et (again). 
1416. William Fitz-Thomas. 

1419. Sir Laurence Meibury (again). 

1421. William Fitz-Thomas (again). 
Heniy VI. 

1422. Sir Laurence Merbury (agaiu). 
' Richard Sedgrave, or Segi-ave. 

Richard Talbot, 
f William Fitz Thomas (Mgain). 
• ( Sir Richard Fitz Eustace. 
1427 -f ^i'''^*'''^ Talbot (again). 

(. Robert Sutton (keeper, again). 

1434. Thomas Chase (keeper). 

1435. Thomas Strange (deputy). 

14-^R / ^i'^ Richard Fitz Eustace (deputy, again 
■^^"^"•i. Robert Dyke (keeper). 
1441. Sir Thomas Strange. 

1444. Richard Wogan. 

1445. William Cheevers (deputy). 
14ir X ^^"^ '^"^^ Talbot. 

1 Robert Dyke (deputy, again). 
1.14S r Thomas Fitzgerald (deputy). 
■^■**'' 1 Thomas Talbot (deijutv). 
1451. Sir John Talbot (^gain)". 
1453. Sir Edward Fitz-Eustace. 
1454 Sir William Wells (deputy), 
i/wn / ^^I'l of Rutland. 
•^*'"-t JohnDynham. 
Edward IV. 



1423.-! 
1426. 



/ Sir Robert Preston (deputy). 

If - 



■^'^^•\Sii- William Wells. 

1462. Earl of Worcester. 

1463. Earl of Kildare. 

1468. Robert Allaunston. 

1469. Sir William Dudley. 
-, ..7„ f Lord Portlester. 
•^■^'^-IJohnTaxton. 

, ,-, / Gilbert de Venham. 
i-i/4. j^ g^j. Ro^^yi-^n^ Fitz-Eustace. 

1480. William Shei-wood. 

1481. Lawrence de St. Lawrence. 

1482. Walter Champflour (keeper). 
, ,Qo f Sir Robert de St. Lawi-ence. 
I4t». ^ Tiionias Fitzgerald. 



509 



LOE 



Henry VII. 



1485. Robert Fitz-Eustace. 
1492. Alexander Plunket. 
1494. Heury Deaue. 
1496. Walter Fitzsimons. 
1498. WilUam Kokeby. 
1501. Walter Fitzsimons (again). 
Henry VIII. 

1509 -f ^i'^^ol''* St. Lawrenf-e. 

■ 1 Walter Fitzsimons (again). 
1513. Sir William Compton. 
1515. William Rokeby. 

1527. Hugh Inge. 

1528. John Alan. 
1532. George Cromer. 
1534. John Bamewall. 
Ti'xa /John Allen (keeper). 
■^^''°-t John Allen. 



1546. 



f Sir Thomas Cusack. 
• 1 Sir Richard Rede. 
Edward VI. 

1548. Sir John AUen 

1550. Sir Thomas Cusack. 
Mary. 

1553. Sir Thomas Cusack (continued). 

,_._ /Sir William Fitz Williams (keeper). 

^^^^-JHughCurwen. 
Elizabeth. 

1558. Hugh Curwen (continued). 

1-567. Robert Weston. 

1573. Adam Loftus (keeper). 

1576. William Gerrard. 

1.577. Adam Loftus (keeper). 

1603. Adam Loftus. 
James I. 

("Thomas Jones "| 

leOMlL^EdmundTelham [ (^-pers). 

LSir Anthony St. LegerJ 

("Sir William Jones ■) 

1R1Q J S'^'" William Methwold > (keepers). 
j.Di». -j gjj, pj.j^^gig Aungier ) 

LAdam Loftus (afterwards Viscount Ely). 
Charles I. 

1625. Viscount Ely (continued), 
r James Usher 1 

16^-is&WnUarPa.ons[(^-P-)- 

L Sir Adam Loftus J 

[Robert, Lord Dillon 1 
,~.jQ J Sir Adam Loftus ', ,v„„^„_\ 

^^^- i Christopher Wandesfoi-d [ (keepers). 

LSir Philip Main waring J 
1639. Sir Richard Bolton. 
luteiTegnum. 

( Richard Pepys ■) 

1655. < Sir Gerard Lowther > (commissioners). 
( Miles Corbet ) 

1656. WiUiam Steele. 
The Restoration. 

1660. Sir Maurice Eustace. 
1665. Michael Boyle. 
James II. 

,„Q_ /Michael Boyle (continued). 
±000. j^ g^ Charles Porter. 
1686. Sir Alexander Titton. 
WiUiam IIL 

("Richard Pyne \ 
ifiQ.i J Sir Richard Ryves > (keepers). 
•^°"''- 1 Robert Rochfort ) 
LSir Charles Porter. 
( Archbishop of Dublin ) 
1693. < Earl of Meath >■ (keepers). 

I WUliam Hill ) 

{Sir John Jeffreyson 1 
Thomas Coote > (keepers). 

Nehemiah DoneUan ) 
John Methuen. 
( Eail of Meath ) 

1697. < Earl of Longford Mkeepei-s). 

(viscount Blesrnton j 

Anne. 

1702. John Methuen (again). 

1703. Sir Richard Cox. 
1707. Richard Freeman. 

610 



LOR 



TEarl of Kildare ) 

,_,„ ! Aichbishop of Dublin Mkeepeis). 
■^'^"- 1 Thomas Keightley j 
LSir Constantine Phipps. 
George I. 

1714. Alan Brodi-ick. 

1725. Richard West. 

1726. Thomas Wyndham. 
George II. 

1727. Thomas Wyndham (continued). 
1739. Robert Jocelyn. 

1757. John Bowes. 
George III. 

1760. John, Lord Bowes (continued). 
1767. James Hewitt 
1789. John Fitzgibbon. 
1802. Sir John Mitford. 

1806. Right Hon. George Ponsonby. 

1807. Thomas Manners Sutton. 
George IV. 

1820. Lord Manners (continued) 

1827. Su- Anthony Hart, knt. 
William IV. 

1830. William Conynsham Plunket. 

1 g.j^ / Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden, knt. 

^°*^-l Lord Plunket. 
Victoria. 

1837. Lord Plunket (continued). 

1S41 / Sir John Campbell. 
° 1 Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. 

1846. Maziere Brady. 

1852. Francis Blackbume. 

1853. Maziere Brady (again). 

1858. Joseph Napier. 

1859. Maziere Brady (again). 

LoED High Constable (England). — This 
officer existed in the Anglo-Saxon period of 
our history. His jurisdiction was defined by 
8 Eich. II. c. 5 (1385). The duke of Buck- 
ingham, tried and executed for high treason. 
May 21, 1521, forfeited the office, and it has 
never been revived. The lord high constable 
and the earl marshal were judges of the 
cotirt of chivalry, called in the reign of 
Henry IV. Curia Mihtaris. This office 
ranked as the first in France. Napoleon I. 
created his brother Louis constable of the 
empire. 

LoED High Constable op Scotland. — 
This office is of great antiquity, and in 1162 
was held by Eichard de MorevUle. Eobert 
Bruce conferred the dignity of constable on 
Gilbert de Hay, earl of Errol, and his heirs 
for ever, Nov. 12, 1315. 

LoED High Stewaed oe England.— The 
office of Lord High Steward is of great anti- 
quity, having existed before the time of Ed- 
ward the Confessor, and the holder thereof 
was at that period the first great officer of the 
crown. It was for many years hereditary in 
the family of the earls of Leicester, but on 
the attainder of Simon of Montfort in 1265, it 
was abolished, and is now only revived for 
the special occasions of a coronation or the 
trial of a peer. On the 12th of January, 1559, 
Henry, earl of Arundel, was created high 
steward for the coronation of Queen Ehza- 
beth, Jan. 15, to hold that office from "the 
rising of the sun on the same day to the 
setting thereof." Whenever a grand jury 
finds a true bill agaiast a peer on a charge 
of treason or felony, a comxaission is issued 
constituting a lord high steward, with 
authority to try the accused. Edward, 
earl of Devon, appointed lord high steward 



LOR 

in 1400 for the trial of the earl of Huntingdon, 
in tlie reign of Henry IV., is the first lord high 
steward created for this purpose. The trial 
over, the lord high steward breaks his rod, 
in order to show that his commission has 
ended. 

LoBD High Teeasxteee of England. — 
This, the third great officer of the crown, 
had the custody of the royal treasury, and 
of the foreign and domestic documents 
kept there. The office is held during plea- 
sure. The first lord high treasurer was 
Odo, earl of Kent and bishop of Bayeux, 
in the reign of William the Conqueror. For 
many years the office was held by ecclesias- 
tics, the first lay treasurer being Kichard, 
Lord Scroop, in 1371. The duke of 
Shrewsbury, appointed by Queen Anne, 
July 29, 1714, and who resigned office a few 
days afterwards, was the last high treasurer 
of England. Since that time the office has 
always been Tested in commissioners, the 
chief of whom is the first lord of the trea- 
sury, and head of the government. 

LORD HIGH TBEASXTKEES OP ENGLAND. 
William I. 

A.D. 

Odo, earl of Kent. 
Henry I. 

Geoffry de Clinton. 

Kaiiulph Flambard. 

Roger, bisJiop of Salisbuiy. 

Mgellus, bisbop of Ely. 
Henry II. 

Geoffrey Eidel. 

Ricbard de Ely. 
Eicbard I. 

Bicbard de Ely (continued). 

■William de Ely. 
Jolm. 

William de Ely (continued). 

Dean of St. Paul's. 

Walter de Grey. 

Geoflrey, archdeacon of Norwich. 
Henry III. 

John Kutball. 
1217. Eustace de F.auconbridge. 

Jobu ae Fontibus. 

Walter Maclerk, or Lacklatine. 

Hubert de Burgo. 

Peier de Orial. 
1234. Hugh de Patteshull. 

Galfridus Templarius. 

William Haverhull. 

Richard de Barking. 

Philip Lovel. 
1258. John Crackhall. 
1260. John, abbot of Peterborough. 
1263. Nicholas de Ely. 
1266. Thomas de Wymimdham. 
1269. John de Chishull. 
1271. Philip de Ely. 
Edwai-d I. 

1274. Joseph de Clancy. 
^ f Walter Giffard. 
■^^'•'- 1 Robert Buruel. 

1278. John de Clancy. 

1279. Thomas Beck. 

1280. Richard de Warren, or de Ware. 
1284. Walter Wenlock. 

109R / Roger de Longespee, alias de Moknd. 
■^'''"'- 1 John de Kirkeby. 
1290. William de Marcbia. 
1293. Peter de Leicester. 
129.5. Walter de Langton. 
Edward II. 

1307. Walter Reynolds. , 

1311. John de Sandale. 

1312. Bii- Walter de Norwich. 



LOR 



1313. John de Sandale (again). 

iQi<; / Sir Walter de Norwich (again). 

^''^^- 1 John de Drokenesford. 

1317. John Hotbain. 

iQia / William Walwaine. 

■^^■^°- 1 John de Stratford. 

1319. Walter Stapleton. 

1321. Sir Walter de Norwich (again). 

1322. Roger de Northburgh. 

Tit) A /Walter Stapleton (again). 
Xd.i4.| -yy-jjiiaj^ (je Melton. 
Edward III. 

,„„„ f John de Stratford (again). 
^^''^- \ Adam de Orleton. 
1327. Henry de Burghersh. 

1329. Thomas Charletou, or Charlton. 

1330. Robert Woodhouse. 

1331. William Melton (again). 

1332. William Ayi-emin. 

1333. Robert le Ailstone. 

1336. Heury de Burghersh (again). 

1337. Richard de Bury. 

1338. William de la Zouch, or le Zouch. 
TQ/fft / Roger de Northburgh. 

^'^'^•\ Sir Richard Sodington, Kut. 

1342. Roger de Northburgh (again). 

1343. William de Cusans. 
1345. William de Edington. 
1358. John de Shepey. 
1361. Simon Langham. 
1363. John Baruet. 

1371. Sir Richard Scrope. Lord Scrope. 

1376. Sir Richard Ashton. 

1377. Heury Wakefield. 
Richard II. 

1377. Henry Wakefield (continued). 

1378. Thoma? Brentingham. 

1379. Richard Fitzalau. 

1380. Thomas Breutingham (again). 

1389. John Gilbert. 

1390. John Waltham. 
1395. Roger Walden. 
loQo / Cruy de Mona. 

1398. 1 gjj^ wiUiam le Scrope. 
HeniT IV. 

1399. Sir John Northbm-y, Knt. 

1403. Henry Bowet. 

1404. Lord Roos, or Eos. 

1405. Lord Furnival. 

TAf\a /Nicholas Bubbewith. 

■^''"^- I Lord Scrope (again). 

1409. Lord Tiutoft. 

1410- Lord Scrope. 
Henry V. 

1413. Earl of Arundel and SuiTey. 

1416. Sir Philip Lech, Knt. 

1417 Lord'Fitz-Hugh. 
Henry VI. 

1422. John Stafford. 

1425. Lord Hungerford. 

1431. Lord Scrope. 

1434. Lord Cromwell. 

1444. Ralph de Sudley. 

1447. Marmaduke Lumley. 

1448. Lord Say and Sele. 
1450. Lord Beauchamp. 
1452. Lord Tiptoft (again). 

( Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond. 

1455. < Thomas Thorpe. 

( Viscount Bourchier. 

1456. Earl of Shrewsbury. 

1458. Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond (again) 

1460. Viscount Bourchier (again). 
Edward IV. 

1461. Thomas Bourchier. 

1462. Earl of Worcester (again). 

1464. Lord Grey, of Ruthyn. 

1465. Sir Walter Blount. 

1466. Earl Rivers. 

lAaa /John Longstrother. 
■^^''''•tWiniamGrey. 



1471 ■[ '^^^^ °^ E^ex (ag:ain). 



Viscount Bourchier. 
Edward V. 

1483. Karl of 



(continued). 



511 



LOR 

Bichard IIL 

A.D. 

1483. Earl of Essex (continued). 

1484. Sir Richard Wood, Knt. 
Henry VII. 

lAan /Sir Reginald Bray. 

1480. 1 gjj. William Stauiey. 

1486. Lord Dynham. 

1501. Earl of SuiTey. 
Henry VIII. 

1 Kfto / Earl of Surrey (continued). 

lOUi). -^ Tiiomag Cromwell. 

1522. Earl of Surrey. 
Edward VI. 

1547. Earl of Hertford. 

1551. Earl of Wiltshire, afterwards marquis of 
Winchester. 
Mary. 

1553. Marquis of Winchester (continued). 
Elizabeth. 

1558. Jlarquis of Winchester (continued). 

1572. Sir William Cecil. 

1599. Thomas Sackville. 
James I. 

1609. Earl of Salisbury. 

1614. Earl of Suffolk. 

1618. George Abbott. 

1621. Lord Cranfield. 

1624. Sir James Ley, Knt. and Bart. 
Charles I. 

1625. Sir James Ley (continued). 
1636. William Juxon 

1643. Lord Cottiugton. 
Charles II. 

TCfirt / Sir Edward Hyde. 
■'■*'*'"• X Earl of Southampton. 
1667. Duke of Albemarle. 

1672. Lord Clifford. 

1673. Sir Thomas Osborne. 
( Earl of Essex. 

1679. < Hon. Laurence, afterwards Lord Hyde 
( and earl of Rochester. 

1684. Lord Godolphui. 
James II. 

1685. Earl of Rochester (again). 
1687. Lord Belasyse. 

William III. and Mary. 

1689. Viscount Mordaunt. 

iron / Si^ John Lowther, Bart, 

^^^^- \ Lord Godolphia (again). 
WOliam III. 

1694. Lord Godolphin (continued). 

1698. Bigtit Hon. Charles Montagu. 

1699. Earl of TankervUle. 

1700. Lord Godolphin (again). 

1701. Earl of Carlisle. 
Anne. 

1702. Lord Godolphin (again). 

1710. Earl Poulett. 

1711. Earl of Oxford. 
1714. Duke of Shrewsbury. 



LoED High Teasiteee OF Ireland. — The 
dignity of this officer, who ranks third of the 
crovra officers in Ireland, is as ancient as 
the English government of that country. 
Originally he was styled the treasurer of 
the exchequer. John de St. John was the 
first holder of the office, in 1217. 

LoED Keepee. — The office of lord keeper 
of the great seal of England is stated on 
doubtful authority to have been held diiring 
the chancellorship of Kanulph, in the reign 
of Henry I., by Kichard, a chaplain. It 
was not officially estabhshed tiH the reign 
of Richard I. The offices of lord chanceUor 
and lord keeper were declared identical, 
as far as England is concerned, by 5 Eliz. 
c. 18 (1562). (For a list of lord keepers see 
the list of lord high chancellors.) 

LoED LiEUXEWANl. — HaUam (Hist, of 
512 



LOR 

Eng. V. 11, c. 9) states that the miHtary 
jurisdiction in counties was transferred from 
the sheriffs, or justices of the peace, to a new 
officer called the lord lieutenant, during the 
reign of Mary. "The office gave him the 
command of the militia, and rendered him 
the chief vicegerent of his sovereign, respon- 
sible for the maintenance of public order. 
This institution may be considered as a re- 
vival of the ancient local earldom." Lords 
Heutenant of counties were appointed in 
Ireland by 1 & 2 AVill. 4, e. 17 CAug. 23, 
1831). 

Lord Mayor. — The title of Lord was 
granted to the mayor of London, a.d. 1354. 
Charles I. conferred this distinction on the 
chief magistrate of Dublin in 1641, but it 
was not borne by him until 1665. The chief 
magistrate of York and of Edinburgh is also 
styled Lord Mayor. 

LoED Mator (London). — According to 
the Liber Albus, the principal representatives 
of the sovereign power in the city of London 
have since the l^orman conquest acted at 
various times under different names. Wil- 
liam I. styled this officer his Portgrave, or 
Portgreve, afterwards corrupted into Port- 
reve. In a charter of Henry I. he is called 
a Justiciar, and in a charter of Henry II., in 
which the right of the aldermen to elect one 
every year is confirmed, he is styled Mayor. 
In olden times the mayor was elected on the 
feast of the apostles Simon and Jude (Oct. 
28), and it was customary for him on the 
day of his election to go on foot by land, or by 
boat on the river Thames, to Westminster, 
or the Tower, to be sworn into office. At 
first the Lord Mayor frequently held the 
office for several consecutive years ; but 
Edward I., in 1285, limited it to one year, 
and this rule, except in verv particular cases, 
has since been observecl. Henry Fitz- 
Elwyne, the first who held the office, was 
appointed by the crown in 1188. The title 
Lord was added to mayor in 1354. The 
procession, at first of a simple character, was 
converted into a pageant in 1454 by Sir John 
JSTorman, who proceeded to Westminster in 
a stately barge. 



LORD MATOES 

A.D. 
Henrv Fitz-Elwyne 

1189 to 1212 

Roger Fitz-Alau .. 1213 

Serlo le Mercer 1214 

WiUiiim Hard-1 . . 1215 
James Alderman ) 

(deposed) V1216 

Solomon de Basing 3 
Serlo le Mercer 

1217 to 1222 

Richard Renger 

1223to 1226 

Roger le Due 1227 to 1230 
Andrew Bukerel 

1231 to 1236 

Richard Renger . . 1237 
William Joynier . . 1238 

Gerard Bat 1239 

Reginald de Bungay 1240 
Ralph Eswy 1241 to 1243 
Michael Tovy 1244 



OF XOlfDOM-. 

A.D. 

John Gizors 124.9 

Pet-r Fitz-Alan 1246 

Michael Tovy, or 

Tony 1247 

Michael Tow 1248 

Roger Fitz Roger . . 1249 
John N' .rman .... 1250 
Adam de Basing . . 1251 

John Tulesan 1252 

Nicholas Bat 12.53 

Ralph Hardel 

12.54 to 12.57 

John Gizors 1258 

WiUiam Fitz-Rich- 

ard 1259 

William Fitz-Rich- 

ard 1260 

Thnma* Fitz-Thomas 

1261 to 1264 

Hugh Fitz - Otho 

(warden) 1265 



LOE 



LOR 



A.D. 


A.D. 




AD. 


A.D. 


William Fitz-Eich- 


Thomas Iiegge 1-^47 


William Estfield, or 




William Purchase 1497 


ard (warden) .... 1265 


John Lovekvn .... 1348 


Eastfteld 


1429 


Johan Percival .... 1498 


Alan la Suche (war- 


Walter Tnrke .... 1349 


Nicholas Wotton 




Nicholas Alwyn .. 1499 


den) 12(5fi 


Richard Kisliug- 
bury 13.50 


(again) 


1430 


Johan Reymington 1500 
Sir Johan Shaa.... 1.501 


Thomas de Eppe-" 




Johan WelUs, oi 




grave (warden) 


■1267 


Andrew Aubrey .. 13.51 


Welles 


1431 


Bartholomew Reed 1502 


Stephen de BUde- 


Adam Fraunceys . . 1352 


Johan Barneys, oi 




Sir William Capel 1503 


worthe (warden) 




Adam Fraunceys . . 1353 


Parvels 


1432 


John Wyngar, or 


Hugh Fitz-Otho 


Thomas Le^ige 1354 


Johan Brokley, oi 




Winger 1.504 


(warden) 1268 

John Adrien 1269 


Simon Fraunceys.. 13.55 


Brocle 


1433 


Thomas Knesworth 1505 


HeniyPioaid 1356 


Robert Otley, oi 




Sir Richard Haddon 1506 


John Adrien 1270 


John S^ody 1357 


Roger Otely .... 


1434 


William Browne 


Walter Hervey.... 1271 


JohnLovekyn .... 1358 


Henry Frowyk, oi 




(again in 1513) .. 1-507 
Stephen Jenyns.... 1.508 


Walter Hervey .... 1272 


Simon Dolsely .... 1359 


Frow 


1435 


Henry Waleys .... 1273 


John Wroth 1360 


Johan tiMichell, or 




Thomas Bradbury 1509 


Gregory de Kokesley 


John Pecche 1361 


Michael 


1436 


Heury Keble 1510 


1274 to 1280 


Stephen Cavendish 1362 


William Esifielc 




Roger Aichiley 1511 


Henry Waleys 1281to 1283 


JohnNotte 1363 


(again) 


1437 


Sir William Copin- 


GreaorydeRokesley 1284 


Adam de Bui-y .... 1364 


Stephen Browne . 


1438 


ger 1512 


Kalph de Sandwich 


JohnLovekyn ..-.. 1365 


Robert Large 


1439 


Sir William Browne 


(warden) 1285 


John Lovekyn 1366 


Johan Paddesley .. 


1440 


(John Tate) 1513 


John Bretone (war- 


James Andrew .... 1367 


Robert Clopton 


1441 


George Men oux 1514 


den) 1286 


Simon Mordeu .... 1368 


Johan Atherley, oi 




William Butler.... 1.515 


Ralph de Sand wich 


John Chichester .. 1369 


Hatherley 


1442 


John Rest 1516 


(warden).. 1287 to 1292 


JohnBemes 1370 


Thomas Chatworth 


144:^ 


bir Thomas Exmewel517 


John Bretone 1293 to 1296 


John Bernes 1371 


Henry Frowyk 




Thomas Mil-ftne .. 1518 


Henry Waleys .... 1297 


JohnPvel 1372 


(again) 


1444 


Sir James Yarford 1519 


Henry Waleys .... 1298 


Adam de Bury 1373 


Sy. liken, or Simon 




Sir John Bruge 1520 


KliasEussel 1299 


William Walworth 1374 


Eyer 


1445 


Sir John Milborne 1521 


EliasRussel 1300 


John Warde 1375 


Johan Olney 


1446 


Sir John Munday.. 1522 


John le Blount 


Adam Stable (de- ) 


Johan Gidney 


1417 


Sir Thomas Baldry, 


1301 to 1307 


posed) :.... V1376 


Stephen Browne 




orBaldi-ie 1523 


Nicholas de Farn- 


Nicholas Brembre ) 


(■igain) 


1448 


Sir William Bailey 1524 


done 1308 


Nicholas Brembre 1377 


Thomas Chalton . . 


1449 


Sir John Allen .... 1525 


Thomas Romeyn .. 1309 


JohuPhilipot .... 1378 


Nicolas Wyfforde . . 


1450 


Sir Thomas Seamer 1526 


Richer de Kefham 1310 


John Hadley 1379 


William Gregory . . 


1451 


Sir James Spencer 1527 


JohnGizors 1311 


William Walworth 1380 


Geffrey Feldyng . . 


1452 


Sir John Rudstone 1528 


John Gizors 1312 


John Northampton 1381 


Johan ^'orman 


1453 


Ralph Dodmer .... 1529 


Nicholas de Farn- 


John Northampton 1382 


Stephen Forster . . 


1454 


Sir Thomas Par- 


done 1313 


Nicholas Brembre 


William Marowe . . 


1455 


giter 1530 


John Gizors 1314 


1383 to 1385 


Thomas Caning, or 




Sir Nicbolas Lam- 


Stephen de Abing- 


Nicholas Exton.... 1388 


Canings 


1456 


bard 1531 


don 1315 


Nicholas Exton.... 1387 


Geffrey Boleyn, or 




Sir Stephen Pecocke 1532 


John de Wengrave 


Nicholas Twyford.. 1388 


Boleine 


1457 


Sir- Christopher As- 


1316 to 1318 


William Venour .. 1389 


Thomas Scot 


145H 


kew 1.533 


Hamo de Chigge- 


Adam Bamme 1390 


William HenljTi .. 


1459 


Sir John Champneis 1534 


welle 1319 


JohnHende 1391 


Richard Lee 


1460 


Sir John Allen 


Nicholas de Farn- 


William Staundon 1392 


Hugh Wyche 


1461 


(again) 1535 


doue 1320 


John Hadley 1393 


Thomas Couke 


1462 


Sir Ralph Waren . . 1536 


Hamo de C'higge- 


John Fresshe 1394 


Mathew Philip . . . . 


1463 


Sir Richard Gresham 1.537 


weUe 1321 


William More .... 1395 


Ranf Josselyne 


1464 


William Forman . . 1538 


Hamo de Chigge- 


Adam Bamme .... 1396 


Rauf Verney 


1465 


Sir William Holies 1539 


welle 1322 


Richard Whitington 1397 


Johan Yonge 


1466 


SirWUliamRoch.. 1.540 


Nicholas de Farn- 


Drew Barentyn 1398 


Thomas Owlgrave 


1467 


Sir Michael Dormer 1541 


done 1323 


Thomas Knolles .. 1399 


William Taylour .. 


I4HH 


John Cootes, or Cotes 1542 


Hamo de Chigge- 


John Fraunceys . . 1400 


Richard Lee 


1469 


Sir William Bow-T 


welle 1324 


John f'hadworth . . 1401 


Johan Stockton 


1470 


S^\aiph Waren f ^^^^ 
(again) J 


Hamo de Chigge- T 


John Walcot 14(i2 


William Edward . . 


1471 


Ri:htV'^r^^^e.[^325 
toigue J 


William Askham.. 1403 


William Hampton 


1472 


John Hende 1404 


Johan Tate 


1473 


Sir William Laxton 1544 


John W.odcock .. 1405 


Robert Drope 


1474 


Sir Martin Bowes . . 1545 


Richard de Betoigne 1326 


Kichard Whitington 1406 


Robert Basset .... 


1475 


Sir Henry Hurbar- 


Hamo de Chigge- 


William Staundon 1407 


Rauf Josselyne 




thorne 1546 


welle 1327 


Drew Barentyn.... 1408 


(again) 


1476 


Su- John Gresham 1.547 


John de Grantham 1328 


Richard Merlawe . . 1409 


Hmnphrey Hey- 




Sir Henry Amcotes 1548 


Simon Swanlond . . 1329 


Thomas Knolles . . 1410 


forde 


1477 


Sir Rowland Hill 


John de Pounteney 1330 


Robert Chichele .. 1411 


Richard Gardiner. . 


1478 


(first Protestant 


John de Pounteuey 1331 


William WaldeiTie 1412 


Bartilmew James. . 


1479 


lord mayor) 1549 


Johnde Prestone.. 1332 


William Crowmer 1413 


Johan Browne 


1480 


Sir Andrew Jude . . 1550 


John de Pounteney 1333 


Thomas Fauconer 1414 


William Haiyot .. 


1481 


Sir Richard Dobbes 1551 


Reginald de Conduit 1334 


Nicholas Wotton . . 1415 


Edmond Shaa 


1482 


Sir George Barnes 1.5-52 


Nicholas Wotton . . 1335 


Henry Barton .... 1416 


Robert BUlesdon . . 


14H3 


Sir Thomas White 1553 


John de Pounteney 1336 


Richard Merlawe.. 1417 


Thomas Hylle .... 


1484 


Sir John Lion .... 1554 


Henry Darcy 1337 


William Sevenoke 1418 


Hugh Bryce 


1485 


Sir William Gerard 1555 


Hem-yDarcy 1338 


Richard Whitington 1419 


Henry Colet 


1486 


Sir Thomas Offley 1556 


Andrew Aubrey .. 1339 


William Oambrege 1420 


WiUiam Home.... 


1487 


Sir Thomas Cui-teis 1557 


Andrew Aubrey .. 1340 


Richard Chichele.. 1421 


Robert Tate 


1488 


Sir Thomas Leigh, 


John Oxentord ) 


WilliauiWaldern.. 1422 


William White.... 


1489 


or Lee 1558 


(died) >1341 




Johan Mathew 


1490 


Sir Willam Huet 1559 


Simon Fraunceys j 


(again) 1423 


Hugh Clopton .... 


1491 


Sir William Chester 1560 


Simon Fraunceys . . 1342 


John Michell 1424 


WiUiam Martyn .. 


1492 


Sir William Harper 1561 


John Hamond .... 1343 


Johan Coventre 1425 


Rauf Astry, or Os- 




Sir Thomas Lodge.. 1562 


JohnHamond .... 1344 


William Rynwell.. 1426 


trich 


1493 


Sir John White.... 1563 


Richard Lacere .... 1345 


Johan Gedney .... 1427 


Richard Chawi-y . . 


1494 


Sir Richai-d Malorie 1564 


Geoffrey Wichyng- 


Henry Bai-ton 


Henry Colet (again) 


1495 


Sir Richard Cham- 


ham 


1346 


(again) 1428 


Johan Tate (again) 


14U6 




513 


2 I. 



LOR 



LOR 



A.D. 

Sii" Christopher 

Draper 1566 

Sir Roger Martin . . 1567 
Sir Thomas Howe. . 1568 
Alexander Avenon 1569 
Sir Rowland Hey- 

ward 1570 

Sir WiUiam Allen 1571 
Sir Lionel Ducket 1572 
Sir John Rivers.... 1-573 

James Hawes 1574 

Ambrose Nicholas 1575 
Sir John Langley. . 1.576 
Sir Thomas Ramsey 1577 

Richard Pipe 1578 

Sir Nicholas Wood- 

rofe 1579 

Sir John Branche.. 1580 
Sir Jamei Harvie . . 15«1 
Sir Thomas Blancke 1582 
Edward Oshorne . . 1583 
Sir Edward Piiliison 1584 
Sir Wolstan Dixie 1585 
Sii- George Barne . . 1586 
Sir George Bond . . 1587 
Martin Calthorp, or 

Colthorpe 1588 

Sir John Hart 1589 

John Allot 1590 

Sir William Web . . 1591 
Sir WUliam Rowe 1592 
Sir Cuthbert 1 

Buckle i ,-q.. 

Sir Richard Mar- f ■^^^'* 

tin J 

Sir John Spencer . . 1-594 
Sir Stephen Slauy 1595 
Thomas Skinner.. ) 
Sir Hemy BU- >15h)6 

lingsly j 

Sir Richard Salten- 

stall 1597 

Su- Stephen Some, 

or Soame 1598 

Sir Nicholas Mosley 1599 
Sir William Ryder 1600 
Sir John Ge.rard . . 1601 

Robert Lee 1602 

Sir Thomas Beuuet 1603 
Sir Thomas Low . . 1604 
Su- Henry HoUyday 1605 

Sir John Wats 1606 

Sii- Heniy Rowe . . 1607 
Sir Humphrey Weld 1608 
Sir Thomas Cambeil 1609 
Sir William Craven 1610 
Sir James Pember- 

ton 1611 

Sir John Swinnertonl612 
Sir Thomas Middle- 
ton 1613 

Sir Jonii Hayes. . . . 1614 

Sir John Jolles 1615 

Sir John Leman . . 1616 

George BoUes 1617 

Sir Sebastian Har- 
vey 1618 

Sir William Cockain 1619 
Sir Fraiicis Jones . . 1620 
Sii- Edward Bark- 
ham 1621 

Sii- Peter Proby 1622 

Sir JMavtin Lumley 1623 

Sir John Goare 1024 

Sir Allen Cotton . . 1625 
Sir Cuthbert Aket 1626 
Sir Hugh Ham- 

mei-sley 1627 

Sir Richard Deane 1628 
Sir James CambeU 1629 
Sir Robert Ducy . . 1630 
Sir George Whit- 
more 1631 

Sir Nicholas Rayn- 

ton 1632 

Ralph Freeman . . 1633 
514 



Sir Thoinas Moulson 1634 
Sir Robert Pack- 

hui-st 1635 

Sir Christopher C/.e- 



Sir Edward Brom- 

field 1637 

Sir Richard Feun.. 1638 
Sir ftlaurice Abbott 1639 
Sir Henry Garway 1640 
Sir William Acton 16 U 
Sir Richard Gurney 1642 
S ir Isaac Pennington 1643 
Sir Jolui WoUaston 1644 
Sir Thomas Atkins 1645 
Sir Thomas Adams 1646 
Sir John Gayre 
(committed to the 

Tower) 1647 

Sir John Warner . . 1648 
Sir Abraham Rey- 
nardson (commit- 
ted to the Tower 
by Parliament).. 1649 

Thomas Foote 1650 

Thomas Andrews . . 1651 

John Keudiek 1652 

JohnFowke* 1653 

Thomas Vs-ner 1654 

Chiistopher Pack. . 1655 
John Dethick .... 1656 I 
Robert Tich borne.. 1657 
Richard Chiverton 1658 I 
Sir John Ireton . . 1659 
Sir Tiiomas Alleyne 1660 
Sir Richard Browne 1661 
Sir John Frederick 1662 
Sir John Robinson 1663 ; 
SLi- Anthony Bate- 
man 1664 I 

John Lawrence 1665 I 

Sir Thomas Blud- | 

woi-th 1666 

Sir William Bolton 1667 
Sir WUliam Peake 1668 
Sir WiUiam Tm-ner 1669 
Sii- Samuel Sterling 1670 
Sir Richard Ford . . 1671 
Sir George Water- 
man 1672 

Sir Robert Hanson 1H73 
Sir William Hooker 1674 
Sir Robert Vyner. . 1675 
Sir J.,seph Sheldon 1676 
Sir Th mas Davies 1677 
«ii- Francis Chaplin 1678 
Sir James Edwards 1679 
Sir Robert Clayton 1680 
Sir Patience Ward 1681 

Sir John Moore 1682 

SirWiUiam Prichard 1683 
Sir Heni-y Tulse . . 1684 
Sir James Smith . . 1685 
Sir R..bert Jeiiej y 
Sir JoLn Peake.. , 
Sir -John Shot t^r . . 1688 
Sir John Chapman ) 
Sir Thomas Pil- Vl689 

kingtim ) 

Sir Thomas Pil- 

kingtou 1690-91 

Sir Thomas Stamp 1692 
Sir JiAiu Fleet .... 1693 
SirWiniamAshurst 1694 
Sir TiiOmas Lane . . 1695 
Sir John Houblon 1696 
Sir Edward Clarke 1697 
Sir Hiunphrcy Ed- 
win 1698 

Sir Francis Child . . 1699 
Sir Richard Levett 1700 
Sir Thomas Abney 1701 
Sir WUliam Gore.. 1702 
Sir Williiun Dash- 
wood 1703 

Sir John Parsons . . 1704 



1687 



A.D. 

Sir Owen Bucking- 
ham 1705 

Sir Thomas Rawliu- 

son 1706 

Sir Robert Beding- 

field 1707 

Sir WUl iam Withers 1708 
Sir Charles Dun- 

cumbe 1709 

Sir Samuel Garrard, 

hart 1710 

Sir Gilbert Heath- 
cote 1711 

Sir Robert Beach- 
croft 1712 

Sir Richard Hoare 1713 
Sir Samuel Stauier, 

or Stainer 1714 

Sir WiUiam Hum- 
phreys 1715 

Sir Charles Peers . 1716 
Sir James Bate- 
man 1717 

Sir William Leweu 1718 

Su- John Ward 1719 

Sir George Thorold 1720 
Sir Jnhn Fryer .... 1721 
Sir WUliam Stewart 1722 
Sir Gerard Conyers 1723 
Sir Peter Delme .. 1724 
Sir George Mertins, 

or Mai tyns 1725 

Sir Fi-ancis Forbes 1726 

Sir John Eyles 1727 

Sir Edward Beecher 1728 
SirRobei-tBaylis.. 1729 
Sir Richard Brociis 1730 
Sii- Humphrey Par- 
sous 1731 

Sir Francis ChUd 1732 

John Barber 1733 

Sir WjUiam BUlers 1734 
Sir Edward Bellamy 17:^5 
Sir John Williams 1736 
Sir John Thompson 1737 
Sir John Barnard. . 1738 
Micajalj Perrv .... 1739 
Sir John Salter .... 1740 
SirHumphrryPar- ■) 

sous >1741 

Daniel Lambert . . 3 
Sii- R^ibert God- ) 

schal V1742 

George Heathcote ) 
Robert Willimot, 

orWillmot 1743 

Sir Robert West lev 1744 
Sir Henry Marshall 1745 
Sir Richard Hoare 1746 
WUliam Benn .... 1747 
Sir Robert Ladbroke 1748 
Sir WUliam Calvert 1749 
Sir Samuel Pen- ■) 

nant >1750 

John Blachford . . ) 
Francis Cockayne 1751 
Thomas Winter- ■) 

bottom >1762 

Robert Alsop ) 

Sir Ciispe Gascoyne 1753 
Edward IrouRide I-,— , 
Thomas RawUiison J ■^'^■^ 
Stephen Theodore 

Janssen 1755 

Slingsby BetheU .. 17-56 
Marshe Dickinson 1757 
Sir Charles ASL'iU.. 1758 
Sir Richard Glyn, 

bart 1759 

Sir I homas Chitty 1760 
Sir Matthew Blakis- 

ton 1761 

Sir Samuel Fludyer, 

bart 1762 

WUliam Beckford 1763 
WiUiam Bridgen . . 1764 



A.D. 
Sir WUliam Stephen- 
son 1765 

George Nelson 1766 

Su- Robert Kite.... 1767 
Hon. Thomas Harley 1768 

Samuel Turner 1769 

WUliam Beckford ■),_.„ 
Barlow Trecothick J^"" 

Brass Crosby 1771 

WUUamNash .... 1772 
James Townshend 1773 
Frederick Bull .... 1774 

John Wilkes 1775 

John Sawbrid^e . . 1776 
Sir Thomas Hali'ax 1777 
Sir James Esdaile. . 1778 
Samuel Plumoe . . 1779 
Brackley Kennet . . 1780 
Sir Wat kin Lewes 1781 
Sir WUliam Plomer 1782 
Nathaniel Newnhaml783 
Rob-rt Peckham .. 1784 
Richard Clark .... 1785 
Thomas Wright .. 1786 
Thomas Sainsbui-y 1787 

JohnBurneU 1788 

WUliam Gill 1789 

WiUiam Pickett . . 1790 

JohuBoydeU 1791 

John Hopkins 1792 

Sir James Sander- 
son 1793 

Paul le Mesuiier . . 1794 
Thomas Skinner . . 1795 
WiUiam Curtis .... 1796 
Sir Brook Watson, 

bart 1797 

Sir John -WUliam 

Andei-son, bart.. 1798 
Sir Richard Carr 

Glynn, bart 1799 

Harvey Christopher 

Coiimbe 1800 

Sir WUliam Staines 1801 
Sir John Earner . . 1802 

Charles Price 1803 

John PeiTing 1804 

Peter Perchard .... 1805 
Sir James Shaw, 

bart 1806 

Sir WUliam Leigh- 
ton 1807 

John Ainsley 1808 

Charles Fluwer 1809 

Thomas Smith .... 1810 
Joshua Jonathan 

Smith 1811 

Claudius Stephen 

Hunter 1812 

6tori;e Scholey.... 1813 
Sir WUliam Dom- 

vUle 1814 

Samuel Birch 1815 

Mathew Wood .... 1816 
M>.thew Wood .... 1817 
Christopher Smith 1818 

John Atkius 1819 

George bi-ydges 1820 

John Thouj.asThoi-pel821 
Christopher Maguay 1822 
WiUiam Heygate . 1823 
Robert Waithman 1824 

John Garratt 1825 

WUliam Venables 1826 
Anthouy Browne.. 1827 
Matthias Prime 

Lucas 1828 

WUliam Thompson 1829 

J.ihnCrowder 1830 

Sii- John Key, bart. 1831 
Sir John Key, bart. 1832 
Sir Peter Laurie . . 1833 
Charles Farebrother 1834 
Henry Winchester 1835 
WiUiam Taylor ' 
Copeland 1836 



LOR 



LOR 



A.D. 

Thomas Kelly .... 1837 
Sir John Cowan, 

bai-t 1838 

Samuel Wilson .... 1839 
Sir Chapman Mar- 
shall, knt 1840 

Thomas Johnson . . 1841 

John Pirie 1842 

John Humphrey . . 1843 
Sir William Mag- 
nay, bart 1844 

Michael Gibbs .... 1845 
John Johnson .... 1846 
Sir George Carroll, 

knt 1847 

John Kinneraley 

Hooper 1848 

Sir James Duke, bt. 1849 
Thomas Farucomb 1850 



Sir John Musgrove, 

bart 1851 

William Hunter . . 1852 
Thomas Challis, M. P.1853 
Thomas Sidney .... 1854 
Sii' Francis Graham 

Moon, bart 1855 

David Salomons . . 1856 
Thomas Quested 

Fiunis 1857 

Sir Robert Walter 

Garden, bart 1858 

David W. Wire.... 1859 

James Carter 1860 

William Cubitt, 

M.P 1861 

William Cubitt, 

M.P. (second 

time) 1862 



The term of office commences Nov. 9, in 
the year preceding the one mentioned in the 
foregoing Ust. 

LoBD Mayor (Dublin). — The title of Lord 
was first assumed }>j the Mayors of Dubhn 
A.D. 1665. In the following list the date of 
their election to the office is given. 

ICED MAYOES OF DXJBLIX. 



A.D. 
Sir Daniel Belling- 

ham 1665 

John Desmyniers 1666 

Mark Quin 1667 

John Forrest 1668 

Lewis Desmyniers 1669 

Enoch Reader 1670 

Sir John Totty .... 1671 

Robert Deey 1672 

Sir- Joshua Allen . . 1673 
Sir Francis Bj-e wster 1674 
William Smith .... 1675 
Christopher Lovet 1676 

John Smith 1677 

Peter Ward 1678 

Johu Eastwood.... 1679 

LukeLowther 1680 

Sir Humphrey Jervis 1681 
Sir HumphreyJervis 1682 

SirEliasBesc 1683 

Sir Abel Ram 1684 

Sir Johu Kuox .... 1685 
Sir John Castleton 1686 
Sir Thomas Haokft 1687 
Sir Michael Creagh 1688 
Terence M'Dermolt 1689 

Johu Otriiigton 1690 

Sir Michael Mitchell 1691 
Sir Michael Mitchell 1692 
Sir John Koareison 1693 
Georg-. Blackball . . 1694 
WUliam Watts .. 1695 
SirWiUiamBiUing- 

ton 1696 

Bart. Van Homrigh 1697 

Thomas Quin 1698 

Thomas Quin 1699 

Sir Mark Rainsford 1700 

Samuel Walton 1701 

Thomas Bell 1702 

John Page 1703 

Sir Francis Stoyte 1704 
Williams Gibbon . . 1705 
Benjamin Burton. . 1706 

John Pearson 1707 

Sir William Fownes 1708 

Charles Forrest 1709 

Sir Johu Eccles 1710 

Ralph Gore 1711 

Sir Samuel Cooke . . 1712 
Sir Samuel Cooke.. 1713 
Sir James Barlow. . 1714 
515 



A.D. 

John Stoyte 1715 

Ihomas Bolton 1716 

Anthony Barkey . . 1717 

William Quail 1718 

Thomiis Wilkinson 1719 

George Forbes 1720 

Thomas Curtis .... 1721 
William Dickson . . 1722 

John Porter 1723 

John Reyson 1724 

Joseph Kane 1725 

William Empson . . 1726 
Sir JSIathaniel Whit- 
well 1727 

Henry Burrowes 

and John Page . . 1728 
Sir Peter Verdoen 1729 
Nathaniel Pearson 1730 

Joseph Niittall 1731 

Humphiey French 1732 

Thomas How 1733 

Nathaniel Kaue . . 1734 
Sir Richard G rattan 

and George Forbes 1735 
James Someiville. . 1736 
WilUam Walker .. 1737 

John Macarroll 1738 

Daniel Falkiner . . 1739 
Sir Samuel Cooke.. 1740 
William Aldrich .. 1741 

Gilbert King 1742 

David Tew and 
WUliam Aldrich 1743 

JohnWalkt-r 1744 

Daniel Cooke 1745 

Richard White and 

William Walker 1746 
Sir George Ribtun 1747 

Robert Ross 1748 

John Adamson .... 1749 
Thomas Taylor .... 1750 

John Cooke 1751 

Sir Charles Burton 1752 
Andrew Murray . . 1753 

Haus Bailie 1754 

Percival Hunt .... 1755 

John Forbes 1756 

Thomas Mead 1757 

Pnilip Ciamijton .. 1758 

John Tew 1759 

Sir Patrick HamU- 
ton 1760 



A.D. 

Sir Timothy AUen 1761 
Charles Rossell .... 1762 

William Fo.bes 1763 

Benjamin Geale . . 1764 
Sir James Taylor . . 1765 
Edward Sankey . . 1766 
Francis Featherston 1767 
Benjamin Barton . . 1768 
Sir Thomas Black- 
ball 1769 

George Reynolds . . 1770 
Francis Booker and 

William Forbes 1771 
Richard French . . 1772 
William Ivightburne 1773 

Henry Hart 1774 

Thomas Emerson . . 1775 

Henry Bevan 1776 

William Dunn .... 1777 
Sir Anthony King 1778 
James Halnilton . . 1779 
Killuer Swettenham 1780 

John Durragh 1781 

Nathaniel Warren 1782 

Thomas Green 1783 

James Horan 1784 

James Shiel 1785 

George Alcock .... 1786 
William Alexander 1787 

John Rose 1788 

John Exshaw 1789 

Henry Howison . . 1790 
Henry Gore Sankey 1791 
John Carl eton .... 1792 

William James 1793 

Richard Moncrieffe 1794 
Sir William Worih- 

iugton 1795 

Samuel Read 1796 

Thomas Fleming . . 1797 
Thomas Andi-ews.. 1798 
John Sutton and 

John Exshaw 1799 

Charles Thoip 1800 

Richard Manders . . 1801 

Jacob Poole 1802 

Heniy Hutton 1803 

Meredith Jeukin . . 1804 

James Vance 1805 

Joseph Pemberton 1806 

Hugh Trevor 1807 

Frederick Darley . . 1808 
Sir William Stamer, 

bart 1809 

Nathaniel Hone .. 1810 
William Heniy 

Archer 1811 

Abraham Bradley 

King 1812 

John Cash 1813 

John Claudius Beres- 

ford 1814 I 

Robert Shaw 1815 I 



AD. 

Mark Bloxham 1816 

John Alley 1817 

Thomas M'Keuny.. 1818 
Sir William Stamer, 

bait 1819 

Sir Abraham Brad- 
ley King, bart. . . 1820 
Sir John Kingston 

James, bart 1821 

John Smyth Flem- 
ing 1822 

Richard Smyth 1823 

Drury Jones 1824 

Thomas Abbot 1825 

Samuel William 

Tyndall 1826 

Sir Edmund Nugent 1827 
Alexander Mont- 
gomery 1828 

Jacob West 1829 

Sir Robert W. Har- 

ty, bart 1830 

Sir Thomas Whelan , 

knt 1831 

Charles Palmer 

Archer 1832 

Sir George White- 
ford, kut 1833 

Arthur Perrin .... 1834 
Arthur Moriison . . 1833 
William Hodges .. 1836 
Samuel Warren. . . . 1837 

George Hoyle 1838 

Sir Nicholas Wil- 
liam Brady, knt. 1839 
Sir John Kingston 

James, bai-t 1840 

Dan. O'Connell, M. P. 1841 
Dan. 0'ComieU,M.P. 1842 

George Rue 184:} 

Timothy O'Brien . . 1844 
John L Ai-abin .... 1845 

John Keshan 1846 

Michael Staunton.. 1847 
Jeremiah Dunne . . 1848 
Timothy O'Brien, 

M.P 1849 

John Reynolds, M.P. 1850 
Benjamin Lee Guin- 
ness 1851 

Johu D'Arcy 1852 

Robert Heniy Kiua- 

han 1853 

Sir Edward M'Don- 

nel.. 18.54 

Joseph Boyce 18.53 

Fergus Farrell 1856 

Richard Atkinson 1857 
John Camp el .... 1858 

James Lambe it 1859 

Reilmoud Carroll . . 1860 
Richard Atkinson . . 1861 
Denis Moylan 1862 



Jjoeds. (See House of Loeds, and 
Peers.) 

Lords Justices. — Persons under diiferent 
titles have been appointed by various English 
kings since the Norman Conquest, to act as 
their substitutes in the government of part 
or the whole of their kingdom when absent, 
or under other exceptional circumstances. 
WilHam I. appointed Odo, of Bayeux, and 
Wilham Fitz-Osbern, earl of Hereford, cus- 
todes regni, or guardians of the realm, on his 
departure for Normandy, in Lent, 1067. 
Seven persons were appointed as lords justices 
by 4 & 5 Anne, c. 20 (1705), and by 6 Anne, 
c. 41 (1707) ; and, on the death of Queen Anne, 
Aug. 1, 1714, eighteen persons acted with the 
lords justices untU the arrival of George I. 
2 L 2 



LOE 

from HaBOTer. George I. intrusted the go- 
vernment to thirteen lords justices, on quit- 
ting the kingdom in May, 1719; the same 
course was pursued during his visits to the 
continent, in 1720, 1723, 1725, and 1727. 
George II., during the hfetime of Queen 
CaroEne, left her as regent when he went 
abroad, and after her death, appointed lords 
justices during such absence. George III. 
never quitted the kingdom ; but George IV., 
on setting out for Hanover, in September, 
1821, intrusted the administration of affairs 
to nineteen lords justices. 'No such appoint- 
ment has been made during the temporary 
absence of Queen Victoria from her kingdom ; 
and in reply to questions asked in parha- 
ment in 1843, ministers declared that it was 
not deemed necessary to nominate either a 
regent, or lords justices. 

LoEDS Justices of Appeal (Court of 
Chancery). By 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83, passed 
Aug. 7, 1851, power was given to the queen 
to appoint two barristers, of not less than 
fifteen years' standing, to be judges of the 
Court of Appeal in Chancery, and, with the 
lord chancellor, to form such Court of Appeal. 
They were to be styled lords justices, and the 
power exercised by the lord chancellor in the 
Court of Chancery was, from Oct. 1, 1851, 
transferred to this new court. 

LoKDS or Aeticles (Scotland), a com- 
mittee of the Scottish parliament, abohshed 
in 1690. 

LoBD Stewaed gethe Hoxtsehold.— This 
office has the supreme control of the royal 
household. The post is one of great dignity, 
and was instituted at a very early dat«. By 
8 Hen. VII. c. 14 (1486), the lord steward was 
empowered to hold a court for the trial of 
treasons committed by members of the royal 
household, and by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1541), 
this jurisdiction was extended to all cases of 
quarrelling and striking within the palace. 
This authority was abohshed by 12 & 13 Vict. 
c. 101 (Aug. 1, 1849). By 32 Hen. VIII. 
c. 39 (1540), the office of lord steward was 
changed to that of great master of the king's 
house. It was restored by 1 Mary, session 3, 
c. 4 (1553). 

LoEETO (Italy). — This town, near Ancona, 
is celebrated for the Santa-Casa, or Holy 
House, which is said to be that in which 
the Virgin Mary was born, the scene of the 
Anmmciation and of the Incarnation, a^pd 
the retreat of the Holy Family, on their re- 
turn from Egypt, April, b.c. 3. According 
to the legend, the Santa-Casa was conveyed 
by angels from Nazareth to a hill near Fiiime, 
in Dalmatia, a.d. 1291, and thence to a 
laurel grove called Lauretta, from its owner, 
in 1294. Such is the origin of the name of 
the town that has grown up around the sanc- 
tuary. The wealth of the place proved a 
temptation to the Turkish corsairs, and 
Sixtus V. fortified it in 1586. The French, 
under Marmont, took possession of Loreto 
Feb. 12, 1797, and carried the lady of Loreto 
to Paris. The image was, however, restored 
April 8, 1802. 
L'OEiEifx (France) .-.-Louis XIV, granted 
516 



LOT 

the French East-India Company pennission 
to estabhsh magazines and docks in the Bay 
of St. Louis, A.D. 1666. The building of the 
town commenced in 1720 ; it was incorporated 
in 1738, and fortified in 1744. An EngUsh force, 
under General Sinclair, landed here Sept. 20, 
1746, but waspbhgedto re-embark on the 28th. 
On the dissolution of the French East-India 
Company, in 1770, the French government 
made L' Orient one of the stations of their 
navy. 

LoEEAiiTE (France) was conquered by 
Clovis A.D. 491, and apportioned to Lothaire 
II., receiving from him the name of Lotharin- 
gia, or Lothair-regne, the kingdom of Lo- 
thaire, A.D. 855. It was erected into a duchy 
in 916. France and Germany contended for 
its possession, and agreed to divide it between 
them in 960. The Alsatian line of dukes, 
founded by Albert of Alsace 1044, continued 
in power till the duchy was annexed to the 
French crown. By the treaty of Vienna, 
concluded Nov. 18, 1738, the duchy of Tus- 
cany was exchanged for the duchies of Lor- 
raine and Bar, which were ceded to Stanislaus 
Leczinski during his hfe. He died Feb. 3, 
1766, and Lorraine was reunited to France. 

LoTTEET. — The Congiaria of the ancient 
Eomans bore some resemblance to the mo- 
dern lottery, and formed a feature in the 
amusements of the Saturnaha, the emperors 
also employing them to secure the favour of 
the people. In this manner Augustus distri- 
buted gifts, B.C. 30 ; Nero, a.d. 54—68 ; and 
Elagabulus, 218 — 222. Florence appears to 
have been the first country in Europe in 
which a lottery was established, the emergen- 
cies of the state having been met by such a 
device A.D. 1530. Lotteries passedfrom Italy 
into France, under the name of blanques, and 
were legahzed by Francis I. in 1539. In the 
years 1572 and 1588 the duke de Nivernois 
instituted a lottery at Paris for providing 
marriage portions to young women belonging 
to his estates. The lottery received such high 
approval from the pope, that he granted to 
its supporters the remission of their sins. 
The disposal of merchandise by this means, 
which had become common, was prohibited 
in January, 1658 ; and all private lotteries 
were forbidden, under severe penalties, in 
1661, 1670, 1681, 1687, and 1700. _ The name 
lottery, common in Italy, was first used in 
France about 1658. The first lottery in 
England was proposed in 1567 and 1568, and 
was drawn at the west door of St. Paul's 
Cathedral, day and night, from Jan. 11 to 
May 6, 1659. The profit was devoted to the 
repair of harbours. Another was drawn for 
the benefit of the Virginian Company in 1612. 
Lotteries were suspended in 1620, on the 
ground of their immoral tendency. A lot- 
tery was, however, permitted in 1680, to aid 
a project for supplying the metropolis with 
water. Charles II. used them after the re- 
storation in 1660, to reward his adherents. 
A loan of £1,000,000 was raised by govern- 
ment on the sale of tickets in 1694 ; another 
of £3,000,000 in 1746 ; and another of 
£1,000,000 in 1747. For a short period in 



LOU 

the reign of Queen Anne they were prohi- 
bited. In 1778 an act requiring an annual 
licence, at a cost of £50, to be taken out, re- 
duced the number of offices from 400 to 51 ; 
and they were altogether abohshed by 6 Geo. 
IV. c. 60 (1826) ; the last pubhc lottery having 
been drawn Oct. 18, 1826. An act imposing 
a penalty of £50 for advertising them (6 & 7 
Will. IV. c. 66), was passed Aug. 13, 1836. 
A lottery was drawn at Osnaburg in 1521 ; 
one at Amsterdam, for building a church- 
steeple, in 1549 ; one at Delft in 1595 ; and 
one at Hamburg, to erect a house of correc- 
tion, in 1615. The first at Nuremberg was 
drawn in 1715 ; and at Berhn in July, 1740. 
The famous Italian or Genoese lottery was 
introduced by a member of the senate of 
Genoa, named Benedetto Gentile, in 1620. 
It was forbidden by Benedict XIII. (1724^ 
1730) ; but Clement XII. (1730—1740) estab- 
lished it at Eome ; and it was thence intro- 
duced into Germany, the first having been 
drawn at Berlin, Aug. 31, 1763. A lottery 
existed in the prineipahty of Anspach and 
Bayreuth, from 1769 to 1788 ; and one at 
Neufchatel in 1774 became bankrupt. Lot- 
teries were legalized in the United States by 
act of congress in 1776, but are said to be 
now suppressed in the north. The art unions 
in England, involving the same principle as 
the lottery, originated at Edinburgh in 1836. 

Loudon Hill, (Battle,) was fought near 
Drumclog (q.v.), June 1, 1679. 

Louisa (Order of). — This Prussian order 
was created Aug. 3, 1814, for the reward of 
women who had rendered services in hos- 
pitals to the sufferers in the war of 1813 
and 1814. 

LouiSBOUEG- (Cape Breton) . — The EngHsh 
estabhshed themselves here April 30, 1745, 
wresting the town from the French July 17, 
1745. It was restored by the treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, Oct. 7 (O.S.), 1748, retaken by the 
English July 26, 1758, and was finally ceded 
to Great Britain by the 4th article of the 
treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 

Louis d'ok. — This piece of money was 
first coined in the reign of Louis XIII., a.d. 
1641, and ceased to be a legal coin in France 
in 1726. Louis XVIII. re-established this 
gold coin on his return to Paris in 1814. 
It has been replaced by the Napoleon. 
Those coined previous to 1726 are also called 
Louis-blancs and Louis d' argent. 

Louis, Foet (Africa) , on the banks of the 
river Senegal, was captured by an English 
force April 22, 1758. Fort Louis, in Guada- 
loupe, was taken Feb. 13, 1759. 

LouisiADE Islands (Pacific). — This 
group was discovered by Bourgainville, 
A.D. 1768. 

Louisiana (North America ). — This 
country, said to have been, discovered by 
the French in 1673, was named after 
Louis XIV. by D'IberviUe, a Frenchman, 
who formed the first settlement a.d. 1699. 
A charter was granted to the colony in 1712. 
The company formed by Law's Mississippi 
scheme received the territory in 1717, and 
in 1762 it was ceded to Spain. Transferred 



LOV 

to the French in 1800, it was sold to the 
United States government for 15,000,000 
dollars in 1803. Louisiana was admitted 
into the Union in 1812, and it seceded from 
the union in 1860. 

Louis, St. (Missouri), was founded a.d. 
1764. The university was founded by the 
Koman Catholics in 1832. 

Louisville (Kentucky) was founded 
A.D. 1773, and was erected into a town in 
1780. 

Loua?H (Ireland) . — This county, conquered 
by De Courcey a.d. 1179 — 1180, was made a 
county by King John in 1210, and included 
in the province of Leinster some time in the 
reign of Ehzabeth. 

LouvAiN (Belgium), said to have been 
founded by Julius Caesar, was walled a.d. 
1156. It gave employment to 150,000 weavers 
in the 14th century, large numbers of whom 
having been banished, emigrated to England 
in 1382. The Austrian governor, Don John, 
received the submission of the inhabitants 
in 1577 ; and a French revolutionary force 
mastered the place in 1792. The castle was 
built about 900, and the cathedral of St. 
Pierre, founded in 1040, was completed in 
1358. The guildhall was built in 1317 ; the 
university, established in 1423, was attended 
by 6,000 students in the 16th century ; and 
the town-hall was built in 1448. 

LouviEBS (France) . — Here Eichard I. con- 
cluded a treaty, which was soon broken, with 
Philip Augustus of France, a.d. 1196. Henry 
Y, captured this town in 1418, and the French 
recovered it in 1450. The duke of Bedford 
having taken it after a long siege in 1451, 
razed it to the ground. The town was rebuilt, 
and the manufacture of cloth, for which it is 
celebrated, commenced in 1680. 

LouvBE (Paris) . — The early history of the 
Louvre is lost in obscurity. St. Foix says 
King Dagobert kept his horses and hounds 
in a building on its site about a.d. 627. 
Philip Augustus repaired the edifice in 1204, 
converted it into a state prison, and built a 
large tower, which is now one of the oldest 
parts of the edifice. About the middle of the 
14th century it was used as a residence for 
foreign princes visiting the king. Charles VI. 
lived there about 1380, but afterwards quitted 
it for the Tuileries. Francis I. commenced 
the present edifice in 1528. Charles IX., dur- 
ing the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 
1572, is said to have fired on the retreating 
Huguenots from one of the windows. Charles 
IX. and other kings made great additions, 
particularly Louis XIV., who laid the first 
stone of the facade from designs by Bernini, 
on the 17th October, 1665. Louis XV. in 
1719 lived here. Napoleon I. made it a 
museum; in his reign the magnificent 
buildings of the new Louvre were begun, 
and were finished, and inaugurated by 
Napoleon III. Aug. 14, 1857. The Louvre 
was assailed during the revolution of July, 
1830. The museum of sculptures, com- 
menced in 1797, was opened under the name 
of the Musee Napoleon in 1803. 

LovAi's Eebellion. — Simon Eraser, 
517 



LOV 

afterwards Lord Lovat, was despatched 
from St. Germains by the son of James II. 
for the purpose of attempting a rising in 
Scotland, where he landed towards the 
end of 1702. Having betrayed his trust, he 
returned to France in 1703, was thrown 
into the Bastille, and remained a prisoner 
there till 1708. He returned to Scotland, 
drove the Pretender's forces out of In- 
verness, jS'ov. 15, 1715, and held it for the 
government. For aiding the cause of Prince 
Charles Edward, he was sent to the Tower 
June 17, 1746; brought to trial March 9, 
1747 ; and beheaded on Tower-hiU April 9, 
1747. 

Love-Feasts. (See AGAPiE.) 

LowosiTz, or LoBosiTZ, (Battle), was 
fought between the Austrians and Prussians 
at this place in Bohemia, Oct. 1, 1756. Each 
of the combatants claimed the victory, but 
the Austrians were compelled to retire. 

Low SuKDAY. — The first Sunday after 
Easter received this name, according to 
Hone, because the church service was lovj- 
ered from the pomp of the festival of the 
preceding Sunday. It was also called 
Quasi Modo, from the first words of the 
hymn, or mass on that day. Dominica in 
Albis is also another title for this day. 

LoTALTT LoAK. — This term is apphed 
to a loan raised by the patriotic feehng of 
the country between Dec. 1 — 5, 1796, when 
£18,000,000 were subscribed in a few hours, 
and hundreds went away disappointed at 
being too late to contribute their share. 

LuBECK (Germany) was founded a.d. 
1140, ceded to the dukes of Saxony in 1158, 
and made a free imperial city in 1226, when 
the Danish garrison was expelled. It be- 
came the head of the Hanseatic League in 
1241. Blucher threw himself into the town 
to avoid the French army, when it was car- 
ried by assault, and suffered a three days' 
pillage, November, 1806. It was annexed to 
the empire Nov. 12, 1810, and regained its 
freedom after the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 19, 
1813. Its cathedral was founded in 1170, 
and finished in 1341 ; the Marien-Kirche was 
built in 1304, and the Kaath-haus in 1442. 

LtJBECK, (Treaty), was concluded at this 
town, between the emperor and the king of 
Deranark, May 22, 1629. 

Lublin (Poland) . — This town was ravaged 
by the Mongols a.d. 1241. A treaty was 
signed here in 1569, for the incorporation of 
Lithuania with Poland. 

Ltjcania (Italy), settled by the Samnites 
about B.C. 420, and rose into such import- 
ance that a league was formed against it 
by the cities of Magna Grsecia B.C. 393. A 
great battle resulted in the triumph of the 
Lucanians, B.C. 390, and the younger Diony- 
sius concluded a treaty with them B.C. 358. 
The Lucanians were reduced to subjection 
by the Eomans, B.C. 272, and in the civil 
war between Marius and Sylla, b.c. 88, their 
nationahty was extinguished. 

Ltjcab, St. (Spain). — Christopher Colum- 
bus landed here from his fourth voyage, in 
December, 1504. Magelhaens sailed from this 
518 



LUC 

port on the first voyage round the world, 
Sept. 20 or 21, 1519, and one of the ships 
belonging to the expedition returned Sept. 6, 
1522. 
Lfcatos Islands. {See Bahama.) 
Lucca (Italy), the chief town of the 
duchy of that name, is mentioned by Livy 
as having given shelter to the consul 
Sempronius, when he retired before Han- 
nibal, B.C. 218. Subsequently it fell into the 
hands of the Ligvu'ians, and became a Koman 
colony B.C. 177. A meeting of two hundred 
senators, including Caesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus, was held here B.C. 56 ; and by 
virtue of the Lex Julia it was made a muni- 
cipal town B.C. 49. Narses the eunuch took 
it, after a long siege, a.d. 553. It became 
a Lombard duchy in 572 ; was conquered by 
Arnulf in 895 ; and, having acquired its 
independence, joined the league of the 
GhibeUines in 1262. Pisa commenced hos- 
tihtiss against it in 1341, to prevent its 
union with Florence, and it submitted to 
that town in 1342. The inhabitants paid 
300,000 florins to Charles IV. for their 
freedom in 1370. Pope Urban VI., offended 
at the Genoese, honoured Lucca with his 
presence in 1386 ; and Gregory XII. made 
it his residence in 1408, previous to taking 
refuge in Venice. It was besieged by the 
Florentines in 1430, and was the place 
selected for a conference between the em- 
peror Charles V. and Paul III., Sept. 10, 
1541. The French took it in March, 1799 ; 
it was bestowed by Bonaparte on his sister 
Ehse, June 23, 1805, and annexed to Tuscany 
Oct. 11, 1847. The market-place is formed 
from an ancient amphitheatre. The church 
of St. Fredianus was founded in the 
7th century; St. Michael's was built of 
white marble in 764. The church of 
St. Eomanus was founded in the 8th 
century ; the cathedral by Pope Alexander 
in 1060 ; and the old town-hall, now a poor- 
house, in 1413. The Academy of Letters 
and Sciences was instituted in 1817 ; the 
fine aqueduct by Nottolini was commenced 
in 1815, and finished in 1832. Lucca formed 
part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. 

LucENA (Spain). — The Moors besieged 
this city April 21, 1483, and, having been 
defeated by the Spaniards in a great battle 
under its walls, retired 



\ 



LucEEA (Italy), the ancient Luceria, was, ■ 



according to tradition, founded by Diomedes 
about B.C. 1184. It allied itself with the 
Eomans B.C. 326, who dehvered it from the 
power of the Samnites B.C. 320. Constans II. 
took the city from the Lombards, and de- 
stroyed it, A.D. 663 ; and in 1227 it was 
restored by the emperor Frederick II. A 
mosque, built by the Saracens, was converted 
into the present cathedral a.d. 1269, 

LucEENE (Switzerland). — This canton 
joined the Swiss confederation a.d. 1332. 
The town of the same name was surrounded 
by towers a.d. 1385. A treaty between the 
French and the Swiss was concluded here 
May 5, 1521. Incited by the French, the 
inhabitants rose in revolt in 1798. The 



LUC 

town was retaken by the Federal forces 
Dec. 16, 1813. The g;overnment having 
determined to intrust the Jesuits with the 
education of the young, an attack was made 
on the place by a large body of Pro- 
testants, Dec. 8, 1844:. The monument to 
the Swiss Guards who defended the Tuileries 
against the Parisian mob, Aug. 10, 1792, 
was erected in 1821. 

Lucia, St. (West Indies). — This island 
was first colonized by the British a.d. 1639. 
The settlers were expelled by the Caribs, 
and the French planted a colony in 1650. 
It was the cause of many contests between 
the French and Enghsh. The latter took it 
in February, 1762 ; again Dec. 14, 1778 ; again 
May 25, 1796, and finaUy June 22, 1803. 
The capitulation was signed June 30. 

LuciFERiANS, the followers of Lucifer, 
bishop of Cagliari, a zealous opponent of 
the Arians. Having been sent to espouse 
the cause of Athanasius at the council of 
Milan, a.d. 355, he was so violent in his 
conduct that Constantine banished him. 
After going from place to place, he at 
length retired to Sardinia in 363, and 
founded the sect that bears his name. He 
died in 370, and the sect disappeared soon 
afterwards. 

Lucifer Matches superseded the more 
costly and less convenient Eupyrions and 
Prometheans a.d. 1832. The splint-cutting 
machine employed in their manufacture was 
patented by Partridge in 1842. 

LucKNOW (Hindostan), with Oude, the 
province of which it is the capital, was con- 
quered by the Mohammedans about a.d. 1300. 
The nabob was defeated in an engagement 
with the English, Oct. 22, 1764. The city 
was made the residence of the court in 1775, 
and was, with the territory, annexed to the 
British possessions in India, March 16, 1856. 
Symptoms of disaifection amongst the native 
soldiers manifested themselves May 1, 1857, 
and the place was invested by the rebels 
July 1, 1857. It was reheved by General 
Havelock and Sir James Outram, Sept. 25, 
1857, and by Sir Cohn Campbell on Nov. 17, 
1857. The Enghsh retired Nov. 22, 1857, 
and Sir Cohn Campbell recaptvured it 
March 21, 1858. 

LTJ9oiir, (Treaty,) for the pacification of 
La Vendee, was concluded at this town 
Jan. 17, 1800. 

Luddites, so called from a mythical 
Captain Ludd, under whose authority they 
professed to act, commenced their riots at 
Nottingham in opposition to the application 
of improved machinery to stocking-weaving, 
Nov. 10, 1811. On the 11th they attacked 
the house of a manufacturer at Bullwell, and 
destroyed its contents. They extended their 
operations into Derby and Leicester, where 
many frames were destroyed in the month 
of December. In consequence of the serious 
aspect matters had assumed, a bill was intro- 
duced into parliament Feb. 14, 1812, for the 
purpose of adding new legal powers to those 
already existing for their suppression. It 
was during the debate on this biU that Lord 



LUN 

Byron dehvered his maiden speech in the 
House of Lords, opposing it with great vehe- 
mence. The prince-regent sent a message 
to both houses of parhament June 27, 1812, 
caUing upon them to take proper measures 
for the restoration of order, as the combina- 
tions had become more powerful, subjected 
themselves to mihtary training, and were 
bound by an oath of secrecy and confe- 
deration. A new biU was accordingly 
brought in, and passed July 24, its operation 
being limited to March 25, 1814. A military 
force was assembled, and the local militia 
called out, for the protection of life and pro- 
perty. Fourteen of the ringleaders were 
executed at York, Jan. 10, 1813. After 
a temporary inactivity the Luddites recom- 
menced their nefarious proceedings in May, 
1814. 

LuGDUifUM (Battle). — Albinus, at the 
head of a British army, was defeated and 
slain by Severus near Lugdunimi, now 
Lyons, a.d. 197. 

Lttgo (Italy) . — This town was taken and 
pillaged by the French in 1796. The unfor- 
tunate inhabitants were put to the sword. 

Ltjn^a (Etruria) . — The Romans established 
a colony at this place, the modern Luni, B.C. 
177. The Normans plundered it a.d. 857, 
and it afterwards feU into decay. Benedict 
VIII. repulsed the Saracens here in 1016. 

Lunatic Asylums. — The public exhibi- 
tion of patients at Old Bethlem Asylum, 
Moorfields, London, was prohibited in 1771. 
In 1792 Piriel introduced the non-restraint 
system into the Bicetre, at Paris ; but 
it was not until after the revelation of 
the enormities practised at the York Asy- 
lum, made by Mr. Higgins in 1813, that 
it was adopted in England. It was tried 
at Lincoln in 1837, and proved so successful 
in its operation that it was introduced at 
Hanwell in 1839, and shortly afterwards in 
other important establishments. Provisions 
for the erection of county asylums were 
made by 48 Geo. III. c. 96 (June 23, 1808), 
which was amended by 9 Geo. IV. c. 41 
(July 15, 1828). This act was repealed by 
8 &9 Vict. c. 126 (Aug. 8, 1845), which was 
explained and amended by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 84 
(Aug. 26, 1846), and by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 43 
(June 25, 1847) . The laws respecting lunatic 
asvlums in England were finally consolidated 
arid amended by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 20, 
1853) . County asylums were ordered to be 
erected in Ireland by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 33 
(May 28, 1821), and in Scotland they are 
regulated by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 89 (Aug. 2, 
1858). 

Lunatics. — Formerly a legal distinction 
existed between a lunatic and an idiot, the 
former being a person who had lost the use of 
reason, which he once possessed ; the latter, 
one who had no understanding from the day 
of his birth. By the Roman law, persons of 
unsound mind might be deprived of the 
management of their property on applica- 
tion to the praetor by the next of kin. The 
custody of idiots and of their lands, for- 
merly vested in the lord of the fee, was, by 
519 



LUN 

17Edw. II. c. 19 (1323), made a prerogative 
of the crown. Byl7Edw. II. c. 10 (132i),the 
king was to provide for the custody and susten- 
tation of lunatics, and to preserve their lands 
and the profits of them for their use, when 
they came to their right mind. Various laws 
ou the subject are found in the statute-book. 
Ey 15 Geo. II. c. 30 (17-i2), the marriage of 
lunatics was declared illegal. AH existing laws 
on lunacv were consohdated and amended by 
16 & 17 Yict. c. 70 (Aug. 15, 1853) . The law 
of lunacy in Scotland has been amended, and 
is regulated by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 71 (Aug. 25, 
1857), which came into operation Jan. 1, 
1858. This act was amended by 21 & 22 Vict. 
c, 89 (Aug. 2, 1858). 

LuifAWABA (Hidostan), the chief tovni of 
the principahty of the same name, was freed 
from the tribute paid by its rajah to Scindia, 
by a treaty concluded with theBritish govern- 
ment Dec. 30, 1303. It was, however, re- 
imposed in 1806, and Scindia ceded his right 
to supremacy over the rajah in 1819. 

LuxD (Sweden) was a considerable city 
before the introduction of Christianity, a.d. 
830. The Scandinavian pirate kings were 
elected here. Its cathedral was founded in 
the 12th century ; the university by Chris- 
tian I. in 1479, the present structure having 
been erected in 1668. Puffendorif filled a 
professorial chair in this university in 1670 ; 
and Linnaeus matriculated here in 1727. 

LujfD Hill (Yorkshire). — An explosion 
of gas took place at a colliery here Feb. 19, 
1857. K'o less than 189 persons lost their 
lives on this occasion, and the first body was 
not recovered until April 10. 

LtrifDT Island (Bristol Channel). — This j 
island, oft" the coast of Devonshire, was 
fortified by Morisco, a pirate, in the begin- \ 
ning of the 13th century. It was held for 
Charles I. during the parUamentary wars j 
A.D. 1643. It was sold for about £9,400 in 
1840. j 

LuNKViLLE (France) , ofily a village pre- : 
vious to the 11th century, was afterwards 
fortified, and during the wars between the 
dukes of Burgundy and Lorraine sustained 
several sieges. The French captui'ed it in 
1638, and destroyed the fortifications. Leo- 
pold, duke of Lorraine, built a palace at ! 
LuneviUe in the 18th century. j 

LxJM-ETiLLE, (Treaty), was concluded at 1 
Luneville, in France, between the French 
republic and the emperor of Germany, : 
February 9, 1801, and consisted of nineteen 
articles. "Many of these explained, and others \ 
confirmed, the provisions of the treaty of ; 
Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797. The Ehine, ; 
as far as Holland, was made the boundary of 
France, and the independence of the Bata- i 
vian, Cisalpine, Helvetic, and Ligurian re- | 
publics was recognized. 

LupERCALiA. — This annual festival, es- 
tabhshed at Eonie at an early period, in 
honour of Eomulus and Eemus, and so 
called from lupi(,s, a wolf, the animal re- 
corded to have §uckled them, was observed 
on the 15th of February. Augustus endea- 
voured to restrain the licence of this festival, 
520 



LUT 

which was altogether abolished a.d. 493. 
The place where the priests of Pan assembled 
was called Luperca. 

Ltjsatia (Germany). — This ancient mar- 
graviate, made a marquisate by Henry I., 
A.D. 931, was converted to Christianity by 
Otho I., A.D. 968. It was annexed to Bohe- 
mia in 1370, and ceded to Saxony by the 
treaty of Prague in 1635 . The greater portion 
of Lusatia was assigned to Prussia by the 
treaty of Vienna, June 9, 1815. 

LusiAD. — This epic poem, commenced by 
Camoens at Santarem about a.d. 1547, and 
continued at intervals in Africa and India, 
was pubhshed at Lisbon in 1572. An edition 
translated into EngUsh by Eichard Fau- 
shawe, was pubhshed at London in 1655; 
and another by Mckle in 1776. 

LusTEUir.— This expiatory sacrifice, per- 
formed by one of the Eoman censors at the 
end of every five years, was instituted by 
Servius Tullius B.C. 566. 

LuTHEEANs, the term applied to the 
followers of Martin Luther, born at Eisleben, 
in Thuringia, Xov. 10, 1483. The majority 
of the German Protestants are Lutherans. 
At an early age Luther became acquainted 
with the views disseminated by WychtFe and 
•lohn Huss, and is said to have' received those 
impressions which ultimately induced him 
to separate from the Church of Eome, 
whilst on a visit to the Eternal City, whither 
he had been sent on business a.d. 1510. At 
Wittenberg, where he filled the theological 
chair, Tetzel, the legate of Pope Leo, 
arrived to raise money by the sale of indul- 
gences; whereupon Luther drew up his 
famous ninety-five theses, condemning the 
abuse of indulgences, and he transmitted a 
copy of them to the archbishop of Magde- 
burg, Oct. 31, 1517. Summoned to appear 
before Cardinal Cajetan at Augsburg, after 
several confereuces Luther appealed " from 
the pope iU informed to the pope better in- 
formed," November 28, 1518. After a con- 
ference with MOitz, in January, 1519, ha 
viTote an explanatory and submissive letter 
to the pope, March 3, 1519. In a disputation 
at Leipsic he denied the pope's supremacy, 
June 27, 1519. He published an address 
to the emperor and the Christian nobility 
of Germany in June, 1520. A buU against 
himself and his writings was issued by Eck 
in August ; and in the same month Luther's 
treatise on the Babylonian captivity of the 
Church appeared, denouncing the papacy 
as the kingdom of Babylon and antichrist. 
In October he had a conference with Militz, 
an,d having been excommunicated, he de- 
stroyed the buU before an immense mul- 
titude, Dec. 10, 1520. At the diet of 
Worms he maintained his opinions, April 16, 
1521, and an edict was consequently issued 
commanding his apprehension and the 
destruction of his writings. May 8, 1521. He 
was conveyed to Wartburg, under the pro- 
tection of Frederick, elector of Saxony, 
where he began his translation of the Bible 
into German, completing the New Testa- 
ment in 1521. Luther came to Wittenberg, 



Lt)T 



LYC 



where religious disturbances had arisen, and j 
restored order in 1522. Luther abandoned j 
the monastic Hfe, and his monastery being 
deserted, was given into the hands of the \ 
elector, a.d. 1524. In the same year a | 
league of German princes was formed to | 
check the progress of his opinions, which had | 
spread over Switzerland, found entrance [ 
into Scotland, and were adopted as the | 
national faith in Sweden and Denmark, ; 
1524. Luther married Catherine de Bora, i 
a nun who had left her convent, a.d. 1525, I 
in which year many of his followers were 
burned as heretics. His Liturgy and 
Order of Divine Worship was pubhshed in 
1526 ; in 1530 he presented the Articles | 
of Torgau to the elector of Saxony. At | 
the diet of Augsburg the Protestants read 
their celebrated " Confession," June 25, 
1530. A complete edition of Luther's trans- 
lation of the Bible, in three foUo volumes, 
was published in 1534. A league called the 
Holy AUiance was formed at Nuremberg, ! 
between the emperor and the Roman \ 
Catholic princes, for eleven years, against the I 
Protestants, June 10, 1538. Luther died 
at Eisleben, Feb. 17, 1546. ' 

LuTZEN (Battles). — The Swedes, com- 
manded by Gustavus Adolphus, who lost 
his hfe in the battle, gained an important 
victory over the Austrians, under Wallen- 
stein, at this place, Nov. 6, 1632 a.d. 
Napoleon I. defeated the Prussians and 
Russians in an engagement fought here 
May 2, 1813. 

LuxEMBUEG (Belgium and Holland) was 
ceded to Siegfried by the monastery of 
Treves, and created a county a.d. 965. 
The emperor Charles IV. erected it into a 
duchy in 1354. It came to Philip of Bur- 
gundy by his marriage with Isabella, daughter 
of the king of Portugal, in 1443, and through 
him passed to the house of Spain, with whom 
it remained tiU the peace of the Pyrenees, 
when part of it was ceded to France, Nov. 
7, 1659. France took entire possession in 
1795, and it passed to Holland in exchange 
for certain German principahties in 1814. 
In consequence of the Belgian revolution, 
Luxemburg was dismembered, and a portion 
was assigned to Belgium by the conference 
of London, October, 1831. 

Luxemburg (Holland). — This town, for- 
merly the capital of the old duchy, and now 
of Dutch Luxemburg, was taken by the Span- 
iards from the duke of Orleans, a.d. 1542; 
by Francis I. in 1543 ; and was captured by 
Charles V. May, 1544. Louis XIV. blockaded 
it in 1681, but withdrew, on the protest of the 
European powers, in 1682. It was ceded to 
him by the treaty of Ratisbon in 1684, and 
restored at the peace of Ryswick, Sept. 4, 
1697. Having been besieged by the French, 
xmder General Hatry, it capitulated, after 
its supphes were nearly exhausted, June 7, 
1795. It was taken by the allies in 1813, 
and was surrendered by the terms of the 
treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. As a fortress 
it was stipulated, in the treaty of Vienna, 
that it should be held by the German 



confederation, Feb. 3, 1815. The fortifica- 
tions have been greatly strengthened since 
1830. A projecting rock called Le Bouc has 
been hollowed out, and contains casemates 
for 4,000 men. 

LuxoB, or El-Uksue (Egypt), was built by 
Amenophis Memnon, one of the Pharaohs 
who reigned during the sojourn of the 
Israehtes in Egypt, about b.c. 1518. Seve- 
ral chambers and columns were added to the 
temple by Amenoph III., B.C. 1327. The 
sculptures on the wings of the portals repre- 
sent occurrences in the reign of Rameses 
Miamum, B.C. 1556. The temple was plun- 
dered by the Persians B.C. 520 ; and one of 
the massive obelisks of red granite was 
removed by the French a.d. 1831, and set 
up in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, in 
1836. 

Luxury was carried to excess amongst 
the Romans during the latter period of the 
Republic and under the Empire. Gibbon 
declares that the most remote coxmtries of 
the ancient world were ransacked to supply 
the pomp and delicacy of Rome, and, in 
conomenting upon a passage in Tacitus, 
remarks -. "It was a complaint worthy of 
the gravity of the senate, that, in the 
purchase of female ornaments, the wealth 
of the state was irrevocably given away to 
foreign and hostile nations. The annual 
loss is computed, by a writer of an inqui- 
sitive but censorious temper, at upwards of 
£800,000 sterhng." CaUgula is said to have 
served up pearls of great value, dissolved in 
vinegar, about a.d. 31. In 1340 Charles VI. 
of France issued an edict to restrain men 
from partaking of more than soup and two 
dishes. Various measures for the restraint 
of luxury are found in our statute-book. 
By 10 Edw. III. St. 3 (1336), all classes 
were prohibited from having more than two 
courses at any meal, excepting at certain 
stated festivals. This statute was repealed 
by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 64 (July 21, 1856). The 
diet and apparel of each class of the com- 
munity were regulated by 37 Edw. III. 
c. 8 — 14 (1363), and many subsequent acts, 
all of which were repealed by 1 James I. 
c. 25 (1604). 

Ltceium. — In this celebrated school at 
Athens, dedicated to Apollo Lyceius, Aris- 
totle and his disciples taught while walking 
about, and their philosophy from that cir- 
cumstance is called the peripatetic. Plulip, 
son of Demetrius, during his invasion of 
Attica, destroyed the trees of the Lyceium, 
B.C. 200. 

Lyceum Theatbe (London), called also 
the Enghsh Opera-house, derives its name 
from an academy built a.d. 1765. It was 
converted into a theatre in 1790, and into an 
English opera-house in 1809. The theatre 
was destroyed by fire Feb. 16, 1830, and was 
rebuilt in 1834. 

Lycia (Asia Minor), originally MUyas, 
was known to Homer, who makes frequent 
allusions to it in the Iliad, B.C. 962, and enu- 
merates its people among the alhes of Troy, 
B.C. 1192. This covmtry was subdued by Har- 
521 



LTD 

pagus, the general of Cyrus, and made a Per- | 
sian province B.C. 546. It was conquered by ' 
Alexander tlie Great B.C. 333 ; by tlie Eomans, 
who ceded it to the Ehodians, B.C. 188; be- 
came a Roman province about a.d. 48 ; and 
was constituted a separate province by Theo- 
dosius II. (a.d. 408 — 450) . In 1838 and 1840 
it was visited by Sir Charles Fellows, who 
discovered the remains of eleven cities. 

Ltdia (Asia Minor) . — Its history dates as 
far back as b.c. 1200; but the real Lydian 
sera commenced about b.c. 713, with G-yges, 
who reigned tiU B.C. 678, the dynasty closing 
with Croesus, B.C. 556, when Cyrus reduced 
the country to the condition of a Persian pro- 
vince. The Romans bestowed it upon the 
king of Pergamus B.C. 189, and it reverted 
to them again B.C. 133. 

Ltiitg-iis' Hospitals. — The first institu- 
tion of this kind was opened in a private 
house at Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, 
March 25, 1745, and proved so advantageous 
that in 1747 several influential men in London 
obtained from him information as to his 
regtdations, with a view to the establish- 
ment of similar hospitals at London. The 
result was the institution of the British 
Lying-in Hospital, EndeU Street, in 1749 ; 
the City of London Lying-in Hospital, Old 
Street, City Road, in 1750 ; Queen Char- 
lotte's Lying-in Hospital, Lisson Grove, in 
1752 ; the General Ljang-in Hospital, Lam- 
beth, in 1765; the Charlotte Street General 
Lying-in Dispensary in 1778 ; and the New- 
man Street General Lying-in Institution in 
1787. 

Lyme Regis (Dorsetshire) received a 
royal charter a.d. 1284, and was represented 
by two members in parliament. It was plun- 
dered by the French in 1404, and again in 
1416, and it resisted a two months' siege by 
Prince Maurice in 1644. 

Lymphatic Vessels. {See Lacteal Ves- 
sels.) 

Ltnchbtteg (Virginia) was founded a.d. 
1786, and incorporated in 1805. 

Ltjstch Law is described in Webster's 
American Dictionary as " the practice of 
punishing men for crimes and ofl:ences by 
unauthorized persons, without a legal trial." 
The same authority adds : " The term is 
said to be derived from a Virginian farmer, 
named Lynch, who thus took the law into 
his own hands." The accuracy of this defi- 
nition is questioned. Some writers beheve 
Judge Lynch to be a mythical personage, and 
others trace the origin of the phrase to one 
Lynch, sent to America in 1687-8, to suppress 
piracy. He had authority to dispense with 
the usual forms of law in the punishment of 
the pirates, and from this circumstance the 
term arose. Sir Harris Nicolas mentions 
the case of a widow who had committed 
murder, put to death in this manner by 
some of her own sex, in 1429. 

'Lyss Regis, or King's Ltnn' (Norfolk), 
received its charter from King John, who 
remained three days in the town, when 
evading the forces of the barons, Oct. 9, 
1216. It returned two members to parlia- 
522 



LYO 

ment in 1295, and was detached from the 
see of Norfolk, of which it formed a fief, 
under the name of Lvnn Episcopi, by 
Henry VIII. (1509—1547). After a three 
weeks' siege it capitulated to the parlia- 
mentary forces in 1643. St. Margaret's 
Church was founded in 1100, St. Nicholas' 
by Edward III., and the grammar-school 
in 1510. 

Lton- Kiitg-at-Aejis (Scotland). — This 
office existed in Scotland at a remote 
period, — according to some authorities 
as early as the 12th century. The first 
recorded appearance of Lyon king-at-arms 
is at the coronation of Robert II., in 
March, 1371. 

Lyons (Battle). — Clodius Albinus was 
defeated and slain by Septimius Severus, in 
a great battle fought at Lyons, Feb. 19, 
197 A.D. It terminated the civil war, and 
150,000 Romans are said to have been 
engaged on the occasion. 

Lyons (France), the ancient Ltigdunum, 
was settled by the people of Vienna, when 
driven from their homes by the AUobroges, 
B.C. 43. A Roman municipium was esta- 
blished about B.C. 12, Augustus residing 
here for some time, and raised it to such a 
degree of importance that it possessed a 
mint for coining gold and silver, and gave its 
name to one of the four divisions of Gaul. 
An altar was erected to Augustus by sixty 
of the nations of Gaul, and dedicated Aug. 1, 
B.C. 10; and Caligula visiting the town, 
instituted games in his honour, a.d. 40. 
Claudius, who was a native of the town, 
raised it to the rank of a colony, a.d. 41 — 54. 
A fire reduced it to ashes in one night, a.d. 
59, and the emperor Nero made a hberal 
grant to aid in rebuilding it. In the reign 
of Marcus Aurelius the Christians suffered 
severe persecution, the bishop Pothinus, 
who was succeeded by Irenaeus, being one of 
the victims (169—180). After the defeat of 
Clodius Albinus by Septimius Severus, it 
was piUaged and burned Feb. 19, 197. 
The emperor Gratian, seeking refuge from 
a rebellion, was murdered here Aug. 25, 
383. A conference of bishops was held by 
the Burgundian Iring Gundibald in 501. 
When the Prankish kingdom was divided, 
Lvons became a portion of the new kingdom 
of Burgundy, a.d. 561—613 ; feU to the lot of 
the emperor Lothaire, a.d. 843 ; to Charles, 
king of Provence, in 855 ; was seized by 
Charles the Bald in 863; and was included 
in the dominions of Boson a.d. 879. The 
archbishops received the title of exarch, 
and had their temporal power confirmed by 
the emperor, a.d. 1157. Archbishop John 
forbade the preaching of the followers of 
Waldo in 1178. Pope Innocent IV. fled 
here, having refused absolution to the em- 
peror Frederick II., and pronounced a fresh 
sentence of excommunication against him in 
1244; and on his refusal to appear before 
the general council, passed sentence of depo- 
sition upon him, A.D. 1245. Dissatisfied with 
their ecclesiastical rulers, the inhabitants 
elected a municipal body, but such dissen- 



LYO 

sions arose between the two authorities, that 
the city was annexed to the French crown 
about the middle of the 13th century. The 
thirteenth general council was held here 
from June 28 to July 17, 1245 ; and the 
fourteenth general council, at which the 
conclave of cardinals was estabhshed, was 
held here from May 7 to July 17, 1274. Coun- 
cils were held at Lyons in 197 ; 475 ; Sept. 2, 
500 ; in 517 ; 566 ; in May, 583 ; in 829 ; 848 ; 
1055; 1079 or 1080; and March 21, 1528. 
An order was issued by Clement V. for a 
meeting of cardinals here in 1305. The coun- 
cil which had been transferred from Pisa to 
Milan, and then to Asti, was closed in 1514. 
Henry IV. of France and Emanuel I., 
duke of Savoy, met and concluded a peace 
at Lyons in 1601. Eepudiating the authority 
of the Jacobins, it was besieged by the army 
of the French Convention for sixty-six days, 
when it was taken, and barbarities inflicted 
on the inhabitants, Oct. 10, 1793. Napoleon I., 
on his escape from Elba, visited the town, and 
persuaded the people to espouse his cause, 
March 8, 1815. A conspiracy, which proved 
abortive, was discovered June 8, 1816, and 
serious bread riots took place in 1817. In 
October, 1831, the manufacturing interests 
were so depressed that the artisans could 
earn but eightpence by working eighteen 
hours, — a state of things which led to an 
insurrection on the 22nd November, when 
after a hard day's fighting, the troops 
were driven from the town. Marshal Soult, 
with an army of 40,000 men, and 100 pieces 
of cannon, enforced submission, Dec. 3, 
1831. Another insurrection took place 
April 15, 1834, It cost the troops six days' 
hard fighting, and much loss of Hfe, before it 
was queUed. A great reform banquet, which 
led to important results, was held in the plain 
of Chatillon Aug. 31, 1840. The town suf- 
fered severely from an inundation Nov. 4, 
1841, which swept away 100 villages. An in- 
surrection occurred, and a provisional go- 
vernment was formed. May 18, 1848 ; and a 
revolt broke out, leading to great loss of 
life, June 15, 1849. Louis Napoleon, pre- 
sident of the repubHc, was entertained at 
a civic banquet Aug. 15, 1850. The Romans 
constructed three aqueducts of great length 
for supplying the city with water, one of 
them having fourteen bridges. Ninety 
arches of one of these bridges are still in a 
good state of preservation. The Hotel Dieu 
was founded by Childebert and his queen 
(a.d.511 — 558), the present structure, capable 
of receiving 12,000 patients annually, having 
been built by Soufflot about 1743. The 
church of Notre Dame occupies the site of 
the Forum Vetus of Trajan ; and the cathe- 
dral of St. Jean, begun in the 7th century, 
was finished in the reign of Louis XI. 
(1226—1270) . The Hospital de 1' Antiquaille 
stands on the site of the palace in which 
Claudius, Cahgula, and Germanicus were 
born. The town-hall was erected 1646— 
1655. The Place Bellecour, planted with 
lime-trees, is one of the largest squares in 
Europe, Two bronze tablets, containing 



MAA 

the oration of Claudius on giving the Civitas 
to the nations of Gaul, were dug up in 
1529. 

Lyons (Treaties) . — The archduke Philip, 
on the part of Spain, negotiated a treaty 
with Louis XII. of France at Lyons, where 
it was signed April 5, 1503. It provided that 
Phihp's infant son Charles should marry 
Claude, a princess of France; and the 
youthful couple were thenceforth to assume 
the titles of lung and queen of Naples, and 
duke and duchess of Calabria. The French 
division of the kingdom was to be ruled by 
some person named by Louis XII., and the 
Spanish division by the archduke Philip, or 
some person appointed by Ferdinand in the 
interval before the marriage took place. AH 
places unlawfully seized by either party were 
to be given up. War broke out soon after 
the treaty was signed, and much controversy 
has been excited amongst French and Spanish 
writers respecting this transaction. Another 
treaty between France and Spain was con- 
cluded at Lyons Feb. 11, 1504, and was rati- 
fied by Ferdinand and Isabella at the convent 
of St. Maria de la Mejorado, March 31. It 
guaranteed to Aragon the undisturbed pos- 
session of her Italian conquests for three 
years, from Feb. 25, 1504, and provided for 
a general cessation of hostilities. 

Lyon's Inn (London). — This inn of chan- 
cery, originally an hostelry with the sign of 
the Lion, was purchased by law students, 
and converted to its present purpose during 
the reign of Henry VIII. 

Lyke. — The invention of this musical 
instrument was ascribed by the Greeks to 
Apollo, or to Mercury ; but this, or a similar 
instrument, was known to the ancient Egyp- 
tians, and was also in use amongst the 
Hebrew nation. 

LrsiMACHiA (Thracian Chersonesus) was 
founded by Lysimachus, whence its name, 
B.C. 309. The Eomans captured it B.C. 191. 



1^. 

Maasteicht, or Maestricht (Holland), 
the capital of the province of Limburg, has 
sustained several memorable sieges, and has 
been called the German Gate of the Nether- 
lands. In 1576 the inhabitants expelled the 
Spaniards, who regained possession, and 
committed great atrocities, Oct. 20 in the 
same year. The patriotic party having once 
more "driven out the Spaniards, the duke of 
Parma invested it March 12, 1579. A general 
assault, April 8, was repulsed, but it was 
carried by storm June 29. The city was 
dehvered up to the infuriated soldiers for 
three days, when men, women, and children 
were treated with great barbarity. One 
historian relates that not more than 400 
citizens remained alive, and Strada says 
that 8,000 of the iuhabitants were slain 
during the siege, and of these 1,700 were 
females. It regained its independence in 1622, 
and was taken by Louis XIV. in 1673. Wil- 
liam, prince of Orange, failed in an attempt 
523 



MAC 

to capture it in 1675. The duke of Marl- 
borough occupied Maestricht in 1703. It 
was invested by the French April 3, 1748, and 
though they did not succeed in capturing it, 
yet the preliminaries of peace, signed a short 
time after, provided that it should be deli- 
vered to them, and the garrison marched out 
with the customary honours of war May 3. 
The French again besieged it Feb. 11, 1793, 
and retired in March, without having effected 
their object. They returned in 1794, and the 
city capitulated to them ]S"ov. 4. Holland 
ceded Maestricht to Belgium by a treaty vrith. 
France in 1795, and having long remained 
under French influence, it was restored to 
Holland by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. 
This city remained faithful to Holland during 
the revolution of 1830. 

Macadamizing. — John Loudon Macadam, 
who invented the mode of road-making that 
takes its name from him, first put it into 
practice on the Bristol roads, a.d. 1815. He 
was appointed general surveyor of roads in 
1827, and received two grants, amounting to 
£10,000, from parliament. 

Macalo (battle). — The Milanese forces, 
under Carlo Malatesta, were defeated at this 
place, near Cremona, by the Venetians, under 
Carmagnola, Oct. 11, 1427. 

Macao (China) was granted to the Portu- 
guese for purposes of trade, a.d. 1537. They 
kept it a close port tiU 1849, when it was 
declared free. 

MACAKOifi. — This preparation of wheat 
flour is an invention of the Itahans, and has 
for many years formed an important branch 
of manufacture in Genoa and Naples. An 
establishment for its manufacture was opened 
in Spitalfields in 1730. 

Macaboni Club. — This club of dandies 
was formed in London a.d. 1772, by a num- 
ber of young men of fashion, who had tra- 
velled in Italy, and adopted the title in con- 
tradistinction to the London Beefsteak Club 
(q.v.). Hence, ladies and gentlemen of ex- 
travagant dress were known as macaronies. 

Macaeonic Verse, or Macaronics, 
invented by Theophilo Folengo, or, as he 
called himself, Merliuus Coccaius, an Italian 
monk, born at Casino a.d. 1512. Hallam 
says that Folengo, having written an epic 
poem which he thought worthy of the^S^neid, 
and being told by a friend that he had 
equalled Vii-gil, threw it into the fire in a 
rage, and wrote Macaronics for the rest of 
his Kfe. Antonius de Arena, of Avignon, is 
said to have -WTitten macaronic verse in 1519. 
It became very fashionable, and was intro- 
duced into Enghsh literature by John Skel- 
ton, about 1483. He died in 1529, and has 
been called a rhyming Kabelais. 

Macarthy Island (Africa), comprised in 
the British colony on the Gambia, was gua- 
ranteed to England by the treaty of Ver- 
sailles, Sept. 3, 1783. 

Macassar (Eastern Seas). — This station, 
on the island of Celebes, was obtained as a 
settlement by the Portuguese a.d. 1512. In 
1603 the rajah, with all his subjects, embraced 
Mohammedanism. The harbour was made 
524 



MAC 

a free port from Jan. 1, 1847. The Dutch 
call it Vlaardingen. 

Maccabees. — A name considered to be 
cabalisticaUy derived from the motto " AYho 
among the gods is like Jehovah ! " inscribed 
on the Jewish banner used during their war 
with Syria, B.C. 166. The first of these 
apocryphal books, giving a history of the 
struggles of the Jews with their enemies in 
the period B.C. 175 — 135, was written soon 
after the events nai-rated, by an unknown 
author. The second, an abridgement of the 
larger work of Jason of Cyrene, now lost, 
and embracing the time irom about B.C. 185 
— 170, was written about B.C. 150. The third 
is considered by Dr. Allix to have been 
written B.C. 200; and the fourth, attributed 
to Josephus, may date at about a.d. 70. Of 
the authorship of a fifth book, a relation of 
Jewish affairs from some time previous to 
the birth of Christ to that event, nothing 
whatever is known. The four books were 
admitted as canonical by the Council of 
Trent, Dec. 13, a.d. 1545— Dec. 3, 1563. 

Maccabees, (^ra of the,) commenced 
Nov. 24, 166 A.D. 

Maccabees, (Festival of the,) instituted 
in honour of the seven Maccabees, who 
opposed the tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes, 
and died in defence of the Jewish law, was 
celebrated generally in the Christian chui'ch 
in the 4th century. In the Eoman martyro- 
logy it is fixed Aug. 1. 

Macclesfield (Cheshire) was incorpo- 
rated by charter a.d. 1260. The church of 
St. Michael was founded by Eleanor, queen 
of Edward I., in 1278. The grammar-school 
was founded in 1502. A subscription library 
was established here in 1770, and a school 
of design in 1851 . A free school was foimded 
in 1838. The manufacture of sUk, for which 
this town is celebrated, made great advances 
between the years 1808 and 1825. 

Mace, an improvement on the club 
as a weapon of war in barbarous times, 
is mentioned in Homer, B.C. 962, and was 
probably introduced into Europe about the 
middle of the 13th century. The heavy 
cavalry were supplied with the mace in the 
15th and 16th centuries; but it went out 
of use in England in the reign of Elizabeth 
(1558 — 1603) . Dr. Clarke considers its use in 
corporations to be derived from the cere- 
monies attendant on the preservation of 
Agamemnon's sceptre by the Chaeroneans, 
B.C. 1201. Charles II. presented one to the 
Eoyal Society, to be placed before the' 
president. Cromwell, when forcibly dissolv- ' 
ing the Long Parhament, April 20, 1653, 
said, pointing to this symbol of the speaker's 
authority, " Eemove that fool's bauble!" 
This mace was melted down and sold by 
order of the House of Commons, Aug. 9, 
1649. Lord Chancellor Finch had his house 
in Queen Street broken into and the mace 
stolen Nov. 7, 1677. 

Macedonia, orMACEDON (Greece). — The 
name is derived by some writers from 
Macedo, a descendant of Deucalijon, and 
other authorities believe it to be a corruption. 



MAC 

of Mygdonia, a district of the country. The 
early inhabitants of Macedonia are believed 
to have been an lUyrian race. 



Caranns settles in Macedon, with a Greek 
colony. 

Macedon is Invaded by Darius, king of Persia, 
and compelled to conclude an alliance with 
him. 

Macedon is delivered from the Persian yoke 
by the battle of Platsea {q. v.). 

PotiUiea, in Macedon, revolta from the Athe- 
nian confederacy. 

Potidaea is taken by the Athenians. 

On the death of Perdiccas II., his legitimate 
sons are murdered by his natural son 
Archelaus, who usurps the throne. 

Archelaus is assassinated. 

Thrace and Macedon are at war with each 
other. 

Alexander JII. is assassinated. 

Philip TI. wages war against the Athenians 
and the lUyrians. 

Philip TI. takes Pydna and Amphipolis. 

July. Birth of Alexauder the Great, 

Philip II. takes Methone, but loses an eye by 
an arrow during the siege. He expels the 
tyrants from Pherre. 

Peace is concluded with Athens. Philip II. 
obtains the mastery of the Phocseans. 

He invades lUyria, and subdues Sparta. 

He conducts an expedition into Acarnania, 
where he is opposed by the Atheniaus. 

Thrace is invaaed by Philip II. Aristotle 
resides at the Macedonian court as tutor 
to the young prince Alexander. 

Byzantium is besieged by Philip II. ■ 

Philip IT., by means of the Macedonian 
phalanx, gains the battles of Elatea and 
Chceroneia {q. v.), and thus renders himself 
master of Greece. 

Philip TI. is assassinated by the youth Pau- 
sanias, at ^gas, during the marriage games 
of his daughter. He is succeeded by Alex- 
auder III., or the Great, aged twenty years, 
who is elected generalissimo of the Greek 
allies against Pei-sia. 

Alexander III. conquers the Thracians, the 
lUyrians, and the Triballi, and takes and 
destroys Thebes. 

He crosses the Hellespont, gains the battle 
of Granicus {q.v.), and takes Sardis, Miletus, 
and Halicamassus. 

The Lacedaemonians unite with Memnon the 
Bhodian against Alexander III. He cuts 
the Gordian knot {q. v.), and gains the 
battle of Issus (q. v.). Parmenio takes 
Damascus. 

Alexander III. takes Tyre and .'Gaza, subdues 
Kgypt and Palestine, and founds Alex- 
andria. 

Oct. 1. He defeats Darius at the battle of 
Aibela (q.v.); takes Babylon, and burns 



330. The seat of government is transferred from 
Macedonia to Susa, in Babylon. Alexander 
III. subdues Hyrcauia, Aria, and Aornos, 
and puts Pai-menio to death on a charge of 
treason. 

329. Alexauder III. enters Bactria, marries the 
native princess Koxana, and claims divine 
honours. 

325. He kills Clitus, and causes the philosopher 

Calisthenes to be put to death. 

326. Alexander TIT. crosses the Indus, defeats 

Porus, and takes and destroys the city of 
San gala. 

323. Alexander III. is compelled by the mutinous 
disposition of his troops to return to 
Babylon, where he dies in May or June. 1 
Macedon engages against Greece in the [ 
Lamian war. 

322. The Macedonians defeat the Greeks at the 
battle of Cranon, which puts an end to 
the Lamian war. { 



B.C. 

313. 
311. 



256. 
334. 



840. 

978. 
1001. 
1204. 

1222. 



MAC 



War is carried on with the jEtolians. 

Koxana and her son Alexander TV. are put to 
death by Cassander. 

Alexauder V. and Antipater carry on civil war 
in Macedon. The foi-mer is aided by De- 
metrius Poliorcetes, who afterwards pro- 
cures his assassination, and usurps the 
throne. 

Demetrius is expelled from Macedonia, and 
the kingdom is divided between Lysimachus 
and Pyirhus. 

The Gauls invade Macedon. The Achsean 
League is renewed against Macedon. 

Antigoiius Gonatas seizes the crown. 

Pyrrhus invades Sparta, and is killed at 
Argos. 

Autigonus takes Athens. Macedon is again 
ravaged by the Gauls. 

Macedon is invaded by the Illyrians, who are 
defeated by Autigonus. 

Philip V. forms an alliance with Hannibal. 

He concludes a treaty with the Komans. 

He is at war with Rhodes. 

He declares war agiinst the Romans. 

Philip V. is defeated by the Romans at Cy- 
uoscephalae. 

Philip V. strives to conciliate the Romans. 

He is compelled to surrender several cities 
and territories. 

War is renewed with Rome. 

June 22. Perseus, the last king of Macedon, is 
defeated and made prisoner by the Romans, 
at the battle of Pydna. Macedon is divided 
into four Roman provinces. 

Andriscus reconquers Macedon. 

He is defeated and made prisoner by Q. 
Csecilius Metellus. 

Thracian invaders commit great ravages. 



Macedon is ravaged by the Goths. 

It is settled by some Saimatian tribes, by 

order of Constantine. 
It is ravaged by Theodoric, the Ostrogoth. 
A Persian colony settles on the Axius. 
Macedon is conquered by the Bulgarians. 
It is reconquered by Basil II. 
Macedon is erected into the kingdom of 

Thessalonica. 
It is recaptured by the Greek tyrant 

Theodore. 
It is conquered by Amurath II., by whom it 

is annexed to the Ottoman empire. 



KINGS OF MACEDOM". 



B.C. 

Perdiccas I. 

Argseus 

Philip L 

Aeropus 

Alcetas 

Amyntas 1 540 

Alexander 1 500 

Perdiccas II 454 

Archelaus 413 

Orestes and Aeropus 399 

Pausanias 394 

Amyntas II 393 

Alexander IT 369 

Ptoleraseus Alorites 3H7 

Perdiccas III 364 

Philip II 359 



B.C. 

Alexander III., the 

Great 336 

Philip III., Ari- 

d»os 323 

Olympias 316 

Cassander 315 

Philip IV 296 

Demetrius Polior- 
cetes 294 

Pyrrhus 287 

Lysimachus 286 

Autigonus Gonatas 283 

Demetrius II. 239 

Autigonus Doson . . 229 

Philip V 220 

178 



Macedont:ans. — This name, given to the 
Semi-Arians, is derived from Macedonius, a 
deacon who was made bishop of Constanti- 
nople by the Arians, a.d. 341, and was acknow- 
ledged as patriarch in 342. When the Arians 
separated into the Arians and the Semi- 
Arians, in 359, Macedonius took part with 
the latter, and he was expelled from the see 
in 3G0, after which time the Semi-Arians 
525 



MAC 

were called Macedonians. They were con- 
demned by the second general council, held 
at Constantinople from May 30 to July, 
381. 

Macelltjm:. — In this castle near Csesareia, 
Constantius II. confined Jiilian and Gallus, 
nephews of Constantino I., for six years, 
A. D. 845 to March 5, 351. 

Maceeata (Italy), the capital of a 
province of the same name annexed to the 
ecclesiastical estates by Charlemagne, was 
made a bishop's see a.d. 1322. Napoleon I., 
by a decree dated March, 1807, annexed 
this province to the kingdom of Italy. It 
was restored to the Papal States in 1814-15, 
and formed part of the new kingdom of 
Italy in 1860. 

Machiavelliaij" PEiifciPLEs. — This term 
is apphed to the principles advocated in 
the celebrated work " II Pruicipe," by 
Niccolo Machiavelli, the Florentine states- 
man. It was first pubhshed at Eome, Jan. 4, 
1532. 

MACHiNE-BEEAKiifG-. — By the fourth 
clause of 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30 (June 21, 
1827), a person breaking or destroying any 
machine employed in any manufacture in 
England, was liable to transportation for 
seven years, or imprisonment for any term 
not exceeding two years. If the offender 
was a male, whipping, either pubhcly or pri- 
vately, might be added to the imprisonment. 
A special commission for the trial of machine- 
breakers was held in Hampshire in 1830. 

Machynlleth (Wales). — The Eomans 
had a station at this town. Here the par- 
hament of Wales met and acknowledged 
Owen Glendower, as prince of Wales, a.d. 
1402 ; and Owen Glendower entered into a 
treaty iu 1403 with the Pereies and the 
Mortimers to restore Eichard II., if he 
could be found ahve, to the Enghsh throne ; 
or, in case of his decease, to make the earl 
of March king. This alliance was dissolved 
by the battle of Hateley Field {q. v.). 

Maciejovice (Battle). — A Eussian army 
of 12,000 men, commanded by Fersen, 
defeated 10,000 Poles led by Kosciusko at 
this place, in Poland, Oct. 4, 1794. Kosci- 
usko was taken prisoner. He was hberated 
after two years' imprisonment, and died at 
Soleure, in France, in 1817. 

Mackenzie Eivee (ISTorth America) is 
named after Su* Alexander Mackenzie, who 
discovered it a.d. 1785, and explored the 
stream imtH it discharged itself in the Frozen 
Ocean, which he reached July 15. 

Macon (France), the ancient Matisco, 
was occupied by one of the legions of Juhus 
Csesar B.C. 52. During the Middle Ages, 
Macon was governed by its own counts. 
Louis IX. annexed it to France in the 
13th centui-y. Macon was made a bishop's 
see in the 5th, and the town suffered 
severely in the rehgioiis wars during the 
16th century. Fearful atrocities were per- 
petrated in the Maconnais in 1789. The 
seats of the nobility and several churches 
were completely destroyed. The French 
were repulsed in an attack upon an Austrian 
526 



MAD 

detachment at this town, March 11, 1814. 
An inundation committed great destruction 
at Macon, and in the neighbourhood, in 
Ifovember, 1841. A reform banquet was 
held at Macon on Sept. 20, 1847. 

Macon (North America) . — This town in 
Georgia was httle more than a village about 
1822. The Wesleyan female coUege waa 
founded in 1839. 

Madagascab (Indian Ocean). — The exist- 
ence of this island off' the coast of Africa, 
then called Magaster, was first made known 
in Europe by the Yenetian traveller Marco 
Polo, A.D. 1298. Tristan de Cunha visited 
it in 1506, and it was named by the Portu- 
guese St. La\\-rence, because rediscovered 
on that saint's day. The Portuguese 
founded a colony here in 1508. It was 
destroyed by the French, who planted a 
settlement in the island, which they called 
Isle Dauphuie, in 1642. The French and 
English after this time formed several settle- 
ments, which were all abandoned, the French, 
who maintained their hold the latest, retiring 
about 1740. The French returned early in the 
19th century, and the settlement surrendered 
to an Enghsh force Feb. 17, 1811. The 
Enghsh garrison was captured May 19, but 
the French again succumbed, and by a 
treaty with England in 1818, the slave trade 
was aboHshed, and Madagascar declared 
independent. Eadama, the most celebrated 
of the native rulers of Madagascar, began 
to reign in 1810. He united the two-and- 
twenty states into which Madagascar is 
said to be divided, under one central autho- 
rity. He died in 1828. Christianity, which 
had been favoured by Eadama, was forbidden 
by a royal edict in 1835. The French sent 
an expedition against Madagascar in 1829. 

Madeira (North Atlantic Ocean). — This, 
the largest of a group of islands, called the 
Madeiras, is said to have afforded a refuge 
to an Englishman named Eobert Macham, 
or Machin, who, fleeing from France with 
Anna d'Arfet in 1346, was cast by a storm 
upon its coast. From this circumstance the 
island is said to have been called Machico. 
This story is, however, generally regarded 
as an invention, and the real discoverer 
of Madeira is beheved to be Gonzalves 
Zarco, the Portuguese, who visited it in 
1419. The Portuguese soon after fonned 
a settlement, and erected Funchal into a 
city in 1508. Madeira, with Portugal, passed 
under Spanish rule in 1580, and again became 
a Portuguese colony in 1640. A garrison of 
British troops, under Colonel Chnton, was 
landed on the island July 24, 1801, in 
anticipation of an attack from the French ; 
and these having been withdrawn, a second 
force, commanded by Commodore Hood and 
Major Beresford, took possession Dec. 24, 
1807, and remained till the peace of June 20, 
1814. The partisans of Don Miguel seized it 
Aug. 23, 1828, and it declared for Donna 
Maria June 10, 1834. 

Madison (North America). — This town 
of Jefferson county, Indiana, was foimded 
A.D. 1808. A university was estabhshed at 



MAD 

another town of the same name, in Wisconsin, 
in 1851. 

Mad Paeliament assembled at Oxford 
on Barnabas-day, June 11, 1258, and was 
attended by all the nobility, archbishops, 
&c., and nearly one hundred barons. It was 
summoned to effect an accommodation be- 
tween Henry 111= and the barons. The king 
and the barons respectively elected twelve 
persons to form a committee of twenty-four, 
to amend aU matters appertaining to the king 
and the kingdom. The committee required, 
amongst other things, that the king should 
observe faithfully Magna Charta, provided 
that the chief justice, chancellor, and other 
high officers, should be chosen from year to 
year, and ordered that three parhaments 
should be held every year ; namely, the first 
Oct. 6, the second Feb. 3, and the third 
June 1. These, called the Provisions of Ox- 
ford, were received pubHcly by the citizens 
of London -July 22. Henry III., who refused 
to abide by them ia February, 1261, accepted 
them ia 1262 and again in 1263. They were 
pubUcly promulgated at a council held at Lon- 
don, Sept. 8, 1263. The king of France having 
been appealed to by both Henry III. and the 
barons, annulled them at a council held at 
Amiens, Jan. 23, 1264. 

Madeas (Hindostan). — The original de- 
signation of this town was Chinna-Puttun, 
Madras being the name of a village which 
existed before the present town was founded. 

A.D. 

1639. March 1. The East-India Company receive 
permission from the native princes to esta- 
blish a factory. 

1641. Fort St. George is built at Madras. 

1652. Fort St. George, Madras, is erected into a 
presidency. 

1687. It is made a coi-poration. 

1702. David Khan, general of Aurungzebe, lays 
siege to Madras, but without success. 

1746. Sept. 14 to 19. It is bombarded and taken by 
the French, under M. de la Bourdounais. 

1748. Oct. 18. It is restored to England by the 

treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1749. Aug. It is evacuated by the French. 

1750. The Company obtaiu large grants of land near 

the town. 
17-36. The fortifications are strengthened. 

1758. Dec. 12. The French under Lally lay siege to 

Madras. 

1759. Feb. 17. The garrison is relieved by Admiral 

Pocock, and Lally is compelled to raise 
the siege. 

1769. April 4. Hyder Ali, having surprised the 

town, and obtained possession of nearly the 
whole of it, compels the governor to sign a 
treaty of peace. 

1770. July 26. Sir John Lindsay, the king's com- 

missioner, an-ives at Madras, where dis- 
putes commence between himself and the 
president. 
1776. Aug. 10. Madras is thrown into alarm by the 
approach of Hj'der AU. Aug, 24. Lord 
Pigot, the governor, is imprisoned by the 
comioil. 

1780. July. The province is thrown into consterna- 

tion by the wrrival of Hyder Ali and 
100,000 men. JSTov. 5. Six- Eyre Cuote takes 
the command of the Madras army; 

1781. Jan. 10. Sir Thomas Rumbold, governor, and 

four members of the council, are dismissed 
liy the Company. July 1. Su.- Eyre Coote 
defeats Byder. 
1783. Geneial Stuart is arrested by the governor, 
and sent to England,, 



MAD 



a.d. 
1784. 

1787. 
1788. 
1790. 
1796, 



April 26. Sir Eyre Coote dies at Madras. 

The Military Male Orphan Asylum is founded. 

The Female Orphan Asylum is founded. 

Dec. 12. Lord Cornwallia arrives at Madras. 

A lighthouse is erected. 

Dec. 26. Sir Thomas Strange is appointed the 
first chief justice. 

A navigable canal is opened, connecting the 
Black town with the river Ennore. A tire 
destroys more than 1,000 houses. 

Dec. 9. A violent hurricane does considerable 
damage. 

The sepoys at Madras mutiny. 

Much damage is done by a hurricane. 

The college for the instruction of young 
civilians in the native languages is 
founded. 

Feb. Public schools are commenced at Madras. 

St. Andrew's bridge is finished. 
1820. St Andrew's church is opened. 
1835. Feb. 14. The Kev. Daniel Come is appointed 
first bishop of Madras, pursuant to the 
act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, s. 89 (Aug. 28, 
1833). 
1844. Jan. 1. The new lighthouse on the Esplanade 

is opened. 
1847. Measures are taken for improving the drain- 
age of the Black town. 

GOVEEM-OES OF HABEAS, 

A goTernor and council were appointed 
for Madras by 24 Geo. III. c. 25 (Aug. 13, 
1784) ; and Lord Macartney, nominated as 
the first governor under this act in 1784, ar- 
rived at Madras early in 1785. 



1811. 
1812. 



1817. 
1818. 



1785. 



1790. 
1792. 
1794. 
1798. 
1799. 
1803. 
1807. 
1813. 
1814. 
1820. 



1832. 
1837. 



1853. 
1854. 



f Lord Macartney. 
( June 4. Alexander Davidson. 
Sir A. Campbell. 
John HoUond. 
f Feb. 13. E. J. Hollond. 
t Feb. 20. Major-Gen. William Medows. 
Sir Charles Oakely, bart. 
Lord Hobart. 

Major-Gen., afterwards Lord Harris. 
Lord Ciive. afterwards Earl Powis. 
Lord William Bentinck. 
f Sept. 11, William Petrie. 
t Dec. 24. Sir George Hilaro Barlow, bart. 
Lieutenant- Gen. John Abercromby. 
Hugh Elliot. 
Sir Thomas Munro, bart. 
/ July 10. Heniy Sullivan Graeme, 
t Oct. 18. Stephen Rumbold Lushington. 
Lieutenant-Gen. Sir Frederick Adam. 
Lord Elphin stone. 
Marquis of Tweeddale. 
Sir Henry Pottinger, bart. 
James Thomason. 
Lord Han-is. 

Sir Charles E. Trevelyan. 
Su- W. T. Deniaon. 



Madeid (Spain). — Some Spanish authori- 
ties claim greater antiqmtj for their metro- 
pohtan city than is possessed by Eome, but 
no mention of it occurs in history until the 
reign of Kamiro II., about a.d. 931. 



1083. The Moorish fort of 3fajerit, or Madrid, is 

taken by Alfunso VI. 
1197. It is taken by the Moors. 
1212. Alfonso IX. recaptures it. 
1461. It is enlarged by Enrique TV. 
1473. A council is held at Madrid. 
1516. Charles V. makes it a roy.al residence. 
1560. Philip II. declares Madrid the only seat of the 

Spanish court. 
1563. PhUip II. fo\mds the Escorial {q. v.). 
16-29. Philip IV. founds the college of San Isidore. 
1688. The hospital of San Fernando is founded. 
527 



MAD 



1705. June 24. Madrid is taken by the earl of 
Gal way for ChRrles III. 

1734. The old palace isdestrojed by fire. 

1737. The theatre de la Cruz is built. 

1749. The Plaza de Toros is built, and the Academy 
of Arts is founded. 

17.55. Ferdinand VI. founds the Botanical Gardens. 

1806. The theatre del Principe is established. 

1808. March 23. Mtirat arrives at Madrid. May 2. 
The inhabitants attempt to expel the 
French, who defeat the effort with great 
slaughter. July 2.5. Joseph Bonaparte is 
proclaimed king of Spain at Madrid, but 
is compelled to leave the city July 27. 
Dec. 4. The city again surrenders to the 
French. 

1812. Aug. 12. Madrid is entered by the English, 
under the duke of "Wellington. 

1842. The museum de la Trinidad is opened. 

1852. Oct. 7. Funeral strvices are performed in 
honour of the duke of Wellington. 

1854 July 17. A general insurrection of the inha- 
bitants breaks out, in consequence of the 
tmpopularity of the queen mother. 

Madeid, (Treaty,) was concluded between 
Francis I. of France, and the emperor 
Charles V., Jan. 14, 1526. Francis I., at 
that time a prisoner, restored Burgundy 
and Charolais to the emperor, renounced all 
claim to the kingdom of ISTaples, the duchy 
of MUan, to Asti, and Genoa. Other humili- 
ating conditions were extorted, and Francis 
summoned a secret meeting in his chamber, 
at which he declared that he did not intend 
to abide by the conditions of the treaty. 

Madeigal. — This kind of poem, invented 
by the Flemings about the middle of the 16th 
century, was imitated by the Italians. In 
England, Morley's first book of madrigals 
was published a.d. 1594. The Madrigal 
Society, a club of amateurs, was founded in 
London a.d. 1741. Rimbault's Bihliotheca 
Madrigalium was published in 1847. Hallam 
remarks that "some of our old madrigals 
are as beautiful in language as they are in 
melody." 

Maduea (Hindostan), the capital of a 
district of the same name, which came into 
the possession of the East-India Company 
with the Carnatic, a.d. 1801 ; sustained seve- 
ral sieges during the 18th century. Captain 
CaUiaud failed iu an attempt to capture the 
town of Madura in May, 1757. A second 
attack in July of the same year was not more 
successful. 

M^ANDEE (Battles). — This river, in Asia 
Miaor, celebrated for its numerous vdndings, 
which have rendered its name proverbial, was 
the scene of a defeat of the Turks by John II., 
A.D. 1119 ; and of another by the army of 
Manuel I. in 1177. 

MaGALHAEKS, OrMAG-EIiliATT Steait 
(South America), the most extensive strait 
in the world, connecting the Atlantic and 
Pacific oceans, was discovered by Ferdinand© 
Magalhaens, incorrectly called Magellan, a 
Portuguese, who sailed in the Spanish ser- 
vice. He reached the strait in October, 
1520, and cleared it Nov. 28. 

Magaziites. — The following is a Hst of the 
principal hterary magazines of the United 
Kingdom, with the dates at which they were 
first pubKshed. 



MAG 

A.D. 

Arminian, afterwards Methodist, Magazine .. 1778 

Bath and Bristol Magazine 1776 

Biographical Magazine . , 1776 

BUckwood's Magazine 1817 

Botanical Magazine 1788 

British Magazine 1760 

Christian Magazine 1760 

Comhill Magazine 1860 

County Magazine 1787 

Court Magazine 1761 

Dublin University 1833 

Edinbui-gh Magazine and B«view 1773 

Educational Magazine 1835 

European Magazine 1782 

Evangelical Magazine 1793 

Eraser's Magazine 1830 

Gentleman's Magazine 1731 

Gospel Magazine 1766 

Grand Magazine 1758 

Humourists' Magazine 1787 

Dnperial Magazine 1760 

Lady's Magazine 1770 

Lawyer's Masaztne 1760 

Literary Magazine 1735 

London Magazine 1732 

London Society 1862 

Macmillan's Magazine 1859 

Magazine of Magazines 1752 

MagMzine of Zoology 1836 

Mechanics' Magazine 1823 

Medical Magazine 1774 

Metropolitan Magazine 1831 

Monthly Magazine 1796 

Musical Magazine 1760 

New Mouthjy Magazine 1814 

Penny Magazine 1832 

PhUosopfiical Magazine 1798 

Protestant's Magazine 1761 

Royal Magazine 17-59 

St. James's Magazine 1861 

Saturday Magazine 1832 

Scot's Magazine 1739 

Spoi-tuig Magazine 1795 

Tait's Edinburgh Magazine 1832 

Temple Bar Magazine 1860 

Town and Country Magazine 1769 

Universal Magazine 1747 

Magdalen College (Oxford) was founded 
by William Waynflete, lord high chancellor 
of England, July 18, 1458. The great quad- 
rangle was commenced in 1473, and the foun- 
dation of the tower was laid in 1492. The 
foundations of the new buildings were laid in 
1733, and the chapel was restored in 1833. 
James II. recommended Anthony Farmer as 
president in 1687. The fellows elected Dr. 
John Hough, April 15, and for this were ex- 
pelled by the king Dec. 10. 

Magdalene College (Cambridge). — 
Edward Staiford, duke of Buckingham, com- 
menced building Buckingham House on the 
site of an ancient hostel, a.d. 1519, and this 
was completed and converted into Magdalene 
College by Thomas, Lord Audley, lord high 
chancellor of England, in 1542. Samuel 
Pepys, secretary to the Admiralty in the 
reigns of Charles II. and James II., be- 
queathed his hbrary to this institution. He 
died May 26, 1703. 

Magdalen Hall (Oxford). — This school, 
erected by "WiUiam Waynflete, to prepare 
students for admission to Magdalen College, 
was called St. Mary Magdalen Hall as early 
as 1487, and became an independent hall in 
1602. The president and fellows of Magdalen 
College obtained Hertford College by act of 
parliament in 1816. 



MAO 

Magdaxen" HospiTAi (London) was esta- 
blished Auff. 8, A.D. 1758, for the relief and 
reformation of penitent women. 

Magdalens. — The first religious associa- 
tion formed for the reformation of fallen 
women, was established in Germany before 
A.D. 1215. A similar order of nuns was 
established in France by Bertrand, a citizen 
of Marseilles, about 1272. The convent of 
the Magdalene at Naples was founded by 
Queen Sancha, of Aragon, in 1324, and that 
at Metz was established or refounded in 1452. 
The Paris convent dates from 1492, when 
Louis, duke of Orleans, gave his hotel for 
the purpose of providing a nunnery for peni- 
tents. The Magdalen at Some was established 
by Pope Leo X. in 1515. The Magdalen Hos- 
pital at London was opened Aug. 8, 1758. 

Magdeburg (Prussia), the capital of 
the province of Saxony, and now one of the 
strongest fortresses in Europe, was in exist- 
ence in the 8th century. It was taken by the 
Austrian general Tilly, the inhabitants mer- 
cilessly slaughtered, and the town, with the 
exception of about 139 houses, burnt to the 
ground. May 10, 1631. A formidable con- 
spiracy was concocted by the famous Baron 
Trenck, while a prisoner in the fortress, to 
release 16,000 captive Austrians, and master 
thegarrison, A.D. 1761. The plot was, however, 
frustrated. After having been invested fifteen 
days by the French, under Marshal Ney, 
Magdeburg capitulated Nov. 8, 1806, and was 
annexed to the new kingdom of Westphalia 
by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807. It 
was restored by the treaty of Paris, May 
30, 1814. The archbishopric was fotmded 
in 968 by the emperor Otho, whose statue, 
raised in 973, stands in the market-place. 
The cathedral, a fine Gothic edifice, which 
contains the tombs of Otho and the empress, 
was erected a.d. 1211 — 1363, and restored 
1825—1834. The church of the Virgin was 
bunt in the 11th century, and the French 
Eeformed church in the 17th century. 

Magenta. — This shade of crimson dye, 
named after the battle of Magenta (q.v.), 
and prepared from gas tar, was brought out 
in France in 1860, and thence quickly intro- 
duced into England. 

Magenta (Battle).— The French and the 
Sardinians, after a desperate struggle, de- 
feated the Austrians near this place, in Lom- 
bardy, June 4, 1859. 

Maghazul, (Battle,) was fought in a field 
near Toledo, between the Saracenic monarch 
Abderahaman, grandson of King AbdaUah, 
and the rebel Caleb Aben Hafsun, a.d. 912. 
The royal troops gained the victory, losing 
3,000, whilst the rebels lost 7,000 men. 

Magi were intrusted with the care of 
religion by Deioces, and formed one of the 
six tribes into which he divided the Medes, 
B.C. 700. They were constituted into a sacred 
caste or college when the Medes and Per- 
sians became united under Cyrus, B.C. 559. 
Two brothers of the magi revolted against 
Cambyses, and usurped the supreme autho- 
rity during his absence in Egypt, B.C. 523; 
but were put to death with such a large 
529 



MAG 

number of their sect that the day was after- 
wards observed by the Persians as the "Mas- 
sacre of the Magi," B.C. 522. The primitive 
religion, which consisted in the worship of 
Ormuzd, the symbol of hght and goodness, 
having become much debased, was greatly 
reformed by Zoroaster, about b.c. 555. 

Magic was originally taught by the magi, 
who diffused a knowledge of their mysteries 
through Greece and Arabia, on their expul- 
sion from Persia, about b.c. 500. Smedley 
(Occult Sciences, p. 190) states that " ac- 
cording to the Talmud and the Cabbala, 
which profess to agree with the Bible, magic 
is divided into three classes, — thejirst, includ- 
ing aU evil enchantments and magical cures, 
the citation of evil spirits, and the calling 
forth the dead through the aid of demons, 
— to be punished, hke idolatry, with death ; 
the second, including those magical practices 
which are carried on by the aid of evil spirits, 
by which man is often led astray and sunk 
into eternal darkness, — to be punished with 
scourging ; and the third, including astro- 
logy and aU intercourse with the lower 
spirits, excepted from punishment, but pro- 
nounced wrong, as leading from reliance 
upon God." The council of Laodicea, in 
366, condemned all magicians and enchan- 
ters, and the ancient laws dealt with them 
very severely. Trials on charges of having 
employed magical arts were common in the 
Middle Ages. 

Magic Lan-tekn.— Eoger Bacon is said 
to have invented this instrument about a.d. 
1260 ; but it was not generally known till a 
much later date. CeUini, who died in 1570, 
describes optical experiments which appa- 
rently depended for their effects on an 
apparatus of this kind. Kircher, who was 
born in 1601 and died in 1680, is frequently 
styled the inventor of the magic lantern. 
The invention of the Argand lamp in 1789, 
and of the phantasmagoria in 1802, produced 
considerable improvements in the construc- 
tion and operation of the instrument. 

Magic Squabe. — This mathematical ar- 
rangement of a set of nvunbers was known 
at an early period to the Hindoos, Egyptians, 
and Chinese. Emanuel Moschopulus, who 
wrote upon them in Greek in the middle of 
the 15th century, was the first author who 
refers to the magic square. 

Magna Chaeta, embodying some of the 
" good old laws of Edward the Confessor," 
with numerous provisions, intended to secure 
the hberty of the subject, was extorted by 
the barons from King John, and sealed in a 
field at Eunnymede, between Windsor and 
Staines, June 15, a.d. 1215. John violated its 
stipulations in August, 1215, appealed to the 
pope Sept. 13, 1215, who annulled the agree- 
ment, excommunicated the barons, and sus- 
pended Stephen Langton, archbishop of 
Canterbury, in December, 1215. It was con- 
firmed by the guardians of the vouthful 
king Henry III. at Bristol, Nov. 12, 1216, 
and subsequently by other kings so fre- 
quently, that Sir Edward Coke counted 
thirty-two confirmations, additions, or re- 
2 M 



MAG 

newals a>)out a.d. 1600. From a copy pre- 
served in Lincoln Cathedral, the Board of 
Commissioners on the Public Eecords caused 
a fae-simile' to be engraved and published, 
which is to be found, with a translation, 
in the first volume of " Statutes of the 
Keahn." 

Ma&na Gr^cia, or Majos Ge^cia 
(Italy). — This name was applied by Greek 
writers to their colonies formed on the 
southern shores of Italy, Cumae having, 
by general consent, the precedence in point 
of antiquity ; although the date of its foun- 
dation, B.C. 1050, is not to be relied upon. 
There is much uncertainty as to the pre- 
cise dates of the various settlements ; 
but the greater number of them were cer- 
tainly made between B.C. 735 and B.C. 685. 
Sybaris, B.C. 720, and Crotona, B.C. 710, 
the two most powerful cities, were founded 
by the Achseans. Tarentum, a Spartan 
colony, was estabhshed about B.C. 708; 
Metapontum by the Achseans, B.C. 700 — 
680; and Locri by the Loerians, about B.C. 
700. The date of the league between 
Crotona, Sybaris, and Metapontum, to ex- 
pel the lonians from Siris, cannot be fixed 
with any degree of accuracy. A great 
change in the pohtical condition of these 
cities was brought about by the teaching of 
Pythagoras, who arrived at Crotona about 
B.C. 530. An army of 100,000 Crotonists 
took the field against 300,000 Sybarites, and 
after defeating them on the batiks of the 
Traeis, utterly destroyed the city of Sy- 
baris, B.C. 510. Thurii, founded B.C. 443, 
and Heracleia, B.C. 432, were the two latest 
of these settlements. The Italian Greeks 
having allied themselves against Dionysius 
of Syracuse, were defeated by him in an 
important engagement near Caulonia, B.C. 
389, and at the same time they were at- 
tacked in the north by the Lucanians, with 
whom they carried on a severe and pro- 
tracted contest till B.C. 282, when they ap- 
plied to the Eomans for aid. The celebrated 
expedition of Pyrrhxis, king of Epirus, whose 
assistance had been invoked by the Greeks, 
began B.C. 281. He left them entirely at the 
mercy of the Eomans on his departure, B.C. 
274. iffearly all these cities declared for 
Hannibal after the victoiy of that general 
over the Eomans at Cannge, Aug. 2, B.C. 
216 ; but they suff'ered the penalty of this 
partisanship when fortune turned in favour 
of the Eomans ; the towns were pillaged 
and the people put to the sword or sold 
into slavery, — a subjugation from which 
they never recovered. Cicero describes 
them in his time, B.C. 106 — 43, as sunk into 
utter ruin. 

Magxesia (Battle). — The two Scipios 
gained a complete ^actory over Antiochus 
the Great, near Magnesia, usually called 
Magnesia ad Sipylum, in Lydia, and drove 
him out of Western Asia, B.C. 190. {See 
Matj-issa.) 

Ma&nesia ad M^A]S"Detjm (Greece). — 
This JSohan city, said to have been founded 
by Magnesians from Thessaly, was destroyed 
530 



MAG 

by the Cimmerians b.c. 726, and rebuilt 
by the Milesians B.C. 725. It was assigned 
to Theraistocles by Artaxerxes, to supply 
him with bread, when he was banished from 
Athens, B.C. 471 ; and the inhabitants raised 
a statue to his honour in the Agora. The 
Eomans incorporated it with the kingdom 
of Pergamus B.C. 188. A town of Lydia, 
of the same name, called Magnesia ad Sipy- 
lum to distinguish it from the above, is 
known under the modern name of Manissa 
(q.v.). 

Magnetism. — This word is supposed to 
be derived from Magnes, the name of a 
Phrygian shepherd, who was detained on 
Mount Ida by the naUs in his boots, or by 
his metal crook. Other authorities state 
that it is derived from the Lydian province 
of Magnesia, whence the Greeks obtained 
the loadstone about B.C. 1000. 



A.D. 

1576. Robert Norman discovers the dip of the mag- 
netic needle. 

1590. Julius Caesar, a surgeon of Rimini, observes 
the conversion of iron into a magnet by 
position. 

1600. Gilbert publishes his treatise " De Magnete." 

1650. Bond di-ci>vers the true progress of the devia- 
tion of the compass about this year 

1688. Halley publishes his theory of terrestrial 
magnetism. 

1699. Halley constructs the first magnetic chart. 

1722. Graham discovers the diurnal variation. 

1746. Dr. Gowan Knight constructs artificial mag- 
nets. 

1750. Michell publishes his treatise on artificial 
magnets. 

1756. Canton makes 4,000 observations on the 
variation of the needle, and ascertains 
that it is gi-eater in summer than in 
■winter. 

1780. Coulomb propounds the double-fluid theory 
of magnetism. 

1786. Cassini discovers the annual periodical varia- 
tion of the magnetic needle. Coulomb 
constructs his balance of torsion. 

1813. Morichiui magnetizes a needle by exposing it 
to the violet rays of the spectrum. 

1817. Professor Hansteen, of Christiana, publishes 
his work on the Magnetism of the Earth. 

1821. Mr. J. H Abraham, of Sheffield, rect-ives the 
large gold medal of the Society of Arts for 
his magnetic guard, to p'otect persons 
engaged in needle-pointing, &c. 

1825. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic 
force. 

18.30. Haldat produces magnetism by friction. 

1831. Sir W. Snow Harris improves the mariner's 
compass, and invents the hydrostatic mag- 
netometer. Faraday produces electricity 
by means of a magnet. 

1846. Professor Faraday propoimds the laws of 
diainagnetism. 

1848. Faraday discovers magneto-crystalline force. 

1851. General Sabine demonstrates that the terres- 
trial magnetic force has periods. 

1856. Pi'ofessor 'J'yndall proves the existence of 
diamagnetic polarity. 
(See Compass.) 

Magkolia, of several varieties, has been 
introduced into England at different periods. 
The Magnolia glaiica, or the deciduous swamp 
magnolia, was brought from North America 
A.D. 1688; the Magnolia grandiflora, great 
flowered magnolia, or laurel bay, was intro- 
duced from the same country in 1734 ; and 
the Magnolia Yulan, or conspicua, from 



MAG 

China in 1789. The Tulan magnolia has 
been cultivated in China since a.d. 627. 

Magtaks, called Ugri by the Eussians, as 
being members of the Ugrian race, whence, 
by corruption, the name Hungary, migrated 
from the southern part of the Uralian moun- 
tains, and settled on the plains of the lower 
Danube, under Arpad, their leader, a.d. 889. 
They invaded Bavaria in 900, inspiring such 
terror by the prowess of their arms and 
the rapidity of their movements, that walled 
towns in Europe are said to have had their 
origin at that period. Defeated in battle by 
the Saxon prince Henry the Fowler, in 
934, and again by Otho the Great in 955, 
their power was completely broken. An- 
drew III., who came to the throne in 1290, 
was the last king of the Arpad family, which 
became extinct in the male line in 1301. 

Mahabuleshwa (Hindostan). — Sir John 
Malcolm established this station, where a 
sanatarium has since been erected, a.d. 1828. 

Mahadia (Africa), the capital of the 
Zeirides, was captured by the Sicilians a.d. 
1146. 

Mahabajpoee (Battle). — Sir Hugh (after- 
wards Lord) Gough defeated a Mahratta 
army of 18,000 men, supported by 100 guns, 
at this town, in Guahor, Dec. 29, 1843. Sir 
Hugh had about 14,000 troops and 40 guns. 
The Mahrattas lost 3,400 men. 

Mahe (Hindostan). — This place, on the 
Malabar coast, was taken by Munro, Feb. 10, 
1711, and fell into the hands of the French 
in 1722. It was captured by the English 
in 1760; restored by the treaty of Paris, 
Feb. 10, 1763 ; again captured in 1793 ; and 
restored to France in 1815. 

Mahogany, so called from Mahogani, the 
American name of the tree, was introduced 
into England a.d. 1595. Sir Walter Raleigh's 
carpenter is said to have discovered its value 
in making articles of furniture ; but it was 
brought into notice by Woolaston, a cabinet- 
maker of Long Acre, who, in 1720, was em- 
ployed by Dr. Gibbons to make first a can- 
die-box, and afterwards a bureau, with some 
planks which he had received from the West 
' Indies. The duchess of Buckingham having 
seen the latter article, begged some of the 
wood from the . doctor, and had one made, 
which soon brought it into general use. 

Mahrattas, or Mahakattas. — The origin 
of this people of Hindostan is unknown, but 
the empire bearing theii* name was founded 
in the latter half of the 17th century, by 
Sevajee, who received from the king of 
Bejapore a jaghire in the Carnatic. He 
supplanted his father in the jaghire of 
Poonah a.d. 1647, and was succeeded by 
his son Sambajee in 1680. From 1689 till 
1818 the nominal sovereign of the period was 
kept a close prisoner, the Peishwa vnelding 
the supreme authoi-ity. When the suc- 
cession of Eagoba was disputed in 1773, he 
formed a treaty with the Enghsh govern- 
ment, by which he was to give them 
possession of Salsette and Bassein, and 
they in return were to replace him in oiRce ; 
but as the English obtained the coveted towns 
531 



MAI 

by other means, the treaty was not carried 
out. Bajeron, the Peishwa, having tried to 
draw together a confederacy against the 
English, was compelled to cede a territory 
worth £340,000 a year in 1815. Having 
attacked the houses of the British residency, 
November, 1817, he was defeated in an 
engagement, and fled. He wandered as a 
fugitive till he surrendered to Sir John 
Malcolm in June, 1818. At this time 50,000 
square miles of Poonah territory came into 
British possession, a small principality being 
assigned to the rajah of Sattara, representa- 
tive of the founder of the rule. Faihng of 
legitimate heirs, this principality fell to the 
English in 1848. A battle between the 
Mahrattas and the British, under Sir Hugh 
Gough, was fought at Maharajpore, in which 
the former were defeated, vnth the loss of 
fifty-six pieces of artillery. Dee. 29, 1843. 

Maid A, (Battle,) fought between the 
French, 7,000 strong, commanded by Gene- 
ral Eegnier, and the English, numbering 
4,800, under Sir John Stuart, at Maida, in 
Calabria, July 4, 1806. The French were 
defeated with great loss. 

Maiden, or Halifax Gibbet, an instru- 
ment for putting criminals to death, some- 
what similar to the modern guillotine, was 
in use in England in the 16th century, 
and was brought into Scotland during the 
same century; the commonly -received ac- 
count, that it was introduced into that 
kingdom by the regent James, earl of 
Morton, being incorrect. The earl of 
Argyll, the last who suffered by it, June 30, 
1685, declared that it was " the sweetest 
maiden he had ever kissed." An instrument 
of this kind is said to have been in use 
in various Italian towns about the same 
period. 

Maids op Honour. — Four ladies bearing 
this title are mentioned as having formed part 
of the queen's establishment in the wardrobe 
account of Edward I. The number is now 
hmited to eight, each of whom enjoys a 
salary of £400 per annum. Maids of 
honour were suppressed in France by 
Madame Montespan in 1673. 

Maidstone (Kent), anciently called Caer 
Meguaid, or Medwig, the city of the Medway, 
and liy the Saxons Medwegestan and Med- 
destane, was a possession of the archbishops 
of Canterbury, and is so described in 
Domesday Book, a.d. 1086. It received 
charters from Edward VI., Elizabeth, 
James I., Charles II., and George II., 
and has returned two members to parha- 
ment since the time of its first charter. 
During the Great Rebellion the Kentish 
men, who had risen for the king, were 
attacked and defeated at Maidstone by 
Fairfax, June 1, 1648. The Gothic palace 
of the archbishops of Canterbury was built 
in 1348 ; its parish church, one of the largest 
in England, was erected in the 14th century, 
and has been recently restored. A college, 
founded by Archbishop Courtenay in the 
reign of Eichard II. (1377—1399), was sup- 
pressed by Edward VI., the building now 
2 M 2 



MAI 

accommodating All Saints' College, founded 
in 1846. The county gaol was erected at a 
cost of £200,000 in 1818. 

Mail Coaches. — Mr. Palmer, manager 
of the Bath and Bristol theatres, submitted 
to Mr. Pitt, then prime-minister, the fiirst 
sketch of his plan for the conveyance of 
letters a.d. 1782, and a second, further 
developed, in 1783. In July of the same 
year the post-office authorities furnished 
government with three volumes of objections 
to the proposed innovation. In spite, how- 
ever, of this opposition, the first mail coach j 
was started from London for Bristol Aug. 2, j 
1784. In 1786 the post-office declared its 
opinion that the plan was prejudicial to 
revenue and commerce. Mr. Palmer's ori- 
ginal agreement was for 2| per cent, on the 
surplus of the net revenue over £240,000, 
and a salary of £1,500 a year, as comptroller- 
general of the post-office. An annuity of 
£3,000 was settled upon him in 1792. 

Maillotiks. — The name given to the 
citizens of Paris who revolted on account of 
the tax of the twelfth denier upon provisions, 
A.D. 1382. They rushed to the Hotel de 
ViUe, and finding no weapons but leaden 
mallets, — hence their name, fell upon the 
collectors of the tax with these, and killed 
several. The example set by Paris was imi- 
tated by many provincial towns. The dukes 
of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, who acted 
as guardians for their nephew Charles VI., 
entered into a treaty with the revolted 
Parisians. The French army, after the 
battle of Eosebec, or Eosbach, Nov. 17, 
1382, marched upon Paris, and the citizens 
were punished with fines and confiscation 
in 1383. 

Mails. — An act for the conveyance of 
mails by railway (2 Vict. c. 98) was passed 
Aug. 14, 1838. 

Maiming, formerly punished by inflicting 
a similar injury on the offender, as in the 
Mosaic economy, "an eye for an eye, a 
tooth for a tooth," was afterwards met by 
fine and imprisonment. By 22 & 23 
Charles II. c. 1 (March 6, 1671), malicious 
wounding and maiming was made a capital 
offence. This was called the Coventry Act 
(g. v.), and has since been repealed. It was 
made a capital felony, if the intention to 
commit murder is proved, or otherwise, 
punishable vrith transportation for hfe, by 
1 Viet. c. 85 (July 17, 1837). By 9 & 10 
Vict. c. 25 (1846), maiming by fire, gun- 
powder, or explosive and destructive sub- 
stances, was declared to be felony. 

Maine (North America) was discovered 
by one of the Cabots, a.d. 1497. The French 
visited it soon after, and called the northern 
part of the country Maine, and the eastern 
portion Acadie or Acadia. The first settle- 
ment was made at Phippsburg in 1607, and 
several others were formed by the Eng- 
lish about 1635. Sir Ferdinand Gorges re- 
ceived a proprietary charter in 1639. Maine 
united to Massachusetts as the coujaty of 
Yorkshire in 1652 ; was purchased from the 
Gorges family by Massachusetts in 1676. It 



MAJ 

was the theatre of the war between France 
and England from 1702 to 1713, at the close 
of which Acadia was ceded to England by 
the treaty of Utrecht, March 30, 1713. In 
1820 Maine became an independent state. 
At the close of the war, in 1814, the settle- 
ment of the boundary between Maine and 
the British province of New Brunswick was, 
by the fourth article of the treaty of Ghent, 
Dec. 24, 1814, referred to two commissioners, 
one to be appointed by the king of England, 
and the other by the president of the 
United States. In the event of a disagree- 
ment between these commissioners, the 
matter was to be referred to some friendly 
sovereign or state, whose decision was to 
be final and conclusive. Disputes arose, and 
by mutual consent the king of Holland was 
named arbitrator. He decided in favour 
of Great Britain, but the United States 
government refused to be bound by the 
award. Commissioners were sent out in 
1839, to examine the botmdary-line claimed 
by England. In 1841 another commission 
went to examine the line advocated by 
America, and they both reported in favour 
of the English claim. The controversy was 
at last settled by the Ashburton treaty 
(q.v.), concluded at Washington Aug. 9, 
1842, by which the Americans obtained 
seven -twelfths of the disputed territory. 

Maine Liquok Law. — This law, prohibit- 
ing the manufacture and sale of intoxicating 
liquors, except for certain stated pui-poses, 
and ordering the arrest and imprisonment 
of drunkards, was established in Maine, 
June 2, 1851. 

Main Plot, a conspiracy formed a.d, * 
1603, to place Arabella Stuart on the throne, 
was called the Main to distinguish it from the 
Bye, the Surprise, or the Surprising treason 
(q.v.). Isabella Stuart was a cousin of 
James I., being the daughter of the duke of 
Lennox, brother to Lord Darnley, the king's 
father. Sir Walter Ealeigh and Lord Cobham 
are said to have been the prime movers in 
this plot. They were seized in July. Sir 
Walter Ealeigh was indicted on a charge of 
high treason, Aug. 21, and was tried and con- 
demned at Winchester, Nov. 17, and Lord 
Cobham Nov. 25. They were both reprieved, 
the latter on the scattold, Dec. 9 ; but Ealeigh 
was kept in the Tower until 1616. 

Maipu, or Matpu (Battle). — The repub- 
lican army, led by San Martin, defeated the 
royalists in a plain bordering on the river 
Maipu, in Chili, a.d. 1818. 

Maitland Club (Glasgow), named after 
Sir Eichard Maitland, who died March 20, 
1586, was instituted March 31, 1828. The 
object of the association is the pubUcation of 
works illustrative of the history, antiquities, 
and hterature of Scotland. 

Majesty. — The title of majesty, at first 
apphed amongst theEomans to the dictators, 
the consuls, and the senate, as the represen- 
tatives of the power of the people, was appro- 
priated by the emperor Tiberius (a.d. 14-37). 
It was also adopted by the German emperors, 
and was introduced into France by Henry II. 



MAJ 

about A.D. 1547, though Louis XI. was the 
first to assume it permanently and oifieially. 
Francis I. saluted Henry VIII. with this title 
at their interview in 1520, and he was the first 
Enghsh monarch to whom it was applied. 
The French Assembly, in 1791, abolished the 
title. 

Majorca (Mediterranean Sea) . — This 
island is the largest of the Balearic group 
(q.v.), and but little is kriown of its early 
history. After the final expulsion of the 
Moors, A.D. 1268, Jayme I., king of Aragon, 
conferred the islands upon his third son, and 
they formed a separate kingdom up to 1349. 
In 1521 the peasants of Majorca revolted 
against the nobility, and committed great 
excesses. Majorca declared for Charles in 
the war of the Spanish succession. The 
island was captured in June, 1715, and it re- 
mained faithful to Spain during the occupa- 
tion of the Peninsula by the French. 

Ma LAB AH (Hindostan). — This tract of 
country, extending from Cape Comorin to 
the river Chandragiri, was conquered by a 
king from above the Ghaut mountains, at a 
very early period. A^asco de Gama landed 
here May 20, 1498, and the Portuguese soon 
after formed settlements. In 1761 Hyder Ali 
subdued the country, and in 1782 he ap- 
pointed a deputy. A serious rebellion was 
provoked by an attempt made by Tippoo 
Saib to introduce rehgious changes in 1788. 
Christianity was introduced at Malabar at a 
very early period. 

Malacca (Malay Peninsula), the capital 
of a district of the same name, was founded 
by a Malay king a.d. 1250. The Portuguese 
visited the town in 1507, Albuquerque cap- 
tured it in 1511, and it was made a Portu- 
guese settlement. The Dutch, who failed in 
an attack in 1605, reduced the place in 1640, 
and held it tUl Aug. 17, 1795, when it was 
taken by the British. It was restored at the 
peace of Amiens, March 25, 1807, was soon 
recaptured, and again restored to the Dutch 
in 1814. The town and a district of 1,000 
square miles were exchanged by the king of 
the N"etherlands for the British possession 
of Bencoolen, in the island of Sumatra, by 
a treaty concluded March 17, 1824. The ex- 
change was fixed to take place March 1, 1825. 

Malaga (Sea-Fight) .—An aUied Enghsh 
and Dutch fleet, consisting of forty-one Eng- 
lish and twelve Dutch ships of the line and 
six frigates, engaged the French fleet, of 
fifty ships of the Une and eight frigates, off 
Malaga, Sunday, Aug. 13, 1704. The battle 
lasted till night. It was not renewed on the 
14th, and on the 15th the French fleet sailed 
away. No ships were captured; but the 
Enghsh and Dutch lost nearly 3,000, and the 
French 4,000 in killed and wounded. Sir 
George Rooke commanded the aUied fleets. 

Mala&a (Spain), the ancient Malaca, is 
supposed to have been founded by the 
Phoenicians, and passed under the sway of 
the Carthaginians, the Remans, the Goths, 
and the Moors, in rapid succession. Fer- 
dinand and Isabella wrested it from the 
Moors, after a siege of three months' 



MAL 

duration, Aug. 18, 1487. Sebastian, at the 
head of a French army, captured Malaga, 
vrith 120 pieces of cannon and a quantity 
of stores, Feb. 5, 1810. The national guard 
revolted, and proclaimed the Spanish con- 
stitution of 1812 in this town, July 25, 1836. 
The castle, built by the Moors in 1279, 
shows traces of the effects produced by the 
Spanish artillery in the siege of 1487. The 
cathedral, commenced in 1526, was not com- 
pleted until 1782 ; and the custom-house, 
begun in 1791, was finished in 1829. The 
breakwater was commenced in 1588. 

Malakhoff (Crimea). — On the invasion 
of the Crimea by the allied Enghsh, French, 
and Turkish forces, in the autumn of 1854, 
this small white stone tower, forming one 
of the defences of Sebastopol, was much 
strengthened by the Russians, who con- 
structed an immense semicircular moimd, 
mounting thirty guns at its base. As the 
siege progressed, the defences of the Mala- 
khoff were still further extended, and it 
became in fact the key of the whole position. 
It was assaulted June 18, 1855, by the 
French, who, after a gallant struggle, were 
compelled to retire. The Russians did 
everything in their power to render the 
Malakhoff impregnable, and the result of 
their labours has been described as "a 
formidable pahsade or abattis of sharpened 
stakes in front ; then an earthen parapet of 
enormous height and thickness ; then a deep 
and wide ditch ; then three tiers of batteries 
rising one above another, armed with more 
than sixy guns of large calibre ; then sheltered 
spots at which riflemen might be ijosted ; 
and, lastly, a place d'armes large enough to 
contain a powerful defensive or offensive 
body of infantry." The French collected 
25,000 men, exclusive of 5,000 Sardinians 
and the reserves, for the second assault on 
the Malakhoff, and it was dehvered Sept. 8, 
1855, vrith entire success. For six hours the 
Russians made various unsuceessful attempts 
to expel the French. 

Maldive, or Malediva Islands (Indian 
Ocean). — This group, according to some 
authorities, 40,000 or 50,000, and, according 
to others, 1,900 or 2,000 in number, are 
described by two Mohammedan travellers of 
the 9th century. A Portuguese mariner, 
wrecked upon them in 1512, foimd them 
occupied by Mohammedans. 

Maldon- (Essex), supposed to be the 
ancient Camulodunum, is first mentioned 
in the reign of Edward the Elder, who, a.d. 
920, built and fortified the town. The 
Danes, who attacked it in 921, were repulsed, 
but they returned and captured it in 993. 
Queen Mary granted it a charter June 18, 
1553. It has sent members to parliament 
since 1329. The free grammar-school was 
founded in 1608. 

Malegnano, or Mahigij-ano (Battles). — 
Francis I. defeated an aUied German, Italian, 
and Swiss army, under the command of 
Maximilian I., at this village, near Milan, 
Sept. 13 and 14, 1515. After this victory, 
Bayard was knighted by the French king. 



MAL 

It is sometimes called the battle of St. 
Donato. In a second battle at the same 
place, Francis I. was defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Imperialists, Feb. 23, 1525. 
The French, who lost 8,000 men, were com- 
pelled to retreat from Italy. This is sometimes 
called the battle of Pavia. It was after this 
battle that Francis I. is said to have declared, 
" AH is lost but honour." In a third battle 
fought here, the French and Sardinians 
defeated the Austrians, June 8, 1859. 

Malignants. {See Engageks.) 

Malines, or Mechlin (Belgium). — This 
town dates from the 5th century of the 
Christian aera. It was destroyed by the 
Northmen in 884, was rebuilt in 887, and 
fortified in 930. The fine Gothic church of 
St. Eombaud was commenced in 1220. In 
1333 Adolphus de la Marck sold Malines to 
the counts of Flanders, and it subsequently 
passed into the power of the dukes of Bur- 
gundy. A league against France was signed 
here by the pope, the emperor Maximilian, 
Henry VIII. of England, and Ferdinand 
of Spain, April 5, 1513. The explosion 
of a powder-magazine occasioned great 
loss of life and property in 1546. MaUnes 
has been several times sacked, — by the 
Spaniards in 1572, the prince of Orange in 
1578, and the Enghsh in 1583. Marlborough 
took it in 1706, and it was taken by the 
French in 1746, 1792, and 1794, and in 1804 
they destroyed the fortifications. The 
Academy of Painting was founded in 1771. 
Malines was erected into an archbishopric ia 
1561. Synods were held here in 1570 and 1607. 

Mallicolo, or Manicola (New He- 
brides) . — This island, one of the largest in 
the group, was discovered by Quiros, a.d. 
1606. Captain Cook landed upon it in July, 
1774. 

Malmaison (France). — A castle, near 
Versailles, the retreat of the empress Jo- 
sephine after her divorce from Napoleon I., 
and the scene of her death. May 30, 1814. 
A decree was passed in 1853, for the erection 
of a monument to ber memory. 

Malmesbtjrt (Wiltshire). — ^A monastery 
founded here in the 8th century, was 
destroyed by the Danes in the 9th. It was 
restored, destroyed, again restored, and was 
made a mitred abbey by Edward III. The 
town was taken by the parhamentary army 
in 1643. 

Malmo (Sweden). — A treaty was con- 
cluded between Sweden and Denmark at 
this strongly -fortified seaport town, a.d. 1524. 
On the death of Frederick I. in 1534, Mahno 
declared in favour of Christian II., who had 
then been kept in captivity since 1523. An 
armistice between the Danes and the army 
of Sleswig-Holstein was signed at Mahno, 
Aug. 26, 1848. 

Malo- Jaeoslawitz (Battle) . — Napoleon 
I. with a portion of the French army, having 
reached this town, Oct. 23, 1812, on the 
retreat from Moscow, was assailed by the 
Eussians under Doctoroff, Oct. 24, when 
a series of furious encounters followed. The 
town, fired in several places, was taken and 
534 



MAL 

retaken seven different times, and was 
almost entirely destroyed. Though the 
French finally succeeded in expelling the 
Eussians, their losses were very severe, and 
at a council of war held the night of the 
battle, Napoleon I. determined to fall back 
on the Smolensko road, 

Malo, St. (France). — This seaport town, 
supposed to have been founded about the 
10th century, was attacked by John of Gaunt 
A.D. 1378. The privateers of St. Malo did so 
much mischief to English commerce, that in 
1693, and again in 1695, the Enghsh bom- 
barded the town, but without success. They 
destroyed a nvunber of privateers and other 
ships in the harbour of St. Malo, June 8, 
1758. Another descent made upon the 
coast of France at St. Malo, Sept. 16, 1758, 
terminated in a severe loss, 600 having been 
killed and wounded and 400 taken prisoners. 

Malplaquet (Battle). — The duke of 
Marlborough and Prinee Eugene, with an 
allied English and German army, defeated 
the French in this plain, near the river Sart, 
Sept. 11, 1709. The allies lost 18,000, and the 
French 15,000 in killed and wounded. 

Malt.— A duty on malt was first imposed 
during the reign of Charles I., and has formed 
a regular branch of the revenue since 1697. 
It was made perpetual by 3 Geo. IV. c. 18 
(April 3, 1822), and the law was amended by 
11 Geo. IV.c.17 (May 29, 1830). New regu- 
lations were imposed by 1 Vict. c. 49 (July 12, 
1837), and subsequent acts. The question of 
the repeal of the malt-tax has frequently been 
debated in the House of Commons. The tax 
was introduced into Scotland in 1713, and 
into Ireland in 1783. The imposition of a 
new malt-tax in Scotland caused serious riots 
at Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1724. 

Malta (Knights). — This island was con- 
ferred by the emperor Charles V. upon the 
Hospitallers (q.v.), for the heroism which 
they displayed against the Saracens during 
the siege of Ehodes. They took possession 
Oct. 26, 1530 ; and from this time the Hospi- 
tallers are frequently called the Knights of 
Malta. 

Malta ( Mediterranean Sea ) . — This 
island, the ancient Mehta, was first colo- 
nized by the Phoenicians, and afterwards 
by the Carthaginians. The Eomans laid 
it waste B.C. 257. The apostle Paid was 
wrecked here on his voyage from Palestine 
to Eome, a.d. 59 (Acts xxviii 1). It fell 
under the power of the Vandals, and was 
wrested from them by BeUsarius in 533. They 
retained possession till it was conquered by 
the Arabs in 870. They were expelled by the 
Normans, under Count Eoger, in 1090, and 
these new occupants held the island tiU 1189, 
when it passed under the sway of the German 
emperors. It was in the possession of France 
1258 tm 1282, when it passed to the house of 
Aragon. The emperor Charles V., who in- 
herited it as king of Aragon, made a grant of 
it to the Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John 
of Jerusalem, in 1530. Sohman assailed Malta 
with a fleet of 159 vessels, carrying 30,000 
troops, in 1565. The attack on the castle of 



MAL 

St. Elmo commenced May 24, and the be- 
sieged were reduced to the last extremity 
when relieved by a Sicilian fleet. A new city, 
called La Valetta, after the grand master, 
who had defended the place so heroically 
against the Turks, was commenced in 1566, 
and completed in 1571. The Turks failed in 
another attack upon the island in 1601. The 
French expedition to Egypt arrived off the 
island June 9, 1798, when the grand master, 
Ferdinand Hompetsch, surrendered without 
striking a blow. The inhabitants revolted in 
1798, and waged war against the French, in 
which they were assisted by an English 
squadron, until Sept. 5, 1800, when the 
French commander surrendered the whole 
island to the English. By the 10th article of 
the treaty of Amiens (March 25, 1802), Eng- 
land engaged to restore Malta to the Hospi- 
tallers, and its independence was to be placed 
under the guarantee and protection of Great 
Britain, France, Austria, Spain, Prussia, and 
Russia. In consequence of the aggressions of 
Napoleon I. in Italy, Germany, and Holland, 
and his preparations to carry on war, the 
English government refused to evacuate the 
island, and hostilities were renewed. Malta 
was formally ceded to England by the treaty 
of Paris, May 30, 1814. 

Malveen- (Worcestershire) . — Edward the 
Confessor estabhshed a hermitage at this 
place, which was subsequently erected into 
a priory, and on the destruction of the 
monasteries, Latiraier earnestly prayed that 
it might be spared for the maintenance 
of preaching and hospitahty. Henry VII. 
frequently resided at Malvern ; but it owes 
its modern celebrity to the mineral waters 
which abound in its vicinity. Dr. Wall wrote 
a treatise on their efficacy in 1756. 

Malwah (Hindostan). — This extensive 
province was invaded by the Mahrattas in 
1707, and was wrested by them from the 
Mongol empire about 1732. 

Mamelon (Crimea). — This hiU, about one 
third of a mile in advance of the Malakhoff, 
and about a quarter of a mile from the allied 
French and English batteries, formed one of 
the chief defences of Sebastopol during the 
siege. It was about a mile in circumference 
at the base, and the sides, consisting of quar- 
ries, were steep and rugged. This was forti- 
fied by the Eussians in February, 1855. The 
French captured the Mamelon June 8, 1855. 

Mamelukes, or Memlooks. — Malek Sa- 
lech, the Ayoubite sultan of Egypt, formed 
some Turkish and Circassian slaves into a 
body-guard, under this name, the word 
mameluke signifying, in Arabic, slave, a.d. 
1230. They revolted, and placed one of their 
own body on the throne, in 1250. There 
were two dynasties of the Mameluke sove- 
reigns; namely, the Baharites, founded by 
Bayers in 1244 ; and the Borgites, who sup- 
planted the Baharites in 1381. Tumanbeg, 
the last sultan of the Mamelukes, was put to 
death at Cairo, by order of Selim, April 23, 
1517. The Mamelukes continued to exist 
until the remnant of them were massacred at 
Cairo by Mehemet Ali, March 1, 1811. 



MAN" 

Mamees (France), once a fortified town, 
was taken by the Normans in the 11th cen- 
tury. The English seized it, and destroyed 
the fortifications, about a.d. 1428. 

Mameetine s. — Some mercenary bands, 
who took possession of Messina about B.C. 
282, assumed the name of Mamertini, or 
" children of Mars," from Mamers, an Oscan 
name of that deity. Hence Messina {q. v.) 
was sometimes called Mamertina. 

Manaae (Manaar Passage). — This island, 
on the coast of Ceylon, was occupied by the 
Portuguese a.d. 1560. They were expelled 
by the Dutch in 1658, and it passed under 
the rule of the English in 1796. 

Manassas, or Bull's Eun (Battle). — The 
Confederates gained a victory over the 
Federalists, or the Union party, after nine 
hours' severe fighting, at Bull's Eun, near 
Manassas Junction, in Tennessee, North 
America, July 21, 1861. The Federalists, 
who were in much greater strength than 
their opponents, were seized with a sudden 
panic, and, abandoning arms, &c., fled in 
wild confusion from the field of battle. ' 

Manchester (Bishopric). — An order in 
council, dated Dec. 12, 1838, passed for the 
erection of this diocese, did not take effect, 
and was subsequently repealed by 10 & 11 
Vict. c. 108 (July 23, 1847), which established 
the bishopric upon another footing. Another 
order in council was issued Aug. 10, 1847, for 
carrying this act into effect, and the new 
see was subjected to the metropolitan juris- 
diction of the archbishop of York. James 
Prince Lee was nominated the first bishop, 
Oct. 23, 1847, and was consecrated Jan. 23, 
1848. 

Manchestee (Lancashire). — The Celts, 
who migrated from Gaul, established a fort 
here, called Mancenion, or, 'the place of 
tents,' about b.c. 38 ; and it feU into the 
hands of the Eomans a.d. 78, who gave the 
name of Mancunium to this station. The 
town was afterwards called Manigceastre, or 
Mancestre. 



446. 

620. 
870. 
920. 
1301. 

1352. 

1421, 

1509. 
1552. 



1578. 
1616. 
1642. 



1645 
1653. 



Agricola erects four forts at the British to-wn 

Muncenioii. 
Manchester is coustituted a parish. 
It is taken by Edwin (.f Northumbria. 
It is taken by the Danes. 
Edward the Elder repairs Manchester. 
Thomas de Grelley grants the " Great Charter 

of Manchester." 
The cotton manufacture is introduced by 

Flemish ailisans. 
The old church, or cathedral, is founded about 

this year. 
Manchester free'grammar-school is founded. 
An act is passed for the improvement of 

Manchester cottons. 
The plague carries off many of the inha- 
bitants. 
The College of Manchester is refounded. 
An extraordinary flood. 
July 15. A broil between the Boyalists and 

the Puritans results in a few deatbs, and 

forms the first occurrence in the civil 

war. 
Jan. 12 to 21. The Puritans, under Sir Thomas 

Fairfax, occupy Manchester. 
The plague rages with fearful violence. 
Chetham Library and College are founded. 
535 



MABT 



1654. July 19. Manchester sends its first represen- 
tatiyeto parliament, by Order of Cromwell. 
The town lost the franchise at the Eesto 
ration. 

1720. Manchester is described as the largest, richest, 
most poptdons, and busy village in Eng- 
land. 

1745. Nov. 28. Prince Charles Edwai-d and his army 
enter Manchester. 

1752. The Mercury, the first Manchester paper of 

any importance, is established. The in- 
firmary is founded. 

1753. June 22. SUght shocks of an earthquake 

are felt. 
1755. The infirmary building is opened. 

1760. Cotton goods are first exported. 

1761. June 17. The Manchester and Worsley canal 

is opened. 

1779. Oct. 9. Riots against the introduction of 

machineiy take place. 

1780. The muslin manufacture is introduced. 

1781. The Philosophical Society is founded. 
1783. A night-watch is first appointed. 
1787. A great flood does severe damage. 

1789. June 19. The Queen's Theatre is destroyed by 
fire. 

1792. The workhouse is erected. 

1803. The Philological Society is founded. 

1806. Broughton bridge is erected. The Portico is 
buUt. 

1803. May 24 and 25. A dispute between the masters 
and weavers respecting wages leads to a 
riot, which is quelled by the military. 

1809. The Exchange is opened, and the Man- 
chester and Salford Water Company esta- 
blished. 

1811. HackJiey coaches are introduced. 

1812. April 10. A riotous meeting of the populace 

is held iu the Exchange. 

1816. Nov. 4. The first reform meeting is held at 

Peter's Fields. 

1817. Strangeway's bridge is opened. March 10. 

The " Blanketeers' " meeting is held. 

1818. Gas illumination is introduced. 

1819. Aug. 16. Contest at Peterloo (q. v.). 

1820. Aug. 1. BJackfi-iai-s bridge is opened. The 

Chamber of Commerce is established. 

1821. Kusholme - Road cemetery is formed. The 

Natural History Society is instituted. 

1822. Aug. 19. The towu-haU is founded. 

1823. The Royal Institution is fonned. 

1824. The Mechanics Institute is founded. 

1825. Jan. 1. Omnibuses are introduced in Man- 

chester. 

1826. Owing to commercial distress, numerous riots 

take place this year. Broughton suspen- 
sion-bridge and Hunt's Bank bridge are 
opened this year. 

1827. The Botanical and Horticultural Society is 

founded. 

1828. Oct. 7. The first musical festival is held. 

1829. May 2. Seriovis riots take place ; a factory is 

burnt, and numerous provision-shops are 
robbed. Tne Manchester Improvement 
Committee is formed this year. The 
Phrenological Society is founded. 

1830. Sept. 15. "The Manchester and Liverpool 

railway is opened. The building of the 
Royal Institution is inaugurated. The Con- 
cert-hall is opened. 

1831. The Botanical Gardens at Old Trafford are 

opened. 

1832. May 14. A tumultuous meeting, in favour of 

the Reform BUI, is held in Peter's Fields. 
May 17. The cholera makes its first ajs- 
pearance. June 7. The Refonn BUI, 
which constitutes Manchester a parlia- 
mentary borough, receives the royal assent. 
Aug. 9. The occasion is celebrated by a 
brilliant " reform jubilee." 

1833. The Choral Society is founded. 

1834. The Statistical Society is founded. 

1835. Manchester is incorporated by the Municipal 

Reform Act. 

1836. March 23. The Blind Asylum is founded. 
536 



ma:n" 



1837. Feb. 1. The Corn Exchange is opened. 

Harpurhey cemetery is established. The 
Athenoeum is built, and the Architectural 
Society foirnded. 

1838. May 24. The East Lancashire raUway is 

opened. Oct. 23. Manchester receives a 
charter of incorporation. The Geological 
Society is established. 

1839. June 20. Victoria bridge, over the Irwell, is 

opened. 

1840. Oct. 5. Manchester College, in connection 

■with London University, is opened. The 
Victoria Gallery is opened. 
1842. The British Association meets at Manchester. 

1844. May 7. The Theatre Royal is burnt down. 

Sept. 26. Albert bridge is opened. 

1845. April. The public baths and wash-houses are 

opened. June 10. The Commercial Schools 
are founded. Sept. 29. The new Theatre 
Royal is opened. Dec. 23. A great auti- 
comlaw league meeting is held. 

1846. Peel Park is opened. 

1847. The Exchange is enlarged. 
1849. The borough gaol is erected. 

1851. Oct. 7. The Queen visits Manchester. Owen's 

College {q. v.) is founded. 

1852. Sept. 2. The free library is opened. 

1855. June 21. The buUding for the Mechanics' 

Institute is founded. 
ia57. May 5. The Art - Treasiu-es Exhibition is 

opened by Prince Albert. 
1861. The British Association meets at Manchester 

for the second time. 

Manchestee Aet- Treasures Exhi- 
BiTiON. — The idea of holding an art- 
treasures exhibition at Manchester was 
suggested by Mr. Deane, the general com- 
missioner of the exhibition, to a meet- 
ing held at Manchester March 26, 1856. 
A guarantee fund of £74,000 having been 
raised in three weeks, a site was selected 
at Old Traiford, adjoining the Botanical 
Gardens, for the erection of the building, 
which was a parallelogram, of 660 feet by 
220 feet, covering an area of 130,000 square 
feet, at a cost of about £30,000. The ar- 
rangement of the art-treasures was placed 
under the direction of George Scharf, F.E.S. 
The n\miber of paintings of all kinds, col- 
lected in this building, by old masters, was 
1,115, and by modern masters, 689. There 
were, in addition, 969 water-colour drawings ; 
388 British portraits, 59 cases of enamels, 
280 original sketches and drawings by the 
old masters, 937 engravings iu hue, 161 in 
mezzotinto, 246 etchings, and 600 photo- 
graphs. The museum of ornamental art 
comprised 17,000 articles. It was opened by 
Prince Albert May 5, 1857, and closed on the 
17th of October. During the time it re- 
mained open it was visited by 1,335,915 per- 
sons; and it was, in all respects, a great 
success. 

Ma^chestee (North America), merely a 
village in 1840, received a charter in 1846. 

Mandates, or Letters from the Pope, 
requesting a bishop to confer the next vacant 
benefice upon some person named therein, 
were first issued by Adrian IV. (a.d. 1154 — 
1159). The practice was continued by 
Alexander III. (1159—1181), until Clement 
IV., in 1266, issued a bull claiming the right 
of nomination in certain cases. The right of 
issuing royal mandates to judges, for inter- 



MAIS- 



MAN 



fering in private causes, was relinquislied 
as a prerogative of the English crown by 
Edward I. 

MANFREDOjriA (Italy), named after King 
Manfred, who founded it a.d. 1250, was at 
first named Novum Sipontum, because it 
stood near the site of that ancient town. 
A bay in the vicinity is called the Gulf of 
Manfredonia. The town was taken by the 
Turks in 1620. 

Mangaloee (Hindostan) . — This tovra, 
supposed to have been colonized by Arabs 
at a very early period, was taken by Hyder 
All in 1767. The EngHsh, who took it 
Feb. 25, 1768, were compelled to retire 
early in May of the same year. They re- 
covered it in 1783, the fortress surren- 
dering March 9. Tippoo Saib besieged it 
May 23, and, having converted the siege 
into a ijlockade, the garrison capitulated 
Jan. 26, 1784. The English restored it at 
the conclusion of peace in that year ; but it 
came into their possession, with the whole 
of the Carnatic, after the final overthrow of 
Tippoo in 1799. 

Man&aloee, (Treaty,) was concluded be- 
tween the British and Tippoo Saib at this 
town, in Hindostan, March 11, 1784. A 
restitution of conquests was agreed to on 
both sides. 

Manganese was included among iron 
ores irntQ a.d. 1774, when Scheele, and 
afterwards Gahn, proved that the metal in 
this mineral was distinct from iron. 

Mangaeeva Geoup. {See Gameiee Is- 
lands.) 

Manich^ans. — This heretical sect was 
foimded in Persia by Mani, Manes, or 
Manichseus, about a.d. 261. He endea- 
voured to engraft Christianity upon the 
doctrines of the Magi, who beneved in the 
two principles. The heresy spread rapidly 
through Persia, Egypt, and Palestine, ulti- 
mately aflfecting the whole Roman empire. 
Mani was burned ahve by Varanes I. in 
274. Mihnan (Lat. Christianity, b. ii. c. 4) 
remarks, " That sebt, in vain proscribed, 
persecuted, deprived of the privilege of 
citizens, placed out of the pale of the law 
by successive imperial edicts; under the 
abhorrence not merely of the orthodox, but 
of almost all other Christians, were con- 
stantly springing up in all quarters of 
Christendom with a singularly obstinate 
vitahty." It appeared under various dis- 
guises, and many of its main features were 
adopted by the Paulicians (q. v.), who 
sprung up at Samosata. The Manichseans 
were condemned by several councils, and 
Pope Leo I. ordered their books to be 
burned in 443. 

Manilian Law. — In the year B.C. 66, 
Caius ManUius, one of the tribunes, pro- 
posed the revival of a law relating to the 
enrolment of freedmen, which had been 
carried by the popular party under Carbo, 
and was afterwards repealed by Sylla. By 
proposing it suddenly, at a late "hour of the 
day, when the majority of the citizens were 
absent from the forum, he succeeded ia his 



object ; but it was instantlj' annulled by the 
senate, because it had been Ulegally passed. 
This is said to have been the origin of the 
celebrated Manilian law, vesting the sole 
management of the war against Tigranes 
and Mithridates in Pompey. It was sup- 
ported by Caesar and Cicero, and passed 
B.C. 65. 

Manilla (Indian Archipelago). — This 
city, on the island of Luzon, and capital 
of the Philippines, was founded by the 
Spaniards a.d. 1571. An expedition, 
fitted out at Madras, under Admii-al 
Cornish and Colonel William Draper, took 
the place Oct. 6, 1762 ; when, to save the 
rich cargoes that lay in the port, a ran- 
som of £1,000,000 was promised ; an ar- 
rangement which the king of Spain after- 
wards refused to ratify. It was restored 
to Spain by the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 
1763. The royal college for the instruction 
of youths was founded by Phihp IV. in 1645 ; 
the bronze statue of Charles IV., standing 
in the pubhc square, was presented to the 
town by Ferdinand VII. in 1824. England 
was allowed to trade here in 1809, a privi- 
lege previously withheld from foreigners, and 
extended to all nations in 1814. An earth- 
quake in 1645 destroyed 3,000 lives ; and 
others in 1762 and 1824 did much damage. 
A fire, by which 10,000 huts were destroyed, 
30,000 persons rendered honsieless, and fifty 
hves lost, occurred March 26, 1833. 

Manilla Islands. {See Philippines.) 

Manissa (Greece), the ancient Magnesia 
ad Sipylum, surrendered to the Eomans 
under Scipio, B.C. 190, and was nearly 
destroyed by an earthquake, when Tiberius 
granted funds from the treasury to aid in 
its restoration, a.d. 17. The emperor of 
Nicsea, Theodore II., died here a.d. 1258, 
and it fell into the hands of the Turks 
A.D. 1312. 

Mannheim (Baden). — Frederick IV., the 
elector palatine, enlarged and fortified 
this place, then merely a village, a.d. 1606. 
It suffered greatly during the Thirty Years' 
War. The French captured it in 1688, and 
the fortifications were improved in 1699, 
The French besieged Mannheim in 1793 ; 
but, having retired, returned and captured 
it Sept. 20, 1795. The French garrison 
capitulated to the Austrians, Nov. 22 in the 
same year. Mannheim was again taken 
by the French, March 2, 1799; and they 
were expelled by the Austrians, Sept. IS, 
1799. One portion of the aUied army 
passed the Rhine at this place in the night 
of Dec. 31, 1813. Mannheim was made the 
seat of the electoral court in 1720 ; and it 
was removed to Munich in 1778, and the 
town was assigned to Baden-Baden by the 
treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. The 
palace, founded in 1720, was completed ia 
1731. 

Mange. — In the feudal times, amanor was 
a territorial district, with jurisdiction, rights, 
and perquisites thereto belonging. In Eng- 
land manors were afterwards called baronies, 
and ultimately lordships. Each lord held a 
537 



MAN" 

court, called Court Baron (q.v.), for redress- I 
ing wrongs and settling disputes among the 
tenants. A writer in the National Cyclopae- 
dia remarks : " The modern English manor 
derives its origin from subinfeudation, as it 
existed before the modifications of the sys- 
tem of tenures introduced in 1215 by Magna 
Charta, and the still more important alter- 
ations made in 1290, by the statute 'Quia 
Emptores,' and in 1324 by the statute ' de 
Prserogativa Eegis,' by which statutes the 
granting land in fee simple, to be held by , 
the grantee as a tenant or vassal to the ' 
grantor, was stopped." 

Manresa (Spain).— a French brigade 
was cut off near this town by the Spaniards, 
A.D. 1810. The French captured and de- 
stroyed it in May, 1811. The modern bridge 
over the Carbonero was built in 1804. 

Mansion House (London) was founded ; 
A.D. 1739, from the designs of George Dance, ! 
city surveyor. The use of the Mansion 
House, furniture, carriages, &c., and an \ 
allowance of £8,000, is granted to the Lord 
Mayor during the year that he holds the 
office. It was first occupied in 1753, by 
Thomas Winterbottom, who died during 
his mayoralty. 

Mans, Le (France), formerly the chief 
town of Maine, is built upon the site of the 
Eoman Smudinum, which in the 4th century 
was called Oenomania, from which the 
present name is derived. Its earlier inhabi- 
tants, the Cenomani, joined Vercingetorix 
against Caesar, B.C. 52. The church of 
Notre Dame du Pre dates from the 11th, 
the church de la Couture from the 12th, and 
the cathedral of St. Julien from the 13th 
century. Henry II. of England was born 
at Le Mans in March, 1133. The church de 
I'Ancienne Visitation was opened in 1737. 
Le Mans has sustained several sieges. Mor- 
ceau drove the royalists from this stronghold 
during the Vendean war, Dec. 13 — 16, 1793. 
The Chouans took Le Mans in March, 1799. 

Mansurah, or El Mansoorah (Battle). 
— The Saracens defeated the Crusaders at a 
great battle near this town, in Lower Egj^t, 
April 5, 1250 a.d. Louis IX. was compelled 
to purchase peace on very humiliating terms. 

Mantes (France).— William I., having 
marched with an army from Normandy into 
France, burned this town to the ground in 
August, 1087. It is in this conflict his horse 
is said to have set its foot on some hot ashes, 
and, by plunging violently, bruised its rider 
on the pommel of his saddle. The injuries 
William I. received brought on an iUness, of 
which he died at the monastery of St. Gervas, 
Sept. 9. 

Mantinea, or Mantineia (Greece). — 
This city of Arcadia, said to have been 
named after Mantineus, son of Lycaon, was 
founded by the inhabitants of four or five 
villages at an early period. Mention is made 
of the city about B.C. 540; and an indecisive 
battle was fought between Mantinea and 
Tegea, b.c. 423. The Spartans, under Agis, 
defeated the combined army of Argives, 
Mantineians, and Athenians, near this city. 



MAN 

in June, 418 B.C. They were defeated by 
the Spartans B.C. 385, and compelled to re- 
tire from their city, the walls of which were 
destroyed. They returned after the battle 
of Leuctra, July, 371 B.C., and began to re- 
build their city. Epaminondas, the Theban 
general, defeated them at the second battle 
of Mantinea, B.C. 362. The city was taken 
and pillaged, and the inhabitants were sold 
as slaves, by Antigonus Doson, king of Mace- 
donia, B.C. 222. It was rebuilt, and called 
Antigonea, after Antigonus Doson, and did 
not resume its former name until the time 
of Hadrian. In addition to the aforemen- 
tioned battles, the defeat of Archidamus and 
the Spartans by Demetrius Pohorcetes, 
B.C. 295; the defeat of the Spartans under 
Agis, by Aratus and the Achseans, B.C. 242; 
and the defeat of the Spartans by the 
Achaean forces under Phdopofmen, B.C. 207, 
are all known as battles of Mantinea, be- 
cause they were fought in a plain near that 
city. 

Man-Traps and Spring-Guns.— By 
7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 18 (May 28, 1827), any 
person setting any spring-gun, man-trap, or 
other engine calculated to destroy life, or 
inflict grievous bodily harm, was to be guilty 
of a misdemeanour. The act did not extend 
to Scotland. By the fourth clause, spring- 
guns, &c., might be set inside a dweUing- 
house for the protection thereof, from sunset 
to sunrise. 

Mantua (Italy).— This city of Northern 
Italy was founded by the Etruscans at a very 
early date, but little is known with certainty 
respecting its ancient history. It passed 
under the Eoman power B.C. 197, and is 
naemorable as having been the birthplace of 
Virgil, B.C. 70. Its territories were distri- 
buted among the veterans of Augustus, B.C. 
42 ; and it was sacked by the troops of 
Vitellius A.D. 69. In 270 it was piUaged by 
the Marcomani, and in 403 and 408 was taken 
by Alaric. After numerous reverses of for- 
tune, Mantua passed into the hands of 
Louis I. of Gonzaga in 1328 ; and, under 
his rule, speedily attained great importance. 
In 1392 a confederation was signed here with 
other Italian cities, for the maintenance of 
the equiUbrium of Italy. The town was 
erected into a marquisate in 1433, and into a 
duchy in 1530. Mantua was besieged and 
taken by the Imperiahsts, after an arduous 
siege, which lasted from Aprfl 8 to July 18, 
1630. In 1701 it was occupied by the French, 
and in 1707 was taken by the Imperialists. 
On the extinction of the house of Gonzaga 
in 1708, it passed into the power of Joseph I. 
of Austria; and in 1791 Leopold II. and the 
Bourbon enaigrants organized a coalition here 
against the French republic. It was taken 
by Bonaparte, after a siege which lasted 
from June 14, 1796, till Feb. 2, 1797, and 
erected into the cliief town of the department 
of the Mincio. The Austrians regained 
possession July 30, 1799, but it was restored 
to France in 1800, after the battle of Ma- 
rengo. It was restored to Austria in 1814. 
By the treaty of Zurich, Nov. 10, 



i 



MAP 

Mantua and Peschiera were the only towns 
of Lombardy left to the house of Austria. 
Mantua was erected into a bishopric in 808. 
Councils were held here in 827, 1053, and 
1067. 

Maple. — The scarlet maple was intro- 
duced into England, from North America, 
before a.d. 1656, and the ash-leaved maple 
from the same part of the world before 
1688. 

Maps. — Anaximander of Miletus is the 
reputed inventor of geographical maps, 
about B.C. 568. The first maps engraved 
from metal plates were used to illustrate an 
edition of Ptolemy's Geography, published 
in A.D. 1462 ; and the first marine charts seen 
in England were brought by Bartholomew 
Columbus in 1488. Mercator's projection 
was invented in 1556, by Gerard Mercator, 
and improved in 1599 by Wright. 

Makathom" (B attles ) . — A great battle, 
in which the Greeks, under Miltiades, de- 
feated the Persians and vindicated the in- 
dependence of Greece, was fought in the 
plain of Marathon, in Arcadia, B.C. 490. 
Marathon is mentioned as a place of im- 
portance in the Homeric poems. The 

Greeks, during the war of independence, 
defeated 2,000 Turks at Marathon, July 18, 
1824 A.D. 

Makbach League. — The elector of May- 
ence, the margrave ot Baden, several power- 
ful princes, and many of the free towns, 
formed a league at Marbach, a.d. 1406, 
under pretence of redressing various wrongs 
and abuses, for the destruction of the 
emperor Eupert. He made some conces- 
sions, and the league was dissolved. 

Marble. — Phny states that marble was 
first employed as a material for sculpture 
by Dipsenus and ScyUis, who were born in 
Crete about b.c. 580. They used the white 
marble of Pharos in their works. The 
practice of staining marble commenced 
during the reign of Claudius. 

Maeble Arch (London) was erected by 
George IV. as a gateway to Buckingham 
Palace, a.d. 1830, and was removed to its 
present site, at the north-east entrance of 
Hyde Park, in 1851. The original cost was 
£80,000, and the expense incurred by the 
removal amounted to £11,000. 

Marburg- (Hesse-Cassel). — The landgrave 
Phihp founded the first Lutheran university 
at tins town a.d. 1527. A conference was 
held in its castle between Luther, Melanc- 
thon, and other German reformers, Oct. 1, 
1529. The French captured Marburg June 3, 
1759, but were expelled by the Austrians 
Sept. 11. The French took it again in 1760 ; 
and the garrison, assailed by the Austrians 
without success in 1761, was compelled to 
surrender in 1762. The church of St. 
Elizabeth, commenced in 1235, was not 
completed until 1283. 

March. — The third month in the year 
was named Martins by the Romans, after 
the god Mars. The Anglo-Saxons called it 
Slyd Monath, i.e. stormy month. The old 
proverb, " A bushel of March dust is worth 



MAE 

a monarch's ransom," expresses the value 
formerly attached to a dry March. 

Marches, or country lying near the 
marks or boundaries of two kingdoms, 
often had peculiar rights and customs. The 
authority of the lords of the marches, called 
lords marchers, — whence the title marquis, 
between England and Wales, was abolished 
by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). The Court 
of the Marches of Wales was abolished by 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 27 (1689). 

Marchfield (Battle). — Eodolph of 
Habsburg defeated the Bohemian monarch 
Ottocar II. at Marchfield, near Vienna, 
Aug. 26, 1278. Ottocar II. fell in the en- 
counter, which took place between Weiden- 
dorf and Jedensberg. 

Marchioness. — The title of marchioness 
was bestowed upon Lady Anne Rochfort in 
1532, and she was invested at Windsor, 
Sunday, Sept. 1, in the same year, 

MARCiAiiriSTS, a distinct sect from the 
Marcionites, were thus named from Marci- 
anus Trapezita, who, in the time of Jus- 
tinian I. (a.d. 527 — 565), observed the 
Sabbath as a fast. 

Marcianopolis (Mcesia), named after 
Marciana, the sister of Trajan, who built 
it in her honour, was the capital of the 
second Mcesia. The Goths assailed it in the 
3rd century, but, on the payment of tribute, 
retired. It was made the capital of Bulgaria, 
and was frequently besieged. 

Marcionites. — A sect of heretics 
founded by Marcion, son of the bishop of 
Sinope, and a sailor, about a.d. 150. He 
held that there were three original princi- 
ples. His followers were the forerunners of 
the Maniehseans. They admitted no married 
persons to their baptism, requiring all can- 
didates to be either virgins, widows, bache- 
lors, or divorced persons. Marcion held it 
lawful to repeat baptism three times for the 
remission of sins. TertuUian wrote against 
this heresy in 207. 

Marcomanni. — The name Marc-o-manni, 
i. e. March-men, or borderers, was given by 
the Romans to various tribes on the con- 
fines of Germany. Some hordes under this 
name were driven out of Gaul by Julius 
Caesar, B.C. 58. Marobodnus formed a 
league amongst these tribes, and concluded 
a treaty with the emperor Tiberius, a.d. 6. 
The Cherusci defeated the Marcomanni 
A.D. 17, and a peace was mediated between 
them by Drusus. Domitian made war upon 
them, and was defeated a.d. 90. In alhance 
with other tribes they invaded the Roman 
empire in 166, when a war commenced, 
which was not brought to a close until 180. 
They ravaged Italy in 270. The last notice 
of the Marcomanni is in 451, when they 
formed a contingent of the army with which 
Attila invaded Gaul and Italy. 

Marcou, St. (EngHsh Channel) .—These 
islands, off* the coast of France, were taken 
by the Enghsh a.d. 1795. The small ga,rrison 
repulsed an attack made by a flotilla of 
French gunboats. May 7, 1798. The EngHsh 
lost one man killed and four woimded, 
539 



MAR 



MAE 



whilst the French admitted a loss of seTe- | 
ral hundred in kiUed and wounded. These 
islands were restored to France by the } 
treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802. ' 

Maedia (Battle) . — Constantine I. defeated 
his rival Licinius, in this plain, in Thrace, 
A.D. 315. In consequence of this defeat, 
Licinius entered into a treaty with Constan- 
tine in December, 315. Thrace. Asia Minor, 
Syria, and Egypt were assigned to Licinius. 

MAEEis-ao (Battle). — The Austrian army 
under Melas was totally defeated by the 
French at this village, near Alessandria, in 
Italy, June 14, 1800. The Austrians had 
defeated their antagonists at all points, and 
K'apoleon was about to order a retreat, 
when Desaix, who was killed in the moment 
of victory, counselled further resistance, and 
EeUermann by a brilliant charge changed 
the fortunes of the day. A pageant, repre- 
senting the battle, was held on this plain, 
in presence of Napoleon I., the empress, 
and a large assemblage of spectators, in 
1805. 

Margarita (Caribbean Sea). — This island 
was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1498. 

Mae&ate (Kent). — The name is said to 
be derived from Meregate, on account of 
the hoUow between two hills in which the 
town is situated. Bathing-machines were 
introduced here about a.d. 1790. The fii'st 
stone of the General Sea-Bathing Infirmary 
was laid June 21, 1792, and Trinity church 
was erected in 1825. 

Maegus, Moegum, orMuEGm (Battles). 
— Carinus, who disputed the empire with Dio- 
cletian, was defeated and slain near this 
city of Mcesia, at the confluence of the 
Margus and the Danube, in May, 285 a.d. 

The Goths defeated a Roman atmy 

under Sabinian at Margus in 505. 

Maeia Island (Pacific) was discovered by 
Tasman a.d. 1642. 

Maeia Louisa, (Order,) was founded 
A.D. 1792 for ladies only. 

Maeian Peesecutiok' commenced in 
January, 1555, when thirty persons, found 
using the service-book of Edward VI., were 
seized and imprisoned. Eogers was burned 
at the stake in Smithfield, Feb. 4, and 
Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, at Gloucester, 
Feb. 9. Justices of the peace were ordered 
to search for heretics, and many persons 
were apprehended and executed, thirteen 
having been burnt at Smithfield, June 27, 
1553. Ridley and Latimer, condemned as 
obstinate heretics, were burned at Oxford 
Oct. 16. Cranmer suifered in the same 
manner at Oxford, March 21, 1556. Ac- 
cording to the lowest estimate, nearly 500 
persons, belonging to the clergy and the 
laity, suffei-ed during this persecution, which 
terminated at the death of Mary, Nov. 17, 
1558. Above 1,000 persons sought refuge 
in Germany and Switzerland whilst the 
persecution lasted. 

Maeia Theeesa, (Order,) was founded 
A.D. 1757 in Austria. 

Maeie-Galante (Caribbean Sea). — This 
island, discovered by Christopher Columbus 
540 



A.D. 1493, was settled by the French in 
1647. 

Maeienbeeg (Saxony). — This town, cele- 
brated for its iron and silver mines, was 
founded by Henry, duke of Saxony, a.d. 
1519. 

Maeienbueg (Prussia). — The grandmas- 
ter and the knights of the Teutonic order 
removed their seat from Venice to this town 
A.D. 1309. A league of Prussian cities, 
called the Convention of Marienburg, was 
formed in 1436. The Teutonic knights com- 
pelled the Prussians to dissolve this league. 
The Poles having assailed the castle imsuc- 
cessfuUy in 1410 and in 1420, captvired it in 
1457. The castle, which had fallen into de- 
cay, was restored by the king of Prussia, in 
1815. 

Maeienweedee (Prussia) . — The Prussian 
cities of the province having formed a league 
against the Teutonic knights, a.d. 1440, 
transferred then- allegiance to the king of 
Poland in 14-54. Near the capital, of the 
same name, Prince Eugene was surprised by 
the forces of Wittgenstein, and suffered a 
severe defeat, Jan. 12, 1813. 

Maeietta (North America) was founded 
by colonists from New England, a.d. 1788, 
and was named after Marie Antoinette. The 
college was founded in 1832. 

Maeinee's Compass. {See Amalphi and 
Compass.) 

Maeines are first mentioned, according 
to Grose, a.d. 1684. In the reign of 
WilUam III. the soldiers on the navy esta- 
bhshment seem to have been put in training 
as seamen. Six regiments of maritime 
soldiers were raised in 1702. On the recom- 
mendation of Lord Anson, 130 companies 
were raised and placed under the control of 
the Admiralty in 1755. The title "Royal" 
was bestowed" upon the coi-ps by George III., 
j May 1, 1802, as a mark of approbation for 
their serWces during the war. 

Maei>-o, San (Italy). — A hermit named 
Marinus, who had been a mason, came from 
Dalmatia, and settled in this locality a.d. 469, 
; and at his death a church was built, and 
' a village gradually formed. It had become 
I a waUed town, and was called Plebs Santi 
Marini cum CasteUo, in the 10th century ; 
I and in the 12th century the commune of 
j San Marino purchased some neighbouring 
lands from the lords of Urbino. In the 
! civil wars between the Guelphs and Ghibel- 
hnes, the people sided with the latter, for 
j which they were excommunicated b}' Inno- 
cent IV. (1243—1254). Called upon to pay 
taxes to the papal government about the 
end of the 14th century, they refused, and 
on reference of the dispute to a judge of 
Rimini, decision was given in their favour ; 
from which period San Marino has been 
acknowledged as an independent state. 
This independence was respected by Napo- 
leon L, and confii-med by the pope on hia 
restoration in 1814. 

Maeischal College. (See Aberdeen.) 

Maek. — An old gold coin in England, 
value 13s. M., bore this name. The silver 



MAR 

mark seems to have originated in Denmark, 
and was long current on the continent, 
especially amongst the northern nations. 
James VI. of Scotland coined a two-mark 
piece, a balance-mark, and a half-mark, in 
silver. Previous to his accession to the 
British throne, he had two sets of thistle- 
marks, so named from the thistle on the 
reverse, and half-marks struck. These 
seem to have been the last coins of this 
name struck in Great Britain. 

Markets, held in former times chiefly on 
Sundays and holidays, as the people then 
assembled for divine service, were forbidden 
to be held in churchyards by 13 Edw. I. 
c. 5 (1285). By 27 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1418), 
Sunday markets, except on the four Sundays 
in harvest, were prohibited ; and by 29 
Charles II. c. 7 (1677), markets were de- 
clared illegal on any Sunday. 

Maek's, St. (Venice), considered to be 
the finest Byzantine church in Western 
Europe, was built a. d. 977 — 1043, the original 
church having been destroyed in 976. The 
foundation-stone came into possession of 
Mr. Douce in 1834, and is now preserved 
in the Doueean Museum, Goodrich Court, 
Herefordshire. Howell, in his letters, men- 
tions a huge iron chest as tall as himself, 
which he saw in the treasury, with a crevice 
for receiving the gold, bequeathed to the 
saint, A.D. 1619. The emperor Frederick I. 
and Pope Alexander III. met here, when a 
proclamation of peace was made with much 
ceremony, July 24, 1177. 

Maelboeoxtgh House (London). — This 
house was built by Sir Christopher Wren 
for the great duke of Marlborough, in 1709 
and 1710, and was bought by the Crown as 
a residence for the Princess Charlotte and 
Prince Leopold in 1817. The queen dow- 
ager Adelaide was the last resident of Marl- 
borough House, and after her death, in 1849, 
the queen allowed it to be used for the 
Vernon gallery of paintings. The prince of 
Wales mil reside here on attaining his ma- 
jority. 

Maelboeough (Wiltshire) received its 
first charter a.d. 1205. A parhament met 
here Nov. 18, 1267, in the reign of 
Henry III., when the statutes of " Mar- 
leberg " were made, which have since been 
constantly received as the law of the land. 
The college, for the education of 500 pupils, 
sons of clergymen and others, was incor- 
porated in 1843. 

Maemande (France). — This ancient town 
is said to have been occupied by the Goths, 
and was destroyed by the Saracens in the 
8th century. It was rebuilt and captured 
by Simon of Montfort in 1212, and by 
Amaury of Montfort in 1219. The English 
took it in 1427, and Henry IV. of France 
besieged it in 1577. 

Maronites. — Gibbon (ch. xlvii.) asserts : 
•' In the style of the Oriental Christians, the 
Monothelites of every age are described 
under the appellation of Maronites, a name 
which has been insensibly transferred from 
an hermit to a monastery, from a monastery 



MAE 

to a nation. Maron, a saint or savage of 
the 5th century, displayed his religious 
madness in Syria; the rival cities of Apa- 
mea and Emesa disputed his relics, a stately 
church was erected on his tomb, and 600 
of his disciples united their solitary cells on 
the banks of the Orontes." The subject 
is involved in obscurity ; but the truth ap- 
pears to be, that John Maro, or Maron, a 
monk, founded several convents on Mount 
Lebanon during the 5th century. He 
maintained the independence of his follow- 
ers, and assumed the title, " Patriarch of 
Antioch." His followers became infected 
with the Monothelite doctrine in the 7th 
century, and were from that time called 
Maronites, and regarded as a distinct sect. 
They renounced the Monothehte doctrine in 
1182, and were readmitted into the Eoman 
Catholic church. They yielded, however, 
only a modified obedience to Eome, and 
have frequently been subjected to severe 
persecutions. A large number of the Ma- 
ronite Christians were massacred by the 
Druses {q. v.) in the neighbourhood of 
Beyrout and Lebanon, in May and June, 
1860, and from 1,000 to 2,000 were killed in 
the streets of Damascus July 9. The re- 
marks of Gibbon hold good, that " the 
humble nation of the Maronites has survived 
the empire of Constantinople, and they still 
enjoy, under their Turkish masters, a free 
religion and a mitigated servitude." 

Maeoons. — When Spain was dispossessed 
of Jamaica by the English, May_ 3, 1655, 
the slaves belonging to the Spaniards be- 
took themselves to the mountains, and, re- 
cruited by runaways, soon became for- 
midable under the name of Maroons. 
General Trelawney succeeded in making an 
arrangement by which they were confined 
to certain localities, in 1738. A rebelhoa 
broke out amongst them in 1795, which 
was suppressed ; and 600 of the insurgents 
were transported to Nova Scotia in 1796, 
350 of whom were removed to Sierra Leone 
in October, 1800, at a cost to the govern- 
ment of £5,903. 19s. Qd. 

Maeotjga (Battle). — The Eoman army, 
led by Julian, on their retreat from Assyria, 
defeated the Persians at Marouga a.d. 363. 

Mae-Prelate Tracts. — The first of these 
tracts, under the name of Martin Mar- 
Prelate, was printed at a movable press, 
and appeared a.d, 1588. A letter, in- 
structing the archbishop to find out and 
commit to prison the authors and printers, 
was issued Iby the council November, 1588. 
Henry Penry, a Welshman, executed in 
1593 for writing a pamphlet, was suspected 
of haying assisted in the preparation of 
these Libels upon the prelacy. They have 
also been attributed to Throgmorton, to 
Udal, and to Fenner. 

Marquesas, or Mendawa IsiiAWDS (South 
Pacific Ocean) , were discovered by Mendana 
de ISTeyra, a.d. 1595, who named theni in 
honour of the marquis of Mendoza, vice- 
roy of Peru. Hood's Island, one of the 
group, was discovered by Captain Cook, 
5 111 



MAR 

April 6, 1776, and several others by the 
Americans in 1797. "With the exception of 
three — Huahine, Eaiatea, and Borabora — 
they were placed under the protectorate of 
France, June 19, 1847. 

Maequis. — The title of marquis is derived 
from the lords marchers, appointed to guard 
the marches, or boundary-lands, who were 
suppressed by 7 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). 
In the time of Edward III. a foreign noble- 
man, the marquis of Juliers, was made an 
English peer, with the title of earl of Cam- 
bridge ; and Eichard II. created Robert de 
Vere marquis of DubUn, a.d. 1385, he being 
the first English peer who bore the title. 
The marquis of Huntly and the marquis of 
Hamilton, created a.d. 1599, were the first 
who bore the title in Scotland. The practice 
of granting it as a second title to a dukedom 
was adopted after 1689. 

Maeeiage. — The institution of marriage 
is usually referred to Gen. ii. 21 — 25, which 
relates that God, in the garden of Eden, 
gave Eve to Adam as his wife. This view of 
the subject is confirmed by the answer 
given by Christ to the Pharisees, a.d. 29 
(Mark x. 6 — 10). Among the ancient Greeks 
the nuptials were celebrated with various 
ceremonies ; but no record was kept of their 
solemnization, and the only proof of their 
having taken place was afforded by the 
guests who were present at the wedding 
least. The social position of wives among 
the Greeks was extremely low, sterility being 
esteemed in some states a sufficient cause for 
separation. Among the Romans no forms 
were requisite, though certain ceremonies 
were usually observed. The Lex Juha et Papia 
Poppaea, passed B.C. 18 and a.d. 9, placed 
certain restrictions respecting the parties be- 
tween whom marriages might be contracted. 
Roman wives were treated with great consi- 
deration. They presided over the education 
of the children, conducted the household, and 
shared in the honour and respect shown 
to their husbands. 



325. The council of Nice prohibits ecclesiastics 

from marrying after their ordination. 
366. Marriage during Lent is prohibited by the 

council of Loadicea. 
450. Numerous synods discountenance the mar- 
riage of the clergy about this time. 
692. Bishops are prohibited from marrying. 
721. The councU of Rome defines the degrees of 
consanguinity within which marriage is 
unlawful. 
868. May 16. The Canons of 'Worms totally pro- 
hibit the clergy from mari-ying. 
1073. Priests are oomi^elled to take the vow of 

celibacy. 
1100—1200. Matrimony first mentioned as a .sacra- 
ment. 
1199. Innocent III. orders the marriage ceremony 

to take place in churches. 
1533. Bishops are empowered to grant licences for 

marrying without banns. 
1538. A proclamation is issued in England enforcing 

clerical celibacy. 
1545 — 1563. The council of Trent includes marriage 

amongst the seven sacraments. 
1549. The marriage of the clergy is permitted by 

2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 21. 
1554. The married clergy who do not separate from 
theu- wives are expelled. 
542 



MAR 

1695. May 1. A duty is imposed upon marriages by 
e & 7 Will. III. & Mary, c. 6, on a some- 
what similar scale to that adopted in the 
tax upon births {q. v.). 

1753. Clandestine marriages are prohibited by Lord 
Hardwicke's act (26 Geo. II. c. 33). 

1772. The Royal MaiTiage Act (12 Geo. III. c. 2) 
prohibits the descendants of George IT., 
unless of foreign birth, from contracting 
any marriage without the royal consent, 
until they attain the age of twenty -five 
years. After that age the consent of par- 
liament is necessary. 

1808. July 2. By 48 Geo. III. c. 149, a stamp-duty 
of lOs. is imposed upon every licence for 
marriage, and of £4 for every special 
licence. 

1822. Juiy 22. The act of 1753 is amended by 

3 Geo. TV. c. 75, which limits the right of 
granting licences to the archbishops of Can- 
terbury and Y..rk. Certain provisions of 
this act are repealed by 4 Geo. IV. c. 17 
(March 26, 1823). 

1823. July 18. Former laws are repealed by 4 Gpo. 

rv. c. 76, which insists on a religious cere- 
mony as esseutial to the marriage uontrai t. 

1836. Aug. 17. Maiiiages are permitted to he 

solemnized without a religious ceremony, 
by registrar's certificate, or in dissenting 
chapels, by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. a5. They are 
ordered to be registered by 6 & 7 Will. IV. 
c. 86. 

1837. June 30. The marriage acts are amended bv 

1 Vict. c. 22. 

1840. Aug. 7. Provisions are made for solemnizing 
marriages nesr the residence of the con- 
tracting par-ties, by 3 & 4 Vict c. 72. 

1856. July 29. The marriage and registration acts 
are amended by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 119. {See 
Divorce.) 

1858. July 2. The bill for authorizing man-iage with 
a deceased wife's sister passes the Commons. 
July 23. It is rejected by the Lords. 

Maeetjcini.— This nation, of Sabine origin, 
frequently in alliance with the Marsi and 
Pehgni, became allies of the Romans B.C. 
304. During the Social war, however, they 
revolted, and about the close of b.c. 89 they 
were defeated and their territory ravaged 
by Sulpicius, Pompey's lieutenant, and 
they were afterwards reduced to submission 
by Pompey himself, b.c. 52. They revolted 
against Antonius B.C. 43. 

Maesala (Sicily), the ancient Lilybaeum 
(7. ».),was restored by the Saracens, who 
esteemed its harbour so highly that they 
called it Marsa Alia, i. e. the port or harbour 
of God. In the 16th century the harbour 
was blocked up with a mound of sunken 
rocks, by order of the emperor Charles V., 
to protect it from the Barbary corsairs. 

Maeseillaise.— This celebrated repub- 
lican hymn was composed by Rouget de 
LiUe, a French officer of engineers, whilst 
quartered at Strasburg, in February, 1792. 
It was called the Marseillaise, because a 
body of troops on their march from Mar- 
seilles entered Paris in July, 1792, playing 
the tune, at that time little known in the 
capital. The author, who had fallen in love 
with the daughter of Dietrich, mayor of 
Strasburg, composed the verses in a single 
night, and repeated them the following 
morning to the young girl, to whom he was 
passionately attached. AKson calls the 
Marseillaise hymn the "Rule Britannia" of 
the revolution. 



MAR 

Marseilles (France), the ancient 
Massalia, called by the Eomans Massilia, 
was founded by a colony of Greeks from 
Phocsea, in Ionia, B.C. 600. 

B.C. 

542. A second colony settles at Massalia. 

218. Maspalia assists the Bomaus in the second 

Punic war. 
154. The people call in the aid of the Romans 

against the Deceates and Oxybii. 
49. Massalia refuses to admit Julius Coesar within 

her gates, and is in consequence besieged 

and taken. 

A.D. 

470. Euric, king of the Visigoths, takes Marseilles. 
839. It is plundered by the Saracens. 

1190. Richard I. of England embarks at Marseilles 
for the Holy Land. 

1214. Marseilles is erected into an independent 
republic. 

1251. It passes under the dominion of the counts 
of Provence. 

1423. It is sacked by Alfonso of Aragon. 

1481. It is reunited to the French crown. 

1524. The inhabitants repel an attack by the con- 
stable of BourboiL 

1596. Marseilles submits to Henry IV. 

1660. Louis XIV. takes away its franchise. 

1720. The plagiie carries off about 40 000 persons. 

1789. April 30. The inhabitants of JMaxseilles join 
in the revolution. 

1793. Aug. 25. Marseilles is taken by the repub- 
licans, for having assisted the Gironditis. 

1855. The new harbour of La Joliette is completed. 

1858 to 1860. The Exchange is erected. 

Marshal, or Makeschal. — This term 
was first applied to an officer who had the 
care or command of horses. The word is 
derived by Nicod from polemarchus, and by 
Matthew Paris from Martis senescallus. 
Napoleon I. created eighteen marshals of the 
empire in 1804. 

Mabshalsea Cottrt. {See Board op 
Greek Cloth, and Palace Court.) 

Marsi, or Marsians, a nation of central 
Italy, first mentioned in Roman history B.C. 
340, at which time they were on friendly 
terms with the Romans, against whom they 
leagued with the Samnites, B.C. 308. They 
concluded a treaty with the Romans 304 b.c, 
but again took up arms b.c. 301, when they 
were defeated, and were compelled to pur- 
chase peace by the cession of part of their 
territory. They became faithful allies of 
Rome, and were among the first to offer 
voliinteers to the fleet and army of Scipio, 
B.C. 205. In the Social, sometimes called 
the Marsic war, B.C. 91, they took a promi- 
nent part, and gained several victories over 
the Romans ; but in the next campaign, 
B.C. 89, after repeated defeats, they were 
compelled to sue for peace. The Marsi 
received the full rights of Roman citizens, 
and from that time disappeared from history 
as a separate nation. 

Mar's Insurrection-.— The earl of Mar 
invited the gentry to meet at a hunt, Aug. 27, 
1715, and raised the Pretender's standard 
at Brae-mar, in Aberdeenshire, Sept. 6. 
His force had gradually increased from 
about 50 to 5,000 men, when he entered 
Perth, Sept. 28. Mar remained some time 
inactive, and was defeated at Sherilf-muir, 
near Stirling, Nov. 13. Mar escaped with 



MAR 

the Pretender from Montrose, Feb. 4, 1716, 
whence they proceeded to France ; but some 
of the chiefs of the insurrection were cap- 
tured and executed. 

Marston Moor, (Battle,) was fought 
between the royalists under Prince Rupert, 
and the parliamentary army under Lord 
Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell, at Marston 
Moor, in Yorkshire, Jiily 2, 1644. It com- 
menced about 7 o'clock in the evening, and 
the left wing of the king's army totally 
routed the right wing of the parliamenta- 
rians ; but Cromwell with his " Ironsides " 
managed to gain a victory over the king's 
right wing. After a severe struggle, victory 
declared in favour of the parliamentarians, 
the royalists losing aU their artillery, ammu- 
nition, and baggage. 

Martaban (Pegu). — This fortress was 
captured by the English during the Bur- 
mese war, April 5, 1852. 

Marta, St. (New Granada). — This city, 
founded a.d. 1525, was made the seat of 
an archbishopric^ in 1529. 

Martial Law*. — Power exercised by the 
king of dispensing with ordinary law pro- 
ceedings in time of war, and proceeding by 
his own absolute authority. By a clause of 
the Petition of Rights, 3 Charles I. c. 1 (1627), 
commissions for proceeding by martial law 
were declared illegal, and prohibited ; but 
parliament was itself compelled to issue 
similar commissions in 1644. Martial law, 
signifying military law, is regulated by 
court-martial {q.v.). 

Martinesti (Battle). — An aUied Austrian 
and Russian army, commanded by Prince 
Coburg and Suwarrow, defeated the Turks 
at this place, in Wallachia, Sept. 22, 1789. 
No less than 5,000 Turks feU. in the battle, 
and 2,000 in the pursuit. It is also called the 
battle ofRimnik, from the name of the village 
near Martinesti, where it was fought. 

Martinico, or Martinique (Atlantic 
Ocean), called by the natives Madiana, erro- 
neously supposed by some writers to have 
been discovered by the Spaniards a.d. 1493, 
was in reality discovered by Christopher 
Columbus, June 15, 1502, during his fourth 
voyage. It was settled by some French 
colonists from St. Christopher's in 1635. 
The Dutch assailed it in 1674, and were 
repulsed with great loss. Admiral Penn 
failed in an attempt to capture it in 1695. The 
principal fortifications were assailed by an 
English squadron Jan. 24, 1759, and after 
doing considerable damage, the expedition 
withdrew. The island surrendered, Feb. 
16, 1762, to an English force, which had 
landed Jan. 16 ; and it was restored to the 
French by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
It was retaken Feb. 5, 1781, and restored at 
the peace of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. The 
English again effected a landing Feb. 5, 1794, 
and after gaining several battles, the whole 
island capitulated March 23, 1794. The 
French failed in an attempt to recover it 
Dec. 7, 1795, and it was restored at the 
peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. An 
English fleet landed 10,000 troops on the 
543 



MAR 

island, Feb. 3, 1809. It surrendered Feb. 2-i, 
and was restored to France at the general 
peace in 1814. The slaves rebelled in 183.3, 
and a number of them were killed, and 
several taken prisoners, in a battle fought 
Dec. 24. An earthquake did serious damage 
to Fort Eoyal, and caused the death of 
about 700 persons, Jan. 11, 1839. The cul- 
tivation of the coffee-plant was introduced 
in 1727. 

Maetinmas, Martlemass, Maetilmass, 
or St. Martin's Day, Nov. 11, was for- 
merly observed as a day of feasting and 
jolhty. It was instituted in honour of St. 
Martin, the son of a Eomanmihtary tribune. 
He was born in Hungary, a.b. 316, settled 
in the neighbourhood of Poitiers, and was 
bishop of Tours in 374. He died in 400. 
His festival was instituted in 650. Moresin 
refers the festivities practised on tliis day 
to an ancient Athenian festival in honour 
of Bacchus. 

Martin's (St.) Hall (London). — The 
first stone of this edifice, built from designs 
by E. Westmacott, was laid June 21, 1847 ; 
and it was opened Feb. 11, 18.50. It was 
seriously damaged by fire Aug. 26, 1860, and 
has since been restored. 

Maettk. — Since the martyrdom of 
Stephen, a man full of faith and of the Holy 
Ghost (Acts vi. 5), chosen a.d. 37 to be one of 
the seven deacons first appointed, the Chris- 
tian church has furnished a long succession of 
martyrs, who have freely given up their fives 
in the defence of the truth. Stephen the 
protomartyr was stoned at Jerusalem (Acts 
vii. 58 — 60) in May, 37 a.d. Polycarp, the 
last of the Apostolic Fathers, suffered death 
in 167. Eusebius, who wrote in the be- 
ginning of the 4th century, is the first writer 
who gives an account of the early martyrs. 

Mart, queen of England, the only chUd 
of Henry VIII. and Queen Catherine that 
arrived at maturity, was born at Greenwich, 
Feb. 18, 1516, was proclaimed queen in Lon- 
don, July 19, and entered the city Aug. 3, 
1553. Although Jane (q.v.) was acknow- 
ledged queen for a few days, the accession of 
Mary is reckoned from the day on which 
Edward VI. died, July 6, 1553. Maiy was 
cro^vned Oct. 1, 1553, and was married at 
Winchester to Phihp of Spain, July 25, 1554. 
They had no children, and Phihp became 
king of Spain on the abdication of his father, 
the emperor Charles Y., in January, 1556. 
Mary died at St. James's, broken-hearted 
from grief, caused by the negligence of her 
husband and the loss of Calais, !N"ov. 17, 
1558, and was buried in Henry YII.'s chapel 
at Westminster, Dec. 13. She was called 
Bloody Queen Mary from the severity with 
which she persecuted the Eeformers. Ac- 
cording to the lowest estimate, one arch- 
bishop, three bishops, several clergymen, 
and about three himdred of the laity, perished 
at the stake, whilst ntimbers died in prison 
during her reign. 

Maryland (North America) .—The first 
English province created in America was 
named Maryland, after Henrietta Maria, 
5U 



MAE 

queen of Charles I., who granted the absolute 
proprietary of Maryland to Lord Baltimore, 
A.D. 1632. The first colonists were chiefly 
Eoman CathoHc gentlemen and their fanu- 
lies, sent out from England under the charge 
of Lord Baltimore's brother, in 1634. A 
house of assembly was established in 1639 ; 
it was divided into two houses in 1650, — the 
one consisting of members chosen by the 
proprietary, and the other chosen by the 
freemen. In 1645 Cleyborne succeeded in 
stirring up an insurrection, the governor was 
obhged to flee to Virginia, and peace was 
not restored tiU 1646. Parhamentary com- 
missioners took possession of the govern- 
ment in 1652, but restored it to the governor 
in 1658. In 1689 an association, formed for 
the defence of the Protestant religion, over- 
threw the proprietary government. A go- 
vernor was sent out in 1692, and the province 
remained in the bauds of the Crown till 1715, 
when it was restored to the heir of the 
proprietary. In 1765, on the passing of the 
Stamp Act, riots occurred, and the house of 
the stamp-master was destroyed. A provin- 
cial congress assembled in 1774, and took the 
government into its own hands, and a consti- 
tution was adopted in 1776, declaring it a 
free state. In 1814 a British fleet landed 
troops under General Eoss, who routed the 
Americans at Bladensburg {q. v.), Aug. 24. 

Maryland Colony (Liberia), ne.ar Cape 
Palmas, was founded a.d. 1834 by free 
coloured emigrants sent from the state of 
Maryland, in America ; — whence the name. 

Marylebone (London). — The manor of 
Marylebone was obtained by Henry VIII. 
in exchange for certain crown lands, a.d. 
1544. In 1646 the park was assigned 
by Charles I. as security for debts con- 
tracted by him during the civil war. Mary- 
I lebone Street was built about 1679, and re- 
ceived this name because it led from Hedge 
Lane to Marylebone. The gardens, which 
were a favourite resort of Sheffield, duke of 
Buckingham, were situated at the back of 
the old manor-house. Admission to this 
fashionable place of amusement was free 
until 1737, when a shilling was charged. They 
j were finally closed in 1778. The mauor- 
house was pulled down in 1791. 

Mary Magdalene (St.) College (Cam- 
bridge). — Henry, duke of Buckingham, who 
was executed for high treason, May 17, 1521, 
founded tliis institution, and named it Buck- 
ingham CoUege, in 1519. Baron Audley, of 
Walden, endowed it, and changed its name 
to St. Mary Magdalene CoUege soon .after. 
It is generally known as Magdalen CoUege 
(q.v.). 

Mary oe Meeton, St. (Canons of) . — Ee- 
gular canons of the order of St. Austin settled 
at Merton, in Surrey, a.d. 1117. In 1121 
Henry I. made a grant to them of the whole 
town, and they erected a church and priory 
in honour of the Virgin. 

Mary (St.) Hall (Oxford).— This haU was 
conferred by Edward II. on Oriel CoUege 
A.D. 1325. In 1333 it was made a separate 
place of education, and it subsequently 



MAS 

became an independent academical hall. 
Thomas Dyke bequeathed funds towards the 
support of four scholars at this haU in 
1667. 

Mascaba (Algeria), the ancient Victoria, 
•was at one time the residence of Abd- 
el-Kader. The French seized it in De- 
cember, 1835, and again in 1841 ; and on the 
last occasion annexed it to their colony in 
Algeria. 

Masks. — The kings and priests of Egypt 
wore, upon certain occasions, masks of 

f)apyrus, representing the heads of hawks, 
ions, and other birds and animals, and from 
them the knowledge of masks passed to the 
Greeks and Komans, by whom they were 
employed in dramatic exhibitions. The 
tragic masks of the Greek stage were fre- 
quently very beautiful; but in comedy a 
grotesque effect was produced by repre- 
senting the mouth opened and the features 
distorted. The custom of the use of masks 
by public executioners is mentioned a.d. 
1295. They were first worn by English 
ladies during the reign of Elizabeth. In 
the time of Charles II. they were always 
worn by ladies in the theatre, and in the 
time of Anne they were used on horseback, 
being suspended to the side by a string. 

Masourah (Battle). {See Mansubah.) 

Masquerades. — Dramatic masques were 
introduced into this country about a.d. 1340. 
The masked ball, or masquerade, originated 
in Italy towards the commencement of the 
16th century, and was introduced into Eng- 
land by Henry VIII. in 1513. The bishop 
of London preached a sermon against them, 
Jan. 6, 1724 ; in consequence of which, orders 
were issued that no more should take place 
than the six subscribed for at the beginning of 
the month. 

Mass. — The word missa, or mass, was 
first employed in rehgious ordinances a.d. 
394, when it signified the particular services 
specially appropriated to different persons, 
who left the church when the portion of the 
service which concerned them was concluded. 
It was, indeed, the general name for every 
part of divine service. It sometimes signi- 
fied the lessons, sometimes the collects or 
prayers, and sometimes the dismission of 
the people. The Koman Catholic mass was 
introduced into England in 680. The term 
was afterwards apphed to the elements of 
the Eucharist, and a decree, ordering all 
to bow down at the elevation of the host, 
or mass, was pubhshed in 1201. 

Massachusetts (North America). — This 
state was first settled by the Puritans, at 
Plymouth, U.S., in 1620. Salem and Charles- 
town were founded in 1628, and Boston in 
1630 ; and in 1692 the colonies were united 
under the Indian name of Massachusetts. 
A charter for Massachusetts Bay was ob- 
tained from the crown in 1629. Its first 
constitution was formed in 1780, and was 
amended in 1820. Slavery was abohshed 
by law in 1783, and the constitution of the 
United States was adopted in 1788. 

Massa di Cabbaba (Italy), the chief town 
545 



MAS 

of a duchy of the same name, which was, 
A.D. 1829, united to Modena, and was, with 
it, incorporated in the new kingdom of Italy 
in 1860. It is also called Massa Ducale. 

Massa GET^. — An invasion of Persia by 
a tribe of Scythian barbarians compelled 
Sapor to rehnquish the third siege of Fisi- 
bis {q.v.), A.D. 350. They drove the Cim- 
merians from the Araxes b.c, 635, and pene- 
trated into Media B.C. 632, whence they 
were expelled by Cyaxares, b.c. 609. Cyrus 
was killed in battle against them, b.c. 529. 
Alexander the Great defeated them b.c. 328. 
Ammianus MarceUinus calls the Alani 
"the ancient Massagetse." Niebuhr con- 
siders them Mongols, and Humboldt as- 
signs them to the Indo-European family, 

Mass-Book, *' Missale," or Missal, the 
ritual used by the Koman Catholic church, 
was compiled by Gelasius, and improved by 
Gregory the Great. The services were trans- 
lated into English for the Church of England 
in 1549, and by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10 (1549), 
the use of missals was abohshed. 

Master and Servant. — Various statutes 
are in existence for the regulation of the 
law between master and servant. By 32 
Geo. III. c. 56 (1792), a master knowingly 

giving a good character to a bad servant is 
able to a fine of £20, or three months' 
imprisonment with hard labour. The pay- 
ment of certain classes of servants is required 
to be made in money by 1 & 2 Wfil. IV. c. 37 
(Oct. 15, 1831). 

Mastee-Geneeal op the Militaet. — 
Constantino I. (a.d. 306—337) instituted 
two masters-general, one for the cavalry 
and one for the infantry. Before the end of 
the reign of Constantius, their number had 
increased to four. A master of the military 
was elected annually at Venice, a.d. 737 — 742, 
instead of a doge. 

Mastee oe the Ceeemon-ies.— The offi- 
cial master of the ceremonies at the English 
court was instituted by James I., a.d. 1603, 
for the purpose of introducing foreign am- 
bassadors, &c., to the sovereign. Sir Lewis 
Lewkenor was appointed to the office, with 
a salary of £200 per annum. The first 
person who assumed the title to signify his 
supremacy in the baU-room was Captain 
Webster, who preceded Beau Nash in the 
office at Bath. He became master of the 
ceremonies on the occasion of the visit of 
Queen Anne, in 1703. 

Mastee of the Kevels. — The following 
list of persons who held this appointment 
was communicated to Notes and Queries by 
Mr. E. E. Rimbault. It was copied from 
the handwriting of Sir Henry Herbert, one 
of the last to hold the office : — 

Sir Eichard Guilford . . . .Not on record 

Sir Thomas Cawerden . . [1544J 36 Henry VIII. 

Sir Thomas Beneger ....Not on record. 

Sir John Fortescue Not on record. 

Edmund TUney, Esq July 24 [1578], 21 Eliz. 

Sir George Buck June 23 [1603], 1 Jac. 

Sir John Astley [1612] 10 Jac. I. 

Benjamin Johnson [1617] 15 Jac. I. 

Sir Henry Herbert, and ■) . „-, r,„„„ , p,^, -r 

Simon Thelwall, Esu. . . / ^''S- 21 [1629 5 Car. L 
2n 



MAS 

To thesi? may be added the following : — 

Thomas Killegi-ew l(i73 I Chiirles Henry Lee.. 1725 
Chaa-les Killegrew 1(583 | Solomou Dayrolle . . 1744 

The ancient jurisdiction of the master of the 
revels was transferred in 1737 to the "licenser 
of the stage," who, with the deputy licenser, 
performed all the duties of the office ; and 
on the death of Solomon Dayrolle, no suc- 
cessor was appointed. 

M.4.STEK OF THE RoLLS. — The ToUs of the 
exchequer commence in the reign of Henry I., 
the earhest extant being that of his thirty- 
first year (1131). The title of master or 
keeper of the rolls of chancery does not 
occur till the year 12St>, when it was conferred 
upon John de" Langton, although the office no 
doubt existed before that date. The duties 
of this officer are detined by S & i WiU. IV. 
c. 94 (Aug. 2S, 1833). His salary is regu- 
lated by 1 Vict. c. 46 (July 12, 1837). The 
master of the roUs is a patentee officer and 
a privy councillor. He may sit in parlia- 
ment, and administer justice iu the Rolls 
Court ; but his decrees are not valid until 
signed by the chancellor. By virtue of his 
office he is chief of the masters in chancery 
and of the Petty-Bag Office. 

Master of the Wakdrobe. — This office 
existed in very early times, and received 
from Henry Vt. important privileges, which 
were enlarged by James I. The salary at- 
tached to the office was £"2,lX)0 per annum, and 
there were, iu addition to the master, many 
inferior functionaries. They were all abo- 
lished by 22 Geo. III. c. 82 (1782) , which trans- 
ferred the duties of the wardrobe estabUsh- 
ment to the lord chamberlain's department. 
Masteks in Chancery. — Foss considers 
that masters or clerks in chancery existed 
a« early as the reign of Richard I., and that 
thej' were appointed to attend the king in 
his "progresses, when they assumed the title 
of vice-chancellor. Sir Christopher Hatton, 
who was made chancellor April 29, 1587, 
always had masters in chancery present 
when he sat in court, to assist him in his 
decisions. The office was abohshed by 
15 & 16 Vict. c. 80 (June 30, 1852). 

Maschpatam (Hindostan). — This city 
was mentioned by Marco Polo, a.d. 1298, 
and was conquered by the Bhamenee sove- 
reigns of the Deccan in 1480. In 1751 it 
was taken and fortilied by the French, who 
were expelled by the British, under Colonel 
Forde, April 6, 1759 ; and Masulipatam was 
ceded to the East-India Company in 1765. 

Matamokas (Battle).— The "Americans, 
under the command of General Taylor, 
defeated the Mexican army at this place, 
in Mexico, May 8, 1846. 

Mataro (Spain). — This place was elevated 
to the rank of a ciitJud a.d. 1701. It was 
sacked by Duhesme, under circumstances of 
great cruelty, June 17, 1808. The church of 
St. Maria was founded in 1675, the college 
in 1737, and it was incorporated with the uni- 
versity of Cervera in 1829. The railroad to 
Barcelona, the first constructed in Spain, was 
opened in October, 1848. 



MAU 

Matches. — Friction matches were in- 
vented by Mr. John Walker, of Stockton- 
on-Tees, in April, 1827. Mr. Reuben Part- 
ridge obtained a patent for the manufacture 
of wooden sphnts for lucifer matches in 
March, 1812. Sturge's improved lucifer 
matches were patented in 1853. The pre- 
paration and use of these are not attended 
with the same diseases and risks which are 
inseparable from ordinary matches. Hoch- 
staetter's safety matches were patented in 
1859. 

Matchin (Bulgaria). — The Turks con- 
structed a camp here, which was destroyed 
by the Russians Oct. 20, 1771. The Rus- 
sians obtained an advantage over the Turks 
iu an encounter near this town, July 9, 1791. 
The Turks defeated the Russians in an 
engagement here, Dec. 24, 1853. 

Si ath EM A TICS. — This terra, which an- 
ciently signified all knowledge calculated to 
strengthen the mental powers, is now apphed 
to algebra, arithmetic, geometry {g.v.), and 
kindred sciences. 

Matvrines, or Trinitarians. — This order 
of friars was founded in France for the re- 
demption of captives, by St. John de Matha 
and Felix de Valois, about a.d. 1197. It was 
introduced into England in 1224, and received 
the lauds, revenues, and other privileges of 
the decayed order of the Holy Sepulchre. 
The Matiirine friars possessed "about twelve 
houses in this country. They were governed 
according to the rule of St. Augustine. 

MAviiErGE (France). — This town was 
founded in the 7th century, and was for a 
considerable period the capital of Hainault. 
It was taken by the French iu 1649, and was 
ceded to them "by the treaty of Nimeguen, in 
1678. Vauban erected the fortifications in 
1680; and in 1793 it was besieged by the 
prince of Coburg, who was compelled to 
retire by Marshal Jourdan. It has sustained 
several sieges, and surrendered to the Prus- 
sians in June, 1815. Its manufactory of 
arms was founded by Louis XIV. in 1704. 

Maundy Thitrsday, the day before Good 
Friday, is so called because on this day it 
was usual to distribute to the poor, bread and 
other gifts, contained in maiiiids or baskets. 
St. Augustine is the earhest who is known to 
have practised it. The first English monarch 
who distributed alms to the poor on Maundy 
Thui-sday was Edward III., in 1363. The 
day was sometimes called " Shere Thursday," 
because people used to shear or cut tlieir 
hair and beards for the occasion. It was so 
named in 1511. 

Maura Santa (Ionian Islands). {See 
Leucadia.) 

Maurktania, or Mauritania (Africa). 
— This country was unknown to the inha- 
bitants of Europe until B.C. 202, when the 
Romans fought in Africa against Hannibal. 
Julius Caesar confirmed Bogudes and Boc- 
chus, as joint kings of Mauretania, B.C. 
49, and the kingdom was erected into 
a Roman pro^nnce B.C. 46. Augustus con- 
feiTed it upon Juba II., B.C. 25, and on 
his death it passed to his son Ptolemy, 



MAU 

who was slain by Caligula a.d. 41. In 42, ! 
Claudius divided the kingdom into the two 
provinces of Mauretania Tingitana, and Mau- ' 
Tetania Caesariensis. In 256 the country was 
invaded by a horde of Frankish invaders 
from Spain, and in 429 it was conquered by 
Genseric the Vandal. The AraVis first ap- 
peared in the country in ('>('>7, and completed 
its conquest in 7f)9. (See Mokocco.) \ 

Mauritius, or Isle of Fkajjce (Indian | 
Ocean). — This island was discovered by the 
Portuguese a.d. 150.5, In 1598 it was seized 
by the Dutch, who called it Mauritius in 
honour of their stadtholder, Maurice; but 
they formed no settlement till 1644. They 
abandoned the colony in the 18th century, 
and it was neglected until the French formed 
a settlement in 1715, and took possession of 
the island in 1721. It was captured by the 
British Dec. 2, 1810, and has remained in 
their possession ever since the peace of 1814. 

Maur, St. — This celebrated congregation 
of the Benedictines was first established at 
this town, in France, a.d. 1618. 

Mausoleum. — On the death of Mausolus, 
king of Caria, e c. 353, his wife Artemisia 
testified her affection i'V erecting at Hahcar- 
nassus a magnificent building to his memory, 
which received the title of the Mausoleum, 
and ranked as one of the seven wonders of 
the world. Hence all sepulchral edifices of 
more than usual magnificence are styled 
mausolea. The ruins of this edifice were used 
by the Knights of Rhodes in the erection of 
their castle of St. Peter in 1484 and 1.522. 
In 1846 the British government arranged with 
the Porte for the purchase of the remaining 
ruins ; and in 1856 Mr. Charles ]S^ewton was 
appointed vice-consul at Mitylene, with fuU 

f)owers to transmit the acquisitions to Eng- 
and. He formed a valuable collection, inclu- 
ding the colossal statue of Mausolus ; and the 
whole arrived in this country in July, 1857, , 
aqd was deposited in the British Museum. 

Mauve.— In 184SDr. Stenhouse announced 
the possibility of extracting purple dyes from 
lichens by macerating them in lime-water. 
This discovery was applied and extended by 
M. Mamas, of Lyons, who produced in 1857 
the fashionable dye known as mauve. 

Maximiaxists, a branch of the Donatists, 
so named from Maximinus, their leader. 
They arose in the Donatist community in 
Ainca towards the close of the 4th century. 

May. — This month derives its name either 
from Maia, the mother of Mercury, or from 
its having been dedicated by Eomulus to the ' 
Roman majoreg, or senators. It was the 
second month in the old Alban calendar, the 
third in that of Romulus, and the fifth in 
that of Xuma Pompilius. The Saxons 
termed it Tri-Milchi, because during this 
month pasture was so plentiful that they 
were able to milk their cows thrice during 
the day. 

May-DAT.— From the earliest periods it 
has been customary to hail the return of 
spring with peculiar sports. The Romans 
had their Floralia, held on the 4th of the 
calends of May. The earliest circumstance 
547 



MAT 

known respecting the celebration of May-day 
in England is, that the Druids were accus- 
tomed to assemble on the night of the last day 
in April and light large bonfires to hail the 
return of spring. Chaucer alludes to the 
universality of its observance in his time, 
and as late as the reign of Elizabeth, 
the queen and court joined in the sports. 
May Fair was abolished in London in 1708. 

Matence, or Mentz (Hesse-Darmstadt), 
originated in the Roman fort of Mogun- 
tiacum, which Drusus erected on the site 
of the present city b.c. 13. It was de- 
stroyed by the Vandals a.d. 406, and was 
rebuilt by Dagobert II. Printing is said 
to have been invented in this city by .John 
(ruttenberg in 1440. In 1631 Mentz was 
taken by the Swedes, and in 1644 and 1688 
by the French, who lost it in 1689. It was 
again seized by the forces of the rejjublic 
in 1792, but was taken h»y the Prussians in 
1793. In 1797 it was ceded to France by 
the treaty of Campo Formio, and erected 
into the chief town of the department of 
Mont Tonnerre, and in 1814 it was ceded to 
the grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. The 
university, founded in the loth century, was 
suppressed in 1802. The bronze statue of 

Guttenberg was erected in 18.37. The 

archbishopric of Mayence was founded by 
Boniface a.d. 747. Councils were held here in 
752 or 753, 829, 847, 848, 852, 857, 860, 1023, 
1049, 1069, 1051, 1055, 1071, 1080, 108-5, 1094, 
1131, 11.59, 1225, 123.3, 1239, 12.59, 1261, 1310, 
1387, 14:39, and 1441. 

Mayenxe (France). — The earl of Salis- 
bury captured this ancient town a.d. 1424. 
Charles IX. made it a duchy in 1544. The 
Vendeans took it in 1793. 

Mayxooth College (Ireland). — The 
Roman Catholic college of St. Patrick at 
Maynooth, in the county of Kildare, was 
founded a.d. 1795, according to the pro- 
visions of an act of the Irish parliament, for 
the education of persons destined for the 
Roman Catholic priesthood. It was built 
at a cost of £32,000, and is supported by an 
annual parhamentary grant. A lay college 
was opened in 1802, dependent on voluntary 
subscriptions. By 8 & 9 Vict. c. 25 (June -30, 
1815), the college was placed on a new foot- 
ing, and permanently endowed for the main- 
tenance and education of .500 students and 
twenty senior scholars. A commission was 
appointed to inquire into the operation of 
the institution, Sept. 19, 1853. 

Mayo (Ireland;, forming part of Con- 
naught, was granted by Henry II. to AYilliam 
Fitz-Adeka de Burgho, a.d. 1180. WiUiam 
de Burgho, earl of Ulster, was assassinated 
in 1.333, and about this time Mayo was made 
a county. For two centuries it remained in 
a very unsettled state. The native chiefs 
submitted to Elizabeth in 1575, but the 
supremacy of the English was not acknow- 
ledged until 1586. The old families took 
part in the rebellion of 1641, and the 
French attempted an invasion in 1798. 

Mayor.— This office dates from the reign 
of Richard I., who appointed a mayor as 
2 K 2 



MAY 

chief officer of the city, in place of the bailiffs 
of London, a.d. 1189, and the precedent was 
copied by King John, in respect to the bailiff 
of Bang's Lynn in 1204. 

Matoe of the Pal ace. — An important 
officer of the French court during the 
Merovingian reigns. His duty was ori- 
ginally to supervise the royal funds, and to 
regulate the government of the household. 
Afterwards the mayors acquired political 
influence, and acted as regents during the 
minority of the sovereign, until ultimately 
the whole power of the kingdom devolved 
upon them. In 614 the mayor of Burgundy 
induced Clotaire II. to grant that in future 
the office should be conferred by the great 
proprietors, not by the king, and held 
during life. The office became hereditary 
in 687. 

Matotta Islakd (Indian Ocean). — This 
volcanic island, which forms one of the 
Comoro group, was avoided by Europeans 
until 1840. In 1841 it was ceded to the 
Trench, who commenced their occupation 
June 13, 1843. 

Mat-pole. — The custom of rearing the 
May-pole is traced to the Eoman FloraHa, 
but nothing is knovni respecting the period 
at which it was iatrodueed into this country. 
Du Cange speaks of a charter of the year 
1207, which states that May-poles were 
taken by grant, and erected in the streets 
and at the houses of great men. The old 
May-pole in the Strand, London, was taken 
down in April, 1718. 

Mazaeins. {See Fbou-deues.) 

Meal-tub Plot. — This was a fictitious 
plot fabricated by a known criminal named 
Dangerfield, and ascribed by him to the 
Presbyterians. He directed the revenue 
officers to search the lodgings of Colonel 
Mansel, where they found a number of 
seditious documents, which were afterwards 
proved to be forgeries. He was accordingly 
committed to Newgate, where he acknow- 
ledged that he had been bribed by the 
Papists to forge these papers, and that 
proofs of the truth of his confession were 
deposited in a meal-tub in the house of a 
Mrs. Cellier, a Roman Cathohc and his 
mistress, where they were in fact found. 
This took place in 1679. Dangerfield was 
put in the pillory, and also whipped, and was 
again convicted of libel. May 30, 1685. 

Measuees.— The Enghsh measure of "Win- 
chester was made the general standard by a 
law of L-ing Edgar, a.d. 974. The first 
standard eU was established from the length 
of Hem-y I.'s arm in 1101, and the measure 
for cloth was made uniform throughout the 
kingdom by 18 Hen. VI. c. 16 (1439), which 
estabhshed the yard and the inch as the 
standards. PubKc standards of measures 
were ordered to be deposited in all the 
principal towns by 11 Hen. YII. c. 4 (1494) ; 
and the capacity of the bushel was regulated 
by 12 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1496). The length of 
the statute mile was regulated by 35 Ehz. 
e. 6 (1593). Charles I. issued a proclamation 
ordering a uniform measure for every com- 
548 



MEC 

modity throughout the kingdom in 1636. 
Parliament attempted to introduce uniform- 
ity of measure in 1759, but without success. 
By 10 Geo. III. c. 39 (1770), a standard 
Winchester bushel of eight gallons was 
ordered to be kept in every market-town. 
The various laws on the subject were 
amended by 5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 63 (Sept. 9, 
1835), which abolished heaped measure, and 
ordered inspectors of measures to be ap- 
pointed. 

Meath (Bishopric). — This Irish bishopric 
is composed of several minor sees which 
were anciently distinct. The most important 
appears to have been Clonard, which was 
founded by St. Finian a.d. 520. Eugene 
was the first prelate who assumed the title 
of bishop of Meath in 1174. 

Meath (Ii-eland) formed one of the king- 
doms into which Ireland was divided in early 
times. Eichard Sti'ongbow subjected Meath 
to the English a.d. 1171, and Henry II. 
conferred it as a county palatine on Hugh 
de Lacy. For nearly a century and a half it 
was the theatre of continual warfare ; and 
in the reign of Henry VIII. the ancient 
coimty was divided into East Meath and 
West Meath. 

Meatjx (France). — This town is supposed 
to be identical with the Eoman latinum. 
The cathedral was commenced in the 12th 
century. It obtained a charter in 1179, and 
was taken by the English in 1419. The 
French recovered it in 1439 ; in 1587 it 
joined the League ; and in 1594 submitted 
to Henry IV. The bishopric of Meaux 
was founded in 375, and a council was held 
here June 17, 845. The prisoners were 
massacred here by the republicans Sept. 5, 
1792. The Eussians attacked Meaux Feb. 26, 
1814, and the allies passed the Marne, at 
Meaux, March 28, 1814. 

Mecca (Arabia). — This town is celebrated 
as having been the birthplace of Mohammed 
in April, 570 a.d., by whom it was taken 
Jan. 11, 630. In 692 it was captured by 
AbdehneUk, and in 929 it was plundered by 
the Carmathians. Eenaud de ChatOlou failed 
in an attempt upon Mecca in 1184. In 1803 
it was seized by the Moslem sect of the 
Wahabees, from whom it was taken in 1818 
by Ibrahim Pasha. 

Mechats'ics. — The ancients were no doubt 
acquainted with the apphcation of the me- 
chanical powers from time immemorial, but 
the principles on which their action depends 
were not known tiU a comparatively late 
period. Aristotle (e.g. 384 to 322) is the 
first author who wrote on mechanics, and 
Archimedes (e.g. 287 to 212) is the most 
eminent of ancient mechanicians. 



1577. Stevinns, of Wanders, discovei-s the true 

theory of the inclined plane. 
1592. Galileo is said to have wi-itten his treatise 

" Delia Scienza Mecanica" this year. 
1634. Galileo publishes the work " Delia, Scienza 

Mecanica." 
1638. Galileo publishes his dialogues on motion, 

and CasteUi writes on the motions of 

fluids. 



MEC 



1661. The laws of percussion are simultaneously 
discovered by Huyghens, Wallis, and Sir 
Christopher Wren. 

1670. Wallis publishes his treatise " De Motu." 

1687. Newtou publishes his " Principia, " and 
VarignoQ his " New System of Mechanics." 

1695. La Hii-e publishes a treatise on mechanics. 

1736. Eulei- describes rectilinear and curvilinear 
motion. 

1743. D'Alembert makes important discoveries in 
dynamics. 

1750. The preservation of areas is discovered si- 
multaneously by Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, 
and the Chevalier D'Arci, about this year. 

1752. Euler, D'Aiembert, and Claii-aut, solve the 
problem of the three bodies. 

1788. La Grange publishes the " Mecanique Analy- 
tique." 

1798. La Place commences the " Mficanique Celeste." 

1823. Professor Whewell publishes his treatise on 
dynamics. 

Mechanics' IifSTiTrTiows. — The first 
mechanics' institute was established in Lon- 
don by Dr. Birkbeck, at Southampton Build- 
ings, Holborn, Dec. 2, 1823. 

Mecklenbttkg (Germany). — This ancient 
duchy was originally peopled by the Heruh 
and the Vandals, who were expelled by the 
Obotrites a.d. 782. Charlemagne failed in 
his attempts to reduce this tribe to subjec- 
tion ; but in 1159 Henry the Lion subdued 
their chief, Niclot, and seized his territories. 
The two lines of Mecklenburg and Werle 
were founded by John the Theologian and 
Niclot, on the death of their father, Henry- 
Burwin II., in 1236. The latter became ex- 
tinct in 1436. The entire duchy was con- 
ferred upon WaUenstein by the emperor, 
March 4, 1628 ; but in 1631 it was restored to 
Adolphus Frederick and John Albert, the then 
existing representatives of the hues of Meck- 
lenburg-SchwerinandMecklenburg-Gustrow, 
The present division of the duchy between 
the great branches of Strelitz and Schwerin 
was adopted March 8, 1701. In 1815 the 
dukes assumed the title of grand-dukes. 
The two governments assembled at Schwerin, 
in 1848, to consider the adoption of a new 
constitution, which was agreed to by the 
grand-duke of Schwerin. Owing to the op- 
position of the nobility, he was compelled to 
rescind his determination in 1850. 

Medals. — This term, properly speaking, 
only commences in the Middle Ages. The 
medallions of the Eoman empire were large 
metal pieces, presented by the emperors as 
tokens of esteem, or by the mint-masters to 
the emperors as specimens of worlcmanship. 
These were not common until after the ac- 
cession of Hadrian, a.d. 117 ; but after that 
they seem to have continued in frequent use 
until the close of the Western empire. It is a 
contended point whether or not they were cur- 
rent as pieces of coin. The earhest modern 
medal is one in gold, of David II. of Scotland, 
thought to have been struck between 1330 and 
1370. A medal of John Huss, dated 1415, 
is of questionable authenticity. The Ger- 
man medals commence in 1453, the Papal 
medals in 1464, the Danish iq 1474, the Eng- 
lish in 1480, the Spanish in 1503, and the 
Venetian in 1509. 



MED 



Media (Asia) . — This province revolted 
from Assyria and became an independent 
kingdom B.C. 711. Authorities differ re- 
specting the actual time at which many of 
the following events occurred. 



The Medes obtain their independence, and 
establish a republican form of govern- 
ment. 

Deioces becomes the first independent king 
of Media. 

Invasion of Media, and defeat and death of 
King Deioces. 

Phraortes, king of Media, with his entire 
army, perishes before the walls of Nineveh. 

Media is invaded by the Suythians. 

The Scythians are expelled from Media, 

The Lydiau war is commenced. 

Birth of Cyrus. 

May 28. The Lydian war is concluded by the 
battle of Halys {q. v.). 

Cyrus deposes Astyages, and raises Cyasares 
IT., or Darius the Mede, to the throne in 
his stead. 

Cyrus, king of Persia, becomes king of Media. 

Larissa and Mespila, cities of Media, revolt 
against Cyrus, but are reduced to submis- 
sion. 

Cyrus takes Babylon, and marries the daughter 
of his uncle Cyaxares, thereby uniting the 
royal families of Media and Persia. (See 
Peesia.) 



KINGS OF media. 

B.C. B.C. 

Deioces 709 I Cyaxares 634 

Phraortes, or Ar- Astyages 594 

phaxad 656 | 

Medieval or Middle Ages, according 
to Hallam, comprised about one thousand 
years, from the invasion of France by Clovis, 
A.D. 486, to that of Naples by Charles VIII., 
1494. DowUng, in his " Introduction to the 
Critical Study of EcclesiasticalHistory," fixes 
the council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, as the 
commencement, and the revival of classical 
hterature in the 15th centurjr as the end, of 
the period. G. T. Manning, in " Outlines of 
the History of the Middle Ages," makes them 
extend from a.d. 400 to 1500, divided into 
the following periods : — 

A.D, 

First period 400 to 800 

Second period 800 to 964 

Thii-d period 964 to 1066 

Fourth period 1066 to 1300 

Fifth period 1300 to 1500 

Fleury makes them commence with the 
fall of the Western empire, in 476, and ter- 
minate with the capture of Constantinople 
by the Turks, May 29, 1453. 

Medical Council. — This covmcD. was 
established by the act to regtdate the quahfi- 
cations of practitioners in medicine and sur- 
gery, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 90 (Aug. 2, 1858). Sir 
Benjamin Brodie was elected the first presi- 
dent of the council, in November, 1858. 

Medicine. — A writer in the last edition 
of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" (xiv. 
p. 450) remarks that " the earhest historical 
development of scientific medicine is every- 
where traced from a priesthood." The 
Egyptians were the earhest medical practi- 

^^^ 649 



MED 

tioners. With them medicine was under the 
control of the state, and doctors who de- 
parted from the prescribed methods of treat- 
ment were guilty of a capital offence, in the 
event of their patient's decease. The earhest 
work on medicine is the Hindoo Ayur Teda, 
which is supposed to have been wi-itten about 
B.C. 1400. The worship of ^sculapius, the 
god of medicine, was introduced into Greece 
about B.C. 1200 ; but the profession of 
physic was restricted to the priesthood 
until about B.C. 500. Hippocrates, born 
about B.C. 460, is the father of the G-reek 
system of medicine, which declined about 
B.C. 336, and was succeeded by the Alex- 
andrian school B.C. 332. The epistle of 
Diodes on the Preservation of Health was 
wi'itten about B.C. 312, and continued in 
high repute for about 400 years. Herophi- 
lus, who flourished B.C. 285 ; Erasistratus, 
B.C. 260; and Serapion, B.C. 235, were the 
most eminent practitioners of the Alex- 
andrian school. The medical became 
a distinct profession at Eome about B.C. 
200. It was at first practised exclusively by 
slaves or freedanen, and was not regarded 
with much interest until after the great 
pestilence which depopulated the city B.C. 
187. Asclepiades, B.C. 90; Themison, B.C. 
60; Thessalus, a.d. 55; and Galen, a.d. 165, 
are the most eminent of Eoman physicians ; 
and after the death of the last-named, 
medical science suffered a serious decline. 
The Greek system was revived at Constan- 
tinople in 328, and flourished iinder Oriba- 
sius in 360 ; Aetius in 525 ; and Paul of ^Egina 
in 640. The Arabian physicians attainted 
celebrity in the 7th century, the most im- 
portant being Ebu Sina, or Avicenna, whose 
great work, the "Ahnalecus," was written 
about 980. Mondini, who became pro- 
fessor of medicine at Bologna in 1316 ; 
Guy de Chauhac, who flourished in 1350 ; 
and the celebrated painter Leonardo da 
Vinci, were aU eminent medical practi- 
tioners, and contributed greatly to the 
advance of the science. The medical 
profession in Britain owes its rise to 
Thomas Linacre, who founded the College 
of Physicians at London in 1518. Harvey 
pubhshed his work on the circulation of 
the blood in 1628; Pecquet discovered the 
anatomy of the lacteal vessels in 1647 ; 
Malpighi demonstrated the relation of the 
pulmonary tissue to the circulation in 1661 ; 
and Mayow obtained advanced views on the 
subject of respiration in 1668. 

Medina (Arabia) is celebrated as having 
been the asylum of Mohammed when he fled 
from Mecca, a.d. 622, and the scene of his 
death in 632. The celebrated mosque con- 
taining the tomb of the Prophet was totally 
destroyed by fire in 1508. It was restored 
by Kayd Beg, king of Egypt, in 1514. 
Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1803, 
but was recovered from them by Ibrahim 
Pasha in 1818. 

Medina del Campo (Spain).— During a 
revolt in Spain, a.d. 1520, this town was 
taken by the royal troops, under Antonio 
550 



MEG 

de Eonseca, who treated the inhabitants 
vrith great cruelty. 

Medina de Eio Seco (Spain), supposed 

by some authorities to be the ancient Tela, 

was the scene of a victory gained by the 

Erench army, under Bessieres, over the 

Spaniards, J\ily 14, 1808, when the town of Rio 

Seco was taken and pillaged. The Spaniards 

I defeated the Erench here IS'ov. 23, 1809 ; 

j but were, in their turn, defeated and dis- 

I persed Nov. 26, and the Erench entered 

I the town Nov. 27. 

j Medina Sidonia (Spain) was taken by 
! Abderahman I. a.d. 764, and surrendered to 
I Alfonso X. in 1254. 

I Mediolanum (Italy), the capital of 
I Cisalpine Gaul, was taken by the Romans 
I from the Insubres, whose chief town it was, 
j B.C. 222. A battle between the Romans and 
I the allied Insubrians and Boians, in which 
the Gauls lost several thousand men, took 
place here B.C. 194. It probably submitted 
i to the Romans vrith the other towns of the 
I Insubres about B.C. 190. Under the Romans 
j it became a municipium, and rapidly grew in 
importance. The usurper Aureolus was be- 
i sieged here a.d . 268 by the emperor GalHenus, 
who was killed by the hands of his own sol- 
diers in the course of the siege (March 20) . 
The place subseqiiently surrendered to Clau- 
dius. About A.D. 303 its importance was en- 
hanced by the residence here of the emperor 
Maximian, who thus made it the capital of 
J^orthern Italy. For a century it was the resi- 
dence of successive emperors. Attila ravaged 
it in 452, and it was selected as a residence by 
the Gothic king Odoacer in 476. Belisarius 
having taken the place, it was recovered by 
the Goths in 539, after a protracted siege, 
which was characterized by great barbarity 
on the part of the besiegers. They put the 
male inhabitants, 300,000 in number, to the 
sword, and reduced the women to slavery. 
{See Milan.) 

Meeanee (Battle). — Fought during the 
campaign in Scinde, when Sir Charles 
Napier, with a force amounting only to 
2,600 men, assailed the Belooches, who 
mustered 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, 
with fifteen guns. They were strongly 
posted, their wings resting on large woods 
extending on each side the plain, with a 
natural ravine in front of their position. 
After a fierce contest of three hours' dura- 
tion, the Belooches gave way, leaving their 
artillery, stores, &c!, in the hands of the 
victors. This battle was fought Feb. 17, 
1843. 

Meeeut (Hindostan), an ancient city of 
Delhi, is mentioned as one of the first con- 
quests of Mahmoud of Ghizni, a.d. 1018. 
In 1240 it resisted the forces of Turmacherin 
Khan ; but in 1399 it surrendered to Timour. 
Together with the rest of the district in 
which it is situated, Meerut passed into the 
possession of the British in 1803, and it was 
selected as the seat of a judicial and revenue 
estabhshment in 1809. 

Megalopolis (Greece), or the "Great 
City," once the capital of Arcadia, was 



MEG 



MEL 

Lord Melbourne, at that time prime mimster 
of England, is the capital of Victoria, and 
is seated on the river Yarra. It was colo- 
nized from Van Diemen's Land, a.d. 1835, 
and was officially recognized and designated 
in 1837. Melbourne was made a municipality 
in 1843, and the seat of a bishop in 1847. It 
has increased rapidly since the discovery of 
gold in its vicinity in 1851. It became the 
seat of the legislative assembly in 1852. The 
hospital was founded in 1846. 

Melbouene Administhatiows. — Owing 
to some disagreement respecting the Irish 
Coercion Bill, then under the consideration 
of Parhament, Viscount Althorp resigned 
the office of chancellor of the exchequer, 
July 7, 1834, and Lord Grey, the prime 
minister, following his example, resigned 
July 9. After certain negotiations, Viscount 
Melbourne kissed hands as prime minister, 
July 16. Several members of the Grey ad- 
ministration remained in the cabinet, which 
was thus constituted : — 

Treasury Viscount Melbourne. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Brougham. 

President of the Council. .Marquis of Lansdowne. 

Privy Seal Earl of Mulgrave. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. . Viscoimt Althorp. 

Home Secretary Viscount Duncannon. 

Foreign Secretary Viscount Palmerston. 

Colonial Secretary Hon. S. Rice. 

Admiralty Lord Auckland. 

Board of Control Mr. Charles Grant. 

Postmaster-General Mai-quis of Couyngham. 

'^^orraSef^.'*:^.'^.'"}!'-'^ Holland. 
Paymaster of the Forces . . Lord John Eussell. 
^^^ldT7!^7. !?"!. ^f.' }m^- ^- J- Littleton. 

The death of Lord Spencer, Nov. 10, ren- 
dered new arrangements respecting the 
chancellorship of the exchequer necessary, 
as Viscount Althorp succeeded to his father's 
title. Viscount Melbourne went to Brighton 
Nov. 14, 1834, to make certain propositions 
to the king, who informed him that he should 
not require him to complete the arrange- 
ments, and the first Melbourne Administra- 
tion was dissolved. [See Peel (first) Admiis-- 
iSTRATioisr.) The second Melbourne ad- 
ministration was formed on the resignation of 
the first Peel administration, AprS 8, 1835, 
and was announced in both houses of Par- 
liament, April 18. The cabinet consisted of 

Treasury Viscoimt Melbourne. 

President of the Coiuicil.. Marquis of Lansdowne. 
Privy Seal Lord Duncannon. 

( Mr. Spring Kice, created 
Chancellor of Exchequer < Lord Mouteagle Aug. 

( 27, 1839. 

Home Secretary Lord John Russell. 

Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston. 

( Mr. Charles Grant, made 
Colonial Secretary < Baron Glenelg May 4, 

( 1835. 

Admiralty Lord Auckland. 

Board of Control Sii' J. C. Hobhouse. 

Secretaiy at War Viscount Howick. 

( Mr. Poulett Thomson, 
Board of Trade < created Baron Syden- 

( ham Aug. 10, 1840. 

^orLfnrter^!.'?".'.^^}^^^ Holland. 

The great seal was placed in commission. 
551 



founded B.C. 370. It was besieged by Poly- 
sperchon, who failed in the attempt to take 
it, B.C. 318, and it joined the Achaean 
League B.C. 239. It was captured B.C. 222 
by Cleomenes III., who laid a great part of 
the town in ruins. The town was rebuilt, but 
never regained its former importance. 

Megaea (Greece), according to some 
authorities, was founded by Car, son of 
Phoroneus, while others attribute its origin 
to Pandion, in the reign of Pylas. At a 
very early period the city was conquered 
by the Dorians, and in the 7th century b.c. 
was one of the most floui'ishing cities of 
Greece. The Megarians formed an aUiance 
with the Athenians B.C. 455, and surrendered 
to Philip of Macedon after the battle of 
Chaeroneia (q.v.). Demetrius Pohorcetes 
declared it a free city B.C. 307. 

Mehudpoee (Battle). — Sir Thomas His- 
lop defeated Holkar and the Mahratta 
army at this town, in Hindostan, Dec. 21, 
1817. 

MEiirafGEN (Germany) was made the 
capital of the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen in 
16S1. 

Meissen- (Saxony). — Founded a.d. 922, 
or, according to some authorities, in 928, by 
the emperor Henry I., who built a castle, 
long the residence of the ancient Saxon 
princes. The cathedral, founded by Otho I. 
(936 — 972), contains some antique monu- 
ments, and some paintings by Albert Durer 
and Cranach. Frederick I. founded the 
prince's chapel in 1425. The castle was 
almost entirely rebuilt in 1471, and in 1710 
the manufacture of the celebrated china, 
known as Dresden, commenced here. Fre- 
dei-ick II. of Prussia entered Meissen, on 
the retreat of the Austrians, Dec. 6, 1745, 
and 1,400 Prussians surrendered to the Aus- 
trians at this place, Dee. 3, 1759. A part of 
the Prussian army attacked the French at 
the bridge of Meissen, in order to give 
Blucher an opportunity of crossing the Elbe 
at another point, Oct. 1, 1813. 

Meisteesin&ees, or Masteesingees. — 
A corporation of German citizens, formed 
for the cultivation of poetry in the 13th 
century. They are said to have originated 
at Mentz, from which town they spread to 
Augsburg, Nuremberg, Strasburg, and other 
cities. The emperor Charles IV. incorpo- 
rated them in 1378, and they attained great 
celebrity in the 16th century. They had 
rules like other corporations, and the mem- 
bers were obliged to submit to an appren- 
ticeship. The most celebrated poems of 
this school are," The History of Keynard the 
Foxe," translated into English in 1481, and 
the "Owle Glass," pubhshed in London in 
1709. Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of 
Nuremberg, who wrote much between 1530 
and 1538, was a celebrated Meistersinger. 

Melazzo, or MiLAZZo (Battle). — The 
royahst forces were defeated near this town, 
the ancient Mylge (q.v.), by Garibaldi, June 
20, 1860. The royalists having taken refuge 
in the town, capitulated on tjhe following day. 

Melbotjene (Austraha), named after 



MEL 

The earl of Minto succeeded Lord Auckland at 
tlie Admiralty Sept. 19, 1835. Sir C. C. Pepys, 
with the title of Baron Cottenham, was 
made lord-chancellor Jan. 19, 1836. Mr. 
Francis ThornhiQ Baring became chancellor | 
.of the exchequer Aug. 26, 1839 ; the marquis ! 
of Normanby became colonial minister | 
Feb. 20, 1839, and Lord John Eussell suc- 
ceeded him Aug. 30, 1839. The earl of 
Clarendon became privy seal Jan. 15, 1840. 
Mr. T. B. (afterwards Lord) Macaulay be- 
came secretary at war Sept. 27, 1839 ; Mr._ 
Henry Labouchere was made president of 
the board of trade, in place of Mr. Poulett 
Thomson, Aug. 29, 1839; and the earl of 
Clarendon took the chancellorship of the 
duchy of Lancaster Oct. 20, 1840. Ministers 
only obtained a majority of five in committee 
on "the Jamaica Suspension bill. May 6, 1839, 
whereupon they immediately resigned, and 
Sir Eobert Peel, aided by the duke of Wel- 
Hngton, undertook the task of forming an 
administration. He obtained the co-operation 
of Lord Lyndhurst, the earl of Aberdeen, 
Lord Ellenborough, Lord Stanley, Sir James 
Graham, Sir Henry Hardinge, and Mr. 
Goulburn; but the Queen refused to dis- 
miss the ladies of the bedchamber, May 10, 
and Sir Eobert Peel resigned the task, the 
Melbourne administration being reinstated : 
in office. A vote of want of confidence 
in ministers, introduced into the House of 
Commons by Sir Eobert Peel, was carried 
June 4, by 312 to 311, whereupon minis- | 
ters dissolved parhament. After the recess, ! 
a vote of want of confidence, introduced in j 
both branches of the legislature, was carried 
against noinisters in the House of Lords by 
168 to 72, and in the House of Commons by i 
360 to 269 ; and on the 30th of August the 
resignation of the ministry was announced 
in both houses. {See Peel's Secon^d Ad- 

MINISTEATIOK.) 

Melexians, the followers of Meletius, 
bishop of Lycopolis, in Thebais, who was 
deposed by Peter, bishop of Alexandria, at 
a coxmeil at Alexandria, a.d. 301. The Me- 
letians afterwards made common cause \^■ith 
the Arians. The council of Nicsea, Jime 19 
— Aug. 25, 325, in vain attempted to heal the 
breach. They were numerous about 306. 
Mosheim, who states that the cause of his 
deposition is involved in uncertainty, says 
that the Meletian party was still in existence 
in the 5th century. 

Melfi, or Melphi (Italy).— This ancient 
town, made the capital of the Norman states 
of Apuha A.D. 1042, was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake Aug. 14, 1851. The cathe- 
dral and all the principal buildings were over- 
whelmed, and about 600 persons were killed. 

Melitene (Battle). — The Persian 
monarch, Chosroes I. (Nushirvan), fought 
a great battle at this place, the modern Ma- 
lathiah, in Lesser Armenia, a.d. 577. Chos- 
roes I. retreated the day after the battle, 
burning the town of Melitene as he retired. 

Mellingen (Battle). — The French de- 
feated the Swiss at the passage of the Keuss, 
at Mellingen, a.d. 1798. 



MEL 

Melodica. — This keyed instrument waa 
invented by Stein, at Augsburg, a.d. 1770. 

Melodicon. — This keyed instrument waa 
invented by Peter Eiffelsen, of Copenhagen, 
A.D. 1803. 

Melodkama. — A dramatic entertainment, 
first introduced into this country by Thomas 
Holcroft, who was born in London Dec. 10, 
1745 (O.S.), and died March 23, 1809. His 
first comedy appeared in 1781. 

Meloea, or Meloria (Sea-fight). — The 
Genoese defeated the Pisans in this naval 
battle, fought Aug. 6, 1284. 

Melds (J5gean Sea), one of the Cyclades, 
is said to have been colonized by the Phoe- 
nicians, and at a later period to have received 
a colony of Lacedaemonians. It was invaded 
by the Athenians, under Mcias, B.C. 426, 
and was again invaded by a large force 
B.C. 416. The city was besieged by sea and 
land, but held out for several months. Two 
successful sallies were made by the Melians, 
but at length their provisions became ex- 
hausted, and they surrendered at discretion. 
The victors put aU the men capable of bear- 
ing arms to death, and sold the women and 
children for slaves, 500 Athenian settlers 
being sent to form a new colony. A 
Peloponnesian squadron, under Antisthenes, 
defeated the Athenian navy here B.C. 412. 
The Lacedaemonians, under Lysander, having 
defeated the Athenians, their colony was 
recalled, and the captive Melians restored 
to their country, B.C. 404. It subsequently 
became part of the Eoman empire, and 
was finally conquered by the Turks, undei* 
Soliman 11. (1520—1565). It is now called 
Milo, and is included in the modern kingdom 
of Greece. 

Meletchstadt (Battle). — An undecided 
battle between Eodolph of Swabia and the 
emperor Henry IV. was fought at this place, 
in Franconia, a.d. 1078. 

Meleose (Scotland). — This site was oc- 
cupied by a Culdee house, founded a.d. 635. 
It was superseded by an abbey for Cister- 
cian monks, founded in 1136 by David I., 
and completed in 1146. In 1322 it was 
destroyed by Edward II. In 1326 it was 
rebuilt by Eobert Bruce, and completed in 
the reign of James IV. It was again 
destroyed by the English in 1.545. 

Meltox Mowbe at (Leicestershire), called 
Medeltune and Meltone Mowbray, received 
the name of Mowbray from its ancient lords, 
by command of Henry I. (1154). In 1613 
the town was considerably damaged by fire, 
and in 1637 the plague raged with great 
violence. A battle was fought here between 
the royahsts and the parhamentary troops, 
the latter, 2,000 strong, being routed with 
great slaughter, in 1645. In 1736 the church, a 
handsome and spacious structure with lofty 
towers, was struck by Ughtning, and frag- 
ments of the south and north-east pinnacles, 
weighing from 5 cwt. to 6 cwt., were preci- 
pitated through the north transept. 

Melun (France), the ancient Melodimum, 
was captixred by Henry V. of England a.d. 
1420. Henry had several conferences with 



MEM 



MEN 



the queen of France at this town in July, 
. 1419. It was recovered by the French in 
1435. Councils were held here in 1216 ; 
Nov. 8, 1225 ; and Jan. 21, 1301. 

Memel (Prussia). — This town was built 
A.D. 1279, and fortified in 1312. It was 
greatly damaged by fire in 1323, and came into 
the possession of the Teutonic knights, who 
settled in Prussia, in 1328. Large portions 
of the town were destroyed by fires in 1379, 
1457, 1540, 1678, and again Oct. 4, 1854. It 
was taken by the Eussians in 1757, and again 
occupied by them in December, 1813. The 
king and queen of Prussia concluded a 
convention with Napoleon I. at this town 
in 1807. 

Memmingen (Germany) was ceded to Ba- 
varia by arrangements definitively concluded 
Feb. 25, 1803. It was fortified by Mack in 
1805, was taken by the French Oct. 9, and 
the Tyrolese occupied it in 1809. 

Memphis (Egypt). — Herodotus ascribes 
the foundation of this place to Menes, first 
king of Egypt, B.C. 3893, according to Lep- 
sius; B.C. 3643, according to Bunsen; B.C. 
2412, according to Hales; and b.c. 2320, ac- 
cording to Wilkinson. Some fix as the date 
of its foundation B.C. 2188; and Diodorus 
Siculus ascribes it to Uchoreus, one of the 
successors of Osymandyas, king of Thebes, 
B.C. 2100. In order to reconcile the discre- 
pancy in these statements, some historians 
ascribe its foundation to Menes, and its com- 
pletion and extension to Uchoreus, who first 
made it a royal city. Memphis was taken by 
the Persians under Cambyses, B.C. 525, 
when many of its temples and palaces were 
destroyed. Alexander the Great, who win- 
tered here B.C. 332, quite destroyed the 
ancient importance of the place by founding 
Alexandria in the same year. Memphis was 
taken by Antiochus Epiphanes B.C. 171, and 
was visited and restored by Septimius Severus, 
A.B, 202. In the 7th century it passed under 
the dominion of the Arabs, and gradually 
fell into decay. The Arabian traveller Ab- 
dallatif visited it in the 12th century. The 
ruins were discovered and excavated by M. 
Mariette, between 1850 and 1854. It is the 
Noph of the Old Testament. The most cele- 
brated of its sacred buildings were, the tem- 
ple of Ptah, or Hephsestos, — the elemental 
principle of fire, — said to have been coeval 
with the foundation of the city, and improved 
and beautified by several monarchs ; the tem- 
ple of Proteus, said to have been founded 
by the Phoenicians about the sera of the Tro- 
jan war ; the temple of Isis, founded at an 
early period, and completed by Amasis B.C. 
564; and the temple of Apis, called the 
cathedral of Egypt, founded by Psammeti- 
ehus. Memphis ceased to be the metropolis 
of Egypt on the foundation of Alexandria. 
It soon after feU into obscurity, and of this 
celebrated city, which, according to Diodo- 
rus, was seven leagues in circumference, and 
contained a multitude of beautiful temples, 
not one stone remains, — even the site on 
which it stood being disputed, 

Menai Stbait (Wales). — The Komans 



crossed this strait, separating Caernarvon- 
shire from the island of Anglesey, to attack 
the Druids in their last stronghold, a.d. 59. 
A ferry-boat was lost, containing fifty per- 
sons, Dec. 4, 1785. A suspension-bridge over 
the strait, 100 feet above the level of high 
water, was commenced by Mr. Telford in 
1818, and completed in 1825, at a cost of 
£120,000. The bridge was opened Jan. 30, 
1826. The Britannia tubular bridge, 101 
feet above the level of high water, was com- 
pleted by Stephenson March 5, 1850, at a 
cost of £621,865. 

Mende (France). — This tovra, fortified by 
Bishop Adalbert, a.d. 1151, was frequently 
besieged during the reHgious wars of the 
16th century ; and Henry IV. of France 
destroyed its citadel in 1597. 

Mendicants, or Begging Feiars, reli- 
gious orders in the Komish church, supported 
by charitable contributions, were established 
A.D. 1215, by Pope Innocent III. They in- 
creased rdpidly in numbers, and became a 
great burthen not only to the people but to 
the Church. In 1272 Gregory X, reduced the 
mendicant orders to four ; viz., Dominicans, 
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The 
Dominicans and Franciscans obtained great 
power both in church and state. Their in- 
fluence began to decline sensibly at the com- 
mencement of the Eeformation in the 16th 
century. 

Mendicity Society (London). — This 
society for the suppression of mendicity 
was founded in 1818. It was established for 
the purpose of checking the practice of 
pubhc begging, by putting the laws in force 
against impostors who adopt it as a trade, and 
by affording prompt and effectual assistance 
to those whom sudden calamity and un- 
affected distress may render worthy of the 
attention of the benevolent. 

Mendoza (South America), the capital 
of a province of the same name, was almost 
entirely destroyed by an earthquake, 
March 20, 1861. The city, situated on 
the eastern slope of the Cordilleras, was in 
one moment reduced to a mass of rviins. 
The calamity occurred at about a quarter to 
nine p.m. Out of a population of 12,000 souls, 
10,000 were buried, and of these 2,000 were 
rescued, many of them having sustained 
severe injuries. The same night a fire broke 
out among the ruins of one of the largest 
buildings in the city, and about 600 persons 
were actually burned ahve. An eye-witness 
remarks, " This earthquake is probably the 
worst on record ; never was destruction so 
complete." 

Menehould St. (France) .—This ancient 
town was captured by the Enghsh a.d. 1436, 
and afterwards sustained several sieges. 
The Spaniards, who took it in 1652, were 
expelled in the following year. 

Menes (^ra). — The sera of Menes, the 
first king of Egypt, is placed by Lepsius 
B.C. 3893; by Bunsen, B.C. 3643; by Hales, 
B.C. 2412; by Wilkinson, B.C. 2320; and 
by Prichard, b.c. 2214. 
Menin (Belgium).— The allied army took 
553 



MEN 

possession of this town a.d. 1706, and it was 
captured by the Frencli in June, 1744. 

MENNOif ITES.^A sect of Anabaptists 
founded by Menno, sumamed Simonis, a;i>. 
1536. He was born at Witmarsum, in Eries- 
land, in 1505, and commencing life as a Eoman 
Catholic, became a convert to the Anabap- 
tists. He was allowed to settle in the United 
Provinces by William I., prince of Orange, 
towards the close of the 16th century. 
Menno died in Holstein in 1561. In 1630 
and 1649, conferences of the Anabaptists of 
G-ermanv, Flanders, and Friesland were 
held at Amsterdam, when the rigorous laws 
of their founder were noitigated. During 
the 17th century they obtained toleration in 
JEngland, Holland, and Germany. 

Mensa et Thoeo.— This partial kind of 
divorce a rnenscl et thoro (from table and 
bed), effected by a sentence of the ecclesias- 
tical courts, but not annulling the marriage, 
was superseded by a decree for a judicial 
separation, under the 7th clause o'f 20 & 21 
Vict. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 1857). _ 

Mensiteation. — The origin of this science 
is uncertain, though it is generally ascribed 
to the ancient Egyptians, Euclid, B.C. 1280, 
a mathematician of Alexandria, was the first 
who embodied the leading principles into a 
regular system. Archimedes, B.C. 250, a fa- 
mous geometrician of Syracuse, made great 
discoveries in this science. Cavalerius, an 
Italian mathematician, who died at Bologna 
A.D. 1647, invented, and applied to this 
science, the celebrated doctrine of indi- 
visibles. This, however, was superseded by 
]S"ewton's (born 1642, died March 20, 1726) 
still more celebrated method of fluxions. 

Mentz. ((See Matence.) 

Menu (Institutes of). — ^A code of Indian 
civil and religious law, named after Menu, 
son of Bramah, by whom it is supposed to 
have been revealed. Its origin is ascribed 
to the period between Homer, B.C. 962, and 
the Twelve Tables of the Romans, B.C. 448. 
According to Schlegel, it was seen by Alex- 
ander the Great B.C. 356—323. In 1794 it 
was translated into Enghsh by Sir William 
Jones, and in 1830 into French by Des 
Longchamps. 

Mercantile Maeine Act. — This name 
is given to the act 13 & 14 Vict. c. 93 
(Aug. 14, 1850), which provides for the 
engagement of merchant seamen, for sani- 
tary measures during voyages, for naval 
courts, log-books, desertions, wages, and 
other matters connected with the merchant 
service. It was amended by 14 & 15 Vict. 
c. 96 (Aug. 7, 1851). 

Mebc AEA ( Hindostan ) . — This fortress, 
built by Hyder Ali a.d. 1773, was taken 
possession of by the East-India Company's 
forces in 1834, and annexed to their domi- 
nions. 

Meecatoe's Projection. — This method 
of geographical projection, employed in the 
construction of nautical maps, is said to 
have been invented by Gerard Mercator, 
whose real name was Eauffman, born at 
Eiippelwonde, in East Friesland, March b, 
554 



MEE 

1512 A.D. He died at Doesburg, Dee. 2, 
1594. Edward Wright first investigated the 
principles, and applied them to purposes of 
navigation. 

Meecers' Compantt can be traced back 
as a metropohtan guild to a.d. 1172. It was 
incorporated by letters patent (17 Eich. II.) 
in 1394. Eichard II. was a free brother, 
and Queen Elizabeth a free sister, of the 
Mercers' Company. It ranks first amongst 
the twelve great livery companies of London, 
and is governed by a prime and three other 
wardens, and forty assistants, with 232 
liverymen. There is scarcely a single mer- 
cer in the company. 

Merchants. — By Magna Charta (1215) 
foreign merchants were allowed to come, 
go, and stay in England for the exercise of 
their calling without being subject to un- 
reasonable imposts. By 27 Edw. III. (1353) 
it was enacted that if any difference should 
arise between the king and a foreign state, 
the ahen merchant was to have forty days', 
or longer, notice to leave the country. By 
5 Eich. II. (1382) Enghsh merchants were 
exempted from this statute, which restrains 
Enghsh subjects from leaving the kingdom 
without a hcence. By 8 Hen. VI. (1429) 
none were allowed to sell to merchant 
strangers but for ready money. In 1561 
the number of merchants in London was 
327. During the threatened Spanish invasion, 
300 met weekly to practise the art of war. 
In 1588 some of these held commands at 
Tilbury. From time to time companies of 
merchants were estabhshed in London for 
foreign trade. The Barbary merchants 
were mcorporated in the reign of Henry VII., 
and the Levant or Turkey Company was esta- 
bhshed in 1581. Their success originated the 
old East-India Company, which had a mono- 
poly of the traffic until a new company was 
incorporated, 9 WOl. III. (1698), on condition 
of their lending the government £2,000,000. 
Both companies were subsequently united. 
In France, Louis XIV. passed two decrees, in 
1669 and 1701, allowing the nobles to trade 
by land and sea without derogating from 
their nobihty. An attempt made in 1711 
to exclude merchants from the House of 
Commons failed. 

Merchant ADVENTtrRERS. — This cele- 
brated commercial company, said to have 
originated in the London Mercers' Com- 
pany, obtained privileges from John of Bra- 
Ijant A.D. 1296, and estabhshed themselves 
at Antwerp under the title of the Brother- 
hood of St. Thomas Becket. In 1358 they 
were encouraged by Louis, count of Flanders, 
who permitted them to form an estabhshment 
at Bruges ; and in 1406 they received their 
first charter from Henry IV. of England. 
Edward IV. granted a new charter in 1466. 
Their importance was much increased by the 
celebrated treaty known as the Intercursus 
magnus, which was concluded between 
Henry VII. and Philip, archduke of the 
ISTetherlands, Feb. 24, 1496 ; and in 1497 the 
company began to assume the title of the 
Merchant Adventurers. Henry VIII. granted 



MEE 

them a charter in 1513 ; * Queen Elizabeth 
granted them a charter in 1560, and a second, 
dated July 8, 1564, confirming aU former 
charters and privileges. Owing to the op- 
position of the Hanse towns, they were 
temporarily expelled from Germany in 1597, 
but they were soon invited to return. 
James I. granted them a charter in 1617, 
and their privileges were confirmed by 
Charles I. in 1634. They settled at Dort 
in 1647, and made Hamburg their principal 
staple about 1651. After 1661 Hamburg 
became their only foreign station. In 1765 
the company published a report, wherein 
they stated that their trade had been long 
dechning. 

Mekchawt Tailoks.— This company, an- 
ciently called Tailors and Linen Armourers, 
was incorporated by Edward IV. a.d. 1466. 
As many of the members were great mer- 
chants, Henry VII. re-incorporated them in 
1503, under the title of Merchant Tailors. 
In 1607, June 7, a great banquet was given 
to James I., which cost above £1,000. This 
company ranks more royal and noble person- 
ages among its members than any of the city 
companies. The Merchant Tailors' School 
was founded Sept. 24, 1561. 

Mercia (England). — This ancient king- 
dom is supposed to have been fovmded by 
the Angles, under Crida, a.d. 586. It was 
conquered by the Northumbrians in 655, and 
soon after regained its independence. 

Meecuet. — The transit of this planet 
over the sun was first observed by Gassendi, 
A.D. 1631. 

Meect (Order) . — The order of Mercy was 
established a.d. 1218 by James I. of Aragon, 
in the city of Barcelona, for the purpose 
of redeeming Christian captives in the 
power of the Moors. It is sometimes 
caUed St. Eulalia, from the name of the 
patron saint of the principal church in 
that city. A dispute between the knights 
and priests of the order about the elec- 
tion of a master, decided in favour of 
the priests by Pope John XXII. (1316— 
1334) , led to the withdrawal of the knights, 
and the society from that time has been 
composed entirely of priests. In 1688 
the duchess of Dudley bequeathed £100 
per annum for the liberation of English 
captives. 

Meegiti (Hindostan).— This town, in 
Tenasserim, was taken by the English a.d. 
1824, and was ceded to England by the 
treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. 

Meeida (Mexico) was founded by the 
Spaniards on the site of a Mexican city, 
a.d. 1542. The "Cozumel Cross," supposed 
to have been originally worshipped by the 
natives of Cozumel, is preserved at Merida. 

Meeida, or Emeeita Augusta (Spain), 
the ancient metropolis of Lusitania, a town 



* Their first charter of incorporation was dated 
Feb. 6, 1554, in which they were described as " The 
Merchant Adventurers for the Discoveries of Lands, 
Countries, and Isles, &c., not before known or fre- 
quented by the English." 



MEE 

of great antiquity, was built by the legate 
Pubhus Carisius, B.C. 24. The Moors, 
under Musa, took it a.d. 712 j but they 
allowed the inhabitants to retain their tem- 
ples, creed, and bishops. It was taken from 
the Moors by Alfonso, Nov. 19, 1229, 
from which time it began to decline. 
Philip II. in 1580 ordered drawings to be 
made of the ruins, which in 1734 were burnt 
in the palace at Madrid. The French took 
Merida June 8, 1811. At Aroyo des Molinos, 
near this town, the Enghsh, under General 
HUl, defeated the French, under Girard, 
Oct. 28, 1811. Merida was wrested from the 
French by the British in April, 1812. 

Meeines, or Meeinides. — This Moorish 
tribe appeared in the north-west parts of 
Africa a.d. 1213. They made themselves 
masters of Fez, and before 1268 had esta- 
bhshed their supremacy throughout Morocco. 
Under their king, Abu Juzef, they entered 
Spain in 1274, and withdrew in 1294. 

Meeino Sheep were first brought into 
England from Spain, a.d. 1788, and a second 
flock was imported in 1791 . Some authorities 
believe that the merinos are descended from 
English sheep imported into Spain. Ed- 
ward IV., in 1464, sent a score of Costal 
ewes and four rams to John, king of Aragon. 
When Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt, 
was espoused to Henry III., in 1390, she 
took a flock of sheep with her as her dowry. 
Merino sheep were introduced into the Ger- 
man states in 1765, into Hungary in 1775, 
and into France in 1786. 

Meemaid Club (London), called by 
HaUam " the oldest, perhaps, and not the 
worst of clubs," was established at the 
Mermaid (whence the name) tavern, Friday 
Street, by Sir Walter Ealeigh at the begin- 
ning of the 17th century. Shakespeare, Ben 
Jonson, Selden, Donne, Camden, Beaumont, 
and Fletcher, were members of this cele- 
brated association. 

Meeoe (Africa). — This ancient kingdom 
of Central Africa is considered to have been 
formed by the mihtary caste which removed 
from Egypt during the reign of Psamme- 
tichus (B.C. 658—614). The ruins of the 
ancient capital of this kingdom were dis- 
covered by CaiUaud between a.d. 1819 and 
1822. 

Meeovin-gians, the first race of the kings 
of France, who reigned from a.d. 418 to 752. 
The name Merovingian is derived from 
Merovaeus, the third king, who began to 
reign in 451. The French monarchy was 
founded in 487 by Clovis, the fifth of the 
Merovingian race. {See Feam-ce.) 

Meeet Andeew. — Hearne is of opinion 
that this term originated from Andrew Borde, 
a physician, who lived in the time of Henry 
VIII. He says, "'T was from the doctor's 
method of using such speeches at markets 
and fairs, that in after-times those that imi- 
tated the like humorous, jocose language, 
were styled Merry Andrews, a term much in 
vogue on our stages." 

Meesebueg (Battles ).— Henry the 
Fowler, emperor of Germany, defeated the 
555 



MER 

HuHgarians at this town, in Saxony, a.d. 934. j 
The Hungarians are said to have lost 40,000 | 
men. Tms extended plain, between Merse- 
burg and Leipsic, became the scene of nume- [ 
rous battles in later times. During the con- 
tention between the emperor Henry IV. and 
Gregory VII. a great battle was fought 
here between the papal and the imperial \ 
forces. Henry IV. having invaded Saxony, 
was defeated here in 1080. Kodolph of 
Swabia died in the encounter, and Henry IV. 
took the city of Merseburg soon after. 

Meeset Island (Essex).— The Danes 
assembled here a.d. 895, and made excursions 
up the rivers Lea and Thames. 

Meethye Tydtil (Wales) .— This place 
derives its name from Tydvil, daughter of 
Brychan, prince of Brycheiniog in the 5th 
century. The first congregation of dissen- 
ters in Wales was formed here in 1620. 
The Grlamorganshire canal, connecting Mer- 
thyr Tydvil with Cardiff, was completed in 
1796. Serious riots occurred amongst the 
workmen at the iron- works, June 3, 1831, 
when several lives were lost. 

MEETOiSr (Surrey) was anciently called 
Meretun. Cynewulf, king of Wessex, was 
murdered here a.d. 784. EtheLred and his 
brother Alfred, afterwards king, fought 
a great battle with the Danes at this place, 
in the spring of 871. The English, at first 
victorious, were eventually compelled to 
vfithdraw. The priory, budt of wood in 1115, 
was rebuilt in stone in 1130. 

Meetoit College (Oxford) was founded 
at Maiden, in Surrey, by Walter de Merton, 
bishop of Eochester, Jan. 7, 1264, and was 
removed to Oxford in 1274. Thehbrarywas 
built in 1376 by William Eede. The outer 
court was rebuilt in 1589. 

Mebton Statutes. — A council assembled 
at the abbey of Merton, Jan. 23, 1236, when 
various enactments were made that have 
since formed part of the statute law of Eng- 
land, and are known as the Statutes of 
Merton. 

Meeu, or Meet (Asia) , is said to have been 
founded by Alexander the Great, and having 
been destroyed, was rebuilt by Antioehus I., 
who gave it the name of Antiochia Margiana. 
Here Orodes I., or Arsaees XIV., of Parthia, 
settled the soldiers of Crassus, whom he had 
made prisoners, B.C. 53. It was a favourite 
residence of many of the Persian monarchs, 
and was destroyed by the Uzbeg Tartars 
A.D. 1786. 

Mesmeeism. — The foundation of this 
theory was laid by Eriedrich Anton Mesmer, 
A.D. 1766, in his treatise "De Planetarum 
Influxu." In 1778 he settled in Paris, where 
he was received with curiosity, and opened 
an estabUshment for the cure of diseases by 
his magnetic process. In consequence of 
the alleged success of his attempts, the 
Erench government in 1784 appointed a com- 
mittee of inquiry to examine the truth of 
the system, and the result was a report stating 
it to be a complete impostui'e. Mesmer was, 
in consequence, compelled to leave France. 
He lived in retirement in England until 
556 



MES 

17S9, when he pubUshed a new explanation 
of his theory. He returned to Germany, 
and, sinking into poverty, died at Marsburg 
in 1815. In 1817 the Prussian law prohibited 
the practice of mesmerism to any except 
members of the medical profession ; and the 
council of University College, London, passed 
a resolution to prevent its introduction into 
their hospitals, Dec. 27, 1838. An ingenious 
correspondent in Notes and Queries, July 3, 
1852, quotes from Apideius an early allusion 
to mesmerism ; and Glanvil, in his " Scepsis 
Scientifica," pubhshed in 1665, refers to 
some doctrine analogous to modern mes- 
merism. 

Mesne Peocess is defined by "Wharton 
as " all those writs which intervene in the 
progress of a suit or action between its 
beginning and end, as contradistinguished 
from primary and final process." Arrest on 
mesne process, where the debt or cause of 
action was under £'20, was abolished by 
7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 70 (July 2, 1827). The 
change, which did not extend to Scotland and 
Ireland, was applied to the last-mentioned 
country by 10 Geo. IV. c. 35 (June 4, 1829) ; 
and arrest on mesne process in civil actions 
was abohshed, except in certain specified 
cases, by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110 (Aug. 16, 
1838). 

MEsoLOifGHi, or Messoion&hi. (See 

MiSSOLONGHI.) 

Mesopotamia (Asia). — This country was 
called, in the Old Testament, Aram I^aha- 
raim, or Syria between the two waters {i. e. 
the Tigris and the Euphrates), and Padan 
Aram, i. e. Syria of the Plain. It passed suc- 
cessively under the sway of the Babylonians, 
the Medians, and the Persians. After the 
battle of Issus, in October, 333 B.C., it fell 
into the power of the Macedonians. The 
Romans obtained possession of Mesopotamia 
A.D. 165. Jovian surrendered it to the Per- 
sians in 363. The Carmathians overran it in 
902, and the Turks conquered it between 
1514 and 1516. 

Messalians. (See Euchites.) 

Messene (Greece), the capital of Mes- 
senia (q. v.), in the Peloponnesus, was 
founded by Epaminondas B.C. 369, and 
maintained its independence until it was 
conquered by the Romans, B.C. 14^. 

Messenia (Greece). — The earliest inha- 
bitants of this coimtry are said to have been 
the Leleges. Polycaon named the country 
Messene, in honour of his wife, B.C. 1499. 
At the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, 
Cresphontes obtained Messenia. IS^umbers 
of the inhabitants left their country and 
settled in various parts of Greece, Italy, 
&c., at the close of the second Messenian 
war iq.v.), B.C. 668. Those that remained 
were reduced to the condition of helots, and 
the whole of Messenia was incorporated with 
Sparta. For nearly 300 years, Messenia 
ceased to exist as an independent country. 
After the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, in 
which the Spartans were totally defeated, 
Epaminondas determined to restore Mes- 
senia, and he bmlt the town of Messene 



(q. v.), B.C. 369, inviting back to their 
country the exiles from Italy, Sicily, and 
Africa. Under the protection of Thebes, 
Messenia maintained its independence. Its 

Eeople fought with the Achseans at the 
attle of SeUasia, b.c. 222. The Messe- 
nians having made war against the Achaean 
League, were defeated, and their chief city 
was captured b.c. 183. Messenia, with the 
rest of Grreece, lost its independence, and 
was incorporated with the Eoman empire 
B.C. 146. 

Messeniaw Wars. — The first of these 
wars, between Messenia and Sparta, lasted 
twenty years, from B.C. 743 to b.c, 723. 
The former were obliged to submit. The 
second began B.C. 685, and lasted to B.C. 
668, terminating in the conquest of the 
Messenians. Taking advantage of the de- 
vastation caused by the great earthquake 
at Sparta, the Messenians again revolted ; 
and the third Messenian war commenced 
B.C. 464, and ended in their entire overthrow 
B.C. 455. 

Messina (Sicily), the ancient Messana, 
was originally called Zancle, said to be 
derived from a Siculian word, signifying a 
sickle. It was thus named on account of 
the peculiar formation of the port. The 
date of its foundation cannot be ascertained 
with accuracy, though it is generally believed 
to have derived its origin from a colony of 
Naios, which city was not founded until 
B.C. 735. The Samians obtained possession 
of Zancle B.C. 493, and were expelled about 
B.C. 478 by Anaxilas of Ehegium, who called 
it Messene, from the Grecian city of that 
name, from which his ancestors came. From 
that time it was generally known as Messene 
or Messana. The inhabitants regained their 
independence b.c. 461, but were compelled 
to surrender their town to the Athenians, 
B.C. 426. They joined the Syracusans B.C. 
425, again became independent, and enjoyed 
great prosperity until their city was taken 
and completely destroyed by the Cartha- 
ginians under Himilcon, b.c 396. Messana, 
gradually restored, again became an impor- 
tant city, and was captured by Agathocles 
B.C. 312. Some time after his death, pro- 
bably about B.C. 280, the city fell a prey to 
the Mamertines (qv.), who endeavoured to 
change its name to Mamertina. Having 
been assailed by Hieron of Syracuse, one 
portion of the citizens desired to seek the 
assistance of the Carthaginians, and another, 
that of the Komans. The latter prevailed, 
and this appeal to Eome (b.c 264) led to the 
first Punic war. Messina flourished under 
Eoman protection, and became a station 
for their fleets. Cassius, in command of 
Pompey's fleet, destroyed Caesar's squadron 
here, b.c. 48. The Saracens captured Mes- 
sina A.D. 829, and they were expelled by the 
Normans under Count Eoger in 1072. 
Eichardl., dui-ing the third crusade, landed 
here with his army, Sept. 14, 1190, and em- 
barked for the Holy Land April 10, 1191. 
In 1672 the inhabitants revolted against the 
Spaniards, and made an alliauce with the 



MET 

French; but their city was taken by the 
Spaniards, Sept. 17, 1678, and was ceded 
to Austria, Feb. 17, 1720. The plague 
carried off" nearly 50,000 persons m 1743, 
Messina has suifered severely from earth- 
quakes. It was almost entirely destroyed 
by one in 1693. Others occm-red in 1780 
and 1783, and on the last occasion the mag- 
nificent quay and many beautiful edifices 
were destroyed. A revolution broke out 
Jan 12, 1848, but it was soon suppressed. 
A general rising took place in Sicily, 
March 15, 1860, and several persons were 
arrested in Messina, May 2. The revolution 
was, however, successful; the connection 
with Naples was severed, and Messina now 
forms part of the kingdom of Italy. 

METALLiTEGr. — Tubal Cain was "an 
instructor of every artificer in brass andiron" 
(Gen. iv. 22). According to Hallam, Agri- 
cola, a native of Saxony, acquired a perfect 
knowledge of the processes of metallurgy 
from the miners of Chemnitz, and perceived 
the immense resources that might be drawn 
from the abysses of the earth. " He is the 
first mineralogist," says Cuvier, " who 
appeared after the revival of science in 
Europe." The names of the principal me- 
tals, vsdth the date of their discovery, are 
as follows : — 



Metals. 


Discovered by 


(Date. 


AlnmiTiinTn , , 


Wohler 


A.D. 


Antimony .... 


Basil Valentine .... 


1490 


Arsenic 


Brandt 


1738 
1808 
1.530 






Bismuth 


Agilcola 






CaJoium 


Davy 


1808 












1797 
1733 
1801 


Cobalt 


Brandt 


Columbium . . 
Copper 


Hatehett 

Known to the Ancients. 


Erbinm 


Ditto 

Wohler 


1840 


Gold.... 

Iridium 


Known to the Ancients. 
Tennant 


1803 


Iron 


Known to the Ancients. 
Mosander 


Lanthanium. . . 


1839 


Lead 


Known to the Ancients. 
Arfwedson 




Lithium 


1817 








Manganese .... 
Mercury 


Gahn and Scheele 

Known to the Ancients. 
Hielm 


1774 


Nickel 


Cronstedt 


1751 


Niobium 


H. Rose 


1845 


Osmium 




Palladium 


WoUaston 


1803 








Platinum 


Wood 


1741 


Potassium. .... 


Davy 


1807 








Kuthenium . . 


Klaus 


1844 




Berzelius 




Silver 

Sodium 


Known to the Ancients. 
Davy 


1807 






1807 




Mtiller 


1782 


Terbium 


Mosander 


1840 






1829 


Tin 


Known to the Ancients. 









MET 



MET 



Titanium 
Tungsten . . 
Uranium . . 
Vanadium 
Yttrium .. 

Zinc 

Zirconiiun 



Discovered by 



Gregor . . . . 
D'EIhuiart 
Klaproth . . 
Sefstrom . . 
Wohler .. 
Paracelsus 
Berzelius.. 



1791 
1781 

1830 
1828 
1530 



Mexamoephists. — Certain sacramen- 
tarians, who affirmed that Christ's body- 
was wholly deified, arose about a.d. 1450. 

Metaphysics, or the "science of the 
principles and causes of all things existing," 
was first treated of by Aristotle (b.c. 384 to 
322). The title was apphed to the series of 
works which followed his "Physics" and 
were in consequence styled " ixerd to, 
(pvaiKO." or " after the physics." 

Metapgnttim, or Metapontium (Magna 
Grsecia). — The foundation of this city, 
assigned to various persons and periods, 
was doubtless the work of an Achaean colony. 
The Metapontiaes joined Athens against 
Sicily B.C. 414. Hannibal occupied Meta- 
pontum from B.C. 212 to B.C. 207, and on re- 
tiring took with him all the inhabitants who 
dreaded lest the Eomans should punish them 
for their alliance with the Carthaginians. 

Metaueus, (Battle,) was fought upon the 
banks of this river, in Italy, b.c. 207, between 
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, and 
the Eoman consuls C. Claudius K^ero and 
M. Livius. Hasdrubal was slain in this 
contest, and the Carthaginians were totally 
defeated. 

Metempsychosis, or the doctrine of the 
transmigration of souls, was long supposed 
to have been derived from the Egyptians. 
It appears, however, to have existed in 
Greece, in some form or other, before any 
intercourse existed between Egypt and 
Greece. Pythagoras, who died b.c. 507, 
first gave the doctrine that settled form it 
long assumed in ancient Greece. Empe- 
docles, who flourished b.c. 455, held that 
plants had souls, and that into plants, as 
well as into animals, the vital principle 
passed after death. It was a favourite 
doctrine of the Hindoos. 

Meteoeolite.— The theories respecting 
the nature of these phenomena are four in 
number; viz., that they are stones projected 
by lunar volcanoes ; stones from terrestrial 
volcanoes ; that they are the result of gaseous 
combmations in the air ; and that they are 
asteroids which are drawn by the earth as 
ttiey come within the force of its attraction. 
The last theory receives support from the 
fact, that since 1833 showers of meteorolites 
have fallen in various parts of Europe and 
America annually on the 12th, 13th, or 14th 
of November. 



654. Livy mentions a shower of stones which fell 

on the Alban mount. 
467. A large stone falls near iEgospotami. in 

Thrace. 
558 



56. Pliny mentions the fall of an aerolite in 

Lucania. 
46. Csesar states that a stone fell at Accilla this 

year. 

A.D. 

1492. Nov. 7. A large stone falls at Ensisheim. 

1510. A shower of stones falls in Lombardy, 

1620. A large stone falls in the Hindoo province of 

Lahore. 
1627. Nov. 27. Gassendi witnesses the descent of a 

large aerolite on Mount Vaision. 
1668. Two large stones fall near Verona. 
1753. Sept. Two stones fall at Lipouas and Pin, in 

France. 
1760. Sept. 15. A stone falls near the Chateau de 

Chevabrie. 
1768. Nov. 20. A stone weighing 38 lb. falls at 

Mauerkirchen, in Bavaria. 
1790. July 24. A stone falls near JuiUac. 
1794. June 16. A meteoroUte faUs at Sienna. 
1798. March 12. A stone falls near Villa Franca. 
1803. April 26. A remarkable shower of stones falls 

near L'Aigle, in Nonnandy. 
1841. Sept. A shower of many millions of stones 

falls in Hungary. 

Meteoeology.— The Meteorological 
Society of London was estabhshed in 1823, 
and began to publish its Transactions in 1839. 

Methodists. — John Wesley, and some of 
his friends, at the university of Oxford, 
formed themselves into an association for 
the more strict observance of their rehgious 
duties, about a.d. 1729, and received, 
amongst other nicknames, that of Metho- 
dists, m allusion to the Methodici, or phy- 
sicians in ancient Rome, mentioned by 
Celsus. The Methodists practised self- 
denial, visited the poor and the sick, and 
spent much time in meditation and prayer. 
John Wesley formed his followers into a 
regular society, May 1, 1738. Such was the 
origin of what are termed the Wesleyan 
Methodists. Their first meeting-house was 
founded at Bristol, May 12, 1739. George 
Whitfield separated from the Wesleyans, 
and founded the Whitfieldites, or Whitfield- 
ians {q.v.), in 1741. The first watch-night 
of the Methodists was held in London, 
April 9, 1742 ; the rules of the society were 
first pubhshed May 1, 1743, and the first 
conference was held in 1744. A further 
separation occurred in 1797, when the 
Methodists divided into two sects, called the 
Old Methodists, and the New Connexion. 
The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists arose in 
1785, and various Methodist sects have since 
sprung into existence. 

Methoxe (Macedonia) is said to have 
been settled by some Eretrians about B.C. 
730. Philip I. besieged it B.C. 353, captured it 
B.C. 352, and razed it to the ground. During 
the siege, Philip was wounded in the eye 
by an arrow, having, according to tra- 
dition, a label with these words, "Astorto 
Philip's right eye." This bowman had 
offered his services to the king, declaring 
that he could bring down a bird in its flight 
with his arrows. "It is well," said Phihp, 
" I shaU make use of thee when I wage 
war with starlings." 

Methoxe (Messenia), called Pedasus by 
Homer, was given to the inhabitants of 
JNaupha by the Spartans, e.g. 662. The 



MET 

Athenians were defeated in an attempt to 
regain pbssession of Methone, B.C. 431. It 
was captured by Agrippa about b.c. 31. 
Trajan made it a free city. (See Modon .) 

Methuen" Tkeatt was concluded 
between England and Portugal, by the 
English ambassador at Lisbon, Paul Me- 
thuen, — whence its name, a.d. 1703. It 
regulated the conxmerce between the two 
countries, and was annulled in 1834. 

Metonic Cycle, so called from its inventor 
Meton, an astronomer of Athens, is a cycle 
of nineteen years, or 6,940 days, at the end 
of which time the new moons fall on the 
same days of the year, and the eclipses 
return in nearly the same order. It com- 
menced July 15, 432 b.c. CaMppus, who 
lived about B.C. 330, discovered and cor- 
rected its error, and invented the Calippic 
Period (q.v.). 

Metron-qmb. — This ingenious instrument 
for determining the movement, i. e. the 
quickness or slowness of musical composi- 
tions, was invented by John Maezel, civil 
engineer and mechanician to the emperor of 
Austria, a.d. 1814. 

Meteopolitam". — A term applied to the 
prelate who resided in the capital city of 
each province, the clergy and the other 
bishops of the province being subject to his 
authority. The establishment of metropo- 
litans originated at the end of the 3rd 
century, and was confirmed by the council 
of Nicsea. Mosheim beheves the prerogatives 
of metropolitans to have originated in the 
councils first summoned in the 2nd century. 
The first metropolitan or archbishop pf 
Canterbury was Augustine, created by King 
Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, 
in 598. PauMnus, the first metropohtan of 
York, was appointed by Pope Gregory in 
622. Patrick Graham, made bishop of St. 
Andrew's in 1466, was the first metropohtan 
in Scotland. 

Metropolitan Board of Works was 
established by 18 & 19 Vict, c. 120 (Aug. 14, 
1855), an act for the better local manage- 
ment of the metropohs. The first meeting 
took place Dec. 22, 1855, when Mr. J. 
Thwaites was elected chairman. The powers 
of the board were extended by 21 & 22 Vict. 
e. 104 (Aug. 2, 1858), by which the purifica- 
tion of the Thames and the main drainage 
of the metropolis were placed under their 
direction. 

Metropolitan" Cattle -Market (Lon- 
don).— By 14 & 15 Vict. c. 61 (Aug. 1, 1851), 
power was given to certain commissioners to 
provide a new cattle-market for the metro- 
polis. It was called the Metropolitan Market 
Act. In pursuance of such powers, a new 
cattle-market was prepared in Copenhagen 
Fields, in the north of London, and it was 
opened June 13, 1855, Smithfield having 
been closed June 11. The sales commenced 
June 15. 

Metz (France) was called Divodurum by 
the Romans, and was the chief town of the 
Mediomatriei. In the 5th .century it was 
called Mettis. The inhabitants in a time 



HEX 

of peace were massacred by the army of 
Vitellius, A.D. 70, and Metz was destroyed 
by the Huns in 452. In the Middle Ages it 
became the capital of the kingdom of Aus- 
trasia, sometimes called the kingdom of Metz, 
and was used by the German emperors 
as a barrier against France. Charles VII. 
besieged it in 1444, and it only preserved its 
freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. 
Henry II. obtained possession of Metz in 
1552 ; and, although the emperor Charles V. 
besieged it with 100,000 men, after ten months 
he was obliged to raise the siege, Jan. 1, 
1553. The town continued in the possession 
of the French, and was formally secured 
to France by the peace of Westphalia in 
1648. The cathedral, one of the most beau- 
tiful Gothic buildings in Europe, founded 
in 1014, was not finished tiU 1546. Its for- 
tifications were planned by Vauban and con- 
tinued by Marshal Belleisle. The fort Belle- 
Croix, commenced in 1731, is a master-piece 
of mihtary construction. Metz was made 
a bishop's see at an early period, and coun- 
cils were held here in October, 590 ; in 753 ; 
May 28, 859 ; in June, 863 ; Sept. 9, 869 ; 
and in 888, 

Mexico (North America). — The earhest 
inhabitants of Mexico of whom we possess 
any information, are the Toltecs, who, hav- 
ing been expelled from their own country, 
A.D. 472, travelled southward and settled in 
Mexico, where they established a kingdom 
in 667. In consequence of a terrible famine 
and pestilence, this people migrated from the 
country about 1051, and were succeeded, 
after a lapse of about a century, by the Chi- 
chemecs. The Aztecs settled in the country 
about 1216, founded the city of Mexico in 
1325, and estabUshed their monarchy in 1352. 
Mexico was made known to Europeans by 
Hernandez de Cordova in 1517. 



A.D. 

1519. 
1.521. 
1522. 



1767. 
1808. 



April 21. Hernando Cortes lands in Mexico. 

Aug. 13. He takes the city of Mexico. 

Oct. 15. Ohaiies V. constitutes Cortes governor 

of the conquered territory, which is called 

New Spain. 
Charles V. establishes a viceregal government 

for New Spain. 
Mendoza erects the first Mexican mint. 
Dec. 2. Death of Cortes at CastiUeja de la 

Cuesta, near Seville. 
The university of Mexico is founded. 
An insurrection of negro slaves is suppressed 

by the viceroy. 
The province is involved in civil strife, owing 

to the attempt of the viceroy to obtain a 

monopoly for the sale of corn. 
June 20. The city of Mexico is overwhelmed 

by an inundation, which continues for 

five years. 
A formidable insun-ection of the Indians is 

suppressed. 
The first auto-da-fe at Mexico is celebrated 

by the Inquisition. Fifty victims suffer. 
June 8. An insurrection breaks out in the city 

of Mexico, and the palace of the viceroy 

is burnt by the mob. 
June 25. The Jesuits are expeUed from 

Mexico. 
Sept. 15. The Mexicans arrest the viceroy 

Iturrigaray, and send him prisoner to 

Spain, 

559 



MEX 



1810. A plot for the overthrow of the Spaniards is 

detected and suppressed. 

1811. July 27. The priestly rebel Mignel Hidalgo 

is executed. 
1815. Dec. 22. The soldier-priest Morelos is shot 

for raising an insurrection. 
1817. April 15. Xavier Mina lands in Mexico, at)d 

goes to the assistance of the revolutionists. 

Nov. 11. He is shot as a rebel. 

1821. Feb. 24. Agustin de Iturbide proclaims the 

" Plan of Ignala," the principles of which 
were, " Independence, the maintenance of 
Eoman Catholicity, and Union." 

1822. Feb. 24. The first Mexican congress assembles. 

May 18. Iturbide is proclaimed emperor. 
Nov. Generals Garza, Santa Anna, and 
Echavari declare against the emperor. 

1823. March 8. Itnrbirte abdicates. Oct. Congress 

sanctions a federal constitution. 

1824. July 19. Iturbide is shot for an attempt to 

recover his authority. Oct. 4. A federal 
constitiition, founded on that of the United 
States, is adopted by Congress. 

1825. April 15. Guadulupe "Victoria is sworn into 

office as president. 
1829. March 20. Congress decrees the expulsion of 
the Spaniards. July 5. A Spanish expe- 
dition for the recovery of Mexico sails 
from Havana. Sept. 11. It surrenders 
to General Santa Anna. Sept. 15. The 
president Guerrero publishes a decree 
abolishing slavery. Dec. 23. Guerrero 
is deposed, and is succeeded by Bus- 
tamente. 

1832. The Texans revolt. 

1833. May 11. Santa Anna is elected president. 
1836. April 21. Santa Anna is defeated by the 

revolted Texans, under General Houston. 

1838. Nov. 30. War is declared against Fi'ance. 

1839. March 9. Peace is concluded with France at 

"Vera Cruz. 

1844. April 12. The Texans conclude a treaty with 

the United States for annexation to the 
Union. 

1845. Jan. 4. Fall of Santa Anna, who is aiTested 

on a charge of treason. June 4. "War is 
declared against the United States on the 
Texas question. 

1846. May 8. The Mexicans are defeated by the 

"United States army, under General Taylor, 
at Palo Alto. May 9. They lose the battle 
of Matam'iros. Aug. 18. General Kearney 
takes Santa F6. Sept. 24. General Taylor 
take5 IVFonterey. 

1847. Jan. 19. The American inhabitants of New 

Mexico are massacred by the Mexican 
population. Jan. 28. General Price defeats 
the Mexicans »t El Embudo. General 
Taylor defeats the Mexicans, under Santa 
Anna, at the battle of Angostura, or 
Bueno Vista. April 18. General Scott 
defeats Santa Anna at Cerro-Gordo. Aug. 
20. Scott defeats the Mexicans at Cou- 
treras. Aug. 23. A ti-uce is agreed upon. 
Sept. 8. Hostilities recommence. Sept. 15. 
Scott takes the city of Mexico. 

1848. Feb. 2. The preliminaries of peace are signed 

at Guadalupe-HidRlgo. May 19. Peace is 
ratified with the United States. 

1852. Sept. 13. A revolution breaks out in the pro- 

vinces of Xalisco and Guadalaxara. 

1853. Jan. 6. General Ai-ista abdicates the presi- 

dency. Feb. 7. Santa Anna is recalled. 
March 17. Santa Anna is elected pre- 
sident. Dec. 16. He is made dictator for 
life. 

1855. Aug. 9. Santa Anna abdicates the dictator- 

ship. Sept. 12. Martin Carrera, his suc- 
cessor, also abdicates, and is succeeded by 
Alvarez. Dec. 8. Alvarez abdicates, and is 
succeeded by Comonfort. 

1856. March 22. Comonfort suppresses the insur- 

rection of Haro y Tamaiiz. March 31. 
The property of the ecclesiastics is con- 
fiscated. 



MIC 



1858. Jan. 11. A revolution breaks out tinder 

General Zuloaga. Jan. 21. Comonfort 
quits Mexico, and is succeeded by Zuloaga. 
Shortly afterwards Benito Juarez is de- 
clared constitutional president at "Vera 
Cruz, and the country is in consequence 
ravaged by civil war. 

1859. Jan. 6. Zuloaga is deposed, and a junta elects 

Miratuon as his successor. Jan. 26. Mira- 
mon restores Zuloaga. Feb. 2. Zuloaga 
abdicates. April 11. Miramon enters 
Mexico, and assumes the presidency. July 
13. The constitutional president Juarez 
confiscates the ecclesiastical property. 
Sept. 24. A conspiracy against Miramon 
is suppressed. Dec. 26. Miramon defeats 
the liberal general Colima. 

1860. March 13. Miramon bonabards "Vera Cruz. 

March 21. He raises the siege. May 1. 
Zuloaga issues a decree, in which he 
assumes the presidency, and deposes 
Miramon. May 9. He" is arrested by 
Miramon. May 10. The corps diplo- 
matique ceases to hold official communi- 
cation with Miramon. Aug. 10. Miramon 
is defeated at the battle of Siloa, by 
General DegoUado. Dec. 25. Miramon 
being defeated in several engagements, 
the victorious army of Juarez enters 
Mexico. 

1861. Jan. 19. Juarez is president. Jan. 21. A new 

ministiy is formed. June 30. Congress 
appoints Juarez president of the republic 
and absolute dictator. 

Meziehes (France), the chief town of the 
department of the Ardennes, "was besieged 
by an Austrian and Spanish army a.d. 1521. 
The Chevalier Bayard took the command of 
the garrison, and compelled the Imperiahsts 
to retire in confusion. 

Mezieees-en-Brenne (France). — This 
town, in the department of Indre, is cele- 
brated for its church, dedicated to St. 
Marie -Madeleine a.d. 1339. 

Mezzotinto, or Middle-tint. — A style 
of engraTing, the invention of which is 
ascribed to Prince Eupert by Evelyn in his 
" Sculptura," pubhshed a.d. 1662. The dis- 
covery, however, is really due to Louis von 
Siegen, a heutenant-colonel in the service of 
the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who engraved 
a portrait of the queen of Bohemia in this 
style about 1643. Theodore de Eurstenberg 
practised the art in 1656, and he and Eupert 
are believed to have been pupils of Siegen. 
The earliest work by Prince Eupert is the 
"Executioner of St. John," completed in 
1658. 

Michaelmas.— The feast of St. IVEchael, 
celebrated on the 29th of September, was 
instituted a.d. 487. Michaelmas-day was 
formerly marked by the display of great 
hospitality, and many curious customs were 
connected with it. Michaelmas term was 
altered by 16 Charles I. c. 6 (IN'ovember, 
1640), and by 24 Geo. II. c. 48 (1751). The 
common tradition attributing the origin of 
the Michaelmas goose to the fact that Queen 
Elizabeth was eating a goose on that day 
when she received the news of the defeat of 
the Spanish armada, is incorrect : public 
thanksgiving for the victory had been offered 
in London Aug. 20, 1588. The practice, 
moreover, existed in England in the reign of 



MIC 

Edward IV., and appears to have been an 
imitation of a custom observed on the con- 
tinent of eating a goose on St. Martin's day, 
or Martinmass, Nov. 11. The goose is called 
amongst several continental nations St. 
Martin's bird. 

Michael's (St.), Motjh't (Cornwall). — 
This island, lying off the coast, is supposed 
by some writers to be the Ictis mentioned 
by Diodorus Siculus. This, however, is a 
disputed point. It received the name from 
a supposed appearance of the archangel 
St. Michael about a.d. 495. In the 5th 
century it was an object of religious vene- 
ration, and Edward the Confessor founded 
and endowed an abbey or priory of Bene- 
dictines here before a.b. 1044. It was 
annexed by Eobert, earl of Morton, and 
made subject, in religious matters, to the 
abbey of Mount St. Michael, in Normandy, 
and remained in this condition till the 
French wars in 1414, when the statute 
passed in 1380 for suppressing alien priories 
was put in force. Henry V. or VI. gave 
this ahen priory to Syon Abbey, Middlesex, 
under which rule it continued until 1533, 
when it was dissolved. In 1542 the abbey 
was given to Henry VIII., who granted the 
revenues to Humphrey Arimdell. After his 
death, in 1550, it was sold to Job Milton. 
The mount was fortified in the Middle Ages, 
and the earl of Oxford (John de Vere), a 
Lancastrian, surprised it in September, 1473, 
and it was wrested from him by the Yorkists 
in_ February, 1474. The Cornish rebels 
seized it in 1549, and the parliamentarians 
in 1646. The pier was rebuilt in 1726, and 
Queen Victoria visited the mount Sept. 6, 
1846. 

Michael, St. — Louis XI. of France in- 
stituted the order of St. Michael a.d. 1469, 
and a similar order was introduced into 
Germany in 1618. 

Michigan (North America) . — The French 
penetrated into this country early in the 17th 
century, and formed a settlement at Detroit 
A.D. 1647; Michigan passed into the hands of 
the Enghsh in 1763, and was not entirely re- 
linquished by them to the United States until 
1796. Michigan was erected into a territory 
in 1805, and was admitted into the Union as 
a distinct state in 1836. 

MicKOMETEE. — This instrument, applied 
to telescopes and microscopes, for measuring 
very small distances, was first constructed by 
Gaseoigne, an Englishman, a.d. 1640, and 
used by him for measuring the diameters of 
the sun and moon. Gaseoigne, who perished 
in the civil wars in 1644, published no account 
of his invention. Kichard Townley preserved 
one of the instruments, and it was improved 
by Hooke. Without any knowledge of these 
inventions and improvements, Auzout and 
Picard, in 1666, published an account of a 
micrometer invented by them. Christian 
Huygens effected further improvements, and 
to each of the afore-mentioned persons at 
some period or other has this invention been 
attributed. 

Microscope. — Single microscopes, in the 



MID 

form of glass globes containing water, were 
in use amongst the ancients. Layard found 
a magnifying lens of rock crystal in the ruins 
of Nineveh. The invention of the com- 
pound microscope has been attributed to 
Jansenand Galileo, a.d. 1609, and to Cor- 
nelius Drebbel in 1620. It is now generally 
beheved to have been invented by Zacharias 
Jansen, assisted by his father, Hans Jansen, 
spectacle-makers at Middleburg, about 1500. 
They presented one to Prince Maurice in 
1617. Prichard perfected the diamond mi- 
croscope Dec. 1, 1824. It was the first in 
which this precious stone had been used, and 
it was found greatly superior to glass in 
power. Professor EiddeU, of the university 
of New Orleans, in 1851 constructed a bino- 
cular microscope, for rendering both eyes 
serviceable in microscopical observations. 

MicKOscopiCAL Societies.— The Micro- 
scopical Society was instituted at London 
Sept. 3, 1839, for the promotion and diffusion 
of improvements in the optical and mechani- 
cal construction ; for the commimication and 
discussion of observations and discoveries ; 
for the exhibition of new or interesting 
microscopical objects and preparations ; for 
submitting difficult and obscure microsco- 
pical phenomena to the test of various instru- 
ments; and for the estabhshment of ahbrary 

of standard microscopical works. The 

Dublin Microscopical Society, for pro- 
moting a knowledge of the minute structure 
of organic beings, was founded in that city 
in October, 1840. 

Middle Ages. {See Medieval Ages.) 

MiDDLEBUEG (HoUand). — The prince of 
Orange wrested this strongly-fortified town, 
in the province of Zealand, from the Span- 
iards, after a two years' siege, Feb. 19, 1574. 
In 1581 a religious sect, called the Brownists 
(q. v.), from their founder Eobert Brown, set- 
tled at Middleburg. Disunion soon appeared 
in their ranks, and Brown left them and re- 
turned to England in 1589. 

Middle-Class Examii^ atiosts. — The Con- 
vocation of Oxford university passed a sta- 
tute authorizing nxiddle-class examinations, 
June 18, 1857, and the first commenced 
at Oxford June 21, 1858. 

Middlesex (England), before the Eoman 
invasion, b.c. 55, formed part of the terri- 
tories of the Trinobantes, the flj'st British 
tribe who submitted to the Eomans. Jidius 
Csesar invaded it b.c. 54, and it passed under 
the dominion of Eome in the time of Claudius, 
A.D. 43. It formed part of the kingdom of 
Essex, estabUshed in 527. 

Middle -Temple Hall (London) was 
bunt A.D. 1570. It contains an equestrian 
picture of Charles I., supposed to be a 
genuine Vandyke ; and portraits of Charles 
II., Queen Anne, George I., and George II. 
New buildings were erected in 1831, and the 
new hbrary, completed in 1861, was openea 
by the prince of Wales Oct. 31 in that 
year. 

MiDDLETOif ( Lancashire) . — The parish 
was granted, a.d. 1513, to Sir Eichard 
Assheton for his bravery at Flodden Field, 
3 o 



MID 



and was only a small village in 1775. In I 
1812 it was the scene of rioting by discon- | 
tented workmen; The church was built by j 
Sir E. Assheton in 1-524 ; the grammar-school 
was founded by royal charter, Aug. 11, 1572; 
and Samuel Eadcliffe founded two scholar- 
ships at Brasenose College, Oxford, in 164S. 

MiDDLETOWK ( North America ) . — This 
city of Connecticut, called Mattabesick by 
the Indians, was settled a.d. 1650. The 
Wesleyan university was founded in 1831. 

MiDHUEST (Sussex) is supposed to have 
been the Eoman Miba, or Mida, described 
in the Chorography of Eavenna, as existing 
in the south of Britain. Its free grammar- 
school was founded a.d. 1672. Cowdry 
House, the seat of the Montagues, near this 
town, built in the reign of Heniy VIII., 
was destroyed by fire in 1793. 

MiDiAisT^TES, deriving their name from 
Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah, 
were early engaged in trade between the 
East and the West. Joseph was sold by 
his brethren, B.C. 1728, to a party of Midian- 
ites carrying spices, the produce of the East, 
into Egypt (Gen. xxvii, 28). They were 
utterly destroyed by the Israelites b.c. 1451 
(Num. xxxi.). 

MiDNAPOEE (Hindostan). — This district 
and town of Orissa were ceded to the British 
by Cosstm Ah Khan, a.d. 1761. In 1770 it 
was devastated by a terrible famine, which 
carried away nearly half of the population. 
A similar disaster, but of less severity, oc- 
curred in 1799. 

MiDWiPEEY. — In ancient Egypt, Greece, 
and Eome, the obstetric art was exclusively 
professed by females, male physicians only 
being called, in when the hfe of the mother 
was considered in great danger. The first 
printed book on the subject was pubhshed 
by Eucharius Eoesshn, a.d. 1513. The 
practicabihty of the Caesarean operation on 
the Hving mother was proved by Erancis 
Eousset in 1581 ; and the science was per- 
Tnauently eatabhshed on a firm foundation by 
the treatise of Francis Mauricea, in 1668. 
The invention of the forceps was made by 
Dr. Chamberlen in 1672. Male accoucheurs 
were first employed by ladies of the highest 
rank in France. A school for midwives was 
estabhshed in the Hotel Dieu at Paris in 
1745. 

Mies (Battle).— The Hussites defeated a 
Saxon army, near Mies, July 21, 1426. 

Milan (Duchy) .—The struggle maintained 
for several years by various Lombard cities 
to seciu-e their independence was brought to 
a successfid close by the treaty of Constance 
iq.v.), A.D. 1183. Quarrels between the 
different cities, and internal feuds amongst 
the civil and ecclesiastical authorities, kept 
Italy for many years in constant ferment. 
Visconte took Milan from IS'apoleone della 
Torre in January, 1277, and the citizens 
saluted him " Perpetual Lord of MUan." 
Gian Galeazzo Yisconte obtained the title of 
duke of Milan by j)urchase in 1395. His 
descendants ruled as dukes until 1447, when 
Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of Philip Vis- 



MIL 

conte, the last of the line, obtained the 
duchy. He was acknowledged duke in 1450, 
and on the extinction of the Sforza fine, in 
1535, the duchy was annexed to the Spanish 
crown. 

Milan (Italy), — This city, the ancient 
Mediolanum (q.v.), once more rose from its 
ruins, and regained some of its former 
importance in the 9th century. Many of 
the inhabitants of Pavia, after its capture 
in 924, settled in Milan, and Otho I. 
was crowned king of Italy at Milan in 961. 
Conrad II. laid siege to it in 1037, and 
retired in 1038 without achieving his object. 
Councils were held at Milan in 346, 347, 355, 
380, 390, 451, 679, 1009, 1103, in February 
1117, and Sept. 12, 1287. 



1041. 
1042. 
1044. 

1107. 
1127. 



1161. 
1162. 



1327. 
1395. 



1513. 

1535. 
1540. 



1733. 

1796. 



1798. 

1800. 
1805. 

1807. 



1815. 

1848. 



The people expel the nobles. 

The city is blockaded by the expelled nobles. 

Peace is restored between the nobles and the 

people. 
Milan becomes a republic. 
The people of Milan make war upon other 

Italian cities, and destroy Lodi and Como. 
The Milanese are defeated in a sanguinary 

battle by the people of Pavia, and they 

submit, biit with reluctance, to the em- 
peror Frederick I. 
Frederick I. , with an army of 100,000 men, 

besieges Milan, which is reduced by famine 

and pestilence. 
The Milanese having rebelled, Frederick I. 

again lays siege to their city. 
March 1. The consuls and chief citizens solicit 

the clemency of the emperor at Lodi. 

March 4. They deliver up the keys to 

Frederick I., who ent-rs the city March 26, 

and destroys the fortifications. 
The Lombard cities form a league for their 

defence, and Milan is restored. 
The citizens choose Uherto de' Visconte, of 

Placentia. their Podest^. 
Struggles between the nobles and the people 

recommence. 
The government of Milan is remodelled, and 

twenty-four nobles!, subject to an imperial 

vicar, are made rulers. 
Milan is erected into a duchy. Gian Galeazzo 

Visconte baying pui'chased the title of duke 

of Milan from W enceslaus, king of the 

Romans. 
Milan is occupied by the French. 
It is again occupied by the French. 
Charles V. seizes Milan. 
It is given to PhUip of Spain, by his father 

Charles V. 
Philip IV. signs the treaty known as the 

Capitulation of Milan. 
Milan is seized by the Austrians. 
March 13. The French sign a treaty at Milan, 

resigning all their conquests in Lombardy. 
Dec. 29. The citadel surrenders to the French. 
It is taken by ihe French. May 16. A treaty 

between France and Venice is concluded at 

Milan. 
June 28. The convention of JlUan is signed 

between France and Sardinia. 
May 24. It is taken by the Austrians, under 

General Hohenzollem. 
The French again take Milan. 
May 28, Napoleon I. is crowned king of Itgly, 

with the iron crown of Lombardy, at 

Milan. 
jSTov. 25. Napoleon I. publishes the Milan decree 

pr...hibiting the nations of the continent 

from holding intercourse with the English. 
April 20. Insurrections break out at Milan. 
March 18. The Milanese revolt against the 

Austrians, and expel them from the city. 

Aug. 5. The Austrian forces re-enter the 

city. 



MIL 

Ji.D. 

1849. Aug. 6. Peace is concluded here between 

Austria and Sardinia. 
1853. Feb. 6. The Milanese revolt from Austria, but 

are speedily reduced to order. 
1857. Jan. 15. The emperor of Austria visits Milan. 

1859. June 8. The emperor of the French and 

Victor Emanuel, of Sardinia, enter Milan. 

1860. Feb. 15. Victor Emanuel is enthusiastically 

received at Milan. 

Milesian Wab, waged by the inhabitants 
of Miletus (q. v.) in defence of their liberties 
against the Lydians, lasted from b.c. 623 
to B.C. 612. The Milesians were defeated 
in two engagements by Sadyattes, king of 
Lydia. The war was continued by his 
successor Alyattes, who was taken iU, in 
consequence, it was beEeved, of his troops 
having burnt a temple in the territory of 
Miletus, and he at once made peace with the 
Milesians. 

Miletus (Asia Minor). — This city, sup- 
posed to have been peopled by Carians at 
an early period, passed through the hands 
of several tribes, and was seized by the 
lonians, who massacred all the women. 
The inhabitants carried on war against the 
Lydians B.C. 623 — 612. They rose against 
the Persians b.c. 500, and, after sustaining 
several defeats, their city was taken b.c. 494, 
and the inhabitants were carried to Ampe, 
on the banks of the Tigris. Miletus regained 
its independence after the battle of Mycale 
(q. v.), B.C. 479, and soon after joined the 
Athenians. Alexander the Great took the 
city by assault b . c . 834. It was visited by the 
apostle Paul (Acts xx. 17), who summoned 
the elders of the church of Ephesus to meet 
him here in April, 56 a.d., and it was an 
early see of the Christian chiu'ch. 

MiLFOED (Wales). — This town, founded 
A.D, 1790, is connected with London by 
the South Wales Eailway. The church 
was erected in 1805. The naval estabhsh- 
ments were removed to Pembroke in 1814. 

MiLFOKD Haven (Wales) is an arm of the 
sea, with deep water and excellent anchorage, 
capable of sheltering the whole of the British 
navy. Here Richard II. embarked on his 
expedition to Ireland in May, 1399. A 
French fleet, carrying troops intended to 
assist Owen Glendower in his opposition to 
Henry IV., arrived here in 1407. The earl 
of Eichmond, afterwards Henry VII., who 
sailed from Harfleur Aug. 1, 1485, lauded at 
MiUbrd Haven Aug. 7. Two lighthouses 
were erected on St. Ann's Head in 1800. 
The Great Eastern wintered in Milford 
Haven in 1860, and returned for repairs, 
after having been disabled in a hurricane, 
Sept. 12, 1861. 

Military Asylum (London) was foimded 
at Chelsea, June 19, 1801, by the duke of 
York. 

MiLiTABY Fkontieb (Austria). — This 
tract of country, so named because it is 
placed under a purely mihtary government, 
extends from the Adriatic Sea to Transyl- 
vania, and was originally intended to form a 
barrier against the Turks. The system was 
introduced by Ferdinand I., who reigned 
5G3 



MIL 

from 1558 to 1563. He planted mihtary 
colonists in Croatia. It was further extended 
in the 17th and 18th centuries, the system 
in existence at present having been esta- 
bhshed in 1807. 

Military Knights op Windsob. {See 
Chapel, Knights of the.) 

Militia. — The nationalforce, denominated 
the Fyrd, which existed in this country in 
the Anglo-Saxon period, was improved and 
extended by Alfred. Henry II. issued an 
ordinance commanding all persons to pro- 
vide themselves with arms in 1181. By 
13Edw. I. c. 5 (1285), the scale of arms for 
different ranks was revised. Hallam, with 
reference to the changes that occurred in 
the system of national defence, remarks 
(Middle Ages, chap. ii. pt. 2), "The feudal 
mihtary tenures had superseded that earlier 
system of public defence which called upon 
every man, and especially every landholder, 
to protect his country. The relations of a 
vassal came in place of those of a subject 
and a citizen. This was the revolution of 
the 9th century. In the 12th and 13th 
another innovation rather more gradually 
prevailed, and marks the third period in the 
military history of Europe. Mercenary 
troops were substituted for the feudal 
militia." The first commission of array 
{q.v.) for the defence of the kingdom, 
of which any record remains, was issued in 
1323, and the last in 1557. The modern 
system was introduced by 13 Charles II. 
c. 6 (1661), by which the sole right of 
commanding the militia by sea or land 
was vested in the crown. Further pro- 
visions were made by 13 & 14 Charles II. 
c. 3 (1662), and by 15 Charles II. c. 4 (1663) ; 
and the various regulations already in force 
were amended by 1 Geo. I. c. 14 (1714). 
Measures were taken for the better ordering 
of themihtiabySOGeo. II. c. 25 (1757), which, 
was explained and amended by 31 Geo. II. 
c. 26 (1758). All the laws in force were 
consoHdated by 2 Geo. III. c. 20 (1762). 
Protestant dissenting ministers and school- 
masters were exempted from service in the 
militia by 19 Geo. III. c. 44 (1779). The 
mihtia laws were amended and consoh- 
dated by 26 Geo. III. c. 107 (1786) . The sup- 
plementary militia act, 37 Geo. III. c. 3 
(Nov. 11, 1796), provided for an augmenta- 
tion of the militia, and the laws relating to 
the subject were again amended by 42 
Geo. III. c. 90 (June 26,1802). The acts 
of the Irish parhament respecting the mihtia 
in Ireland were amended and consohdated 
by 49 Geo. III. c. 120 (June 19, 1809). Pohce 
constables are exempted from serving in the 
mihtia by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 93 (Aug. 27, 1839). 
The militia laws were again amended by 
15 & 16 Vict. c. 50 (June 30, 1852), by 16 & 17 
Viet. c. 133 (Aug. 20, 1853), and by 17 & 18 
Vict. c. 13 (May 12, 1854). 

Milky Way. — Democritus, a celebrated 
philosopher of Abdera, was the fii-st who 
taught that this luminous trail in the heavens, 
called the milky way, consisted of a confused 
multitude of stars, about 428 b.c. Soon 



MIL 

after the discovery of tlie telescope, Galileo 
announced that he had resolved the whole 
of the milky way into stars. 

Miiii. — A machine of some kind or other 
for grinding corn is mentioned in Scripture, 
and was in use amongst all ancient nations. 
The time when the mortar, probably the 
earhest instrument used for the purpose, 
was superseded by the hand-mill, cannot be 
ascertained. Moses threatened Pharaoh 
with the destruction of all the first-born of 
Egypt, "even unto the first-born of the 
maid-servant that is behind the mill " (Exod. 
xi. 5), B.C. 1491, and he commanded the 
Israelites not to pledge a mill of this kind 
(Deut. xxiv. 6), B.C. 1451. Cattle-miUs 
were introduced at an early period. Water- 
mills were invented in Asia Minor, and 
appear to have been introduced in the time 
of Julius Caesar. Floating mills were in- 
vented in 536. Windmills were used ia 
Hungary before 718, and were introduced 
into England about 1040. Mills for draia- 
ing water off land first occur in Holland 
1408. 

MiLLENAEiAis^s, or Chiliasts, a name 
given to those who beheve that the saints 
wiU reigu on earth with Christ a thousand 
years. These opinions, grounded on the 
20th chapter of the Eevelation of St. John 
the Divine, arose ia the 2nd century, and 
have existed, with various changes and 
modifications, since that period. Papias, 
bishop of Hierapohs and a disciple of St. John 
the Evangelist, was the first who held these 
views, and they were warmly supported by 
Justin Martyr. In the 4th century the 
mOlenarians held the following tenets : — that 
the city of Jerusalem would be rebuilt ; 
that Christ would come down from heaven 
and reign upon earth with his servants ; and 
that the saints during this period would 
enjoy all the delights of a terrestrial para- 
dise. According to Mosheim, Cerinthus, in 
the 1st century, held opinions of a similar 
character. {See Fifth-Moij-archt Meit.) 

MiLLENAET Petition. — This address to 
James I., drawn up by the Puritans a.d. 
1603, was called the millenary petition be- 
cause they pretended that it bore the signa- 
tures of a thousand ministers, though some 
hundreds were wanted to complete that 
number. Hallam says it was signed by 825 
ministers from 25 counties. The Puritans 
met the king on his journey from Scotland 
to take possession of the English throne, 
and pitsented this address. The universities 
declared against it June 9, 1603 ; but it was 
discussed at the Hampton Court conference, 
Jan. 14, 1604. 

MiLLExyiTTM.— The ancient tradition, that 
Christ and his saints should reign upon earth 
for 1,000 years, was revived in the 10th cen- 
tury, when the people were taught that the 
millennium was at hand, that Satan would 
be set free, that the reign of Antichrist 
would conamence, and that after a short 
season of triumph the last judgment would 
take place. Multitudes, as the eventful 
year approached (about 950), forsook their 
5S4 



MIN 

homes, making over their property to the 
Church. [See MiLLEifAEiAifs.) 

MiLLiDusE (Battle). — General Paskie- 
vntch, at the head of a Russian army, 
stormed the Turkish camp at this place, 
near Erzeroum, Jialy 2, 1829. The victors 
captured 30 pieces of cannon, 19 standards, 
and 1,500 prisoners. 

Milton (Kent). — This tovm, anciently 
called Midleiun and Middleton, formed part 
of the demesnes of the Saxon kings. Hos- 
ting, the Dane, built a fort here a.d. 893, 
and it was burnt by Earl Godwin about a.d. 
1052. The fee of the manor remained 
vested in the crown till the reign of 
Charles I. 

Milwatjkee (North America) was founded 
A.D. 1835. 

Mincio (Battles). — The French, under 
Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the Aus- 
trians on the banks of this river, in Lom- 
bardy. May 29, 1796. The French were de- 
feated here by the Austrians, Dec. 26, 1800. 
Eugene Beauharnais gained a victory over 
them Feb. 8, 1814. In 1848, on the outbreak 
of the revolution in Italy, the Austrian 
general Radetsky retreated to the Mineio, 
AprO 2. He was followed by Charles Albert, 
who forced the passage of the river April 8. 
Charles Albert, after losing the battle of 
Valeggio, was compelled, July 26, to retrace 
his steps and abandon the line of the Miacio. 
The Austrians retreated to the left bank 
after the battle of Magenta, in June, 1859, 
and recrossed it July 23, to fight the battle 
of Solferino {q.v.). The allied French and 
Sardinians followed them across the river 
Aug. 1, and found the Austrians had taken 
shelter in the hues of the Quadrilateral. 

Mindanao, or Magindanao (Pliihppine 
Islands) . — The Arabians at an early period 
visited this island, the largest of the group, 
and Magelhaens took possession of it a.d. 
1521. The Mohammedan population are 
governed by a native ruler, and the Spaniards 
possess only a small portion of the island. 

Mind EN, (Battle,) was fought Aug. 1, 
1759, between the allied army, composed of 
English, Hessians,- and Hanoverians, com- 
manded by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, 
and the French, under Marshal De Contades. 
The allies, who gained a complete victory, 
lost 2,000 men, whilst the French lost 7,000 
in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 

MiNEEAL Watees. — Boylc, in 1663, and 
again in 1678, seems to have been the first 
who used tests to detect the ingredients in 
mineral waters. Gregory, in 1707, procured 
the solid ingredients by evaporation; and 
Bouldoc, in 1726, employed alcohol to sepa- 
rate the saUne substances. After the dis- 
I covery of carbonic acid by Dr. Black, in 
1778, more attention was paid to the analysis 
of mineral waters. 

Mineralogy. — Agricola of Saxony is 
stated by Cuvier to have been the firs_t miner- 
alogist after the revival of science in Europe, 
He flourished from A.D. 1494 to 1555. Becker's 
"Physica Subterranea" was pubhshed in 
1669, and Kircher's "Mundus Subterra- 



MIN 

neus " in 1662. Woodward is the founder 
of scientific mineralogy in this country. His 
"Natural History of the Earth" was pub- 
lished in 1695. Wallerius published his 
.celebrated system in 1747. Cronstedt's 
great work, "Forsog til Mineralogie," ap- 
peared in 1758, and commenced a new asra 
in the history of the science. Werner's 
system was founded in 1774, and Hauy's 
•'Traits de Mineralogie" was pubMshed in 
1801. The Mineralogical Society was esta- 
blished in 1801. 

MiNERVE. — This stronghold of the 
Cevennes was captured during the crusade 
against the Albigenses, a.d. 1210. A hun- 
dred and forty of the inhabitants cast them- 
selves headlong into the flames July 23, to 
escape the fury of their persecutors. 

Mines. — The Phoenicians and Egyptians 
were acquainted with the art of forming 
aubterraneau shafts and galleries in their 
pursuit of metaUic ores, although they 
chiefly depended on what are called stream 
works. The Athenians worked silver-mines 
at Latirium in Attica in the 4th century b.c, 
and the Eomans obtained quicksilver from 
Almaden in Spain at an early period. The 
art of mining was known in Britain prior to 
the arrival of the Eomans, but was much 
neglected after their departure. It was for 
a long time chiefly practised by Jews. The 
king, by his royal prerogative, has a right 
to aU mines containing gold and silver. 
BylWm. III. & Mary, c. 30 (1688), copper 
or tin mines in which gold is found are not 
to be deemed royal mines. Gunpowder 
was first employed in mines in 1620. The 
company of Mine Adventurers was formed 
in 1690 for the purpose of working the lead 
and copper mines of South Wales. A mania 
for mining speculations raged in England in 
1824 and 1825, in consequence of the opening 
of Mexico to British intercourse. Nume- 
rous statutes have been passed for the man- 
agement of mines. By 10 Geo. II. c. 32 
(1737), it was declared a capital off'ence to 
set fire to any mine, and by 9 Geo. III. c. 29 
(1769), the destruction of any apparatus 
connected with mines rendered the offiender 
liable to seven years' transportation. To 
damage the roads leading to mines was 
made a misdemeanour by 39 & 40 Geo. III. 
c. 77 (July 9, 1800), and to steal from mines 
was made larceny by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 37 
( J une 21, 1827) . The employment of women 
in mines was prohibited by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99 
(Aug. 10, 1842) . New rules for the govern- 
ment and inspection of mines were imposed 
by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 151 (Aug. 28, 1860). The 
French Ecole des Mines was founded in 1783. 
The London School of Mines was opened 
with an inaugural address by Sir Henry 
T. De la Beche, Nov. 6, 1851. 

MiNGEELiA (Asia). — This principality in 
the Caucasus was well known in ancient 
times under the name of Colchis {q.v.). 
The Turks took possession of the country, 
leaving the government in the hands of 
native princes, during the 15th century; 
and it remained in their power until, by the 



MIS 

treaty of Koutchouk-Kainardji, July 10, 
1774, between Eussia and Turkey, Mingre- 
ha was declared independent. The Eussians 
obtained an ascendancy over the princes of 
Mingreha in 1812; and by the treaty of 
Gulistan {q.v.), Oct. 12, 1813, the Turkish 
government renounced aU claim to this 
province. 

MiNiE EiriiE was invented at Vincennes 
by M. Minie in 1833. The Minie principle, 
with certain modifications, was adopted in 
the English service in 1851. The Minie rifle 
has been superseded by the Enfield and 
Whitworth rifles. 

Mining. — Long before the invention of 
gunpowder it was customary to undermine 
besieged places, and support the roofs of the 
excavations by wooden props, which being 
consumed by slow fire, the roof fell in, and 
a breach was effected. The first theory of 
mines since the invention of gunpowder 
appears in a MS. of George of Sienna, 
A.D. 1480, and it was first put into practice 
by the Genoese at the siege of SazaneUa 
A.D. 1487. The plan failed, and was not 
resumed till 1503, when mines were success- 
fully employed by the Neapolitans against 
the French. Candia was defended against 
the Turks by 1,173 naines during the siege 
that terminated in 1669. 

Minister of War. — The direction of 
colonial affairs and of war was vested in 
one person until 1854, when a separation 
was made, the duke of Newcastle retaining 
the war department, and Sir G. Grey 
being appointed to preside over the colonial 
office. 

Minnesingers, or Love - singers, flou- 
rished in Germany during the 12th and 13th 
centuries. Henry VI., emperor of Germany 
A.D. 1190, was a minnesinger, as was also 
the emperor Conrad in 1264. When 
Eodolph of Habsburg ascended the throne 
in 1273, the minnesingers began to decline. 
One of the most celebrated minnesingers 
was Walther von der Vogelweide, who hved 
1190 — 1240. He went to the crusades in 
1197. Whilst a child he wrote many " lays,"_ 
one a song of triumph on the coronation of 
PhiHp at Mentz in 1198. He assisted as a 
principal at the famous contention of minne- 
singers, or poetic battle of Wartburg, in 
1207. ■ 

Minnesota (North America) was erected 
into a territory March 3, 1849, the portion 
west of the Mississippi having previously 
formed a part of the territory of Iowa, and 
that east of the Mississippi a part of Wis- 
consin. In 1850 it was divided into nine 
cotmties. 

Minorca, or Menoeca (Mediterranean), 
the second in size of the Balearic Isles 
(2- ■I'-) 5 colonized by the Phoenicians at an 
early period, passed successively under the 
sway of the Carthaginians, the Eomans, the 
Vandals, and the Arabs. In 1229 it was 
conquered by Don Jayme of Aragon ; and in 
1287 by Alfonso, his grandson, who reduced 
the Moors to slavery. The British under 
the earl of Stanhope captured it Sept. 30, 
565 



1708, and held possession, in which they 
were confirmed by the treaty of Utrecht, 
April, 11, 1713, tiU June 29, 1756, when it 
capitulated to the French. It was restored 
to the Enghsh at the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 
1763. The French and Spaniards took it 
Feb. 5, 1782, and the Enghsh recaptured it 
Nov. 15, 1798. It was finally ceded to Spain 
at the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. 

MiNSTEELS, described by Percy as " an 
order of men in the Middle Ages who sub- 
sisted by the arts of poetry and music, 
and sang to the harp, verses composed by 
themselves or others," were the real suc- 
cessors of the ancient bards, and were 
called by the monkish historians, joculatores, 
mimi, and jestours. Eichard I. was a great 
patron of the minstrels, and his exploits 
furnished themes for their lays. It is 
recorded that in 1374, six minstrels per- 
formed at Winchester on the anniversary of 
Alwyne the bishop. John of Gaunt, in 1380, 
had a court of minstrels at Tutbury, and 
Henry V. was accompanied on his voyage 
to France in 1415 by eighteen minstrels. 
An ordinance was passed in 1456 for the 
impressment of youths to supply vacancies 
by death amongst the king's" minstrels. 
They found free access amongst aU classes 
as late as the reign of Henry VIII. A Welsh 
minstrel was executed for singing a pro- 
phecy against the king, July 1, 1541. They 
afterwards became neglected, and when 
Elizabeth was entertained at Kenilworth 
Castle, in 1575, the appearance of a minstrel 
excited much wonder. By some authorities 
the decline of the minstrel's art is attributed 
to the statute 39 EHz. c. 4 (1597), which 
included minstrels amongst rogues, vaga- 
bonds, and sturdy beggars, and adjudged 
them to be punished accordingly. 

Mint. — The honour of first establishing 
a system of metaUie currency is ascribed to 
the Greeks, about the 8th or 9th century 
before Christ. At Rome, the mint opera- 
tions were carried on in the temple of Juno 
Moneta, or the Adviser. The mint officers 
formed a corporation. It was worked, in 
the time of the repubMc by pubHc slaves ; 
but freedmen were employed by Caesar. 
The Gothic Mngs of Rome improved the 
status of the superior officers. In 274 a.d. 
the workmen rose in rebellion because Aure- 
lian introduced some reforms in the manage- 
ment, and the fives of 7,000 of the Roman 
soldiery were sacrificed in putting dovsii the 
disturbance. The mints of the Anglo-Saxons 
were superintended by "moneyers." Barons 
and bishops were permitted the privilege of 
issuing coins, and provincial towns of im- 
portance were likewise allowed to estabhsh 
mints. In 1279 the various mints in England 
were placed under one master. Many pri- 
vileges, granted by Edward I. and his suc- 
cessors to the officers of the mint, have been 
gi'aduaUy withdrawn, and are now abohshed. 
In 1643 a mint was estabhshed at New- Inn 
HaU, Oxford, where the plate of the colleges 
was coined to enable Charles I. to provide 
the mpans of carrying on hostile opera- 



MIS 

tions against the parhament. In 1695 there 
were mints at York, Bristol, Chester, 
Exeter, and Norwich. The management 
of the mint was entirely remodelled by 
7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 9 (April 21, 1837). 
The new building was completed in 1811. 

Minuet. — This dance, said to have been 
invented in the province of Poitou, in France, 
was introduced from that country into Eng- 
land in the 18th century. 

MiKANDOLA (Italy). — This small town, in 
Modena, was captured by the papal forces, 
after a short siege, Jan. 20, 1511. 

MiEROKS. {See Looking-Glasses.) 

MiEZAPOEE (Hindostan). — Part of this 
district, belonging to Oude, was ceded to 
the East-India Company by a treaty signed 
May 21, 1775 a.d , and the remainder by 
another treaty of Nov. 14, 1801. 

MisENUM (Bay of Naples). — This pro- 
montory, said to have derived its name 
from Misenus, the trumpeter of ^neas, 
became a favourite site for the villas of 
the wealthy Romans towards the close of 
the repubhe. It was made a station for the 
Roman fleet B.C. 27. Phny the Elder was 
stationed here a.d. 79, when he was induced 
to visit the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, in 
which he perished. Romiilus Augustulus, 
the last emperor of the W'est, was confined 
here, in the viUa of LucuUus, a.d. 476. It 
was taken by the Saracens in 845, and 
destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1538. 

MiSEULE (Lord of) . — This officer was, in 
former times, appointed with great cere- 
mony to preside over the Christmas fes- 
tivities. Stow says : — " There was in the 
king's house, wheresoever he was lodged, a 
lord of misrule, or master of merry disports, 
and the Hke had ye in the house of every 
nobleman of honour or good worship, were 
he spiritual or temporal ; amongst the which 
the mayor of London, and either of the 
sheriffs, had their several lords of misrule, 
ever contending, without quarrel or offence, 
who should make the rarest pastimes to 
dehght the beholders. These lords, begin- 
ning their rule on AlhaUow-eve, continued 
the same till the morrow after the feast of 
Purification, commonly called Candlemas 
Day." The lord of misrule went under dif- 
ferent titles in other countries {see Abbot 
OF Fools, &c.), and is not heard of in 
England after 1640. 

Missals. {See Mass-book.) 

MissioNAET AND MissioN. — In accord- 
ance with the command given by our 
Saviour to his disciples when he appeared 
to them after the resurrection (Mark xvi. 
16), " Go ye into all the world, and preach 
the Gospel to every creature," Christian 
missionaries were sent forth during the Ist 
century. St. Paul, and John the beloved 
disciple, who flourished about a.d. 52, were 
amongst the first Christian missionaries. 
In the 2nd century Eusebius declares that 
the followers of the apostles went forth into 
distant lands to preach the Gospel ; and in 
the 3rd and 4th centuries missions spread 
rapidly. St. Patrick visited Ireland in the 



MIS 

6th century ; and Gregory the Great sent a 
number of Benedictine monks as mission- 
aries to Britain in the 6th century. Marco 
Polo introduced Christian missionaries into 
China in 1275. The Portuguese in 1490 and 
subsequent years sent missionaries to Abys- 
sinia; and on the discovery of America, 
missions were sent to all the diiferent 
European settlements. During the 16th 
century the Eomish church made great 
exertions for the propagation of the Eoman 
Cathohc religion ; and in 1519 Xavier sailed to 
Japan, and founded a mission there. Other 
Roman Catholic missionaries penetrated 
into Chili and Peru in 1580. I'he Dutch, in 
1621, sent missions to Amboyna. In 1622 
Gregory XV. estabhshed a congregation of 
cardinals, for the purpose of forwarding the 
DMSsionary work ; and in 1627, Urban VIII. 
added a college in which missionaries were 
taught the languages of the countries to 
which they were to be sent. 

MissiONAET Societies. — The first mis- 
sionary society established in London was 
made a corporation, xmder the name of 
"The President and Society for the Pro- 
pagation of the Gospel in New England, and 
the parts adjacent in North America," by 
an ordinance of parliament, passed July 27, 
1649. The following hsts contain the date 
of the establishment of the principal mis- 
sionary societies in England and on the con- 
tinent. 

ENGLISH MISSIONAEY SOCIETIES. 

A.D. 

Baptist Missionaiy Society 1792 

British Society for tlie Propagation of the 

Gospel amung the Jews 1842 

Chinese Evangelization Society 1850 

Church of Eiiglaud Mi^siollary Society 1799 

General Assembly of the Church of Scotland 1825 
General Assembly of the Free Church of 

Scotland 1843 

Gteneral Assemhly of the Presbyterian Church 

of Ireland . 1840 

General Baptist Missionary Society . . ; 1816 

Glasgow Missionary Society 1796 

London City Mission 1836 

London Missionary Society 1795 

London Society for Promoting Christianity 

among the Jews 1809 

Methodist Missionary Society 1786 

Methodist New Connexion 1796 

Naval Missionary Society for the Loochoo 

Islands 1845 

Patagonian Missionary Society 1844 

Presbyterian (Free) Church in Eugland 1844 

Reformed Presbyterian Synod 1842 

Scottish Missionary Society 1796 

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 

Foreign Parts June 16, 1701 

United Presbyterian Synod 1835 

Welsh Foreign Missionary Society 1840 

CONTINENTAL MISSIONAEX SOCIETIES. 

Berlin Missionary Society 1833 

Berlin Missionai-y Union for China 1850 

Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society 1836 

German Missionaiy Society 1821 

Gossner's Missionary Society 1836 

Netherlands Missionary Society 1797 

North German Missionary Society 1836 

Norwegian 1842 

Paris Society for Evangelical Missions 1822 

Rhenish Missionary Society . .' 1828 

Boyal Danish Mission College 1714 



MIS 



Swedish Missionary Society (Stockholm) 1835 

Swedish Missionary Society (Lund) 1846 

United Brethren 1732 

Mississippi (North America).— De Soto 
was the first who traversed this region, a.d. 
1542 ; and La Salle visited it in 1681. The 
French made the first settlement in 1698, 
under Iberville, on Ship Island ; and in 1700 
some Jesuit missionaries were found here. 
The northern portion of Mississippi was 
ceded to England by France in 1763. With 
Alabama it was formed into a territory in 
1800. A separation ensued in 1817, when 
Mississippi was admitted to the Union as 
an independent state. 

MissoLONGHi, or Mesolonghi (Greece). 
—This small town became celebrated for the 
sieges it sustained against the Turks during the 
war of Greek independence. The Greeks hav- 
ing carried it by storm Nov. 1, 1821, the Turks 
laid siege to it in Oct. 1822. Their assault, 
six tunes renewed, was repulsed, Jan. 5, 
1823, and they were compelled to retreat 
Jan. 27. The Turkish army returned April 
17, 1825, and commenced the bombardment 
May 7. They received a considerable rein- 
forcement July 10; but after making the 
most extraordmary eiforts, were compelled 
to suspend operations in October. The 
blockade was renewed in November, and 
another bombardment commenced Jan. 25, 
1826. The garrison, driven to extremities, 
boldly cut their way through the besieging 
forces, and the town was captured April 22. 
Lord Byron died here April 19, 1824. The 
Greeks vrrested it from the Turks in 1829, 
and it was included in the new kingdom 
of Greece. 

Missouri (North America). — The 
French worked the Missouri lead-mines 
A.D. 1720; but no permanent settlement was 
made before 1755, when St. Genevieve was 
founded. The region now called Missouri 
was formerly known as Upper Louisiana. 
Louisiana, on its cession to the United 
States in 1803, was divided into two govern- 
ments, i.e., Louisiana and Louisiana terri- 
tory. In 1812 the latter name was changed 
into Missouri. AppHcation was made in 
1817 for its admission as a state into the 
Federal union. This met with serious 
opposition on account of its slaves, and it 
was not admitted until 1821, and then only 
on the condition that slavery should be re- 
cognized in Missouri, but in no other state 
north of latitude 36° 30'. 

Missouri Compromise, drawn up by 
Mr. Clay, enacted that slavery should not 
exist, except in Missouri, north of latitude 
36° 30', and passed the United States congress 
in February, 1820. This compromise, after 
having existed above thirty years, was re- 
pealed in 1854, when the inhabitants of every 
state were left free to regulate their own 
domestic institutions, subject only to the con- 
stitution of the United States. 

Missouri River (North America) was 
explored to its sources by Lewis and Clarke 
in 1804^6. 

567 



MIS 



MOD 



Mistletoe, or Misletoe.— This parasitical j 
plant, which grows upon the oak and other 
trees, was regarded with pecuhar veneration | 
by the Druids (q.v.). Misletoe was found \ 
growing upon an oak at Ledbury, in Here- j 
fordshire, a.d. 1829 ; and a specimen on an | 
oak-branch was exhibited at the Horticul- j 
tural Society in London April 4, 1837. This 
estabhshed the fact, long doubted, that the 
misletoe grows upon the' oak as weU as upon 
other trees. 

Mithkidate, a preparation in the form of 
an electuary, supposed to be the oldest com- 
pound known, is saidto have been invented by 
Damocrates, physician to Mithridates VI., 
king of Pontus, B.C. 70; whence its name. 

MitheidaticWak. — Mithridates VI., king 
of Pontus, having defeated the Eoman armies 
in Asia, commanded all the Romans to leave 
the country; but before they could do so 
80,000 of them were massacred by the inha- 
bitants, B.C. 88. This led to the struggle 
known in history as the first Mithridatic 
war, which lasted four years. After many 
battles, ]VIithridates VI. was obhged to sue for 
peace, b.c. 84. The second Mithridatic war 
broke out B.C. 75. The Eomans, under 
Lucullus, defeated Mithridates VI. at Cabira, 
B.C. 71, and again in B.C. 69 ; but in conse- 
quence of a mutiny among his troops, 
Lucullus was deprived of the fruits of his 
victories. Mithridates VI. collected another 
armiy, but the war was ^oon brought to a 
close. Mithridates VI. was totally defeated 
by the Eomans, under Pompey, on the banks 
of the Euphrates, b.c. 66, and, unwilhng to 
faU into the hands of the enemy, he put an 
end to his hfe, B.C. 63. 

Mitee, the episcopal crown, or head- 
dress, is supposed to have been first worn 
by bishops about the 7th century. Car- 
dinals wore mitres until 1245, at the council 
of Lyons, where they were exchanged for 
hats. The Enghsh bishops wore mitres from 
the time of the Saxons till the Reformation. 
Mittat: (Eussia), the capital of the pro- 
vince of Courland, an ancient town, was cap- 
tured by Charles XII. of Sweden, a.d. 1701. 
Peter the Great seized the town Sept. 14, 
1705, and the citadel surrendered on the 
same day. The castle was erected in 1739. 
The town was nearly destroyed by fire in 
1788. 

MiTTtEifE (Sea-fight).— During the war 
of independence, the Turkish and Greek 
squadrons fought a battle off Mitylene, 
Oct. 7, 1824, on which occasion the Turks 
were defeated and their fleet was destroyed. 
MiTTLENE, or Lesbos (^gean Sea).— 
Lesbos is said to have been peopled by the 
Pelasgians, who were followed by the lonians 
and the .Cohans. Lesbos was made a 
Eoman province about B.C. 48 ; and during 
the Middle Ages received the name of Mity- 
lene, fromits chief city {q.v.). Mohammed II. 
conquered it and annexed it to the Turkish 
empire, a.d. 1462. 

MiTTiiEN E, or MTTiiiEiTE, the chief town 
of the island of Mitylene, or Lesbos, is first 
mentioned in history during the struggle 



between the Cohans and the Athenians, for 
the possession of Sigeum, B.C. 606. It after- 
wards played an important part. The Vene- 
tians captured it a.d. 1185, and the Turks 
in 1256. 

.Mnemonics, or Mnemotechnt, [the 
science of artificial memory, was introduced 
by Simonides the younger, B.C. 477. Richard 
Grey, rector of Hinton in jjforthamptonshire, 
wrote a celebrated work on the subject, 
entitled " Memoria Technica, or alSTew Mode 
of Artificial Memory." It was published 
in 1730. 

MoABiTES. — The descendants of Moab, 
the offspring of Lot's incestuous connexion 
with his eldest daughter (Gen. xix. 87), 
B.C. 1897, dwelt in the land of Ar, from 
which they expeUed the Emims, a race of 
giants (Deut. u. 9 — 11). The Israehtes 
occupied part of the country, and Eglon, 
king of the country, oppressed them for the 
space of eighteen years (Judges iii. 12, &c.) 
B.C. 1343. David subdued the Moabites 
(2 Sam. viii. 1) B.C. 1040. 

Mobue (]5forth America). — A town with 
this name was founded at the mouth of Dog 
river, by Bienville, a.d. 1702. It was almost 
destroyed by inundations, and the present 
town, at the mouth of Mobile river, was 
founded in 1711. Mobile was ceded to 
England by the French at the peace of 
Paris, Eeb. 10, 1763. The Spaniards cap- 
tured it in 1780, and it was ceded by them 
to the United States in 1813. 

Mockeen (Battle). — Blucher, at the 
head of the Prussians, with some Eussian 
and German allies, defeated the French 
commanded by Ney at this place, near 
Leipsic, Oct. 16, 1813. This was one of the 
combats in the great battle of Leipsic. 

Models. — The Greeks attributed the 
invention of the art of modelling to a potter 
of Sieyon, named Dibutades. They relate 
that his daughter, on the eve of parting 
from her lover at Corinth, remarked 
the shadow of his profile projected on a 
waU, and traced its outline, thereby pro- 
ducing the first attempt at portrait-paint- 
ing. Her father conceived the idea of 
filling in the design with clay, and submit- 
ting the result to the action of his furnace, 
and thus the first model in relief was ob- 
tained. This production is said to have 
been destroyed at Corinth when the city 
was sacked by Mummius, B.C. 146. The 
Eoman sculptor Arcesilaus, who flourished 
B.C. 65, was celebrated for the excellence of 
his models from the human figure. 

MoDENA (Duchy) . — The territory consti- 
tuting the duchy of Modena was, about 
the end of the 9th century, in the posses- 
sion of Adalbert. The emperor Henry V. 
made himself master of it in 1115. Modena 
acquired a certain independence in 1125, 
and after many years of internal struggles, 
Obizzo II. of Este became lord of Modena 
in 1289. After undergoing various revo- 
lutions, it fell under the rule of Obizzo III. 
in 1336. Borso received the title of duke 
of Modena and Eeggio in 1453. Leo X. 



MOD 

purchased the duchy from the emperor 
Maxunilian I., into whose hands it had 
fallen a short time previous, for 40,000 
ducats, in 1514, and Alfonso I. dehvered it 
from the papal yoke in 1527. The French 
annexed Modena to the Cisalpine republic 
in 1796, and in 1805 it formed part of the 
kingdom of Italy. The duchy was given to 
Francis II. of Austriain 1815. On the breaking 
out of the war between France and Sardinia 
against Austria, Francis V., who had suc- 
ceeded to the duchy on the death of his 
father, Jan 21, 1846, took refuge at Mantua, 
June 14, 1859. The treaty of Villa-Franca, 
July 11, 1859, provided for the return of the 
duke ; but this provision was never fulfilled, 
and the duchy of Modena was annexed to 
the new kingdom of Italy. 

Modena (Italy), anciently called Mutina, 
or Mutinum, a city of Etruscan origin, was 
in the possession of Kome b.c. 218. The 
Eomans estabhshed a colony here B.C. 183. 
The Ligurians seized the town B.C. 177, but 
were soon expelled. During the civil war it 
sustained a siege of four months against the 
troops of Marc Antony, b.c. 43. Modena 
was besieged and taken by Constantino I. 
A.D. 312, and was laid waste by Attila in 
452. It fell into a state of total decay after 
the conquest of the Longobards, but re- 
covered much of its former importance 
under the Countess Matilda, a.d, 1076— 
1115. The Hungarian partisans of Pope 
Innocent VI. plundered the tovm in 1360 ; 
and it was seized by Pope Julius II. in 
1510. Alfonso I. made himself master of it 
A.B. 1527. An engagement between the 
French and Austrians, in which the forces 
of the latter were put to rout, took place 
under its walls, June 12, 1799. The cathedral, 
with a marble tower, was commenced in 
1099. The palace, commenced in the 17th 
century, contains a fine hbrary of 90,000 
volumes and 3,000 manuscripts, founded by 
Francis II. about the end of the 17th 
century. 

MoDOif (Greece), the ancient Methone 
(q. v), was captured by the Venetians 
A.D. 1124, and was annexed by them in 
1204. The Turks took Modon in August, 
1500 ; the Venetians recovered possession 
in 1686 ; and it again fell into the hands of 
the Turks in 1715. Ibrahim Pasha landed 
here Feb. 24, 1825, and defeated the Greek 
army in the neighbourhood April 19. The 
Greeks, however, avenged themselves by 
destroying, by means of fire-ships, a large 
portion of the Egyptian fleet anchored 
under the walls of Modon, May 13. The 
Turks surrendered to a combined English 
and French force in September, 1828. The 
French garrison re-embarked in July, 1833, 
and Modon forms part of the modern king- 
dom of Greece. 

McEsiA (Europe), corresponding to the 
modern Bulgaria and Servia, became the 
seat of a Gallic tribe b.c. 277. The Eomans 
penetrated into Moesia B.C. 75, and it was 
subjugated by them about' B.C. 29. The 
Goths invaded the country a.d. 250, and 



MOL 

defeated the Komans at an obscure town. 
Forum Trebonii, in 251, on which occasion 
the emperor Decius and a large portion of 
his army perished in a morass. The Visi- 
goths overran Mcesia in the 4th century. 
The people, who received the name of Bul- 
garians, were, according to the best authori- 
ties, of Turkish origin, being in fact the rem- 
nant of the Huns, who, after the death of 
Attila (453), retired beyond the Euxine. 
They invaded the Eastern empire in 559, 
and were repulsed by Belisarius. In the 
7th century they advanced into Mcesia, and 
founded the first Bulgarian kingdom, which 
lasted from 640 to 1U18, when it was sub- 
jected to the Greek empire. 

MoGADOE (Morocco) was founded a.d. 
1760. It was bombarded by the French in 
1844. 

MoHACz (Battles). — Soliman II., at the 
head of a Turkish army, defeated the 
Hungarians near the town of Mohacz, in 
Hungary, Aug. 29, 1526. Louis II. was 
killed, and 30,000 Christians fell in the 
battle. The duke of Lorraine and the 
Imperialists gained a victory over the Turks 
at the same place in 1687. 

Mohammedanism. — Mohammed was bom 
at Mecca, a.d. 569, and began to preach 
there in 609. In 613 his views were opposed 
by the Koreishites, who, in 622, compelled 
him to quit Mecca and seek an asylum at 
Medina. This flight to Medina fixes the 
Moslem sera of the Hegira {q.v.). Being 
made the prince of Medina, he was enabled 
to declare war against such as refused to 
credit his statements, and in the battles of 
Beder and Ohud in 623, and of the Nations 
or the Ditch in 625, he defeated his 
Koreishite opponents. In 629 he recaptured 
Mecca, where he was installed as prince and 
prophet, and in 630 he completed the con- 
quest of Arabia. He died at Medina, June 7, 
632. The doctrines of Mohammed include 
a belief in one God and a futiu-e state, and 
permit the practice of polygamy. The 
sacred book is the Koran (q.v.). Comrooder 
Tyabjee, a Hindoo Mohammedan, was ad- 
mitted in London as an attorney, Nov. 25, 
1858. 

MoHiiEF, or MoHii,ow (Kussia). — This 
ancient town, taken by Charles XII. of 
Sweden in July, 1708 a.d., was recovered by 
Peter the Great in 1709. The French de- 
feated the Eussians at this town, July 23, 
1812. 

Mohocks. — Under the name of Mohocks, 
Mohawks, or Hawkabites, some villains went 
about London, at night, in 1712, assaulting 
persons whom they met. They frequently 
cut off the ears of their victims, sht their 
noses, and committed other cruelties. A 
proclamation offering a reward of £100 for 
any person who should discover one of these 
offenders was pubUshed March 17, 1712. 

Mold (Wales) . — A castle erected on Bailey 
Hill, near this town, was during the 12th 
and 13th centuries frequently besieged by 
the contending Enghsh and Welsh armies. 
Owen Gwynneth took it a.d. 1145. The 



MOL 



MON- 



English captured it soon after, and it was 
retaken by the Welsh in 1201. 

Moldavia (Europe), one of the Danubian 
principalities, was subjected to great devasta- 
tions by the various hordes who invaded the 
Byzantine empire. About the middle of the 
13th century it was re-colonized by descend- 
ants of Eoman settlers, under a chief called 
Bogdan. Hence the country was called by 
the Turks Bogdania, In 1536 the country 
submitted to the protection of the Turks. 
The voyvode was to be elected by the 
principal clergy and nobles, whose choice 
was to be confirmed by the sultan. He 
was not, however, to interfere in their local 
affairs, nor were the Turks to settle in 
Moldavia. In 1711 the Turks abohshed the 
privilege enjoyed by the people of electing 
the voyvodes. Peter the G-reat made an 
unsuccessful attempt, in 1710, to obtain 
possession of Moldavia. In 1739 the Eus- 
sians occupied Moldavia, but evacuated it at 
the peace of Belgrade. By the 10th article 
of the treaty of Koutchouk-Kainardji, July 
10, 1774, Eussia obtained the right of inter- 
ceding with the Porte in favour of the prin- 
cipalities. By the treaty of Bucharest, May 
28, 1812, the eastern portion of Moldavia 
was ceded to Eussia. An insurrection broke 
out in Moldavia, March 6, 1821 ; and the 
Turks withdrew ISTov. 23, 1824-. A Eussian 
general administered the provinces from 
1832 to 1834, when Michel Sturdza was 
elected hospodar of Moldavia, and governed 
tiU April, 1848. Upon his resignation in June, 
1849, Gregory Ghika, a native Boyard, was 
elected hospodar. The Eussians occupied 
Moldavia in 1853 ; but, on the approach of 
the allied forces, retired in 1854. The Aus- 
trians held the country from that year until 
1856. By the 22nd article of the treaty of 
Paris, March 30, 1856, the principalities of 
WaUachia {q.v.} and Moldavia, under the 
suzerainty of the Porte, were guaranteed in 
aU their privileges and immunities by the 
great powers of Europe. 

MoLiNiSTS. — This sect was founded by 
Louis MoHna, born at Cuenca, in 'New 
Castile, a.d. 1535. He joined the society of 
Jesus, and published his "De Concordia 
Gratise et Liberi Arbitrii," at Lisbon, in 
1588, in which he endeavoured to show that 
the doctrines of predestination and grace are 
consistent with free ^"iU. The Dominicans 
assailed him, and Clement VIII. , who at- 
tempted in vain to put a stop to the 
controversy in 1594, referred it to a coun- 
cil in 1598. It decided in 1602 against 
the Molinists. The dispute was still raging 
at the death of Molina, which took place in 
1600. His antagonists were called Thomists, 
because they upheld the opinions of Thomas 
Aquinas. Paul V. in 1609 forbade both the 
Jesidts and the Dominicans from reviving 
the controversy. 

Moluccas, or Spice Islands (Asiatic 
Archipelago). — This group was discovered 
by the Portuguese a.d. 1511. The Spa- 
niards, .mider Magelhaens, seized them in 
1519, and the Portuguese returned in 1521. 
670 



Sir Francis Drake landed in the Moluccas in 
1579, and the Dutch made a permanent set- 
tlement in 1596. These islands, taken by 
the British in 1796, were restored to the 
Dutch, by the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 
1802. They were again occupied by the 
British in 1810, but were finally restored to 
the Dutch by the treaty of Paris, May 14, 
1814. 

MoLWiTZ (Battle). — The Prussians de- 
feated the Austrian army in the plain of 
Molwitz, in Silesia, April 10, 1741. At the 
commencement of the battle the Austrians 
were victorious, and Frederick II. was 
carried along by his retreating cavalry to 
Oppeln, where he took refuge in a windmill. 
This circumstance gave rise to the remark that 
in this battle Frederick had covered himself 
with glory and with flour. A writer says : 
" On this occasion he rode a horse called 
' Tall Grey,' which carried him sixty-five 
English miles without food or resting. 
Ever after the battle he was called ' Mol- 
witz Grey,' and survived to the year 1760." 

MoLTBDE]»ruM. — This metal was discovered 
about A.D. 1782, by Hielm. 

MoiiBAS, or M0MBA9A (Africa). — Vasco 
de Gama visited this port a.d. 1498. It was 
captured and burned by Almeida in 1505, 
and having been rebuilt, was again destroyed 
by the Portuguese in 1528. The Portuguese 
held it until 1720, when it fell under the 
sway of the Imam of Muscat. The inhabit- 
ants obtained their independence in 1824. 
The castle was built by the Portuguese ia 
1635. 

MoNA. (See Ak&lesey.) 

MoifACO (Italy). — This small principality, 
the ancient Portus Herculis Monoeci, or 
Monoeci Portus, founded by Greeks of 
Massiha, passed into the hands of the 
Genoese house of Grimaldi, about a.d. 968, 
and was placed under the protection of 
France in 1641. The male branch of the 
Grimaldis becoming extinct in 1731, the 
state passed, by marriage, to the house of 
Matignon, which assumed the name of the 
original family. In 1815 Monaco passed 
under the protection of the king of Sardinia, 
who seized the communes of Mentone and 
Eochebrune, and incorporated them with 
his own territories in 1849. They were 
ceded to France by a treaty concluded 
Feb. 2, 1861. 

MoNAGHAsr (Ireland). — Henry II. be- 
stowed this part of Ireland upon De Courcey 
A.D. 1177. The native chieftains carried on 
a struggle against the EngMsh with little 
cessation until the reign of Elizabeth. Mona- 
ghan was made a shire in 1568. Its chief 
town, of the same name, was called in ancient 
times Mviinechan, i. e., the town of monks. 

MoNASTEET. (See Abbet.) 

M0N90N (Treaty). — The Valteline was 
secured to the Grisons by a treaty con- 
cluded between France and Spain, at Mon- 
9on, A.D. 1626. 

MoNCONTOXTE (Battle). — The Huguenots 
were defeated by the Eoman Catholic army 
near this place, in Poitou, a.b, 1569. Coligny, 



MOE- 



-MO-^ 



who commanded the Huguenots, with diffi- 
culty saved the wreck of the army. 

MoNDOvi (Italy). — Here Napoleon Bona- 
parte defeated the Sardinian army, com- 
manded by Colli, April 22, 1796. The Pied- 
montese took Mondovi in May, 1799 ; but 
it was recaptured by the French Nov. 2 
in the same year. 

Monet. — The earliest mention of money 
,as a medium of exchange, is the purchase 
of the cave of Machpelah from the sons of 
Ephron the Hittite, by Abraham, for 400 
shekels of silver (Gen. xxiii. 16), B.C. 1859, 
when the money was no doubt uncoined, 
and regulated by weight. The invention of 
coined money is attributed to the Lydians. 
(See Coiif.) The name is derived from the 
temple of Juno Moneta, that served the 
Eomans as the mint for their Silver coinage, 
which commenced B.C. 269. The term ster- 
ling was first applied to money about a.d. 
1216. The importation of base foreign money 
into this kingdom was prohibited by the 
statute De falsa moneta, 27 Edw. I. (1299). 
Various materials have been used for money. 
{See Copper Money, Gold Coinage, &c.) 
In 1360 leather was used in France. Tin 
was coined in England tu 1684. 

Mongols, or Moguls. — It is said that 
nearly all the wandering tribes of Asiatic 
barbarians that desolated Europe from the 
4th to the 12th century, were of Mongohan 
origin. Under their leader Zenghis Khan 
(a.d. 1206—1227) they ravaged Asia, invading 
China in 1210, and Persia in 1218. They 
invaded Kussia in 1235, reached Siberia in 
1242, and completed the conquest of the 
empire of the caliphs in 1258. The 
death of Cazan, May 31, 1304, put an end 
to the Mongol supremacy in Persia; but 
under the great Tamerlane (1370 — 1400) 
they reconquered that country, and subdued 
Hindostan and other parts of Asia. His 
successors in India took the name of the 
Great Mogvil, which was first assumed by 
Baber in 1525. 

Monmouth (Monmouthshire) , the an- 
cient Mongwy, so named from its situation 
on the rivers Mon and Wye, was a Eoman 
station. The Saxons erected a fortress, 
which, after the Conquest, was bestowed 
upon William Fitz-Baderon, whose sons 
assumed the surname of Monmouth. In 
1240 two hospitals were founded by John de 
Monmouth, and in 1257 John, lord of Mon- 
mouth, rebuilt the castle on a larger scale. It 
suffered so severely from siege by the earl 
of Leicester in 1265, that it had to be rebuUt. 
It then passed into the hands of John of 
Gaunt. Henry V. was born here Aug. 9, 
1388. The present parish church occupies 
the site of an alien priory for black monks of 
the Benedictine order, founded in the reign 
of Henry I. Monmouth was incorporated in 
1550, and had its charter renewed in 1557 by 
Queen Mary ; in 1606 by James I. ; and in 
1666 by Charles II. 

Monmouthshire (England) was occu- 
pied by the Silures, who were expelled by 
the Romans, a.d. 78. They held the county 



until 408. It was annexed to the Oxford 
circuit in the reign of Charles II. and 
remained partly under the jurisdiction of 
the Lords Marchers' court, until its abohtion 
in 1689. 

Monmouth's Eebellion.— The duke of 
Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., was 
born at Eotterdam in 1649, and educated in 
France. In 1683 he was banished from 
England for his share in the Eye-House Plot. 
He landed at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, June 11, 
1685, was proclaimed king at Taunton, 
June 20, and attacked the king's army at 
Sedgemoor {q.v.),Ta.e&v Bridgewater, July 6. 
After fighting three hours, the rebels gave 
way, having sustained a loss of 1,500 men. 
Monmouth, who was discovered in a ditch 
covered with fern, July 8, was tried and 
beheaded on Tower Hill, July 15, 1685. 

MoNOPHTSiTES. — This sect of heretics 
originated in the 5th century, and maintained 
that the divine and human natures of Christ 
were so united as to constitute but one 
nature. They were the followers of Euty- 
ches, and branched into several sects. In 
Egypt and the East they are called Jacobites 
{q.v.). 

Monopoly. — Justinian I. made the sale 
of sUk a monopoly, a,d. 532, and the privi- 
lege, which, as Gibbon remarks, checked 
the fair competition of industry, prevailed 
extensively in the Eoman empire. In 1597 
and 1601, the Commons complained of the 
injury inflicted upon the community by 
patents of monopoly, and in the last-men- 
tioned year Elizabeth returned a message, 
promising to abolish them. Sir Gdes 
Mompesson and Sir Francis Mitchell were 
degraded from knighthood, fined, imprisoned, 
and eventually banished, for abusing the 
power granted to them of a monopoly for 
licensing alehouses and inspecting inns, and 
manufacturing gold and silver thread, in 
1621. Monopolies were declared contrary 
to law, and all such grants void, by 21 
James I. c. 3 (1624). 

MoNOTHELiTES. — This heretical sect was 
founded by the emperor Heraclius, who 
endeavoured to reconcile the Monophysitea 
to the Catholic church, a.d. 630, by piib- 
lishing an edict asserting the existence of a 
human and divine nature, but only of one 
will, in Christ. The heresy was condemned 
by several councils. 

Monroe Doctrine. — James Monroe, pre- 
sident of the United States from 1817 to 
1824, announced the determination of his 
government to resist any European inter- 
ference in the affairs of the independent 
governments of South America. This re- 
solution has in consequence been termed 
the Monroe Doctrine. 

Monrovia (Africa), the capital of the 
Liberian republic, was founded a.d. 1821. 

MoNS (Belgium). — About a.d. 653 a her- 
mitage, and then a chapel, dedicated to St. 
Peter, was built on the site now occupied by 
this town. Alberic, count of Hainault, made 
it a place of residence, and in 804 Charle- 
magne made it the capital of Hainault. 



M03T 



MON- 



About the end of the lOth century it sus- 
tained a siege against Hugh Capet. In 1290 I 
the city was enlarged ; but in 1436 it fell j 
into the hands of the duke of Burgundy. | 
Under Charles V. Mons attained the highest \ 
degree of prosperity, which was cut short by | 
the exactions of the duke of Alva in 1569. j 
Mons was invested by the French, under 
Marshal Luxemburg, in 1678, and again in 
1691, under Louis XIV., when the walls j 
were destroyed. It remained in their hands | 
tm the peace of Eyswick, Oct. 30, 1697. | 
The French took it again in 1701, but were 
driven out by Prince Eugene and the duke 
of Marlborough, Oct. 20, 1709. By the 
treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, Mons was 
restored to Austria. The French captured 
it, after a siege of sixteen days, June 27, 
1746, and again Nov. 7, 1792. It was an- 
nexed to France in 1794, and was restored 
to the iN^etherlands in 1814. 

MoNSELiCE (Italy). — This town was cap- 
tured by an alhed French and imperial army 
A.D. 1510, after an obstinate resistance. 

MoifTANisTS, or Cataphetgians, the fol- 
lowers of Montanus, a Phrygian, who hved 
about A.D. 171. He declared himself to 
be a prophet of God, sent to complete 
the Christian scheme. Tertvdlian joined the 
sect A.D. 204. They were distinguished for 
their austerity, and existed in the time of 
Augustine and Jerome. The latter wrote 
against their doctrines. 

MojTTAB&is (France). — This town was be- 
sieged by the Enghsh a.d. 1426, but without 
success ; and its castle was destroyed in 
1809. The alhed Austrian and Eussian 
army took possession of Montargis in 1814. 
The allies evacuated it the same year, after 
the battle of Montereau (q.v.). 

MoNTATJBAN (France). — Count Alfonse 
of Toulouse founded this town a.d. 1144. 
The Huguenots fortified it, and the Eoman 
Catholic forces, led by Morluc, failed in an 
attempt to capture it in 1580. It resisted 
another siege in 1621, but was taken in 1629, 
and its fortifications were soon after de- 
stroyed. An insurrection occurred here in 
1790. 

MoNTBELiiAED (France). — This town, 
which at one time formed part of the kiag- 
dom of Burgundy, passed to the Wiirtem- 
berg family a.d. 1395. The French, under 
Marshal Luxemburg, took it in 1647, and 
Louis XIY. having captured it in 1674, 
destroyed the fortifications. The French 
took it in 1723, and with the kingdom of 
Wiirtemberg it was annexed to France in 
1796. 

MoifT Blan'C, the highest mountain in 
Europe, was first ascended by Horace de 
Saussure, a Genevese, Aug. 3, 1787. The 
second ascent was not made until Aug. 18, 
1822, by Mr. F. Chssold. Since that time 
various ascents have been made. 

MoNT DE PiETE was cstabHshed as a 
charitable institution in Italy in the 15th 
century. Paul III. (a.d. 1534 — 1549) sanc- 
tioned one at Eome, and these estabhsh- 
ments were afterwards introduced iato other 
572 



countries of Europe. The Mont dc Pi^t^ 
at Padua, founded in 1491, is the oldest on 
record. The French plundered these esta- 
bhshments during their occupation of Italy, 
in 1796 and 1797. 

MoNTEBELLO (Battlcs) . — The Austriana 
were defeated at this village, in Piedmont, 
by the French under Lannes, June 9, 1800. 
The French general took the title of duke of 
MontebeUo from this victory. The French 
and Sardinians defeated the Austrians here, .] 
after a struggle which lasted five hours, May 
20, 1859. 

MoKTE Casit^^o (Italy). — Benedict founded 
his celebrated monastery on the site of a 
temple to Apollo, a.d. 529. The Saracens 
destroyed it in 883, but it was restored, 
and greatly extended in 1065. Markwald 
besieged it for eight days in 1198, when it 
was delivered, according to monkish legends, 
by a miracle. Milman terms it " that great 
model repubhc, which gave its laws to ahnost 
the whole of Western Monasticism." 

MoNTEiEOJ^^E (Italy). — A colony from 
Loeri Epizephyrii, estabhshed a town here, 
which was taken by Dionysius of Syracuse, 
B.C. 389. The Carthaginians restored the 
inhabitants B.C. 379, but the town was taken 
by the Bruttians, and afterwards by the ; 
Eomans, who planted a colony B.C. 192. 

MoNTELOBo (Battle). — Francis Sforza de- 
feated the forces of his rival, Nicholas 
Piccinino, in this engagement, Nov. 8, 1443. 

MoNTEM. {See Eton Montem.) 

MoNTENEGEO, or Zeenagoea (Turkey), 
formed part of the ancient lUyricum, and 
was conquered by the Turks a.d. 1526. 
The Montenegrins rebelled in 1700, mas- 
sacred aU the Turks, and declared them- 
selves independent. Some Montenegrin 
tribes joined Eussia against Turkey in 1712. 
The temporal and spiritual authority pre- 
viously vested in the Vladika was separated 
by Prince Daniel in 1851. The Turks 
invaded Montenegro in 1853, and, after 
gaining a few barren victories, retired. 

Montenotte (Italy). — Napoleon Bona- 
parte defeated the Austrians at this place, 
April 12, 1796. Soult was driven from his 
position at Montenotte by the Imperialists 
m March, 1800. Montenotte, with the sur- 
rounding district, was made one of the three 
departments into which the Ligurian re- 
pubhc was divided on its annexation to 
France in June, 1805. 

Monte Olmo (Battle) . — Francis and James 
Piccinino were defeated at this place, in Italy, 
by Sforza, Aug. 19, 1444), when Francis, the 
elder brother, was made prisoner. 

Monteeeau (Battle). — Napoleon I. de- 
feated the allied Eussian and German army 
at this town, seated at the confluence of the ; 
Yonne and the Seine, Feb. 18, 1814. The 
French took possession of the town, which 
had been occupied by their opponents, 
Feb. 6. 

MoNTEEET (Battle). — This town, the capi- 
tal of New Leon, in Mexico, was taken by 
the American army, after an assault that 
lasted three days, Sept. 24, 1846. 



MON" 

Monte Video (South America), called 
also Sau Felipe de Monte Video, the capital 
of Uruguay, was built by a colony from 
Buenos Ayres in 1723. It was taken Feb. 3, 
1807, by the English, who withdrew July 7. 
When Monte Video shook off the Spanish 
yoke, the Brazilians took possession of the 
town ; but it was retaken, after a long siege, 
in 1814. The Brazilians recaptured it in 
1821. By the treaty of 1828 it was made the 
capital of a republic of the same name. 

MoNTFEKRAT (Xopth Italy). — The ancient 
marquisate of Montferrat was created by 
Otho the Great a.d. 967, in favour of 
Alderan. In 1187 the titles of marquis of 
Montferrat and of Tyre were united in the 
person of Conrad, who was assassinated 
April 29, 1192 ; and by the marriage of 
Yolande, daughter of William V., with the 
Greek emperor Andronicus Palaeologus in 
1284, the succession to the marquisate became 
hereditary in their line. In 1414 the empe- 
ror Sigismund bestowed upon Theodore II. 
the title of the " Imperial Vicar in Italy." 
On the extinction of the male hue in 1533, the 
succession was contested by Frederick II., 
Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, Louis II., 
marquis of Saluces, and Charles III., duke 
of Savoy. Charles V. decided the case in 
favour of the marquis of Mantua, Jan. 5, 
1536. In 1574 it was erected into a duchy ; 
and in 1613 it was taken by Charles Ema- 
nuel, duke of Savoy, who was soon com- 
pelled to rehnquish his conquest. His son, 
victor Amadeus, obtained the cession of 
part of the country in 1631 ; and in 1708 
the whole of Montferrat was annexed to his 
dominions. In 1797 it was incorporated with 
the Cisalpine republic ; in 1805 it formed 
part of the kingdom of Italy ; and in 1815 
it was given to the king of Sardinia. 

MoNTGOMEEY (Alabama) was founded 
A.D. 1817. 

MoH-T&OMEKT (Walcs).— One Baldwin 
hvait a castle here a.d. 1067. It was taken 
by Eoger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury, 
in 1090, and from him received the name it 
now bears. The Welsh took the castle and 
put aU the garrison to the sword in 1095. 

MoNTiEL, (Battle), was fought March 23, 
1369, at Montiel, in Spain, between Peter the 
Cruel, king of CastUe, and his brother, 
Henry of Trastamare, aided by French 
knights. Peter was kiUed, and his army 
totally defeated in this battle. 

MoNTiGLio (Battle). — Boniface II. of 
Montferrat defeated the people of Asti at 
this place, in Piedmont, June 19, 1191. 

MoNTLHEBY (Battle).— Louis XI., during 
the civil war excited by the League for the 
Public Good, encountered the rebellious 
nobles at this place, July 16, 1465. Victory 
was claimed for both armies. This is the 
last occasion in which the oriflamme was 
displayed in the French army. 

MoNTMiEAiL (France). — The kings of 
France and England, Louis VII. and 
Henry II., with a large assembly of re- 
tainers, met at this town, Jan. 6, 1169, where 
Becket was to throw himself on the mercy of 



MOX 

Henry II. This, however, he refused to do, 
and the meeting broke up in confusion. 
The French, under Napoleon I., defeated the 
allied Prussians and Russians here, Feb. 11, 
1814. 

MoNTPELLiER (France). — This town was 
built in the 8th century, to replace the epis- 
copal town of Mauguelonne, destroyed by 
Charles Martel. It passed to the house of 
Aragon in 1202, and afterwards to the kings 
of Majorca, from whom it was purchased by 
Philip VI. of France, in 1350. In 1371 it 
was conferred on Charles le Mauvais, king 
of Navarre, in exchange for certain lordships 
in France, but in 1378 it was re-united to 
France. The bishopric of Mauguelonne 
was transferred here in 1538. MontpeUier 
came into the hands of the Huguenots in 
the reign of Henry III., and after enduring 
a long siege, it surrendered in 1622 to 
Louis XIII., who issued an edict for the 
restoration of peace between the Roman 
Cathohcs and the Huguenots. The Found- 
ling Hospital was built in 1180, and the 
Jardin des Plantes, the first botanical garden 
estabHshed in France, in 1558. Councils 
were held at MontpeUier, May 17, 1162 ; in 
Dec. 1195; Jan. 8, 1215; Aug. 21, 1224; and 
Sept. 6, 1258. 

Montreal (Canada), founded by French 
settlers a.d. 1642, and called VUle Marie, 
was taken by the English Sept. 8, 1760. It 
was seized by the Americans Nov. 12, 1775, 
but the EngUsh regained possession, June 15, 
1776. It suffered severely from cholera in 
July, 1832. A serious collision between the 
civilians and the military in garrison took 
place Sept. 29, 1833. Alarming riots broke 
out, in which the partisans of Papineau 
ranged themselves against the supporters 
of the government, Nov. 6, 1837; and a 
recurrence of the tumults was experienced 
when the royal assent was given to the 
Rebellion Losses Indemnity Bill. The houses 
of parUament on this occasion were burnt to 
the ground, and the library with the archives 
of Canada was destroyed April 25, 1849. The 
Hotel Dieu was founded about the time 
when the colony was settled, the patients 
being tended by the nuns of St. Joseph de 
la Fleche ; the general hospital, attended 
by the Grey nuns, was established by 
Madame D'YouviUe in 1747. Montreal 
College was founded by the priests of St. 
Sulpice about a.d. 1760. McGill College 
was founded by a merchant of that name, 
who died in 1813. The Roman CathoKc 
parish church, erected at a cost of £80,000, 
with a fine chime of beUs, one of which weighs 
25,000 lb., was opened in 1829. 

MoNTREUiL- SUB - Mee ( France ) . — This 
town received a charter a.d. 1189. It was 
ceded to England by the treaty of Bretigny, 
May 8, 1360, but was soon after restored to 
France. Charles V. took it in 1537, and it 
again surrendered to the Spaniards in 1544. 
Napoleon I. formed a camp here for the 
contemplated invasion of England in 1804 
and 1805. 

MoNTBOSE (Scotland) received its first 
573 



Mo:s' 



MOO 



charter from David I. early in tlie 12th cen- 
turj'. Here John Balliol resigned the crown 
and sceptre of Scotland into the hands of 
Edward I., July 10, 1296; from this port Sir 
James Douglas, bearing the heart of King 
Eobert Bruce, embarked for the Holy Land 
A.D, 1330; and the Pretender, with a few of 
his followers, sailed hence on their return to 
France, Feb. 4, 1716. 

MoNTEOu&E Club.— Established durmg 
the French revolution, a.d. 1789, and so 
called from a place near Paris, where its 
meetings were held. Mirabeau, Sieyes, La- 
touche, and the Chevalier Laclos were mem- 
bers of this association. They conspired 
against the throne, and at one time favoured 
a project of supplanting the elder Bourbons 
by the Orleans branch of the family. 

MoNTSEEEAT (Spain), a fortress in Cata- 
lonia, composed of the ancient convent of 
our Lady of Montserrat, was stormed by 
Suchet A.D. 1811. The French were speedily 
compelled to retire, and the fortress, having 
been taken and retaken, was destroyed in 
July, 1812. 

MoifTSEEBAT (Wcst Indies). — This island 
was discovered by Christopher Columbus, 
A.D. 1493. A settlement was formed by 
some Irish Eoman Catholics in 1632. The 
French captured it in 1664, and it was re- 
stored to England by the treaty of Breda, 
July 10, 1667. The colony obtained a con- 
stitution in 1689. It again fell a prey to the 
French in 1782, but was restored to England 
by the treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. 

MoNTMETS^T (London) was erected on Fish- 
Street Hill to commemorate the great fire 
of 1666. Sir Christopher Wren was the 
architect, and the column, commenced in 
1671, was completed in 1677. In consequence 
of numerous persons committing suicide, by 
precipitating themselves from the top, an 
iron fence was placed round the gallery in 
1839. 

MooDKEE (Battle). — The Anglo-Indian 
army, imder the command of Sir Hugh 
(afterwards Lord) Gough and Sir John 
Littler, defeated the Sikhs at this small town, 
on the Sutlej, in Hindostan, Dec. 18, 1845. 
Seventeen guns were captured. 

MooLTAN, or MouLTAN (Hindostan), the 
capital of a province of the same name, in 
the Punjaub, is supposed to be identical with 
Malh, described a.d. 1582 as one of the most 
ancient cities of Hindostan. Kunjeet Sing 
captiired it in 1806, and again in 1818. He 
appointed Sawun Mull governor in 1821, and 
by him Mooltan was fortified and made the 
strongest city in that part of India. Moolraj, 
his eldest son, having succeeded, expressed a 
wish to resign the government of Mooltan, 
which had come under the sway of the British 
after the death of Euujeet Sing ; whereupon 
Mr. Vans Agnew, a Bengal civihan, and Lieu- 
tenant Anderson, were sent with an escort of 
1,400 Sikhs, to receive the fortress. These 
gentlemen were murdered by his orders 
April 19, 1848. This barbarous act roused 
the indignation of the British authorities, 
and after the battles of Kennyree, June 18. 
574 



and Suddoosam, July 1, in both of which 
Moolraj was defeated, Mooltan was invested 
by General Whish, Aug. 18, and was upon 
the point of faUing into hia hands, when the 
whole of the Sikh troops deserted and joined 
Mooh'aj, and Whish was compelled to raise 
the siege. It was resumed Dec. 27, imder 
the command of Lord Gough, and Mool- 
tan was carried by storm Jan. 2, 1849.. 
Moolraj shut himself up in the citadel j 
but was obhged to surrender unconditionally 
Jan. 22. 

MooBE, (Treaty,) was concluded between: 
France and England, Aug. 30, 1525. The 
integrity of the French kingdom was gua- 
ranteed against the emperor Charles V. 

MooEs. — The origin of the inhabitants o€ 
ancient Mauretania is unknown. They as- 
sisted the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, 
under Genseric, a.d. 429, and were defeated 
by the Eoman forces of the eunuch Solomon 
in 535. In 543 they revolted against the 
Eomans, and slew Solomon at the battle of 
Tibeste. For some years they opposed the 
domination of the Arabian Moslems, by 
whom they were finally subdued in 709. 
Yahye Ben Aly introduced them into Spain, 
to assist him against his brother Alcasim 
Ben Hamud, in 1019, and after a series of 
conquests they estabhshed their supremacy 
in the country in 1031. In 1063 Eoger Guis- 
card defeated them in Sicily, and in 1070 
they founded the city of Morocco (q-v.). 
The Moors in Spain revolted against their 
rulers in 1143, and were opposed by the 
united forces of all the Christian princes of 
the peninsula in 1193. In 1238 they esta- 
blished their kingdomof Granada (g.t;.), which 
continued to flourish tiU 1492. The severity 
of Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros in employing 
the Inquisition against them, produced an. 
insurrection of the Moors of the Alpus arras, 
which lasted from 1500 to 1502, when they 
were compelled to become Christians, and 
from that time obtained the name of Moris- 
eoes. In 1516 they founded the piratical 
states of Algiers and Tunis, in Africa. The 
emperor Charles V., at the instigation of 
Clement VII., ordered that all the Moors in 
Spain should be baptized before Dee. 8, 1525, 
or leave the country by Jan. 1, 1526. They 
oifered 50,000 crowns for a respite of five 
years ; but Charles ordered that those who 
were not baptized by Jan. 15, should for- 
feit their goods, and be sold as slaves. Many 
took refuge in the mountains of Valencia, 
but eventually submitted, and even pvirchased 
the privilege of retaining some of their cus- 
toms for 80,000 ducats. In 1568 they rebelled 
against the government of Philip II. in 
Spain. Large numbers of them left that 
country in 1571, and in 1609 they were ex- 
pelled by order of Philip III. 

MooESHEDABAD (Hindostau), also called 
Muksoosabad, the chief town of a district of 
the same name, whinh, at the commencement 
of the 13th century, was invaded by the 
Patau Mussulmans, and finallv subjugated 
by Akbar in 1584. In 1742 "the Mahrat- 
tas plundered the city of Moorshedabad, 



MO? 



MOE 



which was the capital of Bengal until 1757. 
Its ruler, Surajah Dowlah, was defeated in 
1757 by Clive at Plassey, and Jaffier Khan 
was declared nabob. The English deposed 
him in 1760, and raised Cossim Ali Khan in 
his stead ; but he engaged in war against 
them, and was in turn deposed and Jaffier 
Khan reinstated. Moorshedabad was ceded 
to the East-India Company in 1765. 

MopsTJESTiA (Cilicia). — The origin of this 
town is traced to the soothsayer Mopsus by 
some writers. The emperor Constantius 
buUt a bridge here across the river Pyramus. 
In the Middle Ages it was called Mamista, 
and is now known under the name of Messis 
or Mensis. A council was held here a.d. 
550. 

MoRADABAD (Hindostau) . — The province, 
with chief town of the same name, was ceded 
to the East- India Company by the sovereign 
of Oude, A.D. ISOl. 

MoRAT, or MuRTEM (Battle). — Charles 
the Bold of Burgundy was defeated by the 
Swiss at Morat or Murtem, in the canton of 
Freibui-g, in Switzerland, June 22, 1476. 

Moravia ( Austria ) . — This province 
was inhabited by the Quadi until a.d. 
407, when it was seized by the Heruli, 
who retained it till its conquest by the 
Longobardi in 548. A kingdom of Great 
Moravia was subsequently formed, which 
received Christianity in 856. In 908 the 
kingdom was dissolved and divided between 
Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia; and in 
1056 the whole was incorporated with Bohe- 
mia. It became a margraviate in 1086, and 
was annexed to the Austrian dominions in 
1526. Moravia was the chief theatre of the 
war between the French and allied Austrian 
and Russian armies in 1805. 

Moravians, or United Beethren. — 
The Bohemian Brethren dissented from the 
Calixtines (q-v.), a branch of the Hussites, 
A.D. 1433. They sent envoys to Luther in 
1522, and, having been expelled from Bohe- 
mia in 1547, took refuge in Poland and at 
Marienwerder, in Prussia. MaximiHan II. 
granted them toleration in 1564, and many 
of them congregated at Fulnek, in Moravia, 
from which they received the name of Mora- 
vians. Their settlements in Bohemia and 
Moravia were destroyed during the Thirty 
Years' War. Count Zinzendorf permitted 
them to settle at Herrnhut, on his estate of 
Bethelsdorf, in 1722. Several changes were 
at this time made in the constitution of the 
sect, and its followers received the name of 
the United Brethren. One of their principal 
objects is to send out missions to the heathen. 
They were first estabhshed in England about 
1738. 

MoREA (Greece). — Finlay (Greece and 
Trebizond, p. 29) states that " the Morea 
must have come into general vise, as the 
name of the peninsula (the Peloponnesus), 
among the Greeks after the Latin conquest." 
This took place in 1205, when the country 
was formed into the principality of Achaia 
(q.v.). In 1262, Misithra and other fort- 
resses were ceded to the Byzantines, who 



established a despotism in 1349, The fol- 
lowing are the Byzantine despots of the 
Morea ; — 

A.D. 

1349. Manuel CantRcnzenos. 

1388. Theodore Paleologus I. 

14o7. Theodore Paleologus If. 

1428. Constantiue XI., emperor of Conatantinople, 

1430. Thomas. 

1460. Demetrius. 

MoRELiA (Spain).— The French captured 
this ancient town Dec. 17, 1707. Cabrera 
having surprised it in 1838, it was twice 
assailed without success, and the siege was 
raised Aug. 18. 

MoRETON Bat. (See Queensland.) 

MoRQ-ARTEN (Battle) . — ^The Swiss defeated 
an Austrian army at this place, on the bor- 
ders of Zug and Schwytz, l^ov. 16, 1315. 

MoRicE, or Morris Dance. — This dance 
is said to have been introduced by the Moors 
into Spain, whence it was brought into 
England by John of Gaunt, a.d. 1332. It. 
was but little practised, however, until the 
reign of Henry VII., when it became a 
frequent entertainment at the May-games 
and weddings. The characteristic peculi- 
arity of the morris was that bells were 
attached to the legs of the performers. 
Petrarch exhibited his skill as a morris 
dancer on the occasion of his coronation at 
Rome in 1341. 

MoRLAix (France). — This ancient town, 
at one period strongly fortified, was taken 
by the earl of Surrey a.d. 1522, and the 
fortifications were destroyed towards the 
end of the 16th century. 

MoRMONiTES. {See Latter-day Saints.) 

Morocco (Africa). — This empire, the 
ancient Mauretania (q.v.), was formed by 
the union of several small kingdoms under 
the Arabs. 



A.D. 

829. The city of Fez is founded by Edris. 
1030. The Almoravides invade Morocco. 
1055. Abu Eekr assum.es the title of sovereign o 

Morocco. 
1097. The emperor of Morocco invades Spain, at the 

invitation of the Spanish Moors. 
1121. Morocco is invaded by the Almohades. 
1202. The province of Fez asserts its independence. 
1270. The Meriuites invade Morocco. 
1413. English ships first trade to Morocco. 
1415. The Portuguese invade Morocco, and take 

Ceuta. 
1508. The Portuguese authority extends over a 

considerable portion of Morocco. 
1516. The Scherifs establish their supremacy, and 

e.itablish the dynasty which still reigns 

in Morocco. 
1578. Aug. 4. Sebastian, king of Portugal, perishes, 

with his whole army, in battle against the 

Moors, at Alcazar. 
1585. An English company is formed for trading to 

Morocco. 
1662. Tangiers is ceded to the British. 
1774. The emperor of Morocco fails in an attempt 

to expel the Spaniards from his territories. 
1815 The inhabitants rise in insurrection. 
1844. Aug. 6. The French, under the prince de 

Jotnville, bombard Taugiers. Aug. 14. 

Marshal Bugeaud defeats the imperial 

forces on the banks of the Isly. Aug. 16. 

De Joiiiville takes Mogador. Sept. 6. 

Peace is concluded with France. 
575 



MOR 



1851. March 26. The French bombard Sallee. 

1852. March 23.. Peace is again concluded with 

France. 

1859. Oct. 22. Spain declares war against Morocco. 

Nov. 18. The Spanish troops laud on the 
coasts of M orocco. 

1860. Jan. 1. The Spaniards, under General Prim, 

gain the battle of Castillejos, and advance 
upon Tetuan. Feb. 4. The Spaniards take 
Tetuan, alter a severe battle. Feb. 16. 
A tiTice is agi-eed upon. Feb. 23. Hostilities 
are resumed. March 23. The Spanish gain 
the battle of Gualdras. March 29. The 
queen of Spain agrees to preliminaries 
of peace, the emperor undertaking to pay 
20,000,000 piastres as indemnity, and to 
leave Tetuan in the hands of the Spanish 
until the payment is completed. 

MOEOCCO (Morocco). — This city, the 
chief town of the empire of the same name, 
•was founded a.d. 1070, by Moorish adven- 
turers from Spain. In 1121 it was besieged 
by the Almohades, who were compelled to 
retire ; but in 1148 they again attacked the 
city, which surrendered to their leader Ab- 
delmumin. In 1673 it was taken from Muley 
Achmet by Muley Ismael. The plague 
carried off many of the inhabitants in 1678. 

MoEPHiNE, or MoEPHiA. — This alkaloid 
of opium, named after Morpheus, on account 
of its effect as a narcotic, is mentioned by 
Ludwig, A.D. 1688. It was obtained from 
opium by Sertuerner, a German chemist, 
in 1803. 

MoETAEA (Italy) . — Charlemagne defeated 
the Lombards near this town a.d. 774. 
Edgar Mortara, aged seven years, the son 
of Jewish parents residing at Bologna, was 
forcibly removed from his home by order 
of the Inquisition, June 23, 1858. The al- 
leged reason for the abduction was that the 
boy had been secretly baptized by a maid- 
servant during a serious illness which he had 
suffered two years before. 

MoETAES. — The Chinese are said to have 
constructed guns to throw stones of twelve 
pounds 300 paces, as early as a.d. 757. When 
Algesiras was besieged by Alfonso XI., 
king of Castile, in 1343, the Moorish garrison 
threw against him " certain thimders " 
through long mortars. A mortar is still 
shown at Venice with its marble shot used 
at the siege of Chioggia in 1385. The 
Arabian authors say that gunpowder was 
first used in mortars, wh chwei e at that time 
cylinders excavated in a rock, during one of 
the early sieges of Alexandria. In 1771 an 
experiment was tried at Gibraltar, for dis- 
charging stones from a mortar of this kind, 
called a rock mortar. The excavation, four 
feet long, was carefully polished, and fifteen 
hundredweight of stones were put in, some 
of which were thrown a distance of 500 yards. 
Mortars were first made in England in 1543, 
and they were in general use in 1588. 

MoETELLA TowEES, sometimes misspelt 
Martello Towers, are said to have received this 
name from the MorteUa tower in MorteUa 
Bay, commanding the entrance to St. Eio- 
renzo, in the island of Corsica, which was 
assailed by a furious cannonade, that lasted 
576 



MOS 

three hours, from two British men-of-war, 
the Fortitude, 74, and the Juno, 32-gun 
frigate, February 7th, 1794. The tower 
only mounted two 18 -pounders and one 
6-pounder, and the garrison consisted of 
thirty-threemen,yet it sustained no damage, 
while the Fortitude caught fire, and was 
saved with difficulty. A height in the neigh- 
bourhood had been occupied by 1,400 men, 
and the garrison was compelled to surrender 
to this force on the same day. The duke of 
Richmond gave the plan for the first erected 
in England about 1805. They extended 
during the French war from Hythe in Kent 
to Seaford in Sussex, altogether about 
seventy-four in number. Though these 
circular buildings may have derived the 
name by which they are -known in England 
from the Corsican fortress, yet some such 
mode of defence was adopted at a much 
earlier date. Eobertson, in his Life of 
Charles V., relates that the Spaniards in the 
16th century were compelled to erect watch- 
towers at regular distances along the coasts, 
and to keep guards constantly on the alert, 
to protect the population on the sea-coast 
from the descents of the pirates of Algiers. 

Moetimee's Ceoss, (Battle,) was fought 
near Wigmore, in Herefordshire, between 
the rival factions of York and Lancaster, 
Feb. 2, 1461. The earl of Pembroke com- 
manded the Lancastrian forces, which were 
defeated with great slaughter. 

MoETMAiN." — Purchases made by corporate 
bodies are said to be purchased in mortmain, 
or dead hand ; the reason for the title, ac- 
cording to Blackstone (book i. c. 18), being 
that such purchases were " usually made by 
ecclesiastical bodies, the members of which 
(being professed) were reckoned dead per- 
sons in law ; land, therefore, holden by 
them might, with great propriety, be said 
to be held in mortua manu." In order to 
check the increasing importance of the 
Church, the giving of land in mortmain was 
prohibited by 9 Hen. III. c. 36 (1225), 
which was enforced by 7 Edw. I. st. 2 
(1279), and extended to all guilds and cor- 
porations, lay or ecclesiastical, by 15 Rich. II. 
c. 5 (1391). These prohibitions were re- 
pealed by 1 & 2 Philip & Mary, c. 8, s. 51 
(1554), which was repealed by 1 Eliz. c. 1, 
s. 2 (1558). The king was empowered to 
grant Hcences to purchase in mortmain 
by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 37 (1696). Gifts 
in mortmain by wiU were restrained by 
9 Geo. II. c. 36 (1736), which took effect 
June 24, 1736. It was repealed, as far as 
it related to the universities of Oxford and 
Cambridge, by 45 Geo. III. c. 101 (July 10, 
1805). 

Mosaics. — The invention of mosaic paint- 
ing is ascribed to the Persians, by whom it 
was practised at a very early date. The 
Greeks excelled in it, and transmitted it to 
I the Romans about the reign of Augustus ; 
I and during the reign of Constantine it 
I became the principal means of decorating 
I the Christian temples. Venice was the 
j principal seat of the mosaic art from the 



MOS 

llth to the 16th century. Mosaic-work was 
much improved in the 17th century by the 
application of enamel, to express the finer 
gradations of tint. 

Moscow (Kussia). — This ancient capital, 
founded a.d. 1147, continued to flourish 
until 1383, when it was taken by the Tartars, 
and nearly destroyed. The city was, how- 
ever, rebuilt, and had attained some degree 
of prosperity, when it once more feU a prey 
to the Tartars in 1571. The Poles captured 
it in 1608, and it was wrested from their 
grasp in 1610. The French, under Napo- 
leon I., entered Moscow September 14, 
1812. The great conflagration comraenced 
Sept. 15, and raged with fary till Sept. 20. 
The Kremlin (q.v.) was rebuilt in 1816, 
and has since been greatly enlarged. 
The church of the Assumption of the Vir- 
gin was founded in 1326 ; those of St. 
Slichael and of the Transfiguration were 
founded in 1328, and rebuilt in 1527; 
and the Pokrovskoi Cathedral was built 
in 1554. It was originally constructed of 
nine separate churches ; eleven have since 
been added ; making twenty places of wor- 
ship joined together. The Beloi G-orod, 
or White Town, contains the university, 
which was almost totally destroyed in the 
French invasion ; the foundling hospital, 
erected in 1763 ; the excise office, built 
in 1817 ; and the great military hospital, 
founded by Peter the Great. The great bell 
was cast in 1736, but fell, in consequence of 
a fire, in 1737. The railroad to St. Peters- 
burg was opened in 1851. 

MosKiRCH (Battle). — Moreau, at the head 
of a French army, defeated the Austrians 
at this village, after a sanguinary contest, 
May 5, 1800. 

MosQTTiTO Coast, or Mosqttitia (Central 
America), was discovered by Christopher 
Columbus A.D. 1502, and called by him 
Cariay. The Spaniards formed several set- 
tlements, and it became one of the favourite 
haunts of the bucaneers. The first English 
settlement was formed in 1730. A com- 
mission, despatched by Trelawney, governor 
of Jamaica, took formal possession of the 
country, in the name of the king of Great 
Britain, April 16, 1740; and an order in 
council was issued, sending a number of 
troops in 1744, and another in 1748. Spain 
took umbrage at these movements, and 
England agreed to demolish her fortification 
here by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
A convention, by which the English con- 
sented to evacuate the territory, signed 
July, 1786, was confirmed by the treaty of 
Madrid, Aug. 28, 1814. A British protec- 
torate was established, and two vessels of 
war occupied the harbour of San Juan in 
January, 1848. This led to negotiations 
with the United States, and the Bulwer- 
Clayton treaty {q.v.) was concluded April 19, 
1850. 

Moss Troopees. — Freebooters dwelling on 

the borders of England and Scotland, whose 

ravages are mentioned as estrly as the reign 

of Edward I., when they carried ofi" a wealthy 

577 



MOU 

citizen of Newcastle, and demanded a heavy 
ransom as the price of his hberty. In 1529 
James V. of Scotland marched against them 
with 8,000 men, and put large numbers to 
death, the celebrated Johnie Armstrong 
being one of his victims. Measures were 
taken for their suppression by 13 & 14 
Charles II. c. 22 (1662), which compelled 
the inhabitants of the Border to apprehend 
them wherever they were known to exist. 
They were deprived of benefit of clergy by 
18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666). These acts were 
renewed by 6 Geo. II. c. 37 (1733). 

Mosul, or Mozul (Asiatic Turkey), the 
ancient Mespila, was the seat of the Hama- 
danids of Mesopotamia a.d. 892. Zenghi, 
the atabek or ruler of Mosul, asserted his 
independence in 1121. The town was taken 
by Saladin in 1183, and fell into the hands of 
the Persians in 1625. Amurath IV. reco- 
vered Mosul in 1639. Botta, the French 
consul at Mosul, commenced his explorations 
at Mneveh in 1843, and Layard arrived here 
in 1845, in order to pursue his excavations on 
the site of Nineveh, which is on the oppo- 
site side of the Tigris. 

MoTTA (Battle). — The Hungarians were 
defeated at this place by the Venetians, under 
Malatesta, Aug. 24, 1412. 

MoTYA (Sicily). — This Phoenician colony 
passed under the rule of the Carthaginians, 
and was made a naval station by them, B.C. 
407. Dionysius of Syracuse captured it, and 
put all the inhabitants to the sword, b.c. 397. 
The Carthaginians regained possession b.c. 
396 ; but it never recovered its former im- 
portance. 

MoTJLMEiTJ" (Hindostan). — This town was 
ceded to the East-India Company by the Bur- 
mese by the treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 
1826. 

MouifT Athos (Greece), eaUed by the 
Franks Monte Santo, and by the Greeks 
Agion-oros, both terms implying " Holy 
Mountain." It has received this appella- 
tion from its numerous monastic esta- 
bhshments. According to the monkish tradi- 
tion, no female has set foot upon the Holy 
Mountain. Xerxes cut a passage for his 
fleet through the isthmus that connects the 
peninsula to the mainland, on his invasion 
of Greece, B.C. 480. From documents stOl 
extant, it appears that convents existed on 
this mountain as early as a.d. 961. 

Mount HiEMus. — The ancient name of 
the range of mountains extending from the 
Adriatic Sea to the Euxine, and now known 
as the Balkan. 

Mourning-. — PuUeyn (Etymological Com- 
pendium, p. 215) states that " the colours of 
the dress, or habit, worn to signify grief, are 
different in different countries. In Europe, 
the ordinary colour for mourning is Mack; in 
China, it is white, a colour that was the mourn- 
ing of the ancient Spartan and Koman ladies; 
in Turkey, it is blue, or violet ; in Egypt, 
yellow ; in Ethiopia, brovm ; and kings and 
cardinals mourn m purple. Every nation gave 
areason for their wearing the particular colour 
of their mourning : black, which is the priva- 
2 P 



MOU 



MUN 



tion of light, is supposed to denote the priva- 
tion of life; white is an emblem of purity ; 
yellow is to represent that death is the end 
of all human hopes, because this is the colour j 
of leaves when they fall, and flowers when 
they fade J brown denotes the earth, to 
which the dead return ; blue is an emblem ! 
of the happiness which it is hoped the 
deceased enjoys; and purple, or violet, is j 
supposed to express a mixture of sorrow 
and hope." White was the original colour 
of mourning in Spain, the last occasion on 
which it was used being on the death of Don 
Juan, heir of Castile, in 1495. In conse- 
quence of the serious injury done to trade by 
protracted public mournings, George III. 
reduced their duration to half their previous 
length, by an order issued from the cham- 
berlain's office, Jan. 12, 1768. 

MOUSQTJETAIEES, Or MUSQTJETEEES, a 

body of cavalry, attached to the persons 
of the French 'monarchs, and having some 
resemblance to our household troops, was 
abolished a.d. 1775 by Count Germain, war 
minister to Louis XVI. 

Mozambique (Africa). — This part of the 
eastern coast was discovered by Vasco de 
Gama, a.d. 1498, and the chief town was 
taken by Albuquerque in 1506. The city of 
Mozambique, on an island of the same name, 
was founded in 1763, and incorporated in 
1813. By decrees of the Portuguese govern- 
ment, issued in June, 1854, custom-houses 
were ordered to be established on the 
Mozambique coast. 

Muff. — This protection for the hands was 
invented in France during the reign of 
Louis XrV., and was introduced thence into 
England during the reign of Charles II. 
They are mentioned as being worn by gen- 
tlemen m 1683. Muffs made of feathers 
were fashionable dviring the reign of 
George III. 

MuGGLETON-iAKs.— An Enghsh sect, fol- 
owers of Ludowicke Muggleton, a journey- 
man tailor, who in 1651 set up as a religious 
teacher, declaring that he and his companion 
John Eeeve were the "two witnesses" men- 
tioned in Eevelations xi. 3 — 7. In 1656 a 
book was published, entitled " The Divine 
Looking-Glass," containing a statement and 
defence of their principles. WiUiam Penn 
replied in " The New Witnesses proved Old 
Hereticks," published in 1672. Muggleton 
was tried at the Old Bailey for blasphemy, 
and convicted, Jan. 17, 1676. He died 
March 14, 1697. An edition of the works 
of Eeeve and Muggleton was pubUshed in 
3vols.4to, in 1832. 

MiJHLBEEG (Battle).— The emperor 
Charles V. defeated the Saxons and their 
Protestant allies at Miihlberg, or Mulhausen, 
on the Elbe, April 23, 1547. 

MuHLDOEF (Battle) .—Louis of Bavaria 
took Frederick of Austria prisoner, and 
defeated his army at this battle, fought 
Sept. 28, 1322. 

MuHLHAusEN" (Prussia) . — Munzer the 
Anabaptist made his head-quarters at 
Miihlhausen a.d. 1524. It was a free and 
678 



imperial city imtil 1802, when it was annexed 
to Prussia. 

MuLBEEET Teee, a native of Persia, was 
brought to England before a.d. 1548. Its 
introduction to this coimtry is ascribed to 
the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who 
planted mulberry-trees in Kent. Its lon- 

fevity is remarkable, extending in some 
nown cases to three centuries. The white 
mulberry was introduced from China before 
1596, the red mulberry from North Ame- 
rica before 1629, and the paper mulberry 
fi'om Japan before 1751. 

Mule, or Mule jEifirr, a machine 
employed in spinning cotton, invented 
about 1777, by Samuel Crompton, was in 
general use about 1786. In 1812 Cromp- 
ton found on investigation that there were 
between four and five miUion spindles 
at work on the principle of his invention, 
although, from his not having taken out a 
patent, he received no pecuniary benefit 
therefrom. Parliament voted him £5,000 
as an acknowledgment of his merit in pro- 
moting the manufactures of the country. 

MuLHousE, or Mulhausen- (France), is 
the chief town of a smaU repubhc, which 
entered into an alliance with the S^viss 
cantons, a.d. 1514. It declared in favour of 
annexation to France in 1793, and this was 
accomphshed by treaty in 1798. 

Multiplying. — The craft of multiplying 
gold and sUver, or alchemy, was declared 
felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4 (1404). This 
statute was repealed by 1 Will. & Mary, 
c. 30 (1690). 

MuMjar. — The use of mummy as a drug 
commenced either in 1100 or in 1300, and 
was very common during the 16th and the 
early part of the 17th century. For details 
respecting mummies, see Embalming. 

MuNDA (Spain). — Cn. Scipio defeated the 
Carthaginians near this town, B.C. 216. 
Julius Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey 
at the same place, March 7, 45 B.C., when 
Munda was captured and destroyed. Cn. 
Pompey was wounded in the battle, and 
having been pursued, was killed. 

Mundan^e ^ea of Alexandbia. — The 
creation of the world was fixed by this sera 
B.C. 5502. This computation was continued 
until A.D. 284, and ten years were deducted 
from it in 285, making what was the year' 
5787 by the previous mode of computation, 
5777. 

Munich (Germany) was a walled town in 
the 13th century, and was made the imperial 
residence by Louis I., who restored and 
extended it in 1327. It was made the capital 
of Bavaria in the 15th century, and was 
taken by Gustavus Adolplius of Sweden in 
1327, and by the French general Moreau 
July 2, 1800. Napoleon I. visited Munich 
Oct. 12, 1805, and again Jan. 14, 1806, on 
the marriage of Eugene Beauharnais. The 
Eoyal Academy of Sciences, founded in 
1759, was re-organized in 1827. The pubhc 
hbrary contains 400,000 volumes, 22,000 
MSS., and extensive natural history and 
scientific collections. The university, origin- 



ally established at Ingoldstadt in 1473, was 
removed to Munich in 1826. The paper 
manufacture was established in 1347. The 
old palace is said to have been built from 
Vasari's designs, at the close of the 16th 
century. The cathedral was commenced in 
1368, and St. Michael's Church in 1583. 
St. Peter's was built in 1370, and restored 
in 1607. 

Mtjnicipai, CoBPOBATioNS. — TheKomans, 
at the conclusion of the Social War, B.C. 90, 
brought the towns of Italy under their 
government, but permitted them to retain 
their local administration, which was carried 
on by a municipal constitution. Charters 
of incorporation existed in France as early 
as A.D. 974. Our municipal corporations, 
most probably of Saxon origin, are be- 
lieved to have existed before the Norman 
Conquest. Charters of incorporation were 
frequently given to towns by the Norman 
sovereigns, one of the earhest being that of 
London, which was granted by Henry I. in 
1101. The making of statutes by bodies 
corporate was regulated by 19 Hen. VII. 
0.7 (1503). By the Corporation and Test 
Act, 13 Charles II. st. 2, c. 1 (1661), no one 
was permitted to hold any office in a corpo- 
ration unless he had previously received the 
sacrament according to the rites of the Esta- 
blished Church. This act was repealed by 
9 Geo. IV. 0. 17 (May 9, 1828). Koman 
Cathohcs are permitted to hold lay offices 
by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 (April 13, 1829). Cor- 
porations in Ireland are regulated by 3 & 4 
Vict. c. 108 (Aug. 10, 1840). f,See Munici- 
pal Eeform Act.) 

Municipal Eefoem Act. — By 5 & 6 
Will. IV. c. 76 (Sept. 9, 1835), certain cor- 
porate tovms and boroughs therein specified 
were placed under a new constitution. 

MuNSTER (Ireland) existed as a kingdom 
at an early period. Brian, surnamed Born, 
usurped the sovereignty of Ireland in the 
11th century, and was killed by the Danes 
at Clontarf {q. v.), AprU 23, 1014. Henry II. 
subdued Munster a.d. 1172. The whole of 
Munster, with the exception of Clare, was 
divided into counties during the reign of 
Henry VIII. Clare formded part of Con- 
naught until 1601, when it was added to 
Munster. 

MirjsrsTEE (Prussia) was founded about 
A.D. 700, under the name of Meiland, which 
was afterwards changed to Miningerode. 
Charlemagne, after taking the town, created 
it a bishopric in 780, which continued to be 
its form of goverimient till 1803. John of 
Leyden, leader of the Anabaptists, with a 
number of his followers, held the town from 
1534 till June 2o, 1535, when it was taken 
by storm. The treaty of peace closing the 
Thirty Years' War was signed here Oct. 24, 
1648. It was evacuated by the French, and 
taken possession of by the duke of Bruns- 
wick, in 1758. The French general d'Armen- 
tieres captured it after a short siege, July 25, 
1759, and it was retaken by General Imhoff 
Oct. 20 following. By a treaty concluded at 
Paris, it was ceded to Prussia May 23, 1802 j 
679 



MUR 

but was again given up July 9, 1807, and re- 
leased from the French yoke by the aUies in 
1813. Its fortiflicatious were destroyed in 
1765. The church of St. Leger was built 
in the 12th, and the cathedral in the 13th 
century. 

MuEAL Circle. — This instrument, which 
superseded mural arcs and quadrants, was 
invented by Edward Troughton, a.d. 1812. 

MuECiA (Spain). — This province was colo- 
nized by the Carthaginians, about b.c. 200, 
and passing successively under the sway of 
the Romans and the Goths, came by con- 
quest into possession of the emperor Jus- 
tinian, A.D. 552. It was recovered by 
Suintilha, the Gothic king, in 624, and was 
subjugated by the Moorish invaders in 712. 
The califs of Cordova held it till 1144, when 
the kings of Granada seized upon the pro- 
vince, which was, however, restored to its 
former owners a.d. 1221. In 1239 it was 
erected into a kingdom tributary to Cas- 
tile, and the Moors were finally dispossessed 
in 1266. 

MuECiA (Spain), capital of the province 
of that name, and supposed to be the Ver- 
gUia of the Romans, was made one of their 
seven chief cities by the Moors, a.d. 787. 
On the approach of Prince Alfonso with a 
powerful army, the inhabitants ofiered un- 
conditional submission, a.d. 1239. On two 
occasions during the Peninsular war, in 1810 
and 1812, it suffered from the depreda- 
tions of the French army. An earthquake 
caused much damage to the city March 21, 
1829. The cathedral, commenced a.d. 1353, 
has since received additions and renovations 
at various times, the belfry tower having 
been built between a.d. 1522—1766, and the 
facade of Corinthian columns in 1737. The 
episcopal palace, commenced in 174S, was 
finished in 1752. The senunary of San Ful- 
gensio, now in decay, was founded in 1592 ; 
the iastitute of secondary instruction in 
1837, and a normal school in 1844. 

Murder. — The first murderer was espe- 
cially preserved from death in consequence 
of his crime, by the divine protection. 
Gen. iv. 15. After the Deluge the law of 
blood for blood was estabHshed, Gen. ix. 6 
(b . c . 2347) , and was confirmed by the Levitical 
law. Murder was a capital crime among the 
Egyptians, and also among the Greeks, who 
established the court of Ephetes for its 
suppression, B.C. 1179. It was alsomade capi- 
tal by the Roman laws, by the code of Jus- 
tinian, by the laws of the Visigoths in Spain, 
and by those of the ancient Germans. The 
Anglo-Saxons compounded for it with a fine, 
and the same principle was continued by the 
Normans. The murder of a master by a ser- 
vant, a husband by his wife, or a priest by his 
subordinate, was judged petit treason by 25 
Edw. III. Stat. 5, c. 2 (1350) . Benefit of clergy 
was taken away from murderers by 4 Hen. 
VIII. c. 2 (1512). The various statutes relating 
to murder were amended by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 
(June 27, 1828), which ordered the execu- 
tion of murderers to take place the day 
next but one after the sentence, and the 
2 p 2 



MUR 

bodies of convicts to be dissected or bung in 
chains. The dissection clause was repealed 
by 2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 75 (Aug. 1, 1832), the 
hanging in chains by 4 & 5 WiU. IV. c. 26 
(July 25, 1834), and the hmitation of in- 
terval between sentence and execution by 
6 & 7 WiU. IV. c. 30 (July 14, 1836). 

MuRET (Battle). — Simon of Montfort 
defeated Peter II. of Aragon, and the Albi- 
genses, near this town, in France, Sept. 12, 
1213. Peter II. feU in the action. Pope 
Innocent III. in a letter dated Jan. 17, 1214, 
celebrates this as a great triumph over the 
heretics. 

Mtjrsa, or Mtjesia (Pannonia) . — Hadrian 
founded a colony at this place, caUed Mursa 
Major, to distinguish it from another town 
of the same name, about twelve mUes distant. 
Constantius II. obtained a signal victory 
over Magnentius, near this town, Sept. 28, 
351 A.D. Constantine I. made it the seat 
of a bishopric, a.d. 338. Esseck (q.v.), 
the capital of Slavonia, is buUt upon its 
site. 

Museum. — The first institution with this 
name was founded at Alexandria, about 
B.C. 280, by Ptolemy PhUadelphus, and was 
enlarged by the emperor Claudius. It was 
set apart for the worship of the Muses and 
the cultivation of science. (See Beitish 
Museum.) 

Music. — In Scripture we learn that Jubal, 
the son of Lameeh, was "the father of all 
such as handle the harp and the organ," 
Gen. iv. 21 (b.c. 3874). The mythical 
Orpheus is said to have flourished B.C. 1260. 
The Greeks and Eomans were the only 
ancient people who possessed a knowledge 
of musical characters. Lasus of Hermione, 
in Argos, who flourished b.c 548, was the 
first who wrote on the theory of music, and 
Aristoxenus (b.c 335) is the most ancient 
author on the subject whose works are 
extant. 



St. Ambrose introduces the Ambi-osian chant. 

Gregory the Great introduces the Gregorian 
chant about this year. 

Alfred the Great is said to have appointed a 
musical professorship at Oxford. 

Guido Aretinus invents a scale of sis notes, 
and introduces the use of cleffs. 

Franco, of Liege, invents metrical music. 

Doctoi-s and bachelors of music are first men- 
tioned at Cambridge university. 

The art of printing music is introduced into 
England. 

Music-printing from metal types is invented 
by Otlavio de Petrucci. 

The Common Prayer of the Church of England 
is first set to music by John Marbeck. 

The Accademia degli Pilariaonici is esta- 
blished before this year, at Vicenza. 

Jacopo Peri invents recitative about this 
time. 



1083. 
1463. 

1495. 

1515, 

1550. 

1565. 

1600. 

1604. 

1605. 
1650. 

1653. 



Jam. s I. incoporates the Musicians' Company 
of London. 

Ludovico Viadana invents thorough bass. 

The use of bars in music becomes general, 
and sonatas are introduced. 

A Venetian lady named Barbaia Strozzi 
invents the Cantata. 

June 28. Louis Xrv. sanctions the establish- 
ment of a French Royal Academy of 
Music. 

580 



IVITC 



1710. George Frederick Handel first visits England. 

Tlie Academy of Ancient Music is founded 

at London. 
1741. The Madrigal Society is founded at London. 
1764. Young Mozart visits London. 
1785. The Eoyal Society of Musicians is founded. 
1791. Haydn visits London. 
1822. The Royal Academy of Music of London is 

founded. 
1860. June 5. The Society of Arts' committee to 

decide on a tuiiform musical pitch present 

their report. 

Musical Festivals.— The festival of the 
three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and 
Hereford, was instituted a.d. 1724, for the 
relief of the widows and orphans of the 
clergy of those dioceses. The Birmingham 
festivals commenced in 1778. Similar meet- 
ings were held at York and Chester in 1791. 
A festival was held at Norwich in 1811, and 
at Edinburgh in 1815. {iSee Handel Com- 

MEMOKATIONS.) 

Musk. — The duty on this article, used 
both as a perfume and in medicine, was 
reduced in 1832, and altogether repealed iu 
1845. 

Muskets, or pistols with locks, were first 
made at Nuremberg, in 1517, and introduced 
into England in 1521. The fusil, a lighter 
kind of musket, was invented in France, in 
1630, and marksmen armed with a musket 
were employed by the earl of Albemarle in 
1646. A brass musket or gun, caUed the 
fancy gun, was invented in 1712. Experi- 
ments were made before the king of Sweden 
at Aggerhaus, AprU 8, 1845, in which a new 
kind of musket was used with a smooth 
barrel, against a breech-loading rifle. This 
established the immense superiority of the 
rifle over the best muskets. 

Muslin, a fine cotton cloth, so caUed from 
Mosul, in Asia, where it was originaUy manu- 
factured, was first imported from India into 
England a.d. 1670. Considerable quantities 
were manufactured in France and England 
in 1690. 

Mustard was first prepared for use at 
table, in its present form, in 1720, by Mrs. 
Clements, of Durham, — whence the name 
Durham mustard. 

MuTA, or Mutah (Battle). — The Moham- i 
medans first encountered the Eomans, whom 
they defeated, at Muta, a viUage near Damas- 
cus, A.D. 629. 

MuTiNA, or Mutinum (Battle). — During 
the civU wars, Mark Antony was defeated 
under the waUs of Mutina, the modern Mo- 
dena (q. v.), AprU 27, 43 B.C., and was com- 
peUed to abandon the siege. 

Mutiny Act. — The act renewed every 
year for punishing officers or soldiers who 
are guUty of mutiny or desertion, was first 
passed by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 5 (1688). 

Mtcale (Battle). — The Persian army, 
under Tigranes and Mardontes, was defeated 
at this Ionian city of Asia Minor, by the 
Greeks, under Leotychides, king of Sparta, 
and Xanthippus, in September, b.c 479. But 
few of the vanquished survived the contest ; 
and the Greeks, after burning the Persian 



ty is again noticed during 
oleon in Sicily, B.C. 315. 



MYC 

fleet and camp, retired with their booty to 
Samos. The battles of Mycale and Platsea 
were both gained by the Greeks on the same 
day. 

Myceu"^, or Mtcene (Grreece). — This 
town, the name of which was derived by the 
ancients from Mycene, davighter of Inachus, 
is said to have been built by Perseus. The 
Argives, anxious to bring the whole district 
under their sway, laid siege to Mycene, b.c. 
468. They turned the siege into a blockade, 
and the inhabitants were compelled by famine 
to capitulate. 

Mtcole (Sea-fight). — The corsairs of ISTa- 
renta defeated the Venetian fleet off this bay, 
near Zara, and slew the doge, Pietro Sanudo, 
A.D. 887. 

MyTjM (Sea-fights). — The Eoman fleet, 
commanded by C. Duillius, defeated the Car- 
thaginians near this promontory, in Sicily, 
B.C. 260. Near the same place, Agrippa, 
with the fleet of Octavian, defeated Sextus 
Pompey's squadron, b.c. 36. 

MyLiE (Sicily). — The date of the founda- 
tion of this city, the modern Melazzo (q. v.), 
is uncertain. Siefert fixes it as early as 
B.C. 716. It was most decidedly in exist- 
ence before Him era, founded b.c. 648. The 
Athenian fleet, under Laches, captured Mylse 
B.C. 427. This cit; " ' • ^ - • 

the war of Timol 

In its neighbourhood the Mamertines were 
defeated by Hieron of Syracuse, b. c. 
270. 

Mtkiokephalon- (Battle). — The Greek 
emperor Manuel II. was defeated in a 
narrow defile near this castle, by Kilidsch 
Arslan II., sultan of Iconium, in September, 
1176. 

Mykeh is first mentioned (Gen. xxxvii. 
25) among the wares the Ishmaelites, to 
whom Joseph was sold by the Midianite 
merchantmen, were carrying into Egypt, 
B.C. 1728. It was used by the Egyptians 
for embalming their dead. The Greeks, 
Eomans, and other ancient people, em- 
ployed it as a medicine. 

Mtsia (Asia Minor) was inhabited by va- 
rious tribes of Phrygians, Trojans, Cohans, 
and Mysians ; but httle is known of the people 
or their institutions. They are mentioned 
by Homer as allies of Priam. Mysia was 
successively subject to Lydia, Persia, Syria, 
and Eome ; and, under the last-mentioned, 
formed part of the province of Asia. 

Mtsgee (Hindostan). — This province, also 
called Mahesura and Maisoor, was invaded 
by the Mohammedans a.d. 1310, and was for 
many years governed by rajahs, who traced 
their descent from the same tribe of which 
the god Krishna was a reputed member ; 
but the earliest sovereign on record is Cham 
Eaj, whose reign commenced a.d. 1507. The 
pubhc career of Hyder Ali commenced at My- 
sore in 1749, and he assumed the sovereignty 
of the province in 1760. Seringapatam, 
the capital, was stormed and taken by the 
Enghsh May 4, 1799, when the whole dis- 
trict passed under the control of the British. 
In 1818 military means were successfully 



MYT 

employed to rid Mysore of the banditti 
tribes by which it had previously been 
infested. 

Mysteeies. — The pagan mysteries ori- 
ginated in Egypt, where Isis and Osiris 
were worshipped with secret rites at a 
very early period. The earhest mysteries 
practised by the Greeks were those of the 
Cabiri, which were celebrated at Samothrace. 
The mysteries of the Curetes, who existed as 
early as b.c. 1534, and of the Corybantes, 
rank next in point of antiquity ; but the 
most celebrated were the Eleusinian mys- 
teries, which were introduced at Eleusis, in 
Attica, by Eumolpus the Hierophant, b.c. 
1356. This festival was sacred to Ceres, 
and was observed with such strict secrecy 
that death was the penalty for intruding 
during the ceremonies without initiation. 
It was introduced at Eome in the reign 
of Hadrian (a.d. 117 — 138), and ceased in 
396. 

Mtsteey Plats. — The origin of these 
mediseval dramatic entertainments has been 
referred to the pilgrims who journeyed to 
the East in the 11th century. They are first 
mentioned in England, the earhest perform- 
ance on record being one noticed by Matthew 
Paris, as having taken place at Dunstable in 
the early part of the 12th century. The oldest 
extant is the " Harrowing of Hell," which is 
ascribed to the reign of Edward III. Hal- 
lam, from internal evidence, believes it not 
later than 1350. Warton refers the Chester 
mysteries to 1327, but Hallam considers this 
at least a century too early. The French 
mysteries commenced in the 14th century, 
and exceeded the Enghsh in the magnificence 
of their appointments. (See Drama.) 

Mystics. — This sect of Christians origin- 
ated towards the end of the 3rd century, and 
maintained that primary reason is an emana- 
tion from the Godhead, and that solitude and 
mortification of the natural man are the 
most effectual means of promoting its recep- 
tion and development. During the 4th and 
5th centuries they greatly increased in num- 
ber, and in the severity of the self-imposed 
austerities they practised. Mystic theology 
was introduced into the Western empire, 
where it made many converts, in 824. The 
mystics vigorously opposed the schoolmen 
in the 13th century, and were very numerous 
in Europe in the 14th, when John Tauler 
of Strasburg, who died in 1361, Henry 
Suso of Uhn, who died in 1365, and John 
Eingsbroech, prior of Grosenthal, in Bra- 
bant, who died 1381, flourished. 

Mythology, or the " science which treats 
of the mythes, or various popular traditions 
and legendary tales current among a people, 
and objects of general belief," has been as- 
cribed to three origins. The first is that 
which asserts the real existence of all mythic 
persons at some remote period ; the second, 
known as the philosophic theory, regards 
mythology as the poetic guise of human 
science ; and the third, or theologic theory, 
considers it as the theology of polytheism. 
The origin of mythology is of course un- 
581 



NAA 



known, but there is no doubt that the 
system in vogue in Greece and at Kome was 
derived from the Egyptians. 



IsT. 

Naaeden (Holland).— Don Frederick of 
Toledo summoned this small town, on the 
coast of the Zuyder Zee, to surrender, Nov. 
22, 1572. The inhabitants refused to abandon 
the cause of the prince of Orange, and Don 
Frederick invested the place Dec. 2, when 
it was taken, and an inhuman massacre 
perpetrated. The .Spanish soldiers com- 
mitted fearful atrocities. Loiiis XIV. took 
ISTaarden in 1672, and the stadtholder, Wil- 
liam III., regained possession the following 
year. 

Naas (Ireland), in early times was the 
residence of the kings of Leinster, and some 
remains of their ancient palace are stiH to 
be seen. A priory was founded here in the 
12th century, for canons regular of the 
order of St. Augustine. It was destroyed 
in 1316, when the town was sacked by the 
Scots, but was soon afterwards restored. 
A convent for Dominican Friars was founded 
in 1355 ; a parhament was held here in 1419 ; 
and a convent for Friars Eremites of the 
order of St. Augustine was founded in 1484. 
Queen Elizabeth granted Naas a charter in 
1569. A party of insurgents in 1577 burnt 
between 700 and 800 houses on the night of 
a festival. James I. confirmed and extended 
the charter of EHzabeth in 1609, and 
Charles I. granted a new charter in 1628; 
but the town has always been governed by 
the charters of EHzabeth and James. It 
was garrisoned by the earl of Ormond 
in 1648, and after many vicissitudes, was 
taken by the parliamentarians in 1650. It 
was attacked by the insurgent Irish, who 
were repulsed vrith a^ loss of 150 men. May 
24, 1798. 

it^ABONASSAE (^Era). — IS^abonassar, the 
foimder of the kingdom of Babylon, was the 
author of this sera, which commenced Wed- 
nesday, Feb. 26, B.C. 747. It included a 
period of 424 Egyptian years, from the com- 
mencement of Nabonassar's reign to the 
death of Alexander the Great, B.C. 323 ; and 
was brought down to the reign of Antoninus 
Pius, A.D. 138—161. 

Nachitshevan (Asia).— This province of 
Persia was ceded to Eussia by the peace of 
Tourkmantchai, Feb. 22, 1828, and soon after- 
wards was, with the province of Erivan, for- 
mally annexed to the Eussian empire, under 
the title of the province of Armenia. The 
town of Nachitshevan was captured by the 
Eussians in 1827. 

NACHiTSHETAiir (Eussia) . — Catherine II. 
founded this town on the Don a.d. 1780. The 
majority of the inhabitants are Armenians. 

Nacolia (Phrygia) . — The emperor Valeus 
defeated the usui-per Procopius near this 
town in May, 366 a.d. Procopius, deserted 
by his troops, wandered amongst the woods 
and mountains of Phrygia, until he was at 



FAX 

length betrayed and put to death. May 28. 
The Gothic garrison at Nacoha revolted 
against the emperor Arcadius. 

Nafels (Battle). — The Svsdss defeated the 
Austrians at this place, in Switzerland, 
A.D. 1388. Occupying the heights, the 
Swiss hurled large stones and masses of 
rock upon the antagonists, and threw them 
iato confusion. The small town of Niifels 
was burned by the iavaders the night before 
the battle. 

Nagasaki, or Nangasaki (Japan), one 
of the five imperial cities of the empire, was 
made the site of a settlement, through Por- 
tuguese influence, a.d. 1566. It became the 
scene of frightful massacres during the per- 
secution of native Christians in 1622. The 
port was visited by the British frigate 
Phaeton, under the command of Captain 
Pellew, who detained as prisoners some 
Dutchmen coming on board, an act which 
led to the suicide of the Japanese governor, 
A.D. 1808. Two Enghsh merchantmen, the 
Charlotte and Mary, succeeded, by a ruse, 
in getting cargoes of copper in 1813 ; but a 
similar attempt failed in 1814. A British 
squadron, under Admiral Stirling, by the 
aid of threats, obtained supplies of such 
provisions as they required, Sept. 7, 1854. 
Another squadron, with the steam-yacht 
Emperor as a present from Queen Victoria 
to the tycoon of Japan, entered this port 
Aug. 3, 1858 ; and it was opened to British 
subjects by the treaty of Jeddo, July 1, 
1859. 

Nagpore (Hindostan). — Near this town, 
then capital of a province of the same name, 
an English army was, in time of peace, at- 
tacked by the rajah of Nagpore's troops, 
Nov. 26, 1817. After a conflict of eighteen 
hoiirs' duration, the Enghsh obtained a 
victory and captured the town, which, with 
the province, was incorporated with the 
English empire in the East Indies on the 
death, without issue, of the last descendant 
of Eajogee, Dec. 11, 1853. 

Nag's-Head Conseceation'. — The Eoman 
Catholic writers promulgated a story that 
Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury 
from A.D. 1559 to 1576, had been consecrated 
at the Nag's Head tavern, in Cheapside, 
The official register shows that he was 
consecrated at Lambeth, Dec. 17, 1559, by 
Bishops Barlow, Coverdale, Scory, and 
Hodgkins, suffragan of Bedford ; and the 
I malignant invention scarcely deserved the 
! deliberate refutation which it received. 

Nahtjm. — The festival of Nahum, one of 
the minor prophets, who, B.C. 720, foretold 
the destruction of Nineveh and the overthrow 
of the Assyrian empire, which events oc- 
curred B.C. 625, according to some autho- 
rities, and B.C. 606, according to others, is 
held on the 24th of December. 

Nails. — The earliest nails known were 
made of copper; and flat-headed nails of 
iron have been found in British barrows. 
The first machine for making nails was in- 
vented by French, of Wimborne, in Staf- 
fordsliire, a.d. 1790. In 1810 a machine was 



NAI 

invented in America by which the manu- 
facture was greatly facilitated. Since that 
year mmierous improvements have been 
effected. Much controversy has been ex- 
cited respecting the number of nails used 
in the crucifixion. Xonnus and Gregory 
Nazianzen (a.d. 326 — 390) affirm that only 
three were used ; and Curtius, who wrote 
a treatise " De Clavis Dominicis," at the 
commencement of the 17th century, con- 
tends for four. Other writers have argued 
in support of different numbers, some being 
in favour of as many as fourteen. 

Naissus (Mcesia) . — Claudius II. defeated 
the Goths in a great battle near this town 
A.D. 269. Constantine the Great was born 
here in 274. Having been destroyed by 
Attila and the Huns in 411, it was restored 
by Justinian I. The modern Nissa occupies 
its site. 

Najara (Battle). — The Black Prince, hav- 
ing espoused the cause of Pedro the Cruel 
of Castile, defeated his opponents at Najara, 
April 3, 1367, and re-established him upon 
the throne. 

Names. — ^Among the Hebrews names pos- 
sessed a specific meaning, and were not 
inherited from parents to children. The 
Greeks had only one name, which frequently 
received a patronymic for distinction, as 
Achilles, son of Peleus ; but the Eomans 
usually had three names, — the prcenomen, 
denoting the individual ; the nomen, indi- 
cating the gens or clan of which he was a 
member ; and the cognomen, specifying the 
particular branch of the clan. A fourth 
name, — the agnomen, was sometimes added 
as an honour ; and it was usually derived 
from the incidents for which it was con- 
ferred. Africanus, Coriolanus,, &c., were 
names of this class. The practice of bearing 
hereditary names commenced about the 13th 
century a.d. The first pope who changed 
his name on his elevation to the chair of 
St. Peter was Peter di Bocca Porca, who 
assumed the title of Sergius II., in 844, 
because he deemed himself unworthy to 
bear the same name as his apostohc pre- 
decessor. Some authorities state that the 
custom was introduced by Oetavian, who 
became John XII. in 956. Monks and nuns 
frequently adopted new names on taking 
their vows, in token that they renounced 
everything connected with their former 
mode of life. 

Namptwich, or Nantwich (Cheshire). — 
This town is mentioned in Domesday -book 
under the name of Wick. Here Fairfax 
defeated the royalist army brought from 
Ireland to support the cause of Charles I., 
Jan. 25, 1644 (N, S.). George Monk, after- 
wards duke of Albemarle, was captured in this 
battle. Lambert defeated the royalists, who 
formed a league to overthrow the authority 
of Cromwell, at Nantwich, Aug. 19, 1659. A 
mob endeavoured to rescue some poachers 
who had been imprisoned, and caused a riot, 
which was quelled by the nuhtary, Feb. 9, 
1829. The free grammar-school was foimded 
in 1561. 



NAN 

ISTamur (Belgium).— Thistownwasfounded 
in the 7th century. Don John seized the 
citadel in 1577, and it was taken by the 
French, under Louis XIV., July 1, 1692. 
It was besieged by the English, under 
William III., July 3, 1695, and attacked 
with such fury that the French garrison 
of 14,000 men, under Marshal de Boufflers, 
capitulated Aug. 4. The citadel held out, 
and was besieged Aug. 12. An attempt to 
carry it by storm was repulsed with great 
slaughter, Aug. 30; but the garrison sur- 
rendered Sept. 1. The count of Nassau as- 
sailed it without success in 1704. Namur was 
ceded to Austria in 1713 ; garrisoned by the 
Dutch in 1715; and taken in 1746 by the 
French, who restored it to Austria by the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct. 7, 1748. The 
fortifications, demolished by Joseph II. of 
Austria in 1784, were afterwards restored, 
Namur was taken by the French, under 
Dumouriez, Dee. 7, 1792, and having been 
evacuated by them in March, 1793, was re- 
taken in 1794. The allies captured it in 
Jan., 1814, and it was the scene of an 
obstinate battle between the Prussians and 
the French in 1815. 

Nan CI (France). — ^No record of the old 
town exists previous to the 11th century, and 
the new town dates from a.d. 1603. The 
church of the Cordeliers, built in 1484, con- 
tains the tombs of several dukes of Lorraine. 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy, who took 
Nanci in November, 1475, was killed here by 
Kene II., dxike of Lorraine, Jan. 4, 1477. 
Nanci was wrest-ed by the French from the 
duke of Lorraine in 1633. The fortifications 
were demohshed by Louis XIV. on the re- 
storation of the town to the dukes of Lor- 
raine. In 1790, the French army stationed 
here revolted against the National Assembly. 
Bouille marched on the ioym. with 3,000 
infantry and 1,400 horse, and took it after a 
short resistance . It was captured by Blucher 
in January, 1814. 

Najtein (China) was made the capital 
of the empire a.d. 420, and continued to 
occupy this position till the end of the 13th 
century. The removal of the imperial resi- 
dence and the subsequent transfer of the six 
great tribunals to Pekin, caused it to decline. 
In 1842 the British army forced a passage up 
the river, and the troops landed Aug. 9, 
with the intention of storming the city. The 
Chinese submitted, and the treaty of Nankin 
was concluded by Sir Henry Pottinger, 
Aug. 29. The Taeping rebels took Nankin, 
March 19, 1853. They committed fearful 
ravages and destroyed the celebrated Porce- 
lain Tower, one of the principal objects of 
interest in Nankin, in 1856. 

Nantes (France), the ancient Condivic- 
num, or Condivincum, mentioned by Ptolemy 
as the capital of the Nannetes, or Namnetes, 
from which is derived the modern name 
Nantes. In 445 it withstood a siege of sixty 
days from the Huns ; in the 9th century it 
was almost entirely destroyed by the Nor- 
mans, and in 992 it was taken by the duke of 
Britanny. The greater part of the town 
683 



HflAK 



NAP 



was reduced to ashes by an accidental fire 
in 1118. It passed into the hands of Louis 
XII. on hjs marriage with Anne of Britanny 
in 1498. Thecelebrated edict of I^antes, issued 
here by Henry IV. April 13, 1598, was re- 
voked by Louis XIV. Oct. 22, 1685. The 
royalists made an unsuccessful attack on the 
town in June, 1793, when it became the scene 
of the atrocious cruelties of Carrier ; no less 
thanl8,000personshavingiDerishedbythe guil- 
lotine or drowning during his administration. 
In 1799 the Vendeans defeated the republican 
army here. An outbreak of the working 
classes, arising from distress and the spread 
of sociaUst doctrines, took place in 1848, 
and was suppressed by the mihtary, but not 
without serious loss of life. Ifantes was 
made a bishopric at an early period, and 
councils were held here in 660, 1127, July 1, 
1264, and April 23, 1431. 

Nantuceet (Massachussets) . — This town, 
on a small island of the same name off the 
coast, was the first place in America which 
engaged in the whale fishery. It was almost 
totally destroyed by fire July 13, 1846. 

Naphtha. — This highly-inflammable fluid, 
which oozes out of the ground in Persia, 
Italy, and other countries, is supposed by 
Gibbon to have formed the basis of the 
Greek fire, used with such effect in sieges 
during the Middle Ages. Gibbon calls it 
" Hquid bitumen, a hght, tenacious, and 
inflammable oil." It is supposed to have 
secured the dehverance of Constantinople 
when besieged by the Arabs, a.d. 668 — 675 
and A.D. 716— 718. 

Napier's Eods, or Boites. — This contri- 
vance to facilitate the multipUcation and 
division of large numbers was invented by 
John Napier, baron of Merchiston. The 
invention was first explained in his " Eab- 
dologiae, seu Numeratio per Virgulas," pub- 
lished at Edinburgh in 1617, and would 
perhaps have been more used but for his 
discovery of logarithims. Napier was born 
at Merchiston Castle in 1550, and died there 
April 3, 1617. 

Naples (Italy) was made a duchy, subject 
to the Byzantine empire, in the 6th century. 



1084. The Norman conquest of Naples is completed 
by Robert Guiscard. 

1250. Pope Innocent IV. prouoimces Naples part 
of the Holy See. 

1130. Eoger II. rules both Naples and Sicily. 

1139. Naples and Sicily are united into the king- 
dom of the Two Sicilies by papal inves- 
titure. 

1194. Henry VI. of Germany succeeds to the throne 
of Naples and Sicily. 

1266. Feb. 26. Manfred is defeated and slain by 
Chailes of Anjou at Grandella. 

1268. Aug. 23. Charles of Anjou defeats the right- 
ful heir, Conradin, at TagUacozzo. Oct. 29. 
Conradin is beheaded at Naples. 

1282. Sicily is separated from the kingdom of 
Naples at the revolution known as the 
Sicilian Vespers {q. v.\. 

1309. The Neapolitan crown is disputed by Kobert 
the Good and Caribert, king of Hungary, 
and is allotted by the pope to the former. 

1345. Sept. 18. Andrew of Hungary, king consort 
of Joanna L, m murdered. 



1347. Louis of Hungary invades Naples, and expels 

the queen. 
1349. Joanna I. is restored. 
1382. Joanna I. is strangled by order of Charles 

Durazzo. 

1403. Ladislaus resists the encroachments of the 

duke of Abjou. 

1404. He invades Rome. 

1408. Ladislaus again invades Rome. 
1413. He attacks Rome a third time. 
1420. Joanna II. adopts Alfonso of Aragon as her 

successor. 
1423. She revokes the adoption, and nominates 

Louis III., duke of Anjou, as her heir. 

1434. Death of Louis of Anjou. 

1435. Death of Joanna 1 1., who bequeaths the cr<5wn 

to Ren6 of Anjou. His claim is contested 

by Alfonso V. of Aragon. 
1442. Alfonso secui'es the crown. 
1453. Reu6 of Anjou invades the kingdom. 
1459. John, duke of Calabria, son of Ren6, invades 

Naples. 
1462. He is defeated by Ferdinand, at Troia. 
1495. Naples is invaded and conr|uei'ed by Charles 

VIII. of France. 
1501. Naples is conquered by the French and 

Spaniards, who expel king Frederick II. 
1503. The French are expelled, and the king- 
dom is again annexed to the crown of 

Aragon. 
1510. The Jews are expelled from the Neapolitan 

territories. 
1524. The French, under Stuart, duke of Albany, 

unsuccessfully invade Naples. 
1526. The pope invades Naples in vain. 
1527 The French, under Lautrer, ravage Naples. 
1565. The Inquisition is prohibited in Naples. 
1615. Ossuna is viceroy in Naples. 
1620. Ossuna fails in an attempt to become sole 

mler of Naples. 

1647. June 6. Ma-^anielio, a fisherman of Amalphi, 

rouses the Neapolitans to insurrection. 
July 16. He is assassinated by his colleagues, 
and the revolt is quelled. Aug. 21. The 
Neapolitans again revolt, and are assisted 
by the duke of Guise. 

1648. April 4. Spanish supremacy is restored. 
1702. A consi)iracy to establish an Austrian govern- 
ment fails. 

1706. Prince Eugene expels the French from 
Naisles. 

1713. April 11. Naples is ceded by Spain to Aus- 
tria by the treaty of Utrecht. 

1720. Victor Amadeus cedes SicUy to Austria in 
exchange lor Sardinia. 

1734. May 10. The iofant Don Carlos enters the 

Neapolitan kingdom, with a force of 
30,000 men. May 27. His generals defeat 
the Austrian imperialist forces at the 
battle of Bitonto, which puts an end to 
the Austrian dominion in Naples. 

1735. July 3. Don Carlos is crowned king of 

the Two Sicilies at Palei-mo, with the 
understanding that the crowns of Spain 
and the Two Sicilies are never to be 
united. 

1738. Institution of the order of St. Januarius. 

1743. Naples is constrained by Englajid to preserve 
neutrality in the war of the Austrian suc- 
cession. 

1759. The king of Naples succeeding to the throne 
of Spain, resigns the wown of the Two 
Sicilies to his son Ferdinand. 

1768. The Jesuits are expelled. 

1782. The Inquisition is abolished in Naples. 

1784. Many monasteries are suppi^essed. 

1785. Baronial sei-vice is abolished. 

1788. Naples ceases to be in feudal subjection to 

Rome. 
1793. Sept. 3. War is declared against the Fi-ench 

republic. 
1796. Oct. 11. Peace is concluded at Paris between 

Naples and Fi-ance. 
1798. Nov. 29. Ferdinand, having published a 

manifesto against tue Pi-ench, marches 

against them in Italy, and entei-s P.ame. 



N-AP 



NAP 



1805. 
1805. 



1810. 
1814. 



1816. 
1820. 



1825. 
1827. 



1847. 
1848. 



1849. 
185G. 



Jan. 4. The French take Gaeta. Jan. 14. On 
the approach of the French, Ferdinand 
deserts his capital, and the Pai-thenopeau 
republic is established. June 26. Nelson 
takes Naples from the French, and hangs 
Prince Caracciolo, an act which Southey 
states demands "severe and unqualified 
coudemuation." July 12. Fort St. Elmo 
surrenders to Captain Troubridge. Aug. 12. 
The Weopolitans take Kome. 

March 28. Peace is concluded with France 
by the treaty of Florence. 

July 26. An earthquake destroys 20,000 lives. 

Sept. 21. A treaty with France is concluded 
at Paris, by which Naples agrees to main- 
tain neutrality in the Italian wars, and 
Napoleon I. consents to withdraw his 
troops from the Neapolitan states. Dec. 27. 
The king is dethroned. 

Feb. 8. The French enter Naples. Feb. 15. 
Joseph Bonaparte is crowned king. July 4. 
Sir John Stuart defeats the French at 
Maida. 

July 15. Joachim Murat is made king. 

July 20. The English take a Neapolitan 
squjidron. 

Jan. 11. Murat concludes an alliance with 
Austria. Feb. 3. A truce is concluded 
with the English. 

April 10. Austria declares war against Naples. 
May 2 and 3. Murat is defeated by the 
Austrians at Tolentino. May 16. Marat 
flees from Italy. June 17. King Ferdinand 
is restored. Oct. 8. Murat lands at Pizzo, 
in Calabria, with thirty friends, and 
attempts to recover his throne. Oct. 15. 
He is taken, tried, and then shot. 

A treaty is concluded with Great Britain. 

July 13. General Pepe heads an insurrection 
of the Carbonari, and compels the king to 
gi-ant a new constitution. 

The Austrians invade Naples. March 7. They 
defeat Pepe at Bieti. March 19. Pepe flees 
to Barcelona. March 23. A convention is 
signed for the occupation of Naples by the 
Austrians, and a provisional government 
is appointed. May 15. Ferdinand re-enters 
his capital. 

Jan. 4. Death of King Ferdinand. The 
Austrian army of occupation is diminished 
in number. 

June. Destructive inundations take place. 

An insignificant insurrection of the Carbo- 
nari is suppressed. Aug. 23 to 29. Alvea- 
politan squadron bombards Tripoli vdthouft 
success. 

June. The king of Naples grants the mono- 
poly of all the Sicilian sulphui- to a private 
company, in opposition to the treaty 
of 1816. 

April 17. In consequence of the king's refusal 
to discontinue the monopoly, the English 
commence hostilities. May. The monopoly 
is abolished, and peace is restored. 

Sept. Insurrections are frequent in Calabria 
and Sicily. 

Jan. 28. The king promises to gi-ant a con- 
stitution. May 15. Terrible riots occur in 
Naples, in which the lazzaroni assist the 
military against the revolutionists. 

Sept. 4. The pope visits the king of Naples 
at Portici. 

Oct. The French and English ambassadors 
are recalled from Naples, owing to the 
king's refusal to attend to the remon- 
strances of their governments on his 
oppressive government. Deo. 8. Milano 
attempts the king's life. 

June 25. The Cagliari steamer sails from 
Genoa. It is seized by the passengers. They 
compel the captain to steer for the isle of 
Pouza, where they release some state pri- 
soners, who accompany them to SaprL 
The steamer, being restored to its officers at 
this place, returns to Naples ; but is seized 
by a Neapolitan vessel dxiring the voyage. 



1857. Jan. 29. The crew, with two English en- 

gineers. Watt and Park, are imprisoned. 
They were subseiiuently released. Dec.16. 
A dreadful earthquake destroys about 
10,000 lives. 

1858. Dec. 27. A political amnesty is granted. 

1859. March 7. Barou Poeiio, with sixty-eight 

Neapolitan exiles, arrives at Queenstown, 
Ireland. May 22. Death of Ferdinand 11. 
June 16. Another amnesty is proclaimed. 
July 7. Revolt of the Swiss troops at 
Naples. 

1860. March 26. The foreign ambassadors at the 

Neapolitan court present an address to the 
king, stating the necessity of consenting 
to political reforms. May 14. Garibaldi 
assumes the dictatorship of Sicily (q.v.). 
June 7. The emperor Napoleon III. refuses 
to mediate betwe en the kin g and the Sicil ian 
revolutionists. June 26. The king proclaims 
a general amnesty, promises a liberal 
ministry, agreement with Sardinia, the 
ado ption of the national flag, and a vice-regal 
and liberal goverument for Sicily. June 27. 
The French ambassador. Baron Brenier, is 
wounded by the mob. June 28. A liberal 
ministry is formed, Naples is declared in a 
state of siege, and the queen-mother flees 
to Gaeta. July 10. The troops attempt a 
revolt against the constitution, and pro- 
claim Count Trani king, as Louis I. 
Aug. 10. Prince Lucien Murat asserts his 
claim to the throne of Naples. Aug. 
17. The Neapolitan proviuces rebel. 
Aug. 19. Garibaldi lands in Naples, and 
occupies Eeggio. Aug. 21. The fort of 
Beggio surrenders to him. Aug. 27. Gari- 
baldi accepts the title of dictator of the 
Two Sicihes. Sept. 6. The king leaves 
■Naples for Gaeta. Sept. 7. Garibaldi enters 
Naples. Sept. 15. He expels the Jesuits, 
and declares the estates of the crown 
national property. Sept. 19. He defeats 
tbe royalists at Cajazzo. Oct. 1 and 2. The 
Neapolitans are defeated at the Volturno. 
Oct. 6. The Sardinian government an- 
nounces that its army is about to enter the 
Neapolitan territory. Oct. 17. Defeat of 
the Neapolitans at Isernia. Oct. 18. Gari- 
baldi publishes a decree stating that Naples 
ought to be incorporated with the Italian 
kingdom. Oct. 21. The people vote in 
favour of annexation to Sardiuia, the 
numbers being 1,310,266 pro, and 10,102 
contra. Nov. 2. Capua surrenders to the 
Sardinians. Nov. 3. The siege of Gaeta 
commeuces. Nov. 7. Victor Emanuel of 
Sardinia enters Naples. Nov. 13. The 
English legation is suppressed. Nov. 14. 
A reaction in favour of Francis II. com- 
mences in the proviuces. Nov. 27. Ihe 
army of Garibaldi is disbanded. Dec. 8. 
Francis II. addresses a conciliatory procla- 
mation to the Neapolitans. 

1861. Jan. 3. Prince Carignan is named governor- 

general. Jan. 15. The Bourbon army, 
under General Lovera, defeats the Sar- 
dinians near Tagliacozzo. Feb. 14. Gaeta 
surrenders to General Cialdiui, and the 
king and queen retreat ttieuce to Kome. 
April 5. Fi-ancis II. protests from Rome 
against Vicr.or Emanuel's assumption of 
the title of " king of Italy." June. Nume- 
rous movements are made throughout the 
kingdom for the restoration of Fran- 
cis II. 



ETTLEBS OP KAPLE3 AND SICILT. 
ooxrtras of aptjlia. 

A.D. A.D. 

"William 1 1043 I Robert Guiscard . . 1054 

Drogo 1046 Roger 1 1085 

Huuuiey.. 1051 1 

683 



NAP 



COUNTS OF SICILY. 



Roger I. 1072 | Roger H. . 



KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 



A.D. 

Roger II 1130 1 

"William I 1154 

William n 1166 | 

Tancred 1189 

WiUiamin 1194 

Henry 1194 | 



A.B. 

Frederick! 1197 

Conrad 1 1250 

Conrad IT., or Con- 

radin 1254 

Manfred 1258 

Charles of Anjou.. 1266 



KINGS OF NAPLES. 



Charles of Anjon . . 1282 Alfonso I., king of 



A.B. 



Charles II 1285 

Robert 1309 

Joanna 1 1343 

Charles III. of Du- 

razzo 1382 

Ladislaus 138S 

Joanna II 1414 



Naples, Sicily, and 

Aragon 1435 

Ferdiuandl 1458 

Alfonso II 1494 

Ferdiuandll 1495 

Frederick II 1496 



KINGS OF SICILY. 



Peter I., the Great 1282 

James 1 1285 

Interregnum 1295 

Frederick II 1296 

Peter II 1337 

Louis 1 1342 

Frederick ni .... 1355 

Mary 1377 

Mary and Martin I. 1391 

Martin I. 1402 



A.D. 

Martin n.,theElder 1409 
Ferdinand I., king 

of Aragon 1410 

Alfonso I., king of 

Sicily, Aragon, 

and Naples 1416 

John of Aragon . . 1458 
Ferdinand IT., the 

CathoUc, of Spain 147^ 



KINGS 



NAPLES, SICILY, AND SPAIN. 



A.D. 
1621 

1665 
1700 



Ferdinand in. of j PhiTip III 

Naples, II. of Charles II 

SicUy 1503 1 Philip IV 

Charles 1 1516 Charles HI. of Au- 

PbUip 1 1556 stria 

PhilipII 1598 I 

KING OF NAPLES, 



Charles III I713 



KING OF SICILY. 

Victor Amadeus of Savoy 



Charles III. (VI. of Germany) 



KINGS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 



Charles III. , Don Carlos 

Ferdinand PV. of Naples, III. of SicUy , 



A.D. 

1735 
1759 



KINGSS OF NAPLES. 
A.D. 

Joseph Bonaparte. . 1806 | Joachim Murat. . . . 

KING OF SICILY. 



Ferdinand III. 



KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 
A.D. 



Ferdinand I. (late 

IV.) 1815 

Francis 1 1826 

Ferdinand n 1830 



Francis II. 1859 

Victor Emanuel, 
king of Italy.... 1861 



Naples (Italy) .—This city was founded by 
686 



NAP 

a colony of Cumasans, by whom it was termed 
Parthenopes, about B.C. 1030. About B.C. 
416, its iuhabitants separated into two com- 
munities, who occupied different quarters 
of the city, distinguished as Palaeopobs, 
or the old town, and Neapolis, or the 
new town. From the latter designation is 
derived the modern title of the city. In 
consequence of the piracies of the Palseopo- 
litans, the Romans besieged and took the 
city B.C. 326, and from that period the name 
PalseopoHs disappears from history. Neapo- 
hs, on the contrary, was admitted to Roman 
protection, and became a dependency of the 
republic. Pyrrhus threatened the city B.C. 
280, and it was sacked by the partisans of 
SyUa B.C. 82. The poet Virgil was buried 
here B.C. 19, and the city became a favourite 
summer watering-place of the wealthy Ro- 
mans. The emperor Nero made his first 
appearance as an actor at Naples, a.d. 64. 
Theodoric the Goth took the city in 493, and 
it was captured by Belisarius, after a long 
siege, iu 536. Totila retook it in 543, but it 
surrendered to Narses in 553, and was defi- 
nitely united to the Eastern empire. In 572 
it became a duchy, and in 1139 was made the 
capital of the kingdom of Naples. Naples 
was taken by Manfred ia 1250, and by Louis 
of Hungary in 1347 ; it was retaken by John I. 
in 1348, Louis I. of Anjou seized it in 1383 ; 
Rend of Anjou in 1438 ; Alfonso of Aragon 
in 1442 ; and Charles VIII. of France in 1495. 
It was also taken by the French in 1501, and 
by the Spaniards in 1503. The French gene- 
ral Lautrec was compelled to raise the siege 
of Naples in 1528. In 1647 the city was the 
scene of MasanieUo's insurrection, and it was 
much injured by an earthquake Sept. 8, 1694. 
It was taken by the Austrian general Daun 
in 1707, submitted to Don Carlos in 1734, and 
was made the capital of the French Parthe- 
nopean repubhc in 1799. Joseph Bonaparte, 
brother of the emperor, made his entry into 
Naples in 1806, and resided here till he went 
to ascend the Spanish throne in 1808. Fer- 
dinand IV. re-entered the city as king in 1815. 
Naples was again the scene of insurrections 
in 1848. It was declared in a state of siege 
June 28, 1860. The king quitted Naples 
Sept. 6, and it was entered by Garibaldi the 
following day. Victor Emanuel made his 
official entry Nov. 7, but on the 14th popu- 
lar demonstrations were made in favour of 
the deposed king. Victor Emanuel re- 
turned to Turin Dec. 27. Among the most 
important public buildings at Naples are, the 
university, founded by the emperor Fre- 
derick II. in 1224 ; the cathedral, commenced 
in 1272, and completed in 1316 ; the Castel 
Nuovo, built by Charles I. in 1283 ; the Museo 
Borbonico, founded as cavalry barracks in 
1586, and converted to its present purpose in 
1790 ; the royal palace, begun in 1600, burnt 
down in 1837, and since rebuilt and greatly 
enlarged; the Teatro Reale di San Carlo, 
which was opened in 1737, and burnt and re- 
built in 1816. The railway to Nocena was 
opened in 1839. The bishopric of Naples is 
said to have been founded by Saint Asper- 



NAP 

nus, •who was consecrated by Saint Peter, 
A.D. 44. It became metropolitan in 966. 
Councils were held at Naples in 1565, 1568, 
and 1576. A treaty between Austria and the 
king of Naples was signed here Oct. 3, 1759 ; 
an alliance between Great Britain and Naples, 
July 12, 1793 ; another alliance between the 
same powers, Dec. 1, 1798 ; a convention 
between the French republic and the king 
of Naples, June 25, 1803 ; and an alliance 
between Austria and Murat, Jan. 11, 1814. 

Napoli-di-Komania (Greece), the ancient 
Naupha, founded by an Egyptian colony, 
was taken by the Argives in the 7th century 
B.C. It grew into importance during the 
crusades, and was taken by the Franks 
A.D. 1205, and made the capital of a duchy. 
The Venetians took it in the 14th century, 
and ceded it to the Turks in 1540. The 
Venetians regained possession in 1686, and 
it was stormed by the Turks July 4, 1715. 
The Greeks, who failed in an attempt to 
take it by escalade, Dec. 15, 1821, having 
been compelled to withdraw, returned and 
captured it, Dec. 12, 1823. The seat of 
government, transferred to Napoli-di-Eo- 
mania June 24, 1824, was removed to Argos 
in 1829. Capo d'Istrias was assassinated 
here Oct. 9, 1831. 

Narbonne (France), the ancient Narbo 
Martins, was the second colony founded by 
the Romans beyond the Alps, B.C. 118. 
Some of Csesar's tenth legion settled here, 
and it was then called Decumanorum Colonia. 
It fell into the hands of the Visigoths a.d. 
462, who made it the capital of their king- 
dom ; and it was captured by the Saracens 
in 720, from whom it was taken by Pepin le 
Bref in 759 and annexed to the Prankish 
monarchy. In 1272 the cathedral, one of 
the finest specimens of Gothic architecture 
in Europe, was founded. In 1310, 30,000 of 
its inhabitants perished by the plague. It 
was successfully defended by Aymeri III., 
viscount of Narbonne, against the attacks of 
the Black Prince in 1355, and it was annexed 
to the crown of France in the beginning of 
the 16th century. In the rehgious wars 
of this century, Narbonne sided with the 
League, but in 1596 submitted to Henry IV. 
Councils were held here Nov. 1, 589 ; 
June 27, 791; March 27, 947; in 990; 
March 17 and Aug. 8, 1043 ; in 1054 ; 
Oct. 1, 1055 ; March 19, 1091 ; in January, 
1211 ; in 1227 ; in 1235 ; and in April, 1374. 

Narceia. — PeUetier produced this alkali 
from opixun, a.d. 1832. 

Narva (Russia). — This town, founded 
A.D. 1213, and sold to the Teutonic knights 
in 1346, was taken by the grand-duke Ivan 
Wassihewitsch in 1553. The Swedes re- 
captured it in 1581. Charles XII. of 
Sweden, with 8,000 men, attacked the in- 
trenched camp of the Russian army (which 
had been besieging Narva), and gained 
a complete victory, Nov. 30, 1700. No less 
than 18,000 Russians fell in the battle, and 
30,000 surrendered themselves prisoners on 
the following day. The Swedes lost only 
600 men. The town was taken by storm by 



NAT 

Peter the Great, Aug. 20, 1704, and it haa 
since remained in the hands of the Russians. 

Naseby, (Battle,) was fought at this vil- 
lage, near Market-Harborough, in North- 
amptonshire, June 14, 1645, between the 
royalists and the parliamentary army. The 
latter gained a complete victory, taking 500 
officers and 4,000 men prisoners", with aU the 
king's artillery and ammunition. 

Nashville (North America), the capital 
of the state of Tennessee, contains a univer- 
sity, founded in 1806. Nashville, occupied 
by the Confederates in 1861, was captured 
by the Federalists in March, 1862. 

Nassau (Germany) derives its name from 
the castle of Nassau, built in the beginning of 
the 12th century. In 1255 Walram I. and 
Otho, the sons of Henry the Rich, shared 
the territory between them. The former 
became the founder of the present family of 
Nassau, and the descendants of Otho were 
the founders of the house of Orange-Nassau, 
of which Wilham III. of England was a 
member. In 1605 Lewis II. became pos- 
sessed of aU the lands belonging to the 
elder branch of the family. On his death 
in 1625, the family was divided into three 
branches, which, however, had been reunited 
into one when Napoleon I. founded the con- 
federation of the Rhine in 1806, and bestowed 
the title of duke upon Frederick William. 

Natal (Africa). — The Portuguese disco- 
vered this country a.d. 1498, and gave it 
the name of Natal, because they landed on 
Christmas-day. The native races were 
swept away by the Zulu Caflfres in 1810, and 
the English formed a settlement in 1824. 
They were joined by some Dutch boers, who 
left Cape Colony in 1836, and obtained by 
treaty some land from Dingaan, chief of the 
Zulu tribes. Several of the boers were mas- 
sacred by Dingaan in 1838. They removed 
to Port Natal, and renounced their alle- 
giance to Great Britain in 1839. A small 
British force was sent in 1842 from the Cape, 
which the boers permitted to land, but after- 
wards commenced hostilities. The British, 
maintained their position until the arrival of 
reinforcements, when the boers were defeated 
and driven out of the territory. It was 
recognized as a British colony in 1845, and 
was made a bishopric in 1853. 

National Anthem. — Much controversy 
has been excited respecting the authorship 
of " God save the King." For many years 
it was attributed to several persons, the gene- 
ral opinion being in favour of Dr. Bull. A 
writer in Notes and Queries (2nd series, vii. 
64), who favours the claim of Anthony 
Young, organist of AU-HaUows, Barking, in 
the reign of James II., draws the following 
conclusions : — " 1. The tune, being in BuU's 
MSS., is of the time of James I. 2. That 
A. Yoimg united it to a " God save the 
King " in the time of James II. 3. That it 
slept until George II., 1745. 4. That Young's 
grand-daughter received a pension for its 
composition; and 5. That her grand-daugh- 
ter, in 1789, received £100, the proceeds 
thereof." Another view is, that both the 
587 



NAT 



NAT 

come to no accommodation with them, to 
whatever extremities the country might be 
reduced. 

National Associatioit foe the Pso- 
MOTiON OF Social Science, formed imder 
the auspices of Lord Brougham, first met at 
Birmingham Oct. 12 — 16, 1857. Its objects 
are, "To aid the development of the social 
sciences, and to guide the pubHc mind to the 
best practical means of promoting the 
amendment of the law, the advancement 
of education, the prevention and the re- 
pression of crime, the reformation of cri- 
minals, the establishment of due sanitary 
regulations, and the recognition of sound 
principles in aU questions of social eco- 
nomy." The annual meetings have been 
held at 

A.D. 

Liverpool Oct. 12, 1858 

Bradford Oct. 10, 1859 

Glasgow Sept.24, 1860 

National Associations. — Inconsequence 
of the bull of Pius Y. against Queen Ehza- 
beth, April 25, 1570, absolving aU her subjects 
from allegiance to her, several Roman Catho- 
lic zealots beUeved that in taking her life 
they would perform a meritorious act. Her 
hfe was in constant danger, and a national 
association, formedin London about A.D. 1582, 
to protect Queen Elizabeth from assassina- 
tion, or to revenge her death, was legalized 
by 27 Eliz. c. 1 (158-1), entitled "An Act for 
provision to be made for the surety of the 
queen's most royal person, and the continu- 
ance of the realm in peace." After the dis- 
covery of the Assassination Plot (q.v.), a 
similar association was formed in London, 
r^b. 27, 1696. The subscribers bound them- 
selves to do their utmost to preserve the 
hfe of William III., or to avenge his death. 
Lord Keeper Somers removed from the 
commission of the peace aU magistrates who 
refused to sign it. The association was em- 
bodied by 7 &8 Will. III. c. 27 (1696), by 
which the signature of all persons holding 
civil or miUtary appointments was rendered 
imperative. A similar document was signed 
by the Irish parhament Dec. 2, 1697. 

National Convention (France), 
substituted for the National Legislative 
Assembly, met in one of the halls of the 
Tmleries, Sept. 21, 1792. Its sittings 
were afterwards transferred to the Riding 
School. Its first act was to declare royalty 
abolished, and to proclaim a repubhc. By 
another decree it was ordered that the old 
calendar should be abandoned, and that aU 
public acts should be dated from the first 
year of the Erench republic. This aera 
began Sept. 22, 1792. The convention sent 
Louis XVI. and his queen to the block, and 
having involved Europe in war, was dissolved 
Oct. 26, 1795. "The destruction of human 
life," says Alison, "which took place during 
its government, in civil dissension, was 
\mparalleled ; it amounted to above a iniUion 
of human beings. 

National Debt. — A few insignificant 



words and the music were composed by 
Dr. Henry Carey, in honour of a birthday 
of George II., and were performed on such 
an occasion at a dinner given by the Mer- 
cers' Company in London. Henry Carey 
was a natural son of the marquis of Hah- 
fax, and was born in 1696. He died Oct. 4, 
1743. 

National Assemblies. — ^A national 
assembly which commenced its sittings at 
Berlin, May 22, 1848, after coming in coUi- 
sion with the crown, was dissolved by force, 
Nov. 13. The deputies continued to meet, 
and the assembly was finally dissolved by 
royal proclamation, Dec. .5. The old Ger- 
man Diet at Frankfort passed a resolution, 
March 30, 1848, sxmimoning a German 
national assembly, which met at Frankfort 
in April, 1848. Its sittings were removed 
to Stuttgardt, in Wiirtemberg, May 30, 1849, 
and the assembly was dissolved by the pohce 
Jime 16. 

National Assembly (France) . — This title 
was assumed June 17, 1789, by the States- 

feneral of France, which had assembled at 
ersailles May 5. The haU of the Assembly 
was closed by order of the king June 20, upon 
which the members adjourned to the Tennis- 
court Hall, and took an oath not to dissolve 
until they had prepared and voted a con- 
stitution. Admission to the Tennis-court 
having been afterwards refused to them, the 
members met at the church of St. Louis, 
June 22. Louis XVI. reopened the Assembly 
Jtme 23. The mob broke in Oct. 5, and 
both the king and the Assembly removed to 
Paris Oct. 6. The Assembly held its first 
meeting after the removal to Paris in the 
hall of the archbishop's palace, Oct. 19, 
1789, from which place it was transferred to 
the Riding-school HaU in 1790. Mirabeau, 
one of the most celebrated leaders of the 
Assembly, was made president Feb. 1, 1791. 
It declared its sittings permanent July 17, 
1791 ; but having entered into an agreement 
with the king, was dissolved Sept. 29, 1791. 
A new chamber, vmder the name of the 
National Legislative Assembly, met Oct. 1, 
1791, and was dissolved in August, 1792. 
{See National Convention.) After the 
expulsion of Louis PhUippe, the provisional 
government issued a decree summoning a 
national assembly for AprU 20, 1848. By a 
subsequent decree the elections were fixed for 
AprU 23, and the meeting was postponed tiU 
May 4. The Government decided in favour of 
a presidency, and a single chamber consisting 
of 750 members, both to be elected by uni- 
versal suffrage. A motion for its dissolu- 
tion. May 19, 1849, was carried Feb. 14, 1850, 
and the new elections were fixed for May 4. 
The new assembly met May 28, and was 
dissolved Dec. 2, 1851, by Louis Napoleon, 
who introduced a new constitution. 

National Association (France) was 
formed at Paris, by the extreme demo- 
cratical party, in 1831. The members bound 
themselves, on their hfe and honour, to 
combat the stranger and the Bourbons by 
aU peeimiary and personal sacrifices, and to 



long annuities created by Charles II. are 
too unimportant to be regarded as forming 
part of the EngHsh national debt, which was 
commenced by William III. in 1692. The 
following table exhibits its most important 
fluctuations. 

A.D. Principal. Interest. 

1689. At the Revolution . . £664,263 £39,855 
1702. Queen Anne's Acces- 1 jg^gg^j^Qa 1,310,942 

1714. Accession of George i. 54,145,363 3,351,353 

1727. Accession of George II. 52,092,238 2,217,551 

1763. Peace of Paris 138,865,430 4,852,051 

1775. Commencement of 1 ,„o ^j,„ -oi^ 4471^71 

American war .... / 128,583,635 4,471,571 

1784. Conclusion of Ame- Ig^ggg^g^g 9500,907 

rican war J ' ' ' ' 

1793. Commencement of 1 339 ggQ j^g 9 g^^ggO 

1817. Conclusion of French j84o,ggo,491 32,015,941 

1859. March 31. ' Total debt | gog 078.554 28,612,207 
and charge j ' ' ' 

(See Aids, Benevolbnces, and Funds.) 

NatiottaIi Gali-ekt (London). — In the 
year 1823 Sir George Beaumont expressed his 
wilUngness to present his collection of paint- 
ings to the nation, so soon as the formation 
of a national gallery should be decided upon. 
This led to the purchase of the Angerstein 
collection in April, 1824, by the goTernment 
for £57,000. It was opened in PaU Mali, 
May 10, 1824, and the Beaumont pictures 
were added in 1825. The Eev. W. Howell 
Carr bequeathed his coUectiou of pictures 
to the National Gallery in 1831 ; Mr. Robert 
Vernon presented his in 1847 ; Turner be- 
queathed some pictures in 1851, and Mr. 
Sheepshanks presented his valuable collection 
in 1857. A select committee of the House 
of Commons was appointed to inquire into 
the National Gallery in 1854, and the in- 
stitution was reconstituted by a Treasury 
minute dated March 27, 1855. The build- 
ing in Trafalgar Square, commenced in 1833, 
was completed and opened to the public 
in 1838. 

National Guaed (France), a kind of 
citizen miMtia, was first formed in Paris by 
the Committee of Pubhc Safety in July, 1789. 
This force became so popular that ia 1790 
it was generally established throughout the 
kingdom, and was reorganized in 1795. The 
command was offered, in 1796, to Napoleon 
Bonaparte and refused by him. It was 
reorganized in 1805, 1813, and 1814; was 
disbanded by Charles X. April 13, 1827, 
and was re-estabhshed by the constitution 
of 1830. The defection of the National 
Guard from Louis PhUippe in 1848 was one 
of the principal causes of his overthrow. 
The National Guard throughout France 
was reconstructed by a decree dated Jan. 11, 
1851. 

Nationai Life-Boat Association was 
founded a.d. 1824, for the establishment of 
life-boats and rocket -mortars at aU the dan- 
gerous parts of the coast. . 

National Political Union (London). 
— This pohtical association, formed for the 
purpose of giving unity to the proceedings 



NAT 



of the various political unions throughout 
the country, held its first meeting in Lin- 
coln' s-Inn Fields, under the presidency of 
Sir Francis Burdett, Oct. 31, 1831. A reso- 
lution to resist the payment of taxes until 
the reform biU was made the law of the land 
was passed May 9, 1832. 

National Portrait Gallert (London) 
was estabhshed by a warrant of the Treasury 
Dec. 2, 1856, when a board consisting of 
thirteen trustees was appointed. The first 
meeting was held Feb. 9, 1857, and by a 
Treasury warrant dated Feb. 28 in that year, 
George Scharf, F.S.A., was appointed secre- 
tary and keeper. Temporary apartments 
were taken at 29, Great George Street, West- 
minster, and the collection was opened to 
the pubhc, by tickets only, Jan. 15, 1859. 
The use of tickets was dispensed with 
Feb. 25, 1860. The number of visitors were 

a.d. 

1859 5,305 

leen/With tickets 228 

•i«t)U I Without tickets 6,164 

1861 10,907 

Nativitt. — There are three ecclesiastical 
festivals so called. The first is to comme- 
morate the birth of the Saviour (see Christ- 
mas) ; the second in order of, appointment 
is the nativity of St. John the Baptist, 
which was instituted a.d. 488, and is cele- 
brated June 24 ; and the third is the 
nativity of the Virgin Mary, which is ob- 
served by the Roman Catholic church 
Sept. 8, and was appointed by Pope 
Sergius I. (687—701). 

Natural History. — " Solomon," says the 
sacred narrative, " spake of trees, from the 
cedar that is in Lebanon even unto the 
hyssop that spriugeth out of the wall : he 
spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of 
creeping things, and of fishes" (1 Kings iv. 
33), B.C. 1000. The subject was treated of by 
Aristotle (b.c. 384^-322), Theophrastus (b.c. 
394—287), Dioscorides (a.d. 40—70)), and by 
Phny (a.d. 24—79) . Otto Brunfels of Stras- 
burgpubhshed a work on botany a.d. 1530 ; 
and a professorship thereof was founded 
at Padua in 1533. Turner, an Englishman, 
who became dean of Wells, pubMshed at 
Cologne a work on birds a.d. 1548. The 
first part of Gesner's important work, "The 
History of Animals," appeared in 1551 ; a 
history of fishes was published by Salviani 
in 1558 ; Ray's work on ornithology came 
out in 1676 ; Robert Morisou of Aberdeen, 
who is styled by Hallam " the founder of 
classification," published his "Historia 
Plantarum Universahs " in 1672 ; and 
Tournefort his " Elemens de la Botanique " 
in 1694. Grew, who discovered the sexual 
system in plants, pubhshed his physiological 
theory in 1682. 

Naturalization. — Children born abroad 
were, under certain restrictions, entitled to 
inherit as if born in England, by25Edw. III. 
St. 1 (1351) . This statute was renewed by 
33 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1541) . The laws relatmg 
to ahena were amended by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66 



NAT 

(Aug. 6, 1844) . The law for naturalization 
in a British colony is regulated by 10 & 11 
Vict. c. 83 (July 22, 1847). . 

Natuee-Peinting, an invention for ob- 
taining an exact reproduction of natural 
objects, so that numerous impressions may 
be taken, was perfected in the imperial 
printing - oflBce iu Vienna, by Andrew 
Worsing, about 1852. KniphoflF, of Erfurt, 
produced something of the kiud in a crude 
Form in 1761, and Kyhl, of Copenhagen, in 
1833. The process was introduced into 
England by Henry Bradbury iu 1856. 

Naitmbtjeg- (Prussia).— The Hussites 
besieged this old town a.d. 1482, but retired 
without securing its capture. A treaty was 
concluded here iu 1554, between Augustus, 
elector of Saxony, and John Frederick, the 
deposed elector. It played an important 
part during the Thirty Years' War, and was 
taken by the French in 1806. Napoleon I. 
advanced to this town April 29, 1813. The 
cathedral was completed in 1249. 

Naupactus (Greece). — The Athenians 
settled the Messenians at this town B.C. 455, 
but they were expelled B.C. 405 by the Lo- 
crians, who retained possession. It frequently 
changed owners, and having been given by 
Phihp to the ^^tbhans, was by them de- 
fended against the Eomans for two months, 
B.C. 191. The modern Lepanto (q.v.) occu- 
pies its site, 

I^AUvoo (North America) . — This town, in 
Illinois, was founded by the Mormons a.d. 
1840. Their temple was destroyed in 1848, 
when the Mormons were expelled, and sought 
refuge in Utah. 

Naval ■ Asxitjm (London) . — The Eoyal 
Naval Asylum, instituted in 1801, was re- 
moved to Greenwich, and incorporated with 
the hospital iu 1821. 

Naval Battles. {See Sea-Fights in 
Index.) 

Navaeino (Greece) takes its name from 
a fortress built in the Middle Ages, and called 
Paleo-Avarino, which stood on the ruins of 
a fort built by the Athenians on the site of 
the ancient Pylus, B.C. 424. The name Ava- 
rino is derived from the Avars, who settled 
here iu the 6th century of the Christian sera. 
The modern town, Navarino, called by the 
Greeks Neokastoro, or Neocastro, is built 
at a short distance from the ruins of the old 
fort, now called Old Navarino. The Turks 
took Navarino a.d. 1500 ; it was wrested from 
them by the Venetians in 1686, and it was re- 
taken by the Turks iu 1718. The Turkish 
garrison capitulated to the Greeks Aug. 9, 
1821. The Tui-ks recaptured the place after 
a short siege. May IS, 1825, and evacuated it 
after the battle of Navarino {q. v.), by a con- 
vention signed Sept. 7,1828. The "French 
troops, which were sent to the assistance of 
the Greeks, and entered Navarino Oct. 6, 
1828, withdrew from the fortresses of 
Navarino, Modon, and Cronon, in July, 
1833. 

Navaeih-o, (Sea-fight,) a combined British, 
French, and Eussian iieet, engaged and com- 
pletely defeated the Tiu'kish and Egyptian 
590 



NAV 

' squadrons, under Ibrahim Pasha, in the Bay 
of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827. The forts on the 
coast took part in the engagement, and in- 
flicted much damage on several vessels be- 
longing to the alhed fleet. The action, fought 
! to secure the independence of Greece, re- 
F suited in the annihilation of the naval power 
! of Turkey. It lasted four hours, and the 
scene of wreck and devastation which pre- 
sented itself at its termination was such as 
! has rarely been witnessed. Of the Turkish 
fleet, which at the commencement of the 
action consisted of seventy sail, no less than 
sixty-two were burnt, sunk, or driven on 
shore complete wrecks ; and from a state- 
ment of the Turkish admiral, it appears that 
on board of two hne-of-battle ships, each 
having a crew of 850 men, 650 were kiUed in 
one ship, and 400 in the other. 

Navaeee (France), called Lower or 
French Navarre, was a portion of the 
Spanish kingdom of Navarre assigned to 
John d'Albret a.d. 1515, on the extinction 
of the old kingdom of Navarre. Henry 
(afterwards Henry IV. of France) became 
king of Navarre, June 10, 1572, and on his 
accession to the French throne, July 31, 
1589, Navarre was annexed to France. 
The formal incorporation took place in 
1620. 

Navaeee (Spain). — This part of Spain, 
called by Prescott " the little kingdom of 
Navarre, embosomed within the Pyrenees," 
was inhabited at an early period by the 
Vascones, who were expelled by the Eo- 
mans. It was seized by the Visigoths a.d. 
470, invaded by the Saracens early in the 8th 
century, and fell under the sway of Charle- 
magne in 778. It became an independent 
state in 858. Ferdinand conquered it in 

1512. The estates of Navarre took the 
solemn oath of allegiance to him March 23, 

1513, and it was incorporated with Castile by 
a solemn act in the cortes of Burgos, June 15, 
1515. The French, who invaded it in 1516, 
were defeated March 25, and Cardinal 
Ximenes ordered the principal fortresses to 
be destroyed. Francis I., of France, in- 
vaded Navarre in 1521. His army having 
sustained a severe defeat at Esquiros, Jime 
30, 1521, was compelled to retii'e. 

SOVEEEIGKS OP NAVAEEE. 

A.D. A.D. 

885 Jeanne 1 1274 

891 Louis of France . . ia05 

925 John of France .. It oie 

970 Philip of France . . J '^''^^ 

1035 Charles I. of France 1322 

1054 Jeanne II. and Philip 

of Evreux 1328 

1076 Charles II 1349 

1094 Charles ni 1387 

1104 Blanche and John 

1134 of Aragon 1425 

11.50 Francis Phoebus .. 1479 

1194 Cathei-ine 1483 

1234 Fe)dtaand of Ai-a- 

1253 gon 1512 

1270 



Garcia I 

Sancho I 

Garcia II 

Sancho II 

Garcia III 

Sancho III 

Sancho IV. of Ai-a- 

gon 

Pedio 1. ditto .... 
Alfonso I. ditto . . 

Garcia IV 

Sancho V 

Sancho VI 

Thibault I 

Thibaultll 

Henry 



Navtgatiok.— The earliest intimation of 
this art is in connection with the Deluge, 



NAV 

when God commanded Noah to build the 
ark (Gen. -vi. 14), B.C. 2468; which was 
completed, and received the patriarch and 
his family, with all its other inmates, B.C. 
2348. In the early period of their history 
the Egyptians carried on maritime traffic 
with India, Sesostris being represented as 
the first who sailed in "long ships," B.C. 
1416 — 1353 ; although the ships of the Phoeni- 
cians had yisited the i^x-incipal parts of the 
known world b.c. 1800. The famous expe- 
dition of the Argonauts indicates the state 
of this art among the Greeks at that time, 
B.C. 1263. In their wars with the CarthaJ 
ginians, thefKomans found it necessary to 
supply themselves with a navy, b.c 260. 
Venice began to assume importance on the 
seas about a.d. 600; and the Genoese about 
A.D. 1000. In modern times the art has 
attained a high degree of perfection by the 
aid of logaiithms, invented a.d. 1614, and 
the quadrant, in 1731. 

Navigation" Laws. — Foreign ships were 
prohibited from fishing and trading on the 
British coasts by 5 Eliz. c. 5 (1562). The 
Act of Navigation of the republican parlia- 
ment, passed Oct. 9, 1651, prohibited all im- 
portation into the British territories, except 
in ships owned and manned by English sub- 
jects, and these restrictions were confirmed 
by 12 Charles II. c. 18 (1660), which is some- 
times styled the Charta Maritima. Several 
acts of similar import were afterwards passed, 
which were consolidated and amended by 
3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 54 (Aug. 28, 1833). Most 
of these restrictions were repealed by the 
act to amend the laws in force for the 
encouragement of Sritish shipping and 
navigation, 12 & 13 Vict. c. 29 (June 26, 
1849), which came into operation Jan. 1, 
1850, Steam navigation is regulated by 
14 & 15 Vict, c, 79 (Aug. 7, 1851), which 
took eflfect Jan. 1, 1852. Further provisions 
were made by the Merchant Shipping Law 
Amendment Act, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 131 (Aug. 
20, 1853). Foreign ships were admitted to 
the coasting trade by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 5 
(March 23, 1854). 

Natigatob's Islands ( Pacific ), also 
called the Samoan Islands, a group consist- 
ing of three larger and five smaller islands, 
were visited by missionaries from Otaheite in 
1830. 

Natty. — A writer in Notes and Queries 
(xi. p. 424) asserts that this term, as apphed 
to a railway labourer, is a corruption of the 
word navigator, the name by which men 
employed in constructing navigable canals 
w^ere designated. Navvy took the place of 
the more appropriate term, excavator. 
Towards the end of 1854, a number of navvies 
were sent to the Crimea to construct a line 
of rail\va,y between Sebastopol and Bala- 
clava, which place they reached in February, 
1855. 

Natt (English). — The ancient Britons 
made use of boats rudely formed of wicker- 
work, and covered with skins. It was not, 
however, until the reign of Alfred that a 
fleet was constructed. 



NAV 



53. The use of boats of varioua sizes, for -vrarlike 
as well as for commercial purposes, is com- 
mon amongst the early Britoug at this 
time. 

A.D. 

897. Alfred the Great cansesi a fleet of "long 

ships" to be built to resist the Danes. 
964. Edgar, in a charter of doubtful authenticity, 
asserts his authority over the oceau lying 
round Britain. 
973. Edgar, with all his marine force, makes a 
triumphal procession on the river Dee, 
his own barge being rowed by eight tribu- 
tary kings. 
978 to 1016. The laws of Ethelred order ships of 
war to be prepared annually after Easter. 

1008. Ethelred orders ships to be built throughout 
the kingdom, and prepares a large fleet. 

1012. Ethelred hires forty-five ships from the Danes, 
and levies the "heregeid" to defray the 
expense of his navy. 

1052. Edward the Confessor abolishes the heregeid, 
"wherewith the people were manifoldly 
distressed." 

1066. Harold II. assembles a large fleet at Sand- 
wich. Sept. 8. He is compelled to dismiss 
it for want of provisions. Sept. 27. The 
fleet with which "William the Conqueror 
embarks for England is variously estimated. 
Thierry states that it niimbered 400 ships 
and more than 1,000 transport boats. Other 
writers mention diflerent numbers, ranging 
from 696 to 3,000 vessels. 

1171. Henry assembles a large fleet to convey his 
army to Ireland, and lands at "Waterford 
Oct. 18. 

1181. Henry II. prohibits the sale of British ships 
to foreigners. 

1189. Kichard I.'s fleet for the invasion of Palestine 
numbered 100 ships and 14 busses ; viz., 
"vessels of great capacity, very strongly 
and compactly built." Sir Harris Nicolas 
states that the reign of Richard I. forms 
the first great epoch in the naval history 
of England. 

1191. Richard I.'s fleet is scattered by storms in the 
Mediterranean. 

1200. King John is stated, on doubtful authority, 
to demand that all ships whatever should 
lower their sails, as a token of respect, 
when they met his fleet at sea. 

1294. Edward I. divides the navy into three squad- 
rons, stationed at Yarmouth , Portsmouth, 
and in Ireland and the "West. 

1303 to 1307. A document which asserts the right 
of England to the sovereignty of the narrow 
seas was signed some time between these 
years. 

1320. Oct. A treaty is concluded with the Flemings, 
in which they admit the English sovereignty 
of the narrow seas. 

1340. June 24. Edward III. defeats the French fleet 
at Sluys. 

1346. July 11. The fleet in which Edward III. in- 
vades France is estimated at from 1,000 to 
1,600 vessels ; but this is regarded as an 
exaggeration. 

1373. Jan. 8. Edward III. hires galleys and seamen 
from the Genoese. 

1413. Henry V. causes larger ships to be built than 
were before known, and throughout his 
reign evinces a great desire for the improve- 
ment of the navy. 

141-5. Aug. 10. Henry embarks for France with a 
fleet of 1,500 ships. 

1488. Henry VII. builds the Great Harry, the first 
ship of the royal navy. 

1500. The king's ships form a distinct class, ex- 
clusively devoted to warlike purposes, 
about this year. 

1512. Henry VIII. establishes the Trinity House 
for the encouragement of navigation. 

1515. Henry VIII. builds the Henry- Grace-i\-Dieu. 

1546. The royal navy consists of 58 ships, amounting 
to 12,455 tons, with 8,546 sailoi-s. 

591 



NAX 



1563. The Great Barry is burnt at Woolwich. 

English merchants fit ont ships for voyages 

of ciiseovery and trade. 
1588. The English navy defeats the Spanish armada 

(q. v.). 
1603. The English navy consists of 42 ships, 17,055 

tons, -with 8,346 sailors. 
1626. The navy is divided into rates. 
1637. The Sovereiffn of the Seas is launched. 
1649. The Constant - Warwick, the first British 

frigate, is built. 
1674. Feb. 9. The Dutch yield the honour of the 

flag to the English navy. 
1688. The English navy consists of 173 ships, of 

101,892 tons, with 42,003 sailors. 
1703. Nov. 26 to Dec. 1. The great storm rages, in 

which 12 ships belonging to the royal navy, 

with 1,500 men, were lost. 
1714. The jurisdiction of the comptroller and com- 
missioners of the navy is defined by 1 Geo. 

I. St. 2, c. 25. 
1747. A naval uniform is established. 
1749. The Articles of War are established by 22 

Geo. IT. c. 33. 
1822. The Comet, the first steamer constructed for 

the loyal navy, is built. 
1840. The Swarf screw steamer is employed in the 

service of the Admiralty. 
1845. Screw steam ships of war are introduced into 

the navy. 

1853. Aug. 15. The Admii-alty are empowered to 

raise a body of naval coast volunteers, by 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 73. 

1854. March 10. The Queen reviews the Baltic fleet 

at Spithead. 
1856. April 23. A naval review of unprecedented 

magnitude takes place at Spithead before 

the Queen and the members of both houses 

of parliament. 
1859. Aug. 13. A reserve volunteer force of seamen 

is established by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 40. 

Naxos, or Naxia (Areliii)elago), one of 
the largest of the Cyclades, is said to have 
received its name from Naxos, who planted 
a colony of Carians in the island. The Per- 
sians having assailed it without success 
B.C. 501, conquered it B.C. 490. The Athe- 
nians reduced the inhabitants to subjection 
B.C. 471. Marco Sanudo, a Venetian, took 
possession of Naxos, and founded a state 
called the duchy of the j3Egean Sea, a.d. 1207. 
It lasted 360 years, and was overthrown by 
the Turks in 1566. Naxos now forms part of 
the modern kingdom of Greece. It was made 
the seat of a bishop in the 5th century, and 
its first bishop, Barachus, was present at the 
council of Chalcedon in 451. 

Naxos, or Naxus (SicUy).— This, the most 
ancient of the Greek colonies in Sicily, was 
founded b.c. 735, and is said to have been 
thus named because among its first settlers 
were some people from the island of Naxos. 
Hippocrates of Gela conquered it about 
B.C. 495, and it was subject to Hieron of 
Syracuse B.C. 476. Dionysius of Syracuse 
seized it B.C. 403, sold the inhabitants to 
slavery, and destroyed the city. (See Ta.v- 
eombhium:.) 

Nazaeenes. — This term was applied to 
the Jewish Christians as a term of reproach 
(Acts xxiv. 5), A.D. 56, and also to the early 
Jewish Christians, who maintained that they 
were bound to observe the Mosaic law. The 
Nazarenes afterwards held peculiar notions 
on the divinity of Christ, and are mentioned 
as heretics byEpiphanius in the 4th century. 



NEa 

These heretics are said to have sprung up in 
the 2nd century. Some authorities contend 
that the Christians recognized this name tiU 
the heresy of the Nazarenes broke out, and 
that in consequence they adopted the appel- 
lation of Christians (Acts xi. 26), a.d. 41. Of 
course these writers affix a much earher date 
than that usually accepted for the origin of 
the heresy. 

Nazareth (Galilee). — From this city, 
where the Saviour passed the commence- 
ment and the greater portion of his human 
existence, His followers were called Naza- 
renes. Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., 
wrested this town from the Saracens in May, 
1271, during the last crusade. 

Neapolis. {See Naples.) 

Neapolis (Palestine), the ancient Sichem, 
or Shechem {q.v.), the modem Nabloos, 
or JSTabulus, received the name of Neapohs 
when restored by Vespasian about a.d. 69. 

Nebraska (North America) formed part 
of Louisiana when purchased by the United 
States government a.d. 1803, and was sepa- 
rated from Kansas and made a distinct 
territory by act of congress in 1854. 

Nebulab Hypothesis. — The theory that 
nebulae are planetary or solar bodies in 
course of formation, and hence that the 
universe was derived from nebulae, was 
originated by Sir William Herschel, who 
read a paper on the subject to the Eoyal 
Society June 20, 1811. 

Nectarine. — This fruit-tree was intro- 
duced into England from Persia about a.d. 
1562. 

Needles, though introduced into England 
from Germany, were at first called Spanish 
needles, from the fact that the manufacture 
originated in Spaiu. Needles were first 
made in England about 1565 ; and the art 
having declined, was re-introduced in 1650. 

Neemtjch (Hindostan). — The native offi- 
cers at this town swore on the Koran and on 
Ganges water that they would be true to 
their salt, June 2, 1857 ; but on the 3rd they 
violated their oath, joined in the mutiny, and 
massacred several of the Europeans. The 
rebels expelled the Europeans, and obtained 
entire possession of the town, June 10. 

Neerwikden, or Neewii^den (Battle). — 
The Imperialists, commanded by the arch- 
duke Charles, defeated the French repub- 
licans, under Dumouriez, at this village, near 
Tirlemont, March 18, 1793. {See Landem".) 

Ne&apatam (Hindostan) was a small vil- 
lage until fortified by the Portuguese colo- 
nists. The Dutch captured it in 1660, under 
whose rule it became a place of importance. 
They improved the fortifications, and made' 
Negapatam the capital of their colonies on 
the coast of Coromandel. The Enghsh took 
it after a siege of four weeks' duration, Nov. 
12, 1781 ; and it was ceded to them by the 
treaty of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. 

Negapatam (Sea-fights). — Admiral Po- 
coek, with seven ships of the fine, defeated 
a French fleet ofi" this port, April 28, 1758. 
The English vessels received considerable 
damage, but their opponents fled. Another 



naval action between De Suffren with a 
French, and Sir Edward Hughes with an 
EngHsh, fleet, took place off this port, July 6, 
1782. The former lost 168 killed and 601 
wounded, and the latter 77 killed and 233 
wounded, and the French fleet escaped. 

Negkais (Bay of Bengal). — The English 
formed a settlement on this island a.d. 1687, 
but it was soon after abandoned. It was oc- 
cupied by an Enghsh force in 1751, and was 
ceded in 1757 by the Burmese, who attacked 
it and slaughtered aUthe inhabitants in 1759. 
The Enghsh captured it during the Burmese 
war in 1824, and it was ceded to the East- 
India Company by the fourth article of the 
treaty of Yandaboo, Feb. 24, 1826. 

Negkopont (JUgean Sea), the ancient 
Chalcis iq.v.), in the island of Euboea, also 
called Negropont, fell under the rule of the 
Venetians a.d. 1204, and was wrested from 
them by the Turks a.d. 1470. The Vene- 
tians failed in an attempt to regain possession 
in 1688. Dui-ingthe insurrectionary war, the 
pasha was besieged in the fortress, which was 
reheved by the Turkish fleet March 17, 1823. 
A reinforcement of 3,000 men enabled the 
Turks to resume the offensive in June, 1824. 

ISTegus. — This beverage, consisting of wine 
mixed with water, was named after Colonel 
Francis Negus, commissioner for executing 
the office of master of the horse duriug the 
reign of George I. During a quarrel, in 
which high words were used between some 
Whigs and Tories, he recommended them to 
dilute their wine as he did, and from this 
circumstance wine and water was nicknamed 
negus. 

Neilgebries (Hindostan) . — This range of 
mountain territory, in the presidency of Ma- 
dras, remarkable for its salubrity, came into 
the possession of the Enghsh a.d. 1799. 
Ootakamund, the first sanitary station on the 
northern mountains, was founded in 1822. 

Neisjje (Prussia) is* said to have been 
built A.D. 966, but was not fortified before 
1594. Frederick II. took it in December, 
1741, and he laid the first stone of Fort 
Preussen in 1743. The Austrians besieged 
it without success in 1758. The episcopal 
palace is an ancient building, and here in 
1769 a celebrated meeting took place be- 
tween Frederick II. and the emperor Joseph 
II. The French under Vandamme laid siege 
to Neisse J' an. 17, 1806. General Kleist, 
with 4,000 men, attempted to reheve it 
during the night, April 20, 1807, but was 
defeated by the arrival of Jerome Bonaparte 
with a powerful reinforcement. It capi- 
tulated June 6, 1807, when this large fortress, 
with 320 pieces of cannon and 5,000 men, 
fell into the hands of the French. The 
hbrary, contahiing 10,000 volumes, was burnt 
in the siege of 1807. 

Nelson (New Zealand) was settled a.d. 
1843. Extensive coal-fields were discovered 
in 1852, and gold was found in the vicinity in 
1856. 

Nemean Games were celebrated at Nemea 
(whence their name), a village in Argohs. 
According to the legend, they were insti- 
593 



NEP 

tuted in memory of OpheUes, or Archc- 
morus, who was killed by a dragon while 
Hypsipyle, his nurse, was gone to show the 
seven champions, on their way to attack 
Thebes, the nearest well. They were first 
celebrated B.C. 1230, and are said to have 
been revived by Hercules b.c. 1226. Philip 
of Macedonia was made president of the 
Nemean games by the Ai'gives B.C. 208. 
Having fallen into neglect, they were re- 
stored by the emperor Juhan a.d. 362, and 
were solemnized for the last time in the 
reign of Hadrian, about 396. 

Nemours (France).— The old castle, for- 
merly the seat of the dukes of Nemours, 
contains a library of 10,000 volumes. An 
edict issued here by Henry III. of France, 
in 1585, revoked all concessions made to 
the Huguenots. The title of duke was first 
borne by the Armagnac family, descended 
from Caribert, son of Clotaire II., who 
died A.D. 630. Louis, the last duke of that 
family, was killed at the battle of Cerignola, 
in Apuha, April 28, 1503. Gaston de Foix 
was made the next duke by Louis XII., and 
he was kfiled at the battle of Ravenna, in 
1512. The title was given to Philip of Savoy 
by Francis I. in 1528, and continued in his 
fine until 1659. It is borne by the second 
son of the late Louis Philippe. 

NEO-PiiATONisTS. — TMs name is given to 
the philosophers of the school of Alexandria 
who endeavoured to combine the doctrines 
of Plato and Christianity into one system. 
The sect was founded by Ammonius Sacca, 
who died a.d. 243, and numbered Plotinus, 
who flourished in 254, and Porphyry, who 
died about 305, among its most distinguished 
members. 

Nepaul (Hindostan) is said to have been 
conquered a.d. 13^:3 by Hurr Singh, prince 
of Oude. The Ghoorkas completed the 
conquest of Nepaul in 1768. A treaty of 
commerce was concluded i)etween the Bri- 
tish government and Nepaul, March 1, 1792, 
and by the treaty of Dinapoor, concluded 
Oct. 1801, political relations were es'ablished 
between the two governments. This aUiance 
was dissolved in 1894, and, until 1812, little 
intercourse took place. The repeated re- 
monstrances of the British against border 
invasions were neglected, and, Nov. 1, 1814, 
war was declared. It was carried on with 
great vigour, and the Nepaulese, after nume- 
rous defeats, were obhged to sue for peace. 
The treaty of Segoulee was signed Dec. 2, 
1815. The signature of the rajah having 
been withheld, the British again took the 
field, and the Nepaulese, after having sus- 
tained several severe defeats, sued for peace, 
and the unsigned treaty of 1815 was duly 
ratified, March 4, 1816. Jung Bahadoor 
sent a contingent of Ghoorka troops to the 
aid of the British during the mutiny of 1857. 

Nepblalia.— Festivals celebrated in Greece 
in honour of various deities were so called 
because no wane was used during the fes- 
tivities. They were instituted at Athens 
B.C. 613, 

Nepshalites, Ephthaliies, or "White 
2q 



KEP 

HxTirs, a branch of the nation of the Huns, 
from whom the present Turcomans are 
probably descended, emigrated to the east- 
ern shores of the Caspian Sea, after their 
conquest by the Sienpi Tartars, a.d. 100. 
Having extended their conquests from that 
point to the centre of India, an expedition 
was undertaken against them by Firouz, king 
of Persia, who encountered the cavalry of the 
Huns supported by a line of 2,000 elephants, 
and lost both his army and his life, a.d. 488. 
They were subdued by the Turks about 
A.D. 545. 

]N"eptune. — The planet Uranus, discovered 
by the elder Herschel a.d. 1781, had deviated j 
so much from its primary position, that in i 
1S30 the longitudinal error amounted to half : 
a minute of space. This deviation could 
only be accounted for by the disturbing 
action of an undiscovered planet, which was 
discovered and called Neptune by Mr. Adams, 
of St. John's College, Cambridge, Oct. 1, 
1845. About the same time M. le Verrier, 
the famous French astronomer, made a 
similar discovery. 

Nekchinsk, or Nipchoo, (Treaty,) was 
concluded between Russia and China, set- 
tling the boundaries of these respective 
empires, Oct. 21, 1721. It provided for a 
Russian resident at Pekin, and permitted 
200 merchants to trade in China once in 
three years. In consequence of Catherine's 
death, it was not ratified until June 14, 
1728. 

Neeesheim (Battle) . — Anindecisive action 
was fought at this place, in Germany, between | 
the French, commanded by Moreau, and the 
Austrians, led by the archduke Charles, 
Aug. 10, 1796. 

Neki. {See Biajtchi.) 

Nervii. — This people of Belgiea are first 
mentioned by Ctesar B.C. 57, when he de- 
feated them in a great battle on the banks 
of the river Sambre. They rose again in 
arms B.C. 54, when they joined the Eburones ' 
in an unsuccessful attack upon the camp of ! 
Quintus Cicero. They were finally subdued 
by the Romans B.C. 53. At a meeting of the ' 
G-aUic states, B.C. 52, the Nervii sent 5,000 j 
men as their contingent to the rehef of 
Alesia. 

Nesbit Mooee, (Battle,) was fought | 
May 7, 1402, between the Scotch, under I 
Sir P. Hepburn, of Hailes, and the Enghsh, \ 
under the earls of Percy and March. The 
Scotch were defeated, their leader and most 
of his knights were slain, and the rest taken 
prisoners. 

IN'estoeians. — This heretical sect at first 
consisted of the followers of Nestorius, 
bishop of Constantinople (a.d. 428 — 431), 
who taught that the Virgin should not be 
worshipped as the mother of God, and that 
the divine and human natures were not so 
united in Christ as to form but one person. 
His views were condemned, and he himself 
deposed, by the council of Ephesus (the 
third general council) in 431 ; and after 
leading the hfe of an exile in Arabia, he 
died in Egypt about 439. Barsumas, bishop 
594 



NEU 

of Nisibis, estabhshed the doctrines in 
Persia in 440, and founded the school of 
Nisibis, which subsequently carried Nes- 
torianism into Egypt, Syria, Arabia, 
India, Tartary, and China. Babacus, arch- 
bishop of Seleucia, held a council in 499, at 
which the whole Persian church professed 
lyTestorian views, and made regulations pro- 
hibiting celibacy in the priesthood. A 
separate patriarchate, which was established 
about the same time at Seleucia, was trans- 
ferred to Bagdad in 752, and afterwards to 
Mosul. When the Portuguese, under Yasco 
de Gama, arrived on the Malabar coast in 
1498, they found upwards of 100 churches 
belonging to the Nestorian Christians. The 
inquisition was established at Goa to repress 
the heresy, and in 1807 the churches had 
dwindled to fifty-five. The IS'estorians reject 
image-worship, and regard the Scriptures 
as the only source whence true doctrine is 
to be derived. 

Netheelands, or Low Coxjnteies. — 
]J^ames often applied to the territories of 
which Holland (q. v.) and the modern king- 
dom of Belgium (q. v.) are composed. 

Neubueg (Bavaria). — The French seized 
this town, in the circle of Swabia, a.d. 1702. 
They abandoned it on the approach of Marl- 
borough, July 7, 1704. 

Netjchatel, or Neufchatel (Switzer- 
land), was a fief of the old kingdom of Bur- 
gundy, and had its line of counts tiU a.d. 
1288. It was admitted into the Swiss con- 
federation in 1398, and the county of Yalendis 
having been joined to it in 1579, the counts 
changed their title to that of Prince of Neu- 
chatel. On the death of William III. of 
England, on whom the title had devolved, 
it passed to his nephew, Frederick I. of Prus- 
sia, in 1702. Is^apoleon I. compelled the king 
of Prussia to surrender it in 1806, and gave it 
to General Berthier ; but it was restored to 
Prussia in 1814. A repubhcau government 
was established in 1843, since which time the 
king of Prussia's authority has been but nomi- 
nal. An attempt was made, Sept. 2, 1856, to 
re-establish the authority of the king of 
Prussia. It proved unsuccessful, and compli- 
cations having arisen, the great powers at 
last mediated between the contending parties 
in a conference assembled at Paris March 25, 
1857, and a treaty was signed at Paris May 
26, by which the king of Prussia resigned his 
sovereignty, retaining only the title of Prince 
of IVeuehatel. 

Neuhausel (Hungary). — This fortress, 
taken by the Turks a.d. 1663, was wrested 
from them by the duke of Lorraine in 1685. 

Neusteia (France). — On the death of 
Clovis at Paris, Nov. 27, 511, his kingdom 
was divided, when Soissons and its teiTitory, 
afterwards called Neustria, or West France, 
was allotted to his son Clotaire I., who 
reigned from 511 to 561. 

SOVEEEIGIfS OE S-ETJSTEIA. 

A.D. A.D. 

Chilperic 1 5151 I Clovis II 638 

Clotaire II 584 Clot.iire IH 656 

DagobertI (523 Thierry III 670 



NEU 



Clovis III 691 

Childebert IIL .... 69-5 

Dagobert III 711 

ChilpeiicII 715 



Thierry IV 720 

ChUpericIII 742 

Pepin 752 

Caiioman 768 



Carloman died Dec. 3, 771, and his brotlier 
Charlemagne became sole king of France. 
Louis I., in 837, allotted Neustria to his 
youngest son, Charles the Bald, who in 840 
became king of France, and the first of the 
Carlovingian hne. 

Neutrality Laws. — The plenipotentiaries 
of Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, 
Eussia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled 
in Paris, in order to establish a uniform 
system respecting the relations between belli- 
gerents and neutrals, agreed to the fol- 
lowing points : — The abolition of priva- 
teering ; the right of a neutral flag to 
carry enemy's goods, unless contraband of 
war; the freedom of neutral goods, not 
being contraband of war, from capture when 
under an enemy's flag; and that blockades, 
to be binding, must be eflFective. The decla- 
ration embodying these resolutions was signed 
at Paris, April 16, 1856. {See Armed Neu- 
trality.) 

Neva (Battle). — ^Alexander I. of Russia 
defeated the Swedes and the Danes on the 
banks of the Neva a.d. 1241, and took the 
surname of Newski in commemoration of the 
event. 

Neva (Russia) . — Inundations of the Neva 
occurred in 1728, 1729, 1735, 1740, 1742, and 
1777 ; but the most extensive and disastrous 
happened Nov. 19, 1824, when the river rose 
to the first story of the houses in St. Peters- 
burg. Carriages and horses were swept 
away, and a regiment of carbineers, who had 
climbed to the roofs of their barracks, were 
drowned. At Cronstadt a 100-gun ship of 
the hne was left in the middle of the market- 
place, more than 10,000 hves were lost, and 
property to the amount of many millions was 
destroyed by this terrible calamity. 

Nevaheud, (Battle,) called by the Arabs 
"the victory of victories," because it sub- 
jected the Persians to their sway, was 
fought A.D. 640, and Persia became a Saracen 
province. 

Neville's Cross, (Battle,) was fought at 
this place, near Durham, between the Scotch, 
under David II., and the Enghsh, under 
Philippa, queen of Edward III., and her 
general Lord Percy, Oct 12, 1346. The Scotch 
were defeated with the loss of 15,000 men 
Mlled. Their king was taken prisoner, and 
brought to London, where he remained in 
captivity eleven years. 

Nevis (Atlantic Ocean) , one of the Lee- 
ward Islands, discovered by Columbus, and 
named after the mountain Nieves, in Spain, 
was first colonized by the English a.d. 1628. 
It was taken by the French Feb. 14, 1782, 
and restored by the treaty of Versailles, 
Sept. 3, 1783. It rose to great importance ; 
but since the emancipation of the slaves, 
Aug. 1, 1834, has declined. ,The Wesleyaus 
founded a mission here in 1789. 

New Albany (North America). — This 
595 



NEW 

city, on the Ohio, in Indiana, was founded 
A.D. 1813. 

New Amsterdam (Berbice).— This town 
was commenced by the Dutch a.d. 1796. 

Newark (Nottinghamshire).— The castle 
of Newark was built a.d. 1125 by Alexander, 
bishop of Lincoln, who, having rebelled 
against King Stephen in 1139, was taken and 
sent prisoner to bis own castle. Here 
King John died, Oct. 19, 1216, and Cardinal 
Wolsey was a guest after his fall in 1530. 
Edward YI. granted its first charter of in- 
corporation, which was extended by Charles 
II. Newark was given up to the Scotch army 
May 8, 1646. In 1775 the wooden bridge 
over the Trent was replaced by one of brick. 

New Britain (Pacific Ocean). — William 
Dampier discovered this island, separated 
from New Guinea by a narrow strait, 
Feb. 27, 1700. 

New Brunswick (North America), ori- 
ginally formed a part of Nova Scotia, at that 
time caUed Acadia, or New France. The 
first attempt to colonize it was made a.d. 
1639, and a number of French emigrants 
settled in the country in 1672. It was ceded 
to England by the treaty of Utrecht, 
April 11, 1713. In 1764 the first British 
colonists landed, and in 1785 the country was 
separated from Nova Scotia and named 
New Brunswick. A great conflagration 
occurred in this colony in 1825, when a 
district of more than 100 miles in length, 
including many towns, was destroyed. 

Newburn (Battle). — The Scotch defeated 
some of the adherents of Charles I. at this 
place, upon the Tyne, near Newcastle, 
Aug. 27, 1640. 

Newbury (Battles). — The royaKst army, 
commanded by Charles I., attacked the 
parhamentarians at this village in Berkshire, 
Sept. 20, 1643. The cavalry were completely 
defeated by the royahsts, but the infantry 
stood firm, and Essex was enabled to retire 
in good order. Lord Falkland fell in this 
encounter. A second battle was fought at 
Newbury, Oct. 27, 1644, when the parliamen- 
tarians, commanded by Waller and the earl 
of Manchester, failed in their attack upon 
the king's forces, and afterwards withdrew 
into winter quarters. 

New Caledonia (Pacific Ocean). — Cap- 
tain Cook discovered this island Sept. 4, 1774, 
and landed upon it and named it the follow- 
ing day. 

Newcastle Administration. — The death 
of Mr. Pelham, at that time prime minister, 
occurred March 6, 1754, and his brother, 
the duke of Newcastle, a few days afterwards, 
was appointed the head of the government. 
The cabinet consisted of, — 

Treasury Duke of Newcastle. 

Lord Chancellor Earl of Hardwicke. 

President of the Council . .Earl Granville. 

Privy rieal Lord Gower. 

Chancellor of Excliequer..Mr. H. Bilson Legge. 
^ . . , „ ^ . ^ f Earl of Holdemesse. 
Principal Secretaries of) gi^. .^>ijos. Eobius.on, after- 

Sta'te ( wards Lord Grantham. 

Admiralty Lord Anson. 

Board of Trade Earl of Halifax. 

2 Q 2 



NEW 

The duke of Marlborougli superseded Lord 
Gower as privy seal, Jan. 8, 1755 ; and 
Sir George Lyttleton, bart., afterwards 
Lord Lyttleton, became chancellor of the 
exchequer, "N'ov. 22, 1755. Mr. Henry Fox, 
afterwards Lord HoEand, succeeded Sir 
Thomas Eobinson as one of the principal 
secretaries of state, Nov. 25, 1755. The 
duke of Newcastle reaigned office Nov. 11, 
1756. {See Devostshire AnMiNisTEATioif .) 
Newcastle and Pitt Adjiinisteation, 
also called Chatham (First) Administration. 
The Devonshire Administration was dissolved 
April 5, 1757, and after negotiations that 
extended over neai'ly three months, the earl 
of Newcastle returned to the Treasury, 
June 29, while William Pitt, afterwards 
Lord Chatham, was the actual head of the 
government. The cabinet was thus consti- 
tuted : — 



Treasury Duke of Newcastle. 

1/ord Keeper Sii- Robert Heiiley. 

President of the Council . . Earl Granville. 

Privy Seal Earl Temple. 

Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. H. Bilson Legge. 
-D.J • 1 c!„»„ + ^„„ „ f William Pitt, iifterwaxds 
Principal Secretaries of» Earl Chatham. 

^^^^ { Earl of Holdeinesse. 

Admiralty Lord Anson. 

Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. 

Board of Ti-ade Eaii of Halifax. 



George 11. died suddenly Oct. 25, 1760, but 
the Newcastle and Pitt Administration 
retained office, though certain changes 
followed in a short time. Lord Keeper 
Henley was made lord chancellor Jan. 16, 
1761. Viscount Barrington became chan- 
cellor of the exchequer March 12, 1761. 
Mr. Charles Tovmshend took the Ordnance 
March 18, 1761. Lord Sandys succeeded 
the earlof Hahfax as president of the Board 
of Trade, March 21, 1761. The earl of Bute 
succeeded the earl of Holdernesse as one of 
the principal secretaries of state, March 25, 
1761. Pitt having obtained information of 
a secret treaty between France and Spain, 
urged upon his colleagues to declare war 
against Spain. This they refused to do, where- 
upon he resigned, and'the earl of Egremont 
was appointed in his place, Oct. 9, 1761. His 
relative. Earl Temple, foUowed his example, 
and the privy seal was intrusted to the duke 
of Bedford, Nov. 27, 1761. The ministry 
struggled on vsithout its real head until 
May, 1762, when the earl of Newcastle re- 
signed. {See Bute Administeatiok.) 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne occupies the site 
of the Pons MYa, a fortress of the Eomans 
built about a.d. 120. The Saxon kings had a 
residence here called Ad Murum, and in the 
year 653 it was the scene of the baptism of 
two royal converts — Penda, king of the 
Mercians, and Sigibert, king of the East 
Angles. The Danes destroyed all the monas- 
teries and churches of Newcastle, and miu-- 
dured their inmates, tu 876. At the time of 
the Conquest it was called Monkchester, 
from the number of monks. The castle 
which gives its name to the town was built 



NEW 

in 1080 by Eobert Curthose, the eldest son 
of William I. It was seized in 1135 bv 
David I., Idng of Scotland. The Scotch held it 
tUl 1157, when it was restored to Henry II. 
BaUiol, king of Scotland, did homage for 
that crown to Edward I. in the haU of the 
castle, in 1292. In the war between Charles I. 
and his parliament, Newcastle embraced the 
king's cause, but was besieged by the earl of 
Leven, and, after a gallant resistance, was 
taken, Oct. 29, 1644. Newcastle was the 
head-quarters of the king's army in the 
rebellion of 1745. St. Nicholas' Church, built 
in 1091, and destroyed by fire in 1210, was 
rebuilt in 1359. St. Andrew's Church was 
built in the 12th century. All Saints' Church, 
commenced in 1786, and completed in 1796, 
stands on the site of an old edifice that existed 
in 1284. The Literary and Philosophical 
Society was founded in 1793, and the new 
lecture-room in 1802. The assembly-room 
was foimded in 1766, and the dispensary in 
1777. St. Thomas's Church, commenced 
in 1828, was opened in 1830. The town gaol 
was built in 1827 ; and the theatre, built in 
1788, was pulled down in 1835, and was re- 
opened in 1837. The Newcastle and Dar- 
hngton EaUway was opened April 15, 184i. 
A lire broke out about 12 a.m. Oct. 6, 1854, 
in Gateshead, and, having spread to New- 
castle, many hves were lost, and property 
estimated at more than a million sterhng was 
destroyed. 

New College (London) was founded at 
St. John's Wood, a.d. 1850, for the educa- 
tion of dissenting ministers. 

New College (Oxford), at first called 
St. Mary of Winchester, was founded by 
William of Wykeham, who was Ijorn at 
Wykeham, in Hampshire, a.d. 1324. The 
foundation-stone was laid March 5, 1380, 
and the building was completed in six years, 
the society taking possession April 14, 1386. 
WiUiam of Wykeham died Sept. 27, 1401, 
and was buried in the chantry of Winchester 
Cathedral. James I., his queen, and the 
prince of Wales, were entertained in the hall 
of New College, Aug. 29, 1605. The garden- 
court was built in 1684, and the chapel was 
restored by Wyatt in 1789. 

New England (North America). — The 
Puritans gave this name, a.d. 1620, tb their 
settlements in Massachusetts Bay and the 
surrounding districts of North Amei'ica. 

New Exchange (London), founded in 
the Strand June 10, a.d. 1608, was removed 
in 1737. 

New Foeest (Hampshire) was formed by 
order of William I., a.d. 1079. William of 
Malniesbury says that William I. destroyed 
the towns and churches for more than thirty 
miles, for the purpose of forming this forest ; 
and others affirm that he leveEed fifty-two 
churches to the ground. William Eufus, while 
hunting in this forest, was kiQed by an arrow 
shot by Walter TyrreU, Aug. 2, 1100. In 1788 
a survey was taken of the New Forest, when 
the amount of land was estimated at 92,363 
acres. The timber was found to be rapidly 
decaying in the reign of Charles II. j and John 



NEW 

Norton, woodward of the New Forest, was 
ordered to inclose 300 acres as a nursery for 
joung oaks, Dec. 13, 1669. A hurricane 
swept over the New Forest in November, 
1703, when no less than 4,000 of the best oaks 
were destroyed. 

Newfoundland (Atlantic Ocean) was 
visited by Norwegians about a.d. 1000, 
and re-discovered by John Cabot June 24, 
1497. A settlement was attempted in 1536 
without success ; and a charter for the 
colonization of Newfoundland was granted 
May 2, 1610. Three settlements were after- 
wards made, viz., by Lord Baltimore, in 
1623 ; by Lord Falkland, in 1633 ; and by Sir 
David Kirk, in 1654. Squabbles between the 
French and English settlers led to hostilities 
in 1696, and again in 1702 ; but by the peace 
of Utrecht it was declared to belong to 
England, April 11, 1713. An act was 
passed prohibiting the Americans from fish- 
mg, March 30, 1775 ; but by the treaty of 
Versailles this was withdrawn, Sept. 3, 1783. 
The representative assembly was established 
in 183"i, and Newfoundland was made a 
bishopi'ic in 1839. 

New Feance (North America). — A 
French expedition, under Verazzano, sent 
out by Francis I., took possession of a large 
extent o± territory on the north-east coast 
of America, and gave it the name of New 
France, a.d. 1524. It is called Canada 
(q.v.). 

Newgate (London), mentioned as a prison 
as early as a.d. 1207, was burnt in the great 
fire ot 1666, and was afterwards rebuilt. It 
was pulled down in 1778, and the new edifice 
was nearly completed when the Gordon 
rioters attacked it, June 6, 1780, liberated 
the prisoners, and set it on fire. It was 
rebuilt, and ceased to be a debtors' prison in 
1S15. Mrs. Fry commenced her labours for 
improving the condition of the female pri- 
soners in Newgate in 1808. She states that 
the usual amusements were swearing, gaming, 
and fighting ; and that some were destitute 
even of clothing, while others enjoyed deli- 
cacies sent in by their friends. An attempt 
was made to classify prisoners in 1811 ; and 
the inspectors of prisons, iu their annual 
reports of 1836, 1838, and 1843, called atten- 
tion to the serious evils arising from gaol 
association. The iuterior of the prison was 
repaired in 1851. 

New Geoegia (Pacific Ocean). — ^Vancou- 
ver bestowed this name upon the various 
groups of islands iu Nootka Sound, a.d. 
1792. The term is sometimes restricted to 
Solomon's Islands, discovered by the Spa- 
niard Mendana in 1567. 

New Granada (South America) was dis- 
covered by Ojeda a.d. 1499. The first 
settlement in the country was made by the 
Spaniards a.d. 1510. The people proclaimed 
their independence in 1811, united with 
Venezuela in 1819, and with other South 
American states in 1823. The union was 
dissolved in 1831 ; New Granada became 
an independent republic, and General San- 
tander was installed president, April 1, 



NEW 

1833. It has been the scene of numerous 
revolutions. 

New Guinea (Pacific Ocean). (See Pa- 
pua.) 

New Hampshire (North America) was 
first settled a.d. 1623, and placed itself 
under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 
1641. It was made a separate province by 
act of parliament in 1679, and the first con- 
gress assembled in 1776. A constitution 
was drawn up in 1784, and amended in 1792. 

New Haemont (North America). — The 
German Sociahsts removed to this town, in 
Connecticut, a.d. 1814. They sold the place 
to Eobert Owen in 1824, but his attempt to 
estabhsh a communist town resulted in 
a failure. 

New Haven (Connecticut), was first 
settled A.D. 1638, by a colony of English under 
Theophilus Eaton, the first governor, and 
C. Mather, the first minister, called the 
Moses and Aaron of the settlement. It was 
united by royal charter to Connecticut in 
1665, and in 1784 New Haven was consti- 
tuted a city. The most important institution 
in this city, and the oldest and most exten- 
sive in the United States, is Yale College, 
founded in 1701 atKiUiDgworth, and removed 
to New Haven in 1717. New Haven was 
taken by the British in July, 1779. The 
constitution of the United States was adopted 
by New Haven, Jan. 9, 1788. 

New Heb kides (Pacific Ocean) .—-One por- 
tion of this extensive group was discovered 
by Quiros, a.d. 1605, and was proved to be 
islands by Bougainville in 1763. Cai)taia 
Cook explored the group, giving it the name 
of the New Hebrides, in July, 1774. Captain 
Bligh discovered the most northern portion 
of the group in 1789. 

New Holland. — The name given by the 
Dutch to Australia (q.v.). 

New Independents.-— This sect was 
founded by John Eobinson, a Norfolk divine, 
in 1616. They maintain that every congre- 
gation of Christians has, according to the 
New Testament, fuU ecclesiastical power 
over its members, and hence they are called 
New Independents. The Scottish Inde- 
pendents, also called New Independents, and 
Haldanites, or Haldanite Independents, from 
their founder, Eobert Haldane, arose in 
1797. 

New Inn (London) was founded a.d. 1485, 
and is attached to the Middle Temple. 

New Inn Hall (Oxford). — A collection 
of houses called TriUeck's Inns a.d. 1349, 
from John TrOleck, bishop of Hereford, 
were inherited in 1391 by WiUiam of Wyke- 
ham, who granted them to New CoUege, 
and they received the name of New Inn 
Hall. An additional range of building was 
added m 1836. 

New Ireland (Pacific Ocean) was dis- 
covered and named by Carteret, a.d. 1767. 

New Jersey (North America) was first 
colonized by the Dutch from New York, 
between a.d. 1614 and 1620. A colony of 
Swedes and Finns settled here in 1627. 
Charles II. in 1664 granted this territory to 



I^W 



his brother the duke of York, who sold the 
patent to Lord Berkeley and Sir G-. Carteret. 
The Dutch in 1673 regained possession, but 
resigned it in 1674. Great confusion having 
arisen in regard to the appointment of 
governors, the proprietors. Lord Berkeley, [ 
&c., in 1702 surrendered the government to : 
the crown. New Jersey formed part of the j 
state of New York until 1736, when a sepa- { 
ration ensued. It pubhshed its constitution i 
Jiily 2, 1776, and was one of the original 
states of the Union. 

New Lanaek (Lanarkshire) was founded 
by David Dale, a.d. 1783. Eobert Owen en- 
deavoured to establish communism here in 
1801. ^ ^^. 

New LoifDOif (North America). — This 
town, in Connecticut, founded a.d. 1644, was 
taken and burned by Arnold, Sept. 8, 1781. 

Newmaeket (Cambridgeshire). — The 
earliest mention of this town is in a.d. 1227, 
when it is supposed to have derived its name 
from a market removed hither from Esning 
on account of the plague. James I. erected 
a hunting-seat, afterwards called the Kng's 
House. Having fallen into decay, it was re- 
built by Charles II., who was a great patron 
of horse-racing. It was almost entirely de- 
stroyed by fire March 22, 1683, during the 
races, and a large portion of the town fell 
a sacrifice to the devouring element on the 
same occasion. 

New Mexico (America). — This territory 
of the United States was formed Sept. 9, 
1850, out of the country ceded by Mexico 
after the war vrith the Americans. 

New Orleans (Louisiana) was founded by 
Bienville, the French governor of Louisiana, 
A.D. 1717. The colony was conveyed to Spain 
in 1762, and restored to France in 1801. Na- 
poleon I. sold it to the United States in 1803. 
The battle of New Orleans took place Jan. 8, 
1815, between the Americans, under General 
Jackson, and the English, under General 
Pakenham, in which the latter were defeated 
with the loss of 3,000 in killed and wounded. 
The university of New Orleans was founded 
in 1849. 

New Philippiites (Pacific Ocean), more 
properly called the Carohnes, were named 
from La Carolina, a term applied to one of 
those islands visited by the Spaniard Lazeano 
A.D. 1686. An attempt was made by the Jesuits 
of Manilla to establish missions here about 
1600. The small -pox committed terrible 
ravages among the natives in 1854. 

Newpoet (Isle of Wight). — The parish 
church was built a.d. 1172 ; and the grammar- 
school was founded in 1619. In the school- 
room of the town negotiations were opened 
between Charles I. and the parhament, Sept. 
18, 1648, and closed, the king having agreed 
to some of the demands, Nov. 27, 1648. The 
coffin of the Princess EHzabeth, daughter of 
Charles I., was discovered in the church in 
1793. 

Newport (Monmouthshire) . — Edward III. 
granted this town its first charter, which was 
confirmed by James I. Of the old castle, 
supposed to have been foxmded by Eobert 



NEW 

Fitzroy, earl of Gloucester, only a square 
tower and a part of the great hall now remain. 
A handsome stone bridge was built over the 
river Usk in 1800. This town was the scene 
of serious Chartist riots, Monday, Nov. 4, 
1839. The rioters, led by one John Frost, a 
retired draper of Newport, amounting to 
10,000 in number, armed with guns, &c., met 
in front of the Westgate Hotel, where the 
magistrates were assembled, with about 30 
soldiers and several special constables. The 
rioters commenced breaking the windows of 
the hotel, and fired upon the inmates. The 
soldiers succeeded in dispersing the mob, 
which, vrith its leaders, fled from the city, 
leaving about 20 dead, and many dangerously 
wounded. Frost and several of his associates 
were apprehended on the following day, 
tried at Monmouth Dec. 31, and found 
guilty of high treason, Jan. 5, 1840. Their 
sentence was subsequently commuted into 
transportation for hfe. 

New Kivee (London).— In 1605 the lord 
mayor and citizens of London were em- 
powered to bring a stream of fresh water to 
the north parts of the city of London, from 
ChadweU and AmweU, in the county of Hert- 
ford, but nothing was done till Hugh Middle- 
ton offered, March 28, 1609, to begin the 
work within two months, and to make and 
finish the river, provided the common counci 
would transfer to him the powers vest ed in 
them by two acts of parliament. This was 
agreed to, and the New Eiverwas completed 
as far as the basin at Ishngton, S'ept. 29, 
1613. 

Newet (Ireland) . — A Cistercian abbey was 
founded here a.d. 1157, by Maurice Mac 
Loughlin, king of Ireland, and a castle was 
built by John De Courcey. It was destroyed , 
in 1318, and rebuilt in 1480. Marshal Bagnal 
restored the castle, rebuilt the town, for 
which James I., in 1613, granted him the 
entire lordship in fee to him and his heirs for | 
ever, and peopled it with Protestant settlers. 
After the Eestoration, the to\^^l continued to 
flourish tin 1689, when it was burned by the 
duke of Berwick in his retreat from Duke 
Schomberg. The custom-house was built in 
1726. A very considerable trade was carried j 
on with the West Indies in 1758. 

News-books, or pamphlets of news, the 
foremnners of the modern newspaper, were 
first issued from the English press in the 16th 
century. They merely treated of some poli- 
tical event, either foreign or domestic, and 
did not appear at stated periods, or even 
under the same title . A proclamation against 
certain " bookes printed of newes, of the 
prosperous successes of the king's majestie's 
arms in Scotland," wasissuedinl544. Acollec- 
tion, commencing in 1579, is preserved in the 
British Museum. The news-books continued 
to appear until the close of the 17th century. 
Burton remarks, in the " Anatomy of Melan- 
choly," of which the first edition was published 
in 1614, " If any read now-a-days, it is a play- 
book, or pamphlet of newes." {See News- 
papers.) 
News-lettees were used in this country 



NEW 



NEW 



as a medium for the circulaton of intelli- 
gence before the printed news-book (q.v.), 
the forerunner of the modern newspaper, 
made its appearance. A writein the new 
edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" 
remarks (xvi. 180), " Their first journalists 
were the writers of 'news-letters.' Origi- 
nally the dependents of great men, each em- 
ployed in keeping his own master or patron 
well informed, during his absence from court, 
of all that transpired, the duty grew at length 
into a calling. The writer had his periodical 
subscription Hst, and, instead of writing a 
single letter, wrote as many letters as he had 
customers. Then one, more enterprising 
than the rest, established an 'intelligence- 
office,' with a staif of clerks." News-letters, 
giving an account 'of events that happened 
during the Wars of the Eoses, are given in 
Sir John Fenn's collection of the " Paston 
Letters." 

New South Shetland Isles (Pacific 
Ocean). — The group, consisting of twelve 
islands, was discovered by Captain Smith 
A.D. 1819. 

New Sottth Wales (Australia). — The 
eastern coast of Australia, from Cape Howe 
to Cape York, was discovered by Captain 
Cook, A.D. 1770. He took possession of it 
in the name of the king, calling it New South 
Wales, and he named the island in which he 
performed the ceremony. Possession Island. 
The first convicts arrived Jan. 20, 1788, and 
the settlement formed at Botany Bay was 
transferred to Sydney (q. v.) in 1789. The 
colony received a new constitution in 1855. 

Newspapers. — The Eomans possessed 
publications agreeing in some respects with 
the modern newspaper. These manuscript 
journals, called Acta Diurna, were, as 
the title denotes, simply records of daily 
occurrences. They were issued by govern- 
ment authority as early as B.C. 691. The 
privilege was vdthdrawn about B.C. 40. 
During the wars carried on between the 
state of Venice and the Turks, the Gazzetta, 
in manuscript, was published at Venice, 
of which the first number appeared, it 
is believed, a.d. 1536, and was continued 
monthly. Stations were appointed where 
the people might come to hear them read, 
and thirty volumes are preserved in one of 
the libraries of Florence. The earliest in 
the British Museum Mbrary is a printed 
copy, dated 1570. Gazzetta, the name of 
the coin paid by the auditors for hearing the 
news read, was transferred to the news- 
paper. Offices were estabhshed about this 
time in France, on the suggestion of the 
father of Montaigne, the essayist, for re- 
ceiving intimations that any person wished 
to make pubhc. These were copied out and 
posted on the waUs, and eventually gave rise 
to regularly published advertising sheets. 
The "news-letters" {q. v.) were introduced 
during the reign of Henry VI. In these the 
gossip of the town was collected by " corre- 
spondents," and posted to 'their employers 
in the country, at a salary of a few pounds a 
year. The collection of newspapers in the 



British Museum contains seven numbers — 
four in manuscript and three in Roman 
type— of the " English Mercuric," the first 
dated July 2.3, 1588. For many years this 
was considered to be the earliest printed 
English newspaper; but, in 1839, Mr. Watts 
showed that it was a forgery. The same 
collection contains what must be considered 
as the first regularly published newspaper in 
England, bearing the title of " Weekly 
Newes," the first number being dated May 
23, 1622. The " Daily Proceedings of both 
Houses of Parliament," from Nov. 3, 1640, 
to Nov. 3, 1641, in two volumes, was the 
first systematic account of the kind laid 
before the pubhc. It was followed by 
" Diurnal Occurrences," brought out weekly'; 
and this was succeeded by the host of 
" Mercuries," including the famous " Mer- 
cujrius Britannicus," from 1642 to 1654. 
During the residence of the court of Charles 
II. at Oxford, on account of the plague that 
devastated the metropohs, the first number 
of the "Oxford Gazette" appeared, Nov. 13, 
1665. It was transferred to London with 
the court, and took the title of " London 
Gazette," Feb. 5, 1666. Amongst the 
earhest commercial papers was the " City 
Mercury," vrith which L'Estrange was con- 
nected, commenced Nov. 4, 1675. The first 
gratuitously circulated paper was " Domes- 
tick Intelligence," in 1679. The forerunner 
of literary journals is the " Mereurius Li- 
brarius," first pubhshed April 9, 1680. The 
" Daily Gourant," the first morning paper, 
appeared March 11, 1702. Archbishop Laud's 
licensing decree, aimed at the newspaper 
press, came into operation July 11, 1637 ; 
the restriction being renewed at intervals by 
act of parliament, till it expired in 1693. 
A stamp duty of one penny was proposed 
in the House of Commons in 1701, but 
abandoned. An act (10 Anne, c. 19) was, 
however, carried imposing the stamp for a 
period of thirty- two years, Aug. 1, 1712. 
The biU for the abolition of the stamp 
duty (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27) received the 
royal assent June 15, 1855. A duty of one 
shilling on advertisements had been origin- 
ally charged, which was raised in time to 
three shillings ; and on the 31st of May, 
1815, the chancellor of the exchequer im- 
posed an additional sixpence. This tax was 
aboHshed by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 
1853). The first newspaper published in 
Scotland, printed by order of the Protector, 
was called " Mereurius Politicus," and it 
appeared Oct. 26, 1653. It was for the use 
of his troops in garrison at Leith, and the 
publication was transferred to Edinburgh 
in ]N ovember, 1654. The first number of the 
" Mereurius Caledonius " appeared Dec. 31, 
1660. The " Caledonian Mercury " was fii-st 
issued April 28, 1720. " Pue's Occurrences," 
a daily paper, made its appearance in Ire- 
land in 1700, and was probably the first in 
that country ; the second, also daily, being 
"Falkener's Joui-nal" in 1728. The press 
in India originated with " Kicking' s Ga- 
zette," pubhshed at Calcutta Jan. 29, 1781. 
699 



FEW 



JTEW 



The "Calcutta Gazette" was brought out 
by the governmeut March 4, 1784. The 
«' Bengal Hurkaru," started in January, 
1795, appeared as a daily paper April 29, 
1819. A censorship was established by Lord 
Wellesley, April, 1799. George Howe, a 
native of St. Kitts, established the " Sydney 
Gazette," the first Australian newspaper, 
March 5, 1803. The " Boston ISTews Letter," 
the first number being dated April 24, 
1704, w^as the first newspaper pubhshed 
ia America. The "Daily Sun," of New 
York, which first appeared Sept. 23, 1833, 
was the fia-st of the penny papers of that 
country. French journalism took its rise 
from Theophraste Eeuaudot, who brought 
out the "Gazette "in May, 1631, and ob- 
tained a monopoly of the business of supply- 
ing the Parisians with news by letters patent 
granted in October of the same year. A 
Trankfort bookseller brought out the first 
German newspaper in 1615. In 1605 Abra- 
ham Verhoeren received from the archduke 
the exclusive privilege of pubhshing news, 
and commenced the "IS^ieuwe Tydingheu" 
of Antwerp. The " Gazette van Gend" 
appeared at -Ghent in 1667. According 
to the " Iv'ewspaper Press Directory for 
1862," there are now published in the 
United Kingdom 1,165 newspapers, dis- 
tributed as follows : — England, 845 ; Wales, 
33; Scotland, 139; Ireland, 134; Channel 
Islands, 14. Of these there are 43 daily 
papers published in England, 1 in Wales, 
16 in Ireland, 9 in Scotland, 2 in the 
Channel Islands. On reference to preced- 
ing editions of the "Directory," we find 
that, in 1821, there were pubhshed in the 
United' Kingdom 267 journals; in 1831, 
295 ; in 1841, 472 ; and in 1851, 563. The 
following is a list of the newspapers that have 
appeared in the metropohs, vnth thedate of 
their establishment. Many of them, how- 
ever, enjoyed but a short existence : — 



Albion Oct. 15, 1831 

Antl-GaUican Monitor ..' 1809 

Argus 3789 

Association Medical Journal (weekly) Jan. 7, 1853 

AthenEeiun (weekly) Jan. 1828 

Athenian Gazette March. 17, 1690 

Atlas (weekly) May 21, 1826 

Atlas (for India, weekly) April, 1842 

Australian Gazette (weekly) 18-50 

Aurora (daily) 1807 

Bell's Lire in London (weekly) 1820 

Bell's Weekly Messenger (weekly) .... May 1, 1796 

Britannia (weekly) AprU, 1839 

British Banner (weekly) Jan. 1, 1848 

Bent s Literary Advertiser (monthly) 1802 

Bingley's Journal 1770 

British Journal Sept. 22, 1722 

British Standard (weekly) Jan. 2, 1857 

Briton. May 29, 1762 

Builder (weekly) 1842 

Building IS ews (weekly) March 1, 1854 

Canadian News (fortnightly) 1854 

Chemical Gazette (fortriightly) Nov. 1, 1842 

Christian Cabinet (weekly) July 27, 1855 

Christian Chronicle (weekly) Nov. 13, 1857 

Christian Times (weekly) Aug. 1848 

City Mercury Nov. 4, 1675 

City Press (weekly) July 18. 1857 

Civil Service Gazette (weeVly) Jan. 1, 1863 

Clerical Jom-nal (fortnightly) May, 1853 



CoUiery Guardian (weekly) Jan. 2, 1858 

Cooper's John Bull 1826 

Cottage Gardener (weekly) Oct. 1848 

County Courts Chronicle (monthly) 1846 

Couriier de I'Europe (weekly) 1840 

Courant (weekly) Oct. 9, 1621 

Court Cucixlar (weekly) April 26, 1856 

I Court Joiuual (weekly) 1829 

Covent Garden Journal Jan. 4, 1752 

Craftsman 1726 

Critic (fortnightly) Nov. 1843 

Daily Com-aut March 11, 1703 

Daily News Jan. 21, 1846 

Daily Telegraph June 29, 1855 

Daily Universal Eetoster Jan. 13, 1785 

Diary 1789 

Dispatch (weekly) 1801 

Diurnal Occiu-rences (weekly) 1641 

Domestick Intelligence 1679 

Dyer's >.'ews Letter 1712 

Economist (weekly) Sept. 2, 1843 

Ecclesiastical Gazette (monthly) July 10, 1838 

Educational Times (monthly) Oct. 1847 

Enffineer (weekly) Jan. 4, 1856 

English Churchman (weekly) Jan. 1843 

En^li^h Journal of Education (monthly) Jan 1, 1847 

Era (weekly) Sept. 30, 1838 

Evening Herald June 29, 1857 

Evening Journal (three times a week) Oct. 6, 1851 

Evening MaU (three times a week) 1789 

Evening Po-t Sept. 6, 1709 

Evening Star (daily) March 17, 1 856 

Examiner (weekly) Jan. 1808 

Express (dailv) Sept. 1, 1846 

Field (weekly) Jan. 1, 1853 

Freeman (weekly) Jan. 24, 1855 

Free Press (weekly) Dec. 13, 1855 

Friend (monthly) 184:^ 

Gardeners' Chronicle (weekly) Jan. 28, 1841 

Gardenei-s' and Farmers' Journal (weekly). . . . 184S 

Gas and Water Times (monthly) 1853 

General Advertiser 1766 

General Shipping List (weekly) Oct. 3, 1853 

Globe (daily) 1803 

Guardian (weekly) Jan. 21, 1846 

Home News (weekly) Jan. 1847 

Homeward Mail (on arrival of each mail from 

the East) 1857 

Illustrated Inventor (weekly) Oct. 31, 1857 

Illustrated London News (weekly) . . May 14, 1842 

lUustrated Times (weekly! June 9, 1853 

Independent Whig 1710 

Indian Mail (on an-ival of maU viA Mar- 
seilles) May, 1843 

Indian News (ou aiiival of each Indian 

mail) June, 1840 

Inquirer (weekly) July 9, 1842 

Distructor 1808 

Jacobite Joui-nal Dec. 1747 

Jesuit 1782 

Jewish Chronicle (weekly) 1845 

John BuU (weekly) Dec. 17, 1820 

Johnson's Sunday Monitor 1778 

Jom-nal of Gas Lighting (fortnighly) Feb. 10, 1849 

Journal of the Society of Arts (weekly) 1852 

Journal of the Photographic Society 

(monthlv) March, 1853 

Jurist (weekly) 18:37 

Justice of the Peace (weekly) Jan. 28, 1837 

Kingdom's Intelligencer Jan. 7, 1661 

Kingdom's Weekly Post Oct. 1645 

Knight's Official Advertiser (monthly) . . Nov. 1855 

Ladies' Mercury Feb. 18, 1692 

Lady's Newspaper (weekly) Jan. 2, 1847 

Lancet (weeldy) Oct. 3, 1823 

Law Chronicle (monthly) 1854 

Law Times (weekly) April 8, 1843 

Leader (weekly) March 30, 1850 

Liberator 'monthly) July, 1855 

Literary Com-ier of Grub Street 1737 

Literarium (weekly) Aug. 1, 1855 

Literai-y Churchman (fortnightly) May 5, 1855 

Literary Gazette (weekly) Jan. 1817 

Lloyd's Weekly Loudon Newspaper Nov. 1842 

London Gazette Feb. 5, 1666 

London Gazette (twice a week) Nov. 7, 1665 



KEW 



A.D. 

London Mail (fortnightly) 1852 

Londoner Deutsches Journal (weekly) Aug. 4, 1856 
London Mercury ... .Tnrift 3. Ififlf! 


Magnet (weekly) 

Mark Lane Express (weekly) 

MeHical Circular (weekly) 

Medical Times (weekly) 


.... March, 1837 

Dec. 1832 

. . Jan. 14, 1852 
.Tulv fi ^s.^n 


Mercantile Journal (weekly) 1832 

Military Spectator (weekly) 1 857 

Mining J..urnal (weekly) Aug. 29, 18o8 

Mitchell's Mai-itimeKegister (weekly (Sept. 27, 1859 
Monetary Times (three times a week) Jan. 5, 1858 

Morning Advertiser (ilailyj Feb. 8, 1794 

Morning Chronicle (ciaiiy) June 28, 171)9 

Morning Herald (daily) Nov. 1, 1780 

Morning Post (daily) Nov. 1772 

Morning News (daily) 1856 

Morning Star (daily) March 17, 1856 

Musical Gazette (weekly) Jan. 26, 1 856 

Musical Times (monthly) June, 1844 

Musical World (weekly) 1825 

Naval and Militaiy Gazette (weekly) Feb. 9, 183:3 


News of the World (weekly) 

New Times 


. . Sept. 29, 1843 


Nonconformist (weekly) 

Observer (weekly) 

Old Whig 


. April 14, 1841 
1792 


Overland Mail (weekly) 


. . July 10, 1855 


Patriot (twice a week) 

Pawnbrokers' Gazette (weekly) . . . 

People (weekly) 

People's Paper (weekly) 


Jan. 1832 

1839 

. AprU 18, 1857 
18.52 


Press (weekly) 

Presse de Londres (weekly) 

Public Advertiser (Newcumb's) . . . 
Public Intelligencer 


. . . May 7, 1853 
.. Sept., 20, 18.57 

. . May 26, 1657 
. . . . Oct. 8. 1655 


Publishers' Circular (fortnightly) . 


Sept. 1837 


Racing Times (weekly) 


. . Feb. 26, 1851 
. July 12, 1845 
1835 


Railway Journal (weekly) 


Railway Record 


. April 13, 1844 




Record (three times a week) 

Reporter (weekly) 

Representative (dailj-) 

Representative (weekly) 

Review (weekly) 

Review and Country Gentleman 


Jan. 1828 

1847 

.. Jan. 25, 1826 
. . . Jan. 6, 1822 
..... Feb. 1704 
'a Journal 


Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper . . 

Saturday Review (weekly) 

Scots JW ercury 


... Mays, 1850 

. . . Nov. 3, 1855 

May 8, 1692 


Shipping Advertiser (daily) 

Shipping Gazette (dail j ) 

SoUcitors' Journal (weekly) 


1845 

. . . Jan. 4, 1836 
1857 


Standard (daily) -T ^^ "^ evening paper 1827 

K.i,»uud,iu \u<tiii/ (^ As a morning paper June 29, 18.57 

Statei-man (weekly) Oct. 10, 1857 

St. James's Chronicle (three times a week) . . 1761 
Star (daily) i7fiS 


Sun (daily) 


. . . Oct. 1, 1792 


Swift's Examiner (weekly) 

Times (daily) 

Test 


. . . Aug. 3. 1710 
. . . Jan. 1, 1788 


True Patriot 


Nov 5 1745 






TTnited Service Gazette (weekly) . . . 

Universal Chrouicie (weekly) 

Universal Com Kt-porter (weekly) 

Watchman (weekly) 

Weekly Chronicle 


. . . Feb. 3, 1833 

1758 

1829 

. . . Jan. 7, 1835 

.. July 18, 1846 

18.58 


Weekly Record 






Weekly Reporter 


1852 


Weekly Star 




Weekly Times 

Wellington Gazette (monthly) . 


. . Jan. 24, 1847 
18.57 






Whisperer 


.. Feb. 17, 1770 





KEW 

A.D. 

Witness ig-lO 

World .V Jan.'4' 1753 

Kew Style.— Sir Harris Nicolas states, 
with reference to this change, " The errors 
in the Julian method of computing the year 
having long attracted the attention of astro- 
nomers, Pope Gregory XIII. undertook to 
reform the Eoman calendar ; and the alter- 
ation made by him in October, 1582, created 
what is commonly called the l^ew Style, but 
which was sometimes called the Eoman 
Style; while the calendar obtained the name, 
from its creator, of Gregorian. After great 
consideration, that pontiif published his new 
calendar, in which ten da\ s were deducted 
from the year 1582, by calling what, accord- 
ing to the old calendar, would have been the 
5th October, the 15th of October, 1582." 
The ditference between the old style and the 
ne\T style from 1582 to 2100 is as follows : — 

A.D. A.D. 

From Oct. 5, 1582, to Feb. 29, 1700 . . 10 days. 
From March 1, 1700, to Feb. 29, 1800 . . 11 days. 
From March 1, 1800, to Feb. 29, 1900 . . 12 days. 
From March 1, 1900, to Feb. 29, 2100 . . 13 days. 

The change made by Gregory XIII. was 
gradually introduced into other countries, 
England (see Old Style) being amongst 
the last to make the alteration, whilst Eussia 
and Greece stiU adhere to the olden mode of 
computation. Erom the following table the 
reader will perceive at what time the new style 
was adopted in various parts of Europe : — 

A.D. 

Artois Dec. 2S, 1582 

Basel Jan. 12, 1701 

Berne Jan. 12, 1701 

Brabant Dec. 25, 1582 

Denmark 1582 

England Sept. 2, 1752 

Flanders Deo. 25, 1582 

France Dec. 20, 1582 

Friesland Dec. 12, 1700 

Germany (Roman Catholics) 1584 

Germany (Pi-otestauts) Nov. 15, 1699 

Groningen Dec. 12, 1700 

Guel ers Dec. 12, 1700 

Hainauit Dec. 25, 1582 

Hollan-i Dec. 25, 1582 

Hungary 1587 

Italy Oct. 15, 1582 

LoiTaiue Dec. 20, 1582 

Maliues Dec. 25, 1582 

Overyssel Dec. 12, 1700 

Poland 1586 

Portugal Oct. 1.5, 1.582 

Rome Oct. 15, 1582 

Schaf hausen Jan. 12, 1701 

ypain Oct 15, 1582 

Strasbiirg March 1, 1682 

Sweden March 1, 17-53 

Switzerland (parts of) 1583 or 1584 

Switzerland (Protestants of) Jan. 12^ 1701 

Tuscany 1749 or 1751 

Utrecht Dec. 12, 1700 

Zutpheu Dec. 12, 1700 

Zuvich Jan. 12, 1701 

Newton-ian- Philosophy. — Sir_ Isaac 
Wewton was born at Woolsthorjje, Lincoln- 
shire, Dec. 25, 1642. His attention was di- 
rected to the subject of gravitation in 1666, 
by seeing an apple fall from a tree, and the 
train of thought suggested by this trivial 
601 



IS'EW 



NIA 



incident led to the philosopMcal demonstra- 
tion of this great principle. His views on 
the subject were made kno^Ti in the " Prin- 
cipia," which was first published in _ 1687. 
iS^ewton was made master of the mint in 
1699, he became president of the Eoyal 
Society in 1703, was knighted by Queen 
Anne, April 16, 1705, and died Monday, 
March 20, 1727- 

I^EWTOWNBAKKT (Ireland) .—Some cattle, 
seized for tithes by the Eev. Alex. M'Clin- 
tock, were put up to auction in this Tillage, 
in the county of Wexford, Saturday, June 
IS, 1831, when a riot ensued, in which twelve 
or thirteen persons were killed and several 
severely wounded. The coroner's jury on 
the bodies of those that were kUled, after 
sitting several days, being unable to agree, 
was discharged without giving a verdict. 
. New^town Butler (Ireland). — The Prcb- 
testants of Enniskillen defeated the Irish at 
this town, in Fermanagh, July 30, 1689. In 
their retreat they set fire to the church, and 
many of the inhabitants who had sought 
refuge there, perished. 

New Yeae's Day. — The first day of 
January was observed as a day of rejoicing, 
and a feast was instituted by I^uma, dedi- 
cated to Janus, the god of the new year^ 
B.C. 713. During the pontificate of Fehx 
III., A.D. 487, a Christian festival, called the 
Octave of Christmas, was instituted. 

ISTew Yoek; (United States) . — This city is 
built on Manhattan Island, whieh was dis- 
covered by Henry Hudson in 1609. 



1614. New York, or Manhattan island, is settled by 
the Dutch. 

1623. The Dutch erect a fort on the south of Man- 
hattan island, which forms the nucleus of 
New Amsterdam. 

1642. They huUd a church in the fort. 

1656. New Amsterdam is laid out in streets., 

1664. Aug. 27. New Amsterdam surrenders to the 

British, who change its name to New- 
York. 

1665. June 12. New York is incoi-porated, and 

placed tinder the government of a mayor, 
five alderinpn, and a sheriff. 
1667. July 10. New York is formally ceded to 
Great Britain by the treaty of Breda. 

1673. July 30. The Dutch take New York. 

1674. Feb. 19. It is restored to Great Britain by the 

treaty of "Westmiust.er. 
1678. The city is said to contain 343 houses. 
1683. New York receives a legislative assembly. 
1686. James II. grants the town its first charter. 
1688. New York is added to the jurisdiction of New 

England. 
1693. The episcopal church is established in New 

York, and Williain. Bradford sets up, the 

first printing-press. 
1700. The Legislative Assembly passes an act for 

the expulsion of the Jesuits. 
1712. The negroes are frustrated in an attempt to 

bum the city. 
1734. The city is fortified against the Indians. 
1741. Another incendiary plot of the negi-oes is 

suppressed. 
17.50. Columbia College is founded. 
1765. Nov. 5. Governor Colden is burnt in efligy 

for supporting the Stamp Act. 
1775. The inhabitants present a petition to 

the British parliament for a redress of 

grievances. The petition was presented by 

Edmund Burke, but was not brought up. 



1776. Sept. 15. The city, having been evacuated 
by the republicans, is seized by the British 
troops. 

1783. Nov. 25. The British evacuate the city. 

1785. The first congress meets at New York. 

1788. July 26. New York state adopts the constitn- 

tion of the United States. 

1789. April 30. Washington is inaugurated as first 

president of the United States, at New 
York. 

1795. The yellow fever rages. 

1807. The College of Physicians is founded. 

1811. May 19. Nearly 100 buildings are destroyed 
by fire. 

1816. Dec. 4. A destructive fire rages in the city. 

1826. The National Academy of Design is insti- 
tuted. 

1831. New York University is founded. 

1832. The cholera breaks out in New York. 

1835. Dec. 16. A dreadfiU fire destroys property 
amounting to 18,000,000 dollars. The 
Crotou water-works are commenced this 
year. 

1845. The Croton water-works are completed. July 
19. A terrible fire destroys 302 houses and 
property to the amount of 10,000,000 
dollars. 

1849. May 9. Serious riots take place at the Astor- 
House Theatre, in consequence of the 
rivalry of the American actor Forrest and 
]Mi-. Macready. The latter gentleman was 
compelled to quit the theatre in disguise, 
and the mob was not reduced to order until 
the military had been called out. 

1853. July 14. The Exhibition of the Industiy of 
all Nations is opened. 

1857. Jnne 16. Riots take place between the mayor 

and the population. Oct. A commercial 
X^anic causes great distress. 

1858. Oct. 5. The Exhibition is destroyed by fire. 
1860. Febi a. Fifty persons perish in a fire. 

New Zealand (South Pacific) was dis- 
covered by Tasman in December, 1642 ; and 
Cook sailed round the islands in 1769 and 
1770. The Church Missionary Society sent 
several missionaries out in 1814. The New 
Zealand Company formed a settlement in 
1839 ; and the British government established 
the colony, miaking Auckland the capital, 
Mav 21, 1840. An attempt to execute a 
warrant produced a disastrous war with the 
natives, June 17, 18-43, which continued with 
interruptions tUl 1847. Another dispute 
respecting land led to a renewal of hostilities 
May 3, 1860. The Canterbury settlement 
was formed by an association of gentlemen 
connected vrith the Church of England, in 
1848 ; and the Otago settlement by gentle- 
men connected with the Free Church of 
Scotland in the same year. The New Zea- 
land Company was dissolved in 1851. New 
Zealand was mads the seat of a bishopric in 
1841, and it received a new constitution by 
15 & 16 Vict. c. 72 (Jan. 30, 1852). 

Ngami (Africa). — This lake, that appears 
upon some Portuguese charts of a.d. 1508, 
was visited by Livingston, Murray, and Os- 
well, July 28, 1849. Livingston visited this 
lake for the second time in 1850. 

Niagara (North. America). — The cele- 
brated falls of this river were first visited by 
Father Hennepin, a French missionary, 
A.D. 1678. The fort of Niagara, afterwards 
called Fort Erie (q.v.), was taken by the 
EngUsh, July 24, 1759. Blondin first crossed 
thefaUs on a tight rope, Aug. 17, 1859. 



mo 

Nic^A (Battle). — Septimius Severus de- 
feated Pescennius Niger near thia city, in 
Bithynia, a.d. 194. 

Nic^A (Bithynia). — This town, called 
Ancore, or Helicore, is said to have been 
colonized by Bottiseans, and destroyed by 
the Mysians. Antigonus rebuilt the town 
B.C. 316, and named it Antigoneia ; but Lysi- 
machus, having conquered this part of Asia, 
changed its name to Nicsea, in honour of 
his wife Nicsea, daughter of Antipater. It 
became a city of great importance, and the 
kings of Bithynia, whose sera began in 288 
B.C., often resided here. The celebrated 
Council of Nicsea, the first general council, 
was held from June 19 to Aug. 25, 325. It 
was greatly injured by an earthquake Oct. 

II, 368, and was restored by the emperor 
Valens. The Greeks held it as a strong 
bulwark against the Turks, who captured it 
in 1078. The Crusaders wrested it from 
them June 20, 1097. Nicsea was made the 
capital of Western Asia by Theodore Las- 
caris in 1204. 

Nicaragua (Central America) formed 
part of the Spanish kingdom of Guatemala 
(q. V.) until Sept. 21, 1821, when the people 
threw oflF the yoke of Spain and declared 
their independence. It subsequently became 
a member of a confederacy called the Ee- 
public of Central America, which was dis- 
solved in 1839. The American filibuster 
Walker having landed here, was totally 
routed by the Nicaragua troops near San 
Juan del Sur, June 28, 1855 ; but he after- 
wards made himself dictator of the state. 
The fihbusters were expelled in 1857 by the 
combined action of the several states. As 
early as 1527 it was proposed to construct a 
ship canal through Nicaragua, for the pur- 
pose of connecting the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans. Surveys with this, view were made 
in 1781, 1838, and 1851, and various schemes 
have been at different times projected. 

Nice (France), capital of the province of 
the same name, is supposed to have been co- 
lonized by Phoceans from Marseilles in the 
5th century. One part of Nice, the Quartier 
de la Croix de Marbre, is thus named from 
a marble cross erected to commemorate the 
reconcihation of Charles V. and Francis I., 
June 18, 1538, when the treaty of Nice was 
concluded through the intervegtion of Pope 
Paul III. Near this cross stajids an obelisk, 
put up in 1823, in memory of the two visits, 
made by Pius VII. in 1809 and 1814. The duke 
de FeuiUade invested Nice in 1705, and it 
surrendered Dec. 9, The Austrians took 
Nice March 3, 1744, and the French, under 
Belleisle, obtained possession in June, 1747. 
The French overran Nice in 1792. It was 
incorporated with the French repubUc in 
November of the same year, and formally 
ceded by the king of Sardinia, May 15, 1796. 
The Austrians, under Melas, entered Nice 
May H, 1800, and it was fijaally restored to 
Sardinia in 1814. The emperor Napoleon 

III. having demanded the cession of Nice as 
a return for services rendered to Sardinia in 
the war against Augfeda, Nice was Bimexed 



NIC 

to France by treaty signed in Paris March 29, 
1860, and the transfer was made June 14. 

NicENE Creed. — A confession of faith in 
which the consubstantiahty of the Father 
and the Son is asserted, was drawn up by 
the first general council, assembled at Ni- 
caea, June 19 — Aug. 25, 325 a.d. The words 
" and the Son," after " who proceedeth 
from the Father," asserting the divinity of 
the Holy Ghost, were added at the second 
general council, held at Constantinople from 
May to July 30. This clause, esdledihejilioque, 
has given rise to much controversy, and it is 
rejected by the Greek church. It was ac- 
cepted by the Spanish bishops ia 447, and by 
those of Eome in 883. 

Nickel, a white metal that enters 
largely into the composition of German 
silver, and is found in most parts of Europe 
and South America, was first described by 
Cronstedt a.d. 1751. 

NicoBAE Islands (Indian Ocean), con- 
sisting of nine larger and several smaller 
islands, were settled a.d. 1756 and 1768 by 
the Danes, who on both occasions were 
compelled to withdraw on account of the 
unhealthiness of the climate. Some mis- 
sionaries remained until 1792. 

NicoLAiEPP, or NiKOLAiEV (Eussia), the 
principal station of the Black Sea fleet, was 
founded a.d. 1701. The dockyards are very 
extensive, and ntmierous schools for naval 
cadets, shipbuilders, and pilots, exist in the 
town. 

NicoLAiTANES. — Thcsc hcrctics of the 1st 
century, mentioned in the Eevelation of St. 
John, ch. i. 6 and 15, who are said to have 
taken the name from Nicolas, a proselyte of 
Antioch, one of the seven deacons (Acts vi. 
5), allowed a community of wives, and held 
that the passions ought to be allowed to 
exhaust themselves by indulgence. Allusion 
is made to them Eev. i. 14, where the 
doctrine of Balaam is said to be to eat 
things sacrificed to idols, and to commit 
fornication. A Gnostic sect of the 2nd 
century revived this heresy. 

NicoMEDEiA (Bithynia), now called Ismid, 
was built upon the ruins of Astacus, by 
Nicomedes I., B.C. 264, and made the metro- 
pohs of Bithynia. It prospered greatly for 
more than six centuries, and came into the 
hands of the Eomans B.C. 74. It was a 
favourite residence of several emperors, 
among them Diocletian and Constantine the 
Great. It is memorable as the place where 
Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, died, 
B.C. 183. 

NicoPOLis (Egypt) was founded by Au- 
gustus B.C. 24, in commemoration of the 
surrender of Alexandria ; and in less than a 
century its name disappeared from history. 

NicoPOLis (Greece) was founded in honour 
of the victory of Aetium, b.c. 31, by Augustus, 
who instituted a quinquennial festival, called 
Actia, sacred to Apollo, in commemoration 
of thait victory. Christianity was intro- 
duced here by the apostle Paul, who dates 
his epistle to Titus from this city about 
August, A.D. 64, Nieopohs continued the 
603 



NIE 

chief city of Western Greece for a long 
time, but gradually feU into decay. At the 
beginning of the 5th century it was plun- 
dered by the Goths. 

Z^iEMEN (Eussian Poland). — After the bat- 
tle of Friedland the Russians retreated and 
crossed the N"iemen, at Tilsit, June IS, 1807. 
The French army, under I^apoleon I., crossed 
the Niemen for the invasion of Russia, 
June 24, 1812. The wretched remnant of 
this imposing army recrossed the I^iemen 
Dee. 12, 1812, when 3,000 were taken prison- 
ers by Platoff. In the Polish insurrection 
of 1831 a battle was fought near this river, 
May 27, in which the Russian general Sacken 
was defeated by the Poles, with the loss of 
2,000 men. 

NiEJTTSCHAH-TZ (Eussia) . — Peter the Great 
wrested this fortress, near the river Neva, 
from the Swedes, May 12, 1703, and with 
some of the materials he laid the foundation 
of St. Petersburg. 

N"i&EE (Africa). — Various attempts have 
been made to discover the source of the 
river Niger. The first made in 1788, under 
the auspices of the African Association, was 
under the charge of John Ledyard, who 
died at Cairo. Mungo Park was sent out 
in 1795, and again in 1805. Though he 
did not succeed in discovering the source 
of the Niger, he obtained much valuable 
information respecting the river. He was 
kiUed by the natives on his second journey. 
Captain Clapperton went out in 1824, and 
the brothers Richard and John Lander in 
1829. (<S'ee Ni&EE EspEDiTio>\) 

Niger Expedition was undertaken for 
the purpose of planting an English colony in 
the centre of Africa, the government grant- 
ing £60,000 for that purpose. The expedi- 
tion, consisting of three ships, — the Albert, 
the Wilberforce, and the Soudan, — sailed 
May 12, 1841. They began to ascend the 
Niger Aug. 20. Fever broke out in Sep- 
tember. The expedition arrived at Adda 
Kudder Sept. 11, when the Soudan was sent 
back with the sick. The Wilberforce fol- 
lowed directly after, and the Albert, the last 
vessel, gained the island of Fernando Po 
Oct. 17, 1841, and thus the Niger expedition, 
from the unhealthy eifects of the climate, 
became a total failure. It was stated in the 
House of Commons that the object of the 
expedition was to secure the effectual aboli- 
tion of the slave trade. 

Nightingale FuifD.— A meeting was held 
at WiUis's Rooms Nov. 29, 1855, for the 
purpose of raising funds to establish an 
institution for the training of nurses, as an 
acknowledgment of the services of Miss 
Florence Nightingale in the Eussian war. 

NiEA Sedition. (See Circus Factions.) 

Nile (Egypt).— This celebrated river is 
formed of two streams called the Blue River 
and the White River, which flow together at 
Khartoum, and each of which has been re- 
garded as the main stream of the river. 
Cosmas Indieopleustes heard of the sources 
of the Blue Nile in the territory of the 
Agows in the 6th century a.d., and Pra 
604 



NIM 

Mauro represented them with some degree 
of accuracy m the loth century. Paez dis- 
covered and described its source in 1618, 
and it was also reached by the English 
traveller Bruce^ Nov. 4, 1770. M. Linart 
ascended the A\hite River as far as El Ais in 
1827, and it was explored as far as Chanker 
by a Turko-Egyptian expedition in 1840. 
M. Brun-RoUet ascended still higher in 1854. 

Nile (Sea-fight). — In the roadstead of 
Beqiiiers, between Aboukir and Rosetta, 
the French fleet, consisting of the flag-ship 
(120-guns), three 80-gun ships, nine 74-guii 
ships, two 40-gun frigates, and two 36-gun j 
frigates, commanded by Admiral Brueys, \ 
was discovered by Nelson, Aug. 1, 1798. 
His fleet consisted of thirteen 74-gun ships, 
one 5i'-gun ship, ant the brig Mutine. The 
French vessels were anchored close into the 
shore, and were protected by gunboats and 
a battery erected on Aboukir Island. Lord 
Nelson, in spite of the superior force and the 
advantageous position of the enemy, deter- 
mined upon an attack, which commenced at 
sunset. Several French ships had been taken 
when a fire broke out on board L' Orient, 
and she blew up at ten o'clock. Firing 
ceased simultaneously for ten minutes, and 
was resumed by the Franklin. Another 
suspension took place, and the contest was 
again renewed at five o'clock on the morning 
of the 2nd. Only two ships of the line and 
two frigates of the French fleet escaped. 
The British loss amounted to 218 killed and 
671 wounded. Nelson signalled to the fleet 
his intention to return public thanks to the 
Ahnighty for this glorious victory at 2 p. m. 
Aug. 2, 1798. 

NiLOMETEH (Africa). — A graduated pillar ' 
placed in a square well in the island of Roda, 
opposite Old Cairo, to mark the daily rise 
of the Nile, was first constructed by Soh- 
man, seventh cahph of the Ommiades, 
A.D. 715. Al Motawakkel, tenth caliph of 
the Abbasides, built a new Nilometer in 
800 ; and Mostunser Billah, fifth of the 
Fatimite princes of Egypt, repaired it in 1092. 

Nimbus. — This halo round the head or 
body of divine persons is called a nimbus 
when it surrounds the head, and an aureola 
when it envelops the body — the union of 
the two being called a glory. It is of pagan 
origin. Images of the gods were decorated 
with a crown of rays ; and when the Roman 
emperors assumed di\-ine honours, they 
appeared decorated in the same manner. 
It afterwards became so common, that it 
appears on coins, round the heads of the 
consuls of the late empire. It was for a 
long time avoided in the Christian represen- 
tations, and the first example is a gem of 
St. Martin in the early part of the 6th cen- 
tury. After the 11th" century it was em- 
ployed to distinguish the Saviour, the Virgin 
Mary, the apostles, saints, &c. From the 
5th to the 12th century the nimbus had the 
form of a disc or plate over the head ; from 
the 12th to the 15th century it was abroad 
golden band roxmd or behind' the head; from 
tJie 15th ceuturj it was a bright fillet over 



the head, and in the 17th. it disappeared 
altogether. 

NiiiEGUEN, or Ntmegen- (Holland) ,_ the 
ancient Noviomagus of the Batavi, is a 
strongly fortified town. The castle, said 
to have been built by Julius Csesar, was 
repaired by Charlemagne about a.d. 780. 
William of Holland mortgaged the town to 
.the duke of Guelderland in 1247. Maurice 
captured it in 1591. The duke of Marlbo- 
rough arrived at Mmeguen July 2, 1702, to 
assume the command of the allied armies. 
The stadtholder William V. removed the 
court here in 1786. The duke of York, who 
formed an intrenched camp before Nime- 
guen in 1794, had an indecisive engagement 
with the French Oct. 28. The French be- 
sieged the town Nov. 1, and the English 
made a successful sortie Nov. 3. The 
French batteries were, however, re-esta- 
blished Nov. 6, and the English garrison was 
withdrawn Nov. 8, the fortress falling into 
the hands of the French. The town-hall 
was built in 1554. 

NiMEGUEN- (Treaty). — Conferences for 
peace were opened at Nimeguen in July, 
1675, and Charles II. of England, having 
signed a convention with Holland, Jan. 26, 
1678, for the withdrawal of the English con- 
tingent from the French army, a treaty of 
peace was concluded at Nimeguen between 
France and Holland Aug. 10. Spain acceded 
to the treaty Sept. 17, the emperor of Ger- 
many Feb. 5, 1679, and Sweden March 29. 

NiifETEH (Assyria) . — Nimrod, or Asshur, 
is said to have founded this city about B.C. 
2250, but some authorities believe that it 
had no existence tUl the reign of Ninus, 
B c. 2182. It is mentioned on the tablet of 
Karnak, which was engraved about B.C. 
1190. Diodorus asserts that Nineveh was 
destroyed by Arbaces the Mede, B.C. 876; 
but Layard considers this destruction to 
have been most probably a mere depopula- 
tion. Jonah's prophecy to the inhabitants 
of Nineveh was pronounced b.c. 862, and 
the city was conquered and destroyed by 
Cyazares and Nebuchadnezzar b.c. 606. The 
extent of the ancient city was sixty, or, 
according to some authorities, seventy -four 
square miles. Heraclius and Shazates 
fought a great battle on its site a.d. 627. 
Mr. Layard' s discoveries of antiquities at 
Nineveh commenced Aj)ril, 1S40, but no 
excayations of importance were made tin the 
autumn of 1845. In 1848 he published 
*' Nineveh and its Kemains," and in 1353 his 
" Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and 
Babylon." The antiquities discovered by 
him have been deposited in the British 
Museum. 

NiifGPO (China) was taken possession 
of by Sir Henry Pottinger Oct. 13, 1841. 
The Chinese failed in an attempt to recover 
it March 10, 1842. A British consul and 
British subjects were allowed to reside at 
the port by the terms of the treaty of Nankin, 
signed Aug. 29, 1842. 

NisHAPOBE (Persia) was destroyed by 
Alexander the Great during his eastern 



NTS 

expedition about b.c. 331. Having been 

restored and raised to a royal city by the 
Seljukian Turks, it was sacked by the Tar- 
tars A.D. 1269, and taken in 1739 by Nadir 
Shah, who reduced it to ruins. 

NisiBis (Mesopotamia), the modern 
Nisibin, is supposed to be the Zobah of scrip- 
ture, whose kings are mentioned as having 
been defeated by the Israelites, 1 Sam. xiv. 
47, and 2 Sam. viii. 3, about b.c. 1093 and 
B.C. 1040. It is said to have been rebuilt by 
the Macedonians, and called Antiocheia 
Mygdonife. It was taken from the Parthians 
by the Romans under LucuUus, after a long 
siege, B.C. 68. They did not retain posses- 
sion, and it was recaptured by the emperor 
Trajan a.d. 116. Sapor I., king of Persia, 
took it A.D. 256; but it was recovered by 
Odenathus in 264. Diocletian and Galerius 
met here and received the Persian ambassa- 
dor, and a peace was concluded with the 
Persians a.d. 298. Sapor II. besieged 
Nisibis three times without success, viz., in 
the years 338, 346, and 350. The city was, 
however, surrendered by the emperor Jo- 
vian to Sapor II. by treaty in 363, and the 
inhabitants retired to Amida. That rising 
city, with this reinforcement of inhabitants, 
recovered its former splendour, and became 
the capital of Mesopotamia. The Romans, 
under Ardaburius, attempted, but without 
success, to regain Nisibis in 420, and the 
Saracens, having taken it in 640, levelled its 
waUs with the ground. 

Nisi Prius. — The clause in the writ sum- 
moning a jury, from which this legal phrase 
is derived, was introduced by 13 Edw. I. 
c. 30, passed a.d. 1285, and enforced by 14 
Edw. III. c. 16 (1340). The judges sit in 
Middlesex at Nisi Prius by virtue of 18 Eliz. 
c. 12 (1576). 

NxsiiES, or NiMES (France). — The ancient 
Nemausus noticed by Strabo as the capital 
of the Volcse Arecomici, came under the 
sway of Rome B.C. 119, and was fox^titied by 
Augustus about 14 years before the Chi-is- 
tian sera. It fell under the power of the 
Visigoths, from whom it was wrested by the 
Moors in the Sth century. Charles Mai'tel 
took the town in 737, when it suifered much. 
In the 16th century it became a stronghold 
of the Calvinists. By the pacification of 
Nismes, agreed to in 1629, the Huguenots 
were secured in the possession of their 
estates, and the free exercise of their reli- 
gion, and of all the privileges accorded by 
the edict of Nantes. They were, however, 
deprived of their fortified cautionary towns. 
The fortifications were destroyed by Louis 
XIII. The amphitheatre, erected by the 
Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, is still in a 
state of fair preservation, though it suifered 
much in the time of Charles Martel. Nismes 
still retains two of its Roman gates — the Porte 
dAuguste, founded b.c 16, and the Porte 
de France. The cathedral was almost de- 
stroyed during the wars of the 16th and 17th 
centuries, and the town suffered much in the 
French revolution of 1789. 
1 NissA, or NiscH (Servia) .— The ancient 
605 



NIT 

Naissus iq.v.), the birthplace of Constan- 
tine, was captured by the Turks a.d. 1376, 
and again in 1389. John Huniades wrested 
it from the Turks in 1443. It again feU into 
their possession, and was recovered by Louis 
of Baden, Sept. 24, 1689. The Turks re- 
gained possession in 1690. The Austrians 
took it July 28, 1737, and it was retaken by 
the Turks the same year. 

NiTKic Acid. — Liquid nitric acid was 
obtaiaed as early as the 7th century. The 
nature of this acid was demonstrated in 1785 
by Cavendish. 

NiTBOGEN, or Azote, was discovered by 
Dr. Rutherford, of Edinburgh, and de- 
scribed in his "De Aere Mephitico," pub- 
lished A.D. 1772. Dr. Priestley, who termed 
it " phlogisticated air," also described it in 
the Philosophical Transactions for the same 
year. Lavoisier showed it to be a compo- 
nent of atmospheric air m 1774. 

NivE (Battles). — Soult's position on this 
river was menaced by HiU, IS'ov. 16, 1813 ; 
and it was attacked and forced by the Eng- 
lish army Dec. 8. Soult, anxious to regain 
the position, assailed the Enghsh armv, only 
30,000 strong, with 60,000 troops, Dec. 10, 
and, after making a most desperate attack, 
was compelled to retire. Further struggles 
occurred Dec. 11 and 13, but the English 
maintained their ground, and the passage of 
the Nive was effected. In these actions the 
French lost 6,000 in killed and wounded, and 
2,500 prisoners, whUst the Enghsh lost in 
Mlled, wounded, and prisoners, 5,019 men. 

NiVEiiLE (Battle). — The Erench position 
on this river was carried by the Enghsh 
army, commanded by the duke of Welling- 
ton, after an arduous struggle, !N"ov. 10, 
1813. The Enghsh army advanced in order 
of battle jSTov. 11, and crossed the Nivelle 
Nov. 12. Marshal Soult lost 4,265 men, in- 
eluding 1,200 prisoners, and the English 
2,294 men. 

NivEi/LES (Belgium). — This town origin- 
ated in an abbey founded by St. Gertrude, 
about A.D. 645. The church dedicated to 
this saint was built in 1048. 

Nobility. — The rank of noliles, or known 
men, among the Eomans was restricted 
to the patricians till B.C. 336, when the 

Slebeians were permitted to attain the 
ignity. Hotman, in his " Franca Galha," 
ascribes to Hugh Capet, king of France, 
the device of making such honours heredi- 
tary A.D. 987. The first recorded summons 
for the creation of an English peer was 
issued by Henry III. a.d. 1265. Titles were 
abolished in France, June 18, 1790; but 
Napoleon I. revived them in March, 1808. 
The hereditary peerage of that coimtry was 
extinguished in 1831. 

Noble. — This gold coin, of the value of 
6s. 8d., was struck in the reign of Edward III., 
a.d. 1344. 

NocEEA (Italy), the ancient Nueeria, in- 
habited by people of the Oscan race, took 
part with the Samnites against the Romans 
B.C. 815, for which the consul Fabius be- 
sieged and car)tured the city, b.c. 308. 
606 



NON 

Hannibal reduced it by famine B.C. 216, 
and in the civil war it was taken by C. Papius 
B.C. 90. The battle between Narses and 
Teias, which terminated the Gothic mon- 
archy in Italy, was fought near this city, 
A.D. 533. A colony of 20,000 Saracens was 
estabHshed here by Frederick II. a.d. 1215 
— 1250, whence its name Nocera dei Pagani. 
Charles of Anjou assailed it and destroyed 
its fortifications in 1269. 

NoLA (Italy) was founded by the Etrus- 
cans as early as B.C. 800, according to some 
authorities ; but there is some doubt on the 
subject. It was conquered by the Samnites 
about B.C. 440, and by the Romans B.C. 
313. Hannibal assailed it in three successive 
years, B.C. 216 — 214. The inhabitants 
took part with Marius in the civil war, and 
were put to the sword by Sylla, who divided 
the countiy amongst his victoi'ious followers, 
B.C. 82. Alaric laid it waste a.d. 410; and 
Genseric, king of the Vandals, destroyed it, 
selling the inhabitants into slavery, a.d. 455. 
Augustus died here a.d. 14. It was.made 
the seat of a bishop in 254, and St. Pauhnus, 
its bishop, is said to have invented church 
bells, whence they were called "nola" and 
"campana." 

Nominalists a-nti Realists. — These cele- 
brated ecclesiastical parties originated in 
the discussion between Anselm, abbot of 
Bee, and Roscelhnus, a canon of Compiegne, 
A.D. 1092, the doctrines of Anselm giving 
rise to Reahsm, and those of Roscellinus to 
Nominahsm. The controversy was revived 
after some years of quiet by the Franciscan 
Nominahst, William Occam, who died in 
1347, and founded the sect of the Occamists. 
His followers were expelled from Prague in 
1408, and their books were prohibited in 
France by Louis XI. in 1473. The Realists 
maintained that general ideas (unioersalia) 
are real things with positive existence ; the 
Nominahsts, on the other hand, merely re- 
garded them as words or names. The Nomi- 
nahsts were in later times called Concep- 
tuahsts. 

Nojr, or Nun (Africa). — This cape long 
formed the boundary of ocean navigation, 
but was at last doubled, a.d. 1412, by an ex- 
pedition fitted out by John I. of Portugal. 
Some writers contend that a Catalan doubled 
it as early as 1346, and that some Dieppe 
mariners penetrated as far as Sierra Leone 
in 1364. The story is not supported by satis- 
factory evidence. 

NoNCONFOEMisTS. — The name of Noncon- 
formist, now used generally to describe a 
dissenter from the Church of England, was 
first applied to those who refused to comply 
mth the Act of Uniformity (2 & 3 Edw. \1. 
c. 1) passed in 1549. A proclamation against 
unhcensed preaching was issued by Eliza- 
beth, Dee. 27, 1558; and the Nonconfor- 
mists, under the name of Puritans, formed 
their first presbytery at AVandsworth a.d. 
1572. On the passing of the Uniformity 
Act of Charles II., 2,000 clergymen volun- 
tarily resigned their hvings, Aug. 24, 1662. 
James the Second's Declaration of Indul- 



gence was promvdgated April 4, 1687, and 
the Toleration Act (1 Will. III. c. 18) wag 
passed May 24, 1689, 

Nones. — This term was applied by the Eo- 
mana to the fifth day of each month, except- 
ing in March, May, July, and October, when 
it was applied to the seventh. The nones 
formed part of the system of computing 
time ascribed to Romulus, b.c. 753. 

NoNJUEOBS, headed by Sancroft, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, and the bishops of 
Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, liorwich, 
and Peterborough, refused to take the oath 
of aUegianee to William III. They were 
deprived Feb. 1, 1691. The bishops of 
Chichester and Worcester, who had also de- 
clined to take the oaths, died in the interval. 
To these men and their followers the term 
Nonjurors was applied. They divided into 
two sections in 1720, in consequence of a 
dispute respecting the administration of the 
communion. By 9 Geo. I.e. 18 (1723), they 
were subjected to siniilar taxes as papists. 
Their worship was conducted in hired rooms 
or private houses ; and they became extinct 
in 1780. 

Noif-HESISTANCE Oath, inserted in the 
Corporation Act (13 Charles II. st. 2, c. 1) 
of 1661, and required to be taken by all cor- 
poration officers, was as follow : — " I do 
declare and believe that it is not lawful, upon 
any pretence whatsoever, to take arms against 
the king, and that I do abhor that traitorous 
position of taking arms by his authority 
against his person, or against those that are 
commissioned by him." It was repealed by 
5 Geo. I. c. 6, s. 2 (1719), an act for quiet- 
ing and establishing corporations. A homily 
on the subject was vfritten in 1569, and the 
doctrine was laid down in the canons of con- 
vocation of 1606. 

Nonsuch Palace (Surrey). — Henry YIII. 
having purchased the manor of Ewel cum 
Guddmgton, ordered two parks, called the 
Great and the Little, to be laid out. In the 
latter he began to build the palace of Non- 
such, A.D. 1543. Queen Mary, Nov. 23, 1557, 
granted Nonsuch to the earl of Arundel, by 
whom it was completed. Camden says it 
is built with so much splendour and elegance 
that it stands a monument of art, and you 
would think the whole science of architec- 
ture had been exhausted on the building. 
Q.ueen Elizabeth visited Nonsuch in 1559, 
1567, 1579, and 1580. She purchased it, and 
it became her favourite residence. Here the 
earl of Essex first experienced her displea- 
sure on his sudden reurn from Ireland, Sept. 
28, 1599. James I. settled Nonsuch upon 
his queen Anne ; and in 1650 a survey was 
taken of it by the Commonwealth commis- 
sioners, and it was sold. At the Eestoration, 
Nonsuch and all the lands were restored to 
the queen-mother, and George Lord Buckley 
was appointed keeper Sept. 5, 1660. A pro- 
clamation was issued July 26, 1665, for re- 
moving the receipt of the exchequer from 
Westminster to his Majes;ty's honour of 
Nonsuch, in the county of Surrey. In 1760 
it came into the possession of Barbara, who 



KOR 

had been created duchess of Cleveland, and 
baroness of Nonsuch, and by her Nonsuch 
was pulled down, and the parks turned 
into farms, 

NooTKA Sound, {See King George's 
Sound.) 

No PoPEKT.— This cry was raised by the 
ringleaders in the Gordon riots (q.v.) a.d. 
1780. A similar cry was raised during some 
disturbances in Edinburgh and Glasgow in 
February, 1779. 

NoRDEN (Battle). — The Danes, under 
Hasting, defeated the army of Charles the 
Eat at this town, in East Eriesland, a.d. 
882. 

NoEDKOPiNG, orNoEKOPiNG (Sweden).— 
At a diet held at this town a.d. 1769, the 
French, or the Hat party, who had long 
opposed the Russian and Enghsh, called the 
Cap party, obtained the ascendancy. 

NoEDLiNGEN (Battles) . — Two battles were 
fought at this walled town, in Bavaria, the 
first between the Austrians and Bavarians, 
under the archduke Ferdinand, and the 
Swedes, commanded by the duke of Saxe- 
Weimar and Count Horn, was fought 
Aug. 27, 1634. The latter were defeated. 
In the second, the Spaniards and Austrians 
were defeated by the French, under Turenne 
and the duke d'Eughien, in 1645. 

NoEE (Mutiny).- — Great discontent pre- 
vailed amongst the sailors in the British 
navy early in 1797. They complained that, 
although the price of the necessaries of life 
had increased, they received the same 
amount of wages as that paid during the 
reign of Charles II. In April the men 
broke into open mutiny at Spithead. They 
refused to obey the commands of their 
officers, appointed delegates, and drew up 
petitions to Parliament for redress of griev- 
ances. Lord Howe succeeded in repressing 
this mutiny, but another broke out May 27, 
1797, in the fleet lying at Sheerness. The 
ringleader was one Richard Parker, who 
was nicknamed Rear-Admiral Parker. The 
mutineers removed the ships to the Nore, 
hoisted the red flag, sent their ofiicers on 
shore, and made the most extravagant 
demands. They seized some store-ships, and 
blockaded the mouth of the Thames. Owing 
to the energetic measures of the authorities, 
the mutineers began to waver, and fired a 
royal salute on the king's birthday, June 4. 
One by one the ships returned to their sta- 
tions, the last red flag having been hauled down 
on the 13th. Richard Parker, president of 
the delegates, arrested with others on the 
14th, was executed on board the Sandwich 
at Sheerness on the 30th. 

NoEEiA, or NoEEJA (Styria), the capital 
of Noricum, celebrated for the great defeat 
inflicted upon the Romans by the Cimbri 
and Teutones, e.g. 113. The Boii besieged 
it B.C. 59. The modern town of Neumark 
occupies its site. 

Norfolk Island (Pacific Ocean) was dis- 
covered A.D. 1774 by Captain Cook, when it 
was uninhabited. A settlement of freemen 
and convicts made in 1787, was abandoned 



NOE 

in 1810. It was made a penal settlement in 
1825, and on the withdrawal of the convict 
estabhshment in 1856, the inhabitants of 
Pitcairn's Island took possession. 

ISToEicuM (Europe), the country now 
forming a large portion of the Austrian em- 

Eire, is supposed to have received this name 
'om Noreia, its capital, aud was inhabited 
by a Celtic race, anciently called Taurisci. 
The Boii settled in the northern part of 
Noricum b.c 58. The country was made a 
Eoman province B.C. 13. [See AfSTBiA.) 

NoEKiTTEN, or Geoss Jagerkdoeff (Bat- 
tle). — The Prussians attacked the Russians, 
30,000 strong, in an intrenched camp near 
the forest of Norkitten, ia Prussia, Aug. 30, 
1757, and after gaining some advantages, 
were compelled to retire in confusion. At 
the commencem.ent of the battle they cap- 
tured eighty pieces of cannon, which they 
were obliged to rehnquish, with thirteen 
pieces of their own artillery. 

JSToEMAL Schools for the training of 
teachers were instituted in France in 1795. 
The Normal school at Paris, suppressed in 
1821, was revived June 28, 1833. Xormal 
schools were introduced into England in 
1808, and into Tuscany by a decree issued 
Dec. 3, 1846. 

JVoEMANDY (France). — This duchy, which 
comprises part of the ancient kingdom of 
ifiTeustria, was ceded to Rollo, Rolf, or 
Eaoul, the [N'orseman or Norman, by Charles 
the Simple, according to the treaty or con- 
ference of St. Clair-sur-Epte, which was con- 
concluded between them a.d. 911. Rollo is 
believed to have held it as a fief of the 
French crown, but the subject is mvolved in 
considerable obscurity. 



912. Rollo is baptized at Rouen by the name of 

Robert. 
923. The Franks invade ISToraiandy under Raoul 

of Burgundy, who is compelled to retire 

and psiy a heavy L)anegelt as the price 

of peace. 
927. Rollo abdicates in favour of his son, ■William 

Lijngue-Kpfie, who performs homage to 

King Charles. 

931. William imades Britanny, and annexes part 

of that coi;ntry, with the Channel islands, 
to his own states. 

932. He supjjresses an insurrection under Count 

Riulph, whom he puts to death. 

937. Cornouaille is permanently annexed to Nor- 

niHudy . William revolts against Louis IV 
of France. 

938. He ravages Flanders. 

940. He swears fealty to Otho I. of GrPi-many, but 
after many vaciiliitions retiu-ns to his 
allegiance to Louis XV. 

942. Dec. 17. He is murdered by Balzo, the nex^hew 
of Count Riulph. 

944. Normabdy is invaded by the French and 

Flemings, who defeat the Normans at the 
bittle of Arguirs. 

945. Richai-d the Fearless is restored by the aid of 

Harold Blaatand, king of Denmark. 

960. A powerful confederacy is formed .-igainst 
Richard, headed by Lothaire, king of 
France. 

96L Richard defeats Lothaire at the battle of 
the Fords. 

962. Tliibaut, count of Chartres, invades Nor- 
mandy, and is defeated at the battle of 
Hermondeville. 



NOR 



996. Richaa-d II. suppresses an insun-ection occa- 
sioned by the tyranny of the nobles. 
1003. Ethelred of England makes an unsuccessful 
descent upon the Norman coasts. 

1025. The Normans form settlements in the south 

of Italy. 
1035. July 2. Dnke R'lbert undertakes a pilgi-image 

to the H(ilv Land, and dies from, poison at 

NicM.-i, in Bitnynia, 
1064. WiUium the Bastard annexes Maine to 

Noimaudy. 
1063. William the Bastard conquers England'. 
1106. Sept. 23 Henry I. of England defeat^ Robert 

Cuui-tbose aud conquers Normandy at tKe 

battle of Tench ebray. 

1150. Henry Plantagtuet receives the investiture 

of Normandy. 
1204. Philip Augustus annexes Normandy to 

France. 
1329. Philip VI. reestablishes the duchy of Nor- 
mandy in favour ■ f his son John. 
1346. Normandy is ravaged by Edward III. of 

England. 
3417. The Engli-h seize Normandy. 
1450. It is restored to Franco. 
14U8. The states-general declare that Norniam'y 

shall never be detached from the French 

crown. 
1-199. Louis XII. establishes the parliament of 

Rouen. 
1639. The sedition of the Nu-pieds or Barefeet 

suppressed. 
1654. Louis XIV. suppresses the Norman states. 
1771. The parliament df Kouen Is suipress'd. 
1774. Louis X\I. restores the pailiament of Rouen. 

DUKES OF NOEMANDT. 

A.D. 

911. RoHo. 

9'27. William I., Loncrue Ep6e or Long-sword. 
943. Kichard I., the Feiuless. 
996. Richard II., the Good. 

1026. Rich ird III. 

1028. Robert I., le Diable. 

103.5. William TL, the Bastard (T. of England). 

\()'i7. Robert II., surnamed Com-those. 

1106. Henry I. 

1135. Stephai. 

1144. Geoflrey Plantagenet. 

1151. Heiuv II. 

1189. Richard IV., Coeur-de-Lion (I. of England). 

119;i. John. 

1204. Normandy is reunited to Fx-ance. 

NoETH ADMi^fisTEATioJS'. — Frederick, 
Lord North, created earl of Guildford in 1790, 
who filled the office of Chancellor of the E.^ 
chequer in the Grafton administration {q.v.) 
became first lord of the treasury Jan. 28 
1770, on the resignation of the duke of Graf 
ton. The cabinet was thus constitated : — 

President of the Coimeil . . Earl Gower. 
Privy Seiil Earl of Halifax. 

fEarl of Hillsborough, 
. I afterwards marquis of 

■{ Downshire. 

i Earl of Rochford, 

LLoid Weymouth. 
Admiralty Sir Edward Hawke. 



Principal Secretaries of J 
State 



The great seal was at first placed in com- 
mission. Lord Apsley, afterwards Earl 
Bathui-st, was made Lord Chancellor Jan. 23, 
1771. He resigned in 1778, and Lord Tbur- 
low was appointed June 3. Lord Weymouth 
resigned, and the earl of Sandwich became 
one of the principal secretaries of state in 



NOE 



NOR 



his place Dec. 19, 1770. Sir E. Hawke re- 
signed the Admiralty, and was succeeded, 
Jan. 12, 1771, by the earl of Sandwich, 
whose place as secretary of state was sup- 
phed by the earl of Hahfax Jan. 22, the earl 
of Suffolk and Berkshire taking the privy 
seal. The earl of Hahfax died June 8, 
1771, and was succeeded, June 12, by the 
earl of Suffolk and Berkshire, the privy 
seal being filled by the duke of Grafton. 
The earl of Dartmouth succeeded the earl 
of Hillsborough as secretary of state, Aug. 
14, 1772. The earl of Dartmouth replaced 
the duke of Grafton as privy seal, Nov. 4, 
1775. Viscount Wej^mouth and Lord George 
SackviUe Germaine, afterwards Viscount 
SackviUe, became secretaries of state in 
place of the earls of Kochford and Dart- 
mouth, Nov. 10, 1775. Earl Bathurst be- 
came president of the council as successor 
of Earl Gower, Nov. 24, 1779. Lord Wey- 
mouth resigned his secretaryship of state, 
and was succeeded by the earl of Hillsbo- 
rough, Nov. 24, 1779. Mr. Welbore ElHs, 
afterwards Lord Mendip, succeeded Vis- 
count SackviUe as secretary of state, Feb. 
22, 1782. The ministry grew extremely un- 
popular on account of the American war, 
and Lord North announced his resignation 
in the House of Commons, March 20, 1782. 
{See KocaiN-GHAM: (Second) Administea- 

TlOIf.) 

NoETHALLEBTOif (Yorkshire). — This town 
is supposed to have been originally a Eoman 
station, and subsequently a Saxon borough, 
but the date of its foundation is unknown. In 
Doomsday Book the place is called Alvertine 
and Alreton. The church is said to have 
been built by the Northumbrian apostle 
Paulinus, about a.d. 630. In the reign 
of Henry I. (1100 to 1135) a castle was built 
on the west side of the town by the bishop 
of Durham. This is supposed to be the 
one destroyed by order of Henry II. about 
1174. Near the town, on the 22nd Aug. 
1138, the famous battle of the Standard 
was fought between the English and the 
Scotch, the latter being defeated with a loss 
of 10,000 men. About 1345 a monastery of 
Carmelites was founded, and in 1476 an hos- 
pital, which has since been rebuilt. During 
the rebellion of 1745, the English, xmder the 
command of the duke of Cumberland, en- 
camped here. 

NoRTH-AMEEicAif INDIANS, numbering 
about 120 tribes, or nations, each speaking 
a different language, were estimated, in 1853, 
by the United States commissioner of Indian 
affairs, to amount to 400,764. The state 
of Georgia expelled the Cherokees from 
their territory in 1834, which led to the 
Federal government taking measures to fix 
a boundary for their residence ; and all the 
tribes hving east of the Mississippi have been 
removed to the west of that river since 
1836. 

NoETHAMPTON (Battle) . — Margaret, 
queen of Henry VI., raised an army to main- 
tain the cause of the house of Lancaster, 
early in 1460. The duke of Buckingham, 



who took the command, engaged vrith the 
Yorkist forces near Northampton, July 10, 
1460, when he was totally defeated. Henry 
VI. was taken prisoner, and Queen Mar- 
garet was compelled to flee into Scotland. 

NoETHAMPTON (Northamptonshire), the 
Autona of Tacitus, was anciently known as 
North Aufonton, according to some anti- 
quarians, and, according to others, as Mamp- 
tune, to which the word North was after- 
wards prefixed. In the year 921 it was in 
the possession of the Danes, who made it 
their principal station when their forces were 
preparing to besiege Towcester. In 1010 it 
was again attacked and burnt by the Danes. 
At the Conquest the town was bestowed 
upon Earl Waltheof. Having conspired 
against the king, he was executed, and his 
possessions were given to the earl of Hunting- 
don and Northampton, who erected a strong 
castle for the defence of the town. The 
priory of St. Andrew was founded in 1076, 
and the abbey of Black Canons about 1112. 
Henry I. assembled a great council here, 
Sept. 8, 1131. A convention of barons and 
prelates assembled here in 1180 to consider 
the laws of the realm. King John, in the 
10th year of his reign, being displeased with 
the city of London, removed his court of 
Exchequer here. On the signing of Magna 
Charta, Northampton was one of the strong- 
holds placed in the hands of the barons as 
security for the fulfilment of its conditions. 
The last parhament held here was summoned 
Nov. 5, 1390, when a poU-tax was ordered, 
which led to the rebelhon of Wat Tyler. 
The town was nearly destroyed by fire in 
1675. It received a charter of incorporation 
from Henry II. The church is said to have 
been built by the Knights Templars, after a 
model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 
Of the castle, only a few remains are to be 
traced, the embattled walls and gates having 
been demohshed in 1662. A flood did great 
damage in 1720, and shocks of an earthquake 
were felt in 1750 and 1776. St. Thomas's 
Hospital was founded in 1450, the free 
grammar-school in 1556, the infirmary in 
1747, and the present building in 1793. The 
bluecoat-school was founded in 1700 ; the 
! barracks were opened in 1796, and the gaol 
j in 1846. 

North BaiTOKr Newspaper was brought 

I out in June, 1762, in opposition to Lord 

i Bute's administration, by John Wilkes, 

M.P. for Aylesbury. In the 45th number, 

Saturday, April 23, 1763, George III. was 

accused of falsehood, and a general warrant 

was issued, April 26, against the authors, 

printers, and pubhshers, who were taken 

into custody April 30, and released May 6. 

They brought an action against the king's 

messengers for false imprisonment. It was 

tried at Guildhall July 6, and resulted in a 

verdict in their favour, with £300 damages. 

Parhament met Nov. 15, 1763, and the house 

resolved, by a majority of 237 against 111, 

that the paper entitled the North Briton, 

No. 45, was a false and scandalous hbel, and 

I that it should be burnt by the common 

' 2 B 



NOR 



hangman. This sentence was carried out in ' 
Cheapside Dec. 3, under the direction of 
Alderman Harley, sheriff of London. A 
riot ensued. The hangman only succeeded 
in burning part of the paper, and the re- 
mainder was carried away in triumph by the 
mob. 

NoETH, or Icy Cape (Arctic Sea). — An 
EngHshman, named Eichard Chaneelor, was 
the first to pass this, the most northerly 
point in Europe, and anchor in the White 
Sea, which he accomplished a.d. 1553. In 
his own account of the expedition he relates 
that "he came at last to the place where he 
found no night at all, but a continual hght 
and brightness of the stm sh in ing clearly 
upon the huge and mighty sea." 

NoETHEEN CiECAES ( Hindostan) . — The 
Mohammedans first appeared in this exten- 
sive province about A.D. 1471 ; and in 1541 
and 1550 added considerably to their con- 
quests. It formed part of the empire of 
Aurungzebe in 1687. In return for military 
services, the district was granted by the 
Nizam to the French East-India Company ; 
but on the capture of Masulipatam by the 
British, the maritime ports fell under their 
dominion in 1759. A free gift was made 
of four of the Circars by the Mogul to Lord 
Chve in August, 1675; and Guntoor de- 
volved to the Company in 1788. The tribute 
of £70,000 annually paid by the Company 
was redeemed by a payment of £1,200,000 
in 1823. 

NoETH FoEEiAiirD (Sca-fights) .— Monk, 
afterwards earl of Albemarle, and Penn, de- 
feated the Dutch fleets oflF the North Fore- 
land, June"2 and 3, 1653. The second, and 

most memorable engagement, which ex- 
tended over four days, commenced June 1, 
1666. The duke of Albemarle, with an 
English fleet of fifty-four ships, attacked a 
Dutch fleet of eighty ships, under De Ruyter 
and Tromp, off the North Foreland. Dark- 
ness separated the combatants, and the 
contest was renewed June 2, when a squad- 
ron of sixteen ships joined the Dutch, and 
the English, having only twenty-eight ships 
with which to contend against this superior j 
force, were compelled to withdraw, in order 
to repair damages. Eupert, with twenty 
ships, joined Albemarle's fleet June 3, and 
the battle was renewed that afternoon, and 
again on the morning of June 4, on which | 
day the combatants separated, each side 

claiming a victory. The third sea-fight off 

the North Foreland was fought July 25, 1666. 
The fleets were about equal in point of num- 
bers, each commander having about eighty 
sail. The Dutch were totally defeated with 
great loss, and Prince Eupert and the duke 
of Albemarle chased De Euyter and his 
retreating squadrons to their own shores 
and insulted the Dutch in their own harbours. 
The English fleet captured ScheUing soon 
after, and destroyed 200 of the Dutch 
ships. 

Noethme:s", or Noeseme?^. — The Scan- 
dinavian pirates of the 9th and 10th centuries 
were so called by the inhabitants of the main- 
610 



land of Europe. 
Danes (q.v.). 



NOR 
The English called them 



820. The Norsemen attack the French coasts, but 

are unable to penetrate into the interior of 

the countiy. 
830. They ravage the banks of the Loire. 
837. They plunder the coasts of Belgium. 
841. May. Kouen is burned and pillaged by Osker. 
84S. March 28. Reyner Lodbiok takes Paris, and 

levies heavy subsidies from Charles the 

Bald. 
850. Koric receives Kustringia from Lothaire. 
855. The Northmen engage in civil war, and fight 

the great battle of Flensbtugh in Jutland, 

in which Eric the Red is slain. 
861. April 6. The Northmen under Jarl WeUand 

sail up the Seiue and seize Paris. 

865. Eobert-le-Fort is defeated by the Northmen at 

the battle of Melun. 

866. July 25. R..bert-le- Fort is killed by the North- 

men at the battle of Pont-sui-Saithe. 
870. Charles the Bald encourages the Northmen to 

settle peaceably in France. 
876. Sept. 16. RoUo or Rolf enters the Seine. 

879. Nov. 30. Louis III. defeats the Northmen at 

the battle ot the Vigenne. 

880. They are defeated at the battle of Ardennes. 

Feb. 2. They defeat the Germans with im- 
mense slaughter at Ebbsdorf, or Luneburg 
Heath. 

881. Louis defeats the Northmen at the battle of 

Saulcourt. The Northmen invade the 
Rhine, Schpldt, and Meuse country in this 
and the following yeai-s. 

882. Frieslatid is ceded to Gddfrey the Northman. 
885. July 25. RuUo occupies Rouen. 

888. June 24. Eudes Capet defeats the Northmen at 
the battle of Montfaucon. 

891. Ai-uolph df feats the Northmen at the battle 
of Louvain. 

911. July 20, Saturday. Rollo sustains a severe 
defeat from the Frankish and Burguudian 
forces at Chartres. A treaty is concluded 
shortly after at Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, by 
which Rollo receives in marriage Eisella, 
daughter of Charles the Simple, agrees to 
become a Chri-^tian, and is invested with 
the sovereignty of part of Neustria, which 
was afterwards known as Normandy. 



NoETHTTMBEiA (England) .—This kingdom 
was founded by Ida, a.d. 547. 

Noeth-West Passa&e. — The idea that a 
shorter track to India might be discovered 
than that round the Cape of Good Hope, 
was first broached by John Cabot about the 
year 1496, and in 1500 the Portuguese de- 
spatched the first expedition sent out for 
the express purpose of discovering the pas- 
sage, under the command of Gaspar de 
Cortereal. A reward of £20,000 was offered 
for the discovery of the north-west passage 
by 18 Geo. II. e. 17 (1745), and a like sum, 
with £5,000 for the first approach within one 
degree of the North Pole, by 16 Geo. III. 
c. 6 (1776), and 58 Geo. III. c. 20 (May 8, 
1818) . The last-mentioned act was amended 
by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 2 (Feb. 23, 1821). The 
passage was at length discovered by Captain 
Al'Clure, of the Investigator, Oct. 26, 1850, 
and in May, 1854, the Eoyal Geographical 
Society awarded him its gold medal for the 
discovery. For the various voyages under- 
taken in search of the north-west passage, 
see Aectic Ciecle, and FEANKLiif's Expe- 

DlTIO]>fS. 

NoEWAT.— Like the other countries of 



NOE 

northern Europe, the traditions of Norway 
point to Odin as the founder of the nation. 
He is said to have arrived in the north about 
B.C. 70. 



630. Olaf Troetelia founds the province of Ver- 

ineland. 
865. Harold Harfager vows neither to cut nor 
comb his hair until he has completed the 
conquest of Norway. 
885. He defeats the proviucial rulers at the sea- 
fight of Hafuiafiord, which establishes his 
authority over the whole of Norway, and 
releases him from his vow. 
937. Eric I., deposed for his tyranny by his brother 
Hako, embraces Christianity, and is in- 
vested by Athelstan with the sovereignty 
of North urn bria. 
941. Hako proposes to establish Christianity, but 

is opposed by his subjects. 
963. Harold Blaataiid, king of Denmark, esta- 
blishes Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric I., 
on the Norwegian throne. 
998. Olaf I. overthrows the idols in the temple at 
Drontheim. 

1000. Olaf I. is defeated and slain by the Danes and 
Swedes, who divide Norway between them, 
under the lieutenancy of Eric and Sweyn, 
sons of Hako II: 

1015. Olaf I. defeats the fleet of Sweyn off the 
coast of Vikia, and thereby secui-es the 
Norwegian throne. 

1028. Canute the Great invades Norway, and com- 
pels Olaf I. 10 flee into Swerlen. 

1030. July 29. Olaf I. is slain in an endeavour to 
recover his kingdom, by the forces of Ca- 
nute, at the battle of Sticklestadt, 

1066. Sept. 55. Harold Hardi-ade falls in battle 
agaiijst the English at Stamford, in Lin- 
colnshire. After his death Norway is di- 
vided between Olaf III. and Magnus II. 

1069. Olaf III. reigns alone. 

1096. Magnus III. invades Britain. 

1098. He conquers the Isle of Man, the Hebrides, 
and the Orkney and Shetland islands. 

1103. He is killed by the Irish, and his kingdom is 
divided between his sons Sigurd, Eystein, 
and Olaf. 

1186. Magnus V. is defeated and slain by Swerro, 
natural son of Siirurd II. 

1240. The jarl Skule, half-brother of Inge II., 
asserts his claim to the Norwegian throne. 

1242. Skule is defeated and slain by Hako IV. 

1250. The Hause league obtains exclusive privi- 
leges in Norway. 

1261. Iceland is added to the Norwegian territories. 

1263. Hako TV. invades Scotland. 

1286. Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of 
Eric II., is heiress to the throne of S. otland. 

1319. Death of Hako V., with whom the greatness 
of Norway becomes extinct. The sceptre 
devolves on Magnus VII., king of Sweden. 

1343. Maguus VII. resigns the throne of Norway in 
fcvvoui- of his son Hako VI. 

1349. Norway is ravaged by the plague. 

1387. Norway is annexed to Denmark and Sweden, 
under the government of Margaret. 

1397. June. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
formally united into one kingdom by the 
union of Calmar. 

1448. Norway and Sweden are separate from Den- 
mark. 

1450. Aug. a9. Norway and Denmark are reunited. 

1536. The Keformation is introduced into Norway. 

1567. The Swedes invade M orway. 

1812. Aug. 27. Norway is guaranteed to Sweden by 
the emperor of Russia in exchange for 
Finland. 

1814. Jan. 14. Norway is ceded to Sweden by the 
treaty of Kiel, which creates great dis- 
satisfaction among the Nqrwegians. April 
11. A constitution is adopted by the diet of 
Eidsvold. May 17. Prince Christian, after- 
wards king of Denmark, is elected king. 
611 



NOR 



A.D. 

1814. Aug. 14. An armistice is concluded with 
the Swedes, who compel Christian to abdi- 
cate the throne. Nov. 4. Charles XIII. of 
Sweden accepts the constitution of Eids- 
vold, which declares Norway a free, inde- 
pendent, indivisible, and inalienable state, 
united to Sweden unoer the same king. 

1821. The law for abolishing hereditary nobility ig 



1844. King Oscar grant* the Norwegians a national 

flag. 
1847. Aug. The order of St. Olaf is Instituted for 

Norwegians. 
1860. Aug. 5. CharlesXV. of Sweden and his queen 

are solemnly crowned at Drontheim, king 

and queeu of Norway. 



SOVEREIGlfS OP NOEWAT. 



A.D. 

Olaf Troetelia 630 

Halfdanl. 640 

Eystein 1 700 

Halfdan n 730 

Eiidrod 784 

Olaf Geirstada .... 824 
Halfdan III., the 

Black 840 

Hai-old I., Hai-fa- 

ger 863 

Eric 1 934 

Hako I., the Good 940 
Harold II., Graa- 
feld 963 

Hako II., Jarl .... 977 

Oiafl 995 

Eric and Sweyn 1000 

Olaf II., the Sair . . 1015 

Sweyn 1030 

Magnus T., the Good 1035 
Harold III., Hard- 

rade 1047 

Magnus II. and 

Olaf III 1066 

Olaf III 1069 

Magnus HI., Bare- 
foot 1093 

Olaf IV., Sigurd I., 

and Eystein II. . . 1103 
Eystein II. and Si- 
gurd I 1116 

Sigurd 1 1122 



Magnus TV. and 

Harold IV 1130 

Harold IV 1134 

Sigurd II. and 

Inge 1 1136 

Sigurd II., Inge I., 

and Eystein III. 1140 
Eystein III. apad 

Inge 1 1155 

Iirgel 11.57 

Hako III 1161 

Magnus V 1162 

Swerro 1186 

Hako III 1202 

Guthrum 1204 

Inge II 1205 

Hako IV 1207 

Maguus VI., the 

Legislator 1263 

Eric II., the Priest- 
hater 1280 

HakoV 1299 

Mignu«VII 1319 

Hako VI 1343 

Olaf v.. III. of 

Denmark 1380 

After the death of Olaf 
v., Norway and Den- 
nrark were united un- 
der one crown till 1814, 
when Norway was ad- 
ded to Sweden. 



For the subsequent sovereigns, see those 
countries. 

Norwich (Bishopric). — The see of East 
Anglia was founded about a.d. 630, by a 
Burgundian named Eelix, who fixed his 
seat at Silthester, or Dunwich, in Suffolk. 
Bishop Bisus, or Bosa, divided the diocese 
into two sees, fixing the new one at North 
Elmham, in Norfolk, in 673. Wylred, or 
Wildred, reunited them in 870, making Elm- 
ham the episcopal town; and, after his 
death, the country was iu such a disturbed 
state, owing to the ravages of the Danes, 
that the see remained vacaut till about the 
year 955. The see was transferred to Thet- 
ford by Herfast about 1078, and to Norwich 
by Herbert de Losinga in 1092. 

Norwich (Norfolk) is supposed to occupy 
the site of the Venta Icenorum of the Bo- 
mans. Uffa, king of the East Angles, is said 
to have built a castle here a.d. 575, and 
under the Anglo-Saxon princes the town 
became a place of some importance. Alfred 
the Great fortified it against the Danes, who 
plundered and burnt it in 1004. It was 
rebuilt, and the castle restored, in 1018. 
2 R 2 



NOR 

From this time it rapidly increased in size 
and importance. Henry I. held his Christ- 
mas here in 1122, and raised the town to an 
equality of franchise and privilege with 
London. In 1189 the Jews were almost 
exterminated, on the ground of having per- 
mitted the crucifixion of a Christian boy. 
The town was plundered and the castle taken 
by the dauphin of Prance in 1210. A great 
number of worsted and woollen manufac- 
turers from the Low Countries settled here 
about the year 1337. Nearly one-third of the 
inhabitants fell victims to the plague in 1349. 
The city was separated from the county of 
Norfolk, under the name of the city and 
county of Norwich, in 1403. A fire destroyed 
718 houses in 1507, and a rebellion broke out 
in 1549. The rebels, 20,000 strong, under 
the brothers Ket (q.v.), were defeated here 
with great slaiighter, Aug. 27, by the earl of 
Warwick. Upwards of 300 Flemings settled 
here, and established the manufacture of 
bombazine, in 1565. During the civil war 
the city was held by the parliamentary army. 
The cotton manufacture was introduced in 
1784, and a new fabric called "Norwich 
crape" was produced in 1819. The cathe- 
dral, commenced in 1094, was completed 
in 1280, and the spire was erected in 1361. 
A Benedictine monastery, founded in 1094, 
was completed in 1101. St. Andrew's Hall 
was built in 1415. The free grammar- 
school was founded in 1547, and the Norfolk 
and Norwich Hospital in 1771. The first 
musical festival here was held in 1824. The 
railroad to Yarmouth was opened May 1, 
1844, the hue to London through Cambridge 
in 1845, and the line to London through 
Colchester in 1850. Its first public library 
was estabhshed in 1784, and a new free 
library was opened in 1857. 

NoBwooD (Surrey).— A school of industry 
for girls was founded here, a.d. 1812. Nor- 
wood has long been celebrated as the haunt 
of gypsies, many of whom were appre- 
hended and sent to prison as vagrants in 
1815. St. Luke's church was completed and 
consecrated July 15, 1825 ; Beulah Spa was 
opened in August, 1831; and the South Metro- 
politan, commonly called Norwood cemeterv, 
covering forty acres of land, was consecrated 
Dec. 6, 1837. 

Notables. — One of the stipulations ob- 
tained by the nobles from Louis XI. of 
France, by the treaty of St. Maur, was, that 
the king should call an assembly of notables, 
to consist of twelve prelates, twelve knights 
and squires, and twelve lawyers, Oct. 29, 
1465. An assembly of Notables was sum- 
moned by the advice of Calonne, to consider 
how the financial diificulties of the country 
were to be met, Feb. 22, 1787 ; and was dis- 
missed May 25. They were again convoked 
by the king, with the concurrence of Necker, 
Nov. 3, 1788. Napoleon I. summoned an 
assembly of Spanish notables, which met at 
Bayoime, June 15, 1808. 

NoTAEiEs Public— Short -hand vnriters 
among the Romans received the name of 
JExcepfores, when employed to draw up 
612 



NOV 

pubMc documents in the 4th century. Per- 
sons who performed duties corresponding 
to those of the modern notary were styled 
tabelliones at the same period. In England 
they executed royal charters, a.d. 1043 — 
1066 ; and power of admitting to practice 
was vested in the archbishop of Canterbury 
by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 4 (1553). The terms 
of their apprenticeship and admission to prac- 
tice were regulated by 41 Geo. III. c. 79 
(June 27, 1801), and by 6 & 7 Vict. c. 90 
(Aug. 24, 1843). By a decree of the council 
of Cologne in 1310, notaries were ordered to 
make use of seals. 

Nottingham (England) resisted an in- 
cursion of the Danes, who were defeated 
near the town by Alfred, a.d. 866. Its castle 
was fortified and bestowed on his natural 
son Peverel, by WilUam the Conqueror, a.d. 
1068. Richard I., having captured the castle, 
held a coimcil here March 30, 1194; and 
it obtained the privileges of a county from 
Henry VI. (a.d. 1422—1471). Charles I. 
erected his royal standard at this town in the 
beginning of the civil war, Aug. 22, 1642 ; and 
the castle was taken by the parhamentarian 
forces, after a brave defence, in September. 
The Luddite riots {q. v.) of 1811 and 1814 ori- 
ginated here ; and, during the reform excite- 
ment, much property was destroyed, and the 
castle of the duke of Newcastle burned, Oct. 
10, 1831. St. Mary's Church, supposed to 
have been erected in the 15th century, was 
repaired at a cost of £9,000, and reopened 
in 1848 ; and St. Barnabas, a Roman Catho- 
lic cathedral, built at a cost of £20,000, was 
consecrated in August, 1844. The general hos- 
pital was founded in 1781 ; the general lunatic 
asylum in 1810 ; the dispensary in 1831 ; 
and the foundation-stone of the new lunatic 
asylum was laid Oct. 30, 1857. The barracks, 
built in 1792, were ordered to be renewed by 
a resolution of government in 1857 ; and the 
People's College was founded by Mr. George 
GiU in 1847. An act for the inclosure of 
1,300 acres of pasture-land was passed June 
30, 1845. 

NovABA (Italy). — The duke of Orleans 
surprised this town June 11, 1495, and the 
French and Milanese fought a battle in the 
neighbourhood, April 5, 1500, which did not 
lead to any important results. Pope Leo X. 
having engaged a large body of Swiss to 
defend his newly • acquired territory, they 
obtained a victory over the French here, 
June 6, 1513. The French, under Lautrec, 
captured it m 1527 ; and the Sardinian army 
was totally defeated by the Austrians under 
Radetzky, followed by the resignation of 
the crown by Albert, and the abandonment 
of all claim on Lombardy by Sardinia, March 
23, 1849. 

Nova Scotia (North America). — This 
British possession, settled by the French 
A.D. 1604, and called by them Acadia, was 
granted by charter to Sir W. Alexander in 
1621, when its name was changed to Nova 
Scotia. The French, however, were not 
expelled until 1654 ; and the colony was re- 
stored to them by the treaty of Breda, July 



NOV 



NUM 



25, 1667. War having again brolieu out, 
Port Royal, in Acadia, was captured in 1710, 
and named Annapolis, in honour of Queen 
Anne, and the whole colony was secured to i 
England by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, ] 
1713. The French and Indians frequently 
attacked the new colony, untU finally con- ] 
quered in 1758. The bishopric of Nova 
Scotia was founded Aug. 11, 1787. Gold was ; 
discovered on the Tangier river in March, ! 
1861. Mr. Joseph Howe, provincial secre- j 
tary, presented an official report on the sub- j 
ject, Sept. 4, 1861. 1 

NovATiANS, the followers of Novatian, a 
presbyter at Rome, who denied the right of 
the Church to restore the "lapsed," took 
their rise a.d. 250. Novatian, consecrated t 
bishop of Rome in opposition to Cornelius, ' 
was condemned by a council a.d. 251 ; Mar- 1 
cianus, bishop of Aries, was deposed for 
holding these tenets in 254. The sect de- 
clined in the 5th century. 

Nova Zembla (Arctic Ocean), known at 
an early period to the Russians, was dis- 
covered by an EngHsh seaman named Wil- 
loughbyA.D. 1553. Stephen Burrough made 
a voyage to Nova Zembla in 1556 ; and the j 
Dutch navigator Barentz in 1596. 

Novels. — The NovellcB, forming part of ! 
the emperor Justinian's code, were prepared 
and pubhshed a.d. 535. 

NovEMBEE, called blot-monath, blood - 
month, or month of sacrifice, by the Saxons, 
had thirty days in the time of Romulus 
(B.C. 753 — 716) ; increased to thirty-one by 
Julius Caesar (b.c. 49 — 44) ; and was again 
reduced to thirty by Augustus (b.c. 31 — a.d. 
14) , An annual thanksgiving on the 5th of 
November, in commenxoration of the de- 
liverance of the nation from the perils of 
the Gunpowder Plot {q.v.), was appointed 
by 3 James I. c. 1 (1606). 

Novgorod (Russia). — The Russian mon- 
archy was founded here under Ruric, a.d. 
862; and it was made an independent re- 
public in 1150. It joined the Hanseatie 
league in 1276 ; and one of their factories 
was established, which led to such a degree 
of prosperity, that the saying arose, "Who 
can resist God and the great Novgorod ? " 
Ivan VassUievich destroyed its independence 
in 1477 ; and Ivan IV. massacred 25,000 of 
the inhabitants in 1570. 

Novi (Italy). — The king of Sardinia drove 
Marshal Maillebois from his position here 
A.D. 1746. It capitulated to Marshal Loudon 
Oct. 3, 1788. The French, commanded by 
Jombert, were signally defeated by Su- 
warrow, when 15,000 men were put hors de 
combat, Aug. 15, 1799, 

Novum Oeganum. — This work of Lord 
Bacon was first made known by his treatise 
on the Advancement of Learning, a.d. 1605, 
and was published with a dedication to 
James I. in 1620. It was entitled "Instau- 
ratio Magna {i. e. Novum Organum, sive 
Indicia vera de Interpretatione Saturae)." 

NoYADES. — Jean Baptiste Carrier was 
sent by the Montagnards to Nantes, with 
proconsular powers for the suppression of 



aU opposition to their party. He arrived 
in the city Oct. 8, 1793, and immediately 
set in operation the existing means of 
destruction against the royalists. The 
guillotine and discharges of musketry prov- 
ing too slow in their effects, he placed 
ninety -four priests in the hold of a ship 
stationed on the Loire, and having secured 
the hatchways, scuttled the vessel, which 
of course sank with aU on board, Nov. 
15, 1793. This mode of execution was re- 
peated tiU the Loire had received between 
4,000 and 5,000 victims, whose bodies so 
infected its water that it was rendered 
illegal to drink of them, or to use fish caught 
in its stream. These wholesale executions 
were termed the noyades nantaises, from 
noyer, to drown. Carrier himself termed 
them revolutionary baths. He was recalled 
to Paris soon afterwards, and after a 
lengthy trial was condenmed to death, 
Dec. 16, 1794. 

NoTON (France), the ancient Noviomagus, 
a town of the Veromandui, was made a 
bishopric a.d. 531. It was the residence of 
Charlemagne, who was crowned here Oct. 
9, 768 ; and Hugh Capet was crowned king 
of France here, June 1, 987. A treaty was 
concluded at Noyon between Francis I. and 
the emperor Charles V., Aug. 13, 1516. 
Charles engaged to marry Louisa, the 
French king's infant daughter, on her at- 
taining her twelfth year, and was to receive 
as her dowry the claims of France on Naples. 
Charles was to pay 100,000 gold crowns 
every year until the marriage took place. 
The cathedral was founded by Pepin-le-Bref, 
and the town-haU was buUt in 1499. {See 
Beewneville.) 

Nubia (Egypt) formed a treaty with the 
emperor Diocletian a.d. 284 — 286, and was 
converted to Christianity at an early period, 
continuing in that faith till the 13th century. 
The caliph Omar exacted from it an annual 
tribute of 360 slaves, about a.d. 637, which 
was maintained tiU about 1150. Contests 
were carried on almost uninterruptedly be- 
tween the people of Nubia and the sultans of 
Egypt during the 14th century ; and they 
ended in the extinction of Christianity and 
the breaking up of the kingdom into a num- 
ber of petty Mohammedan states. An expedi- 
tion by Mehemet Ali brought it into nominal 
subjection to the pashas of Egypt a.d. 1820. 
The architectural ruins at Sabooa are as- 
cribed to the age of Rameses, b.c. 1355 — 
B.C. 1289. 

Nuisances. — The mayors and bailiffs of 
towns were ordered to compel the inhabitants 
of the districts under their jurisdiction to 
remove aU filth and other nuisance, by 12 
Rich. II. c. 13 (1388). Numerous sanitary 
regulations were made by the Nuisances' Re- 
moval and Diseases' Prevention Act, 11 & 12 
Vict.c. 123 (Sept. 4,1848), which was amended 
by 12 & 13 Vict. 0. Ill (Aug. 1, 1849). 

NuMANTiA (Spain), the site of which is 

marked by the ruins at Puente de don 

Guarray, offered a brave resistance to the 

Roman arms for twenty years. It was at 

613 



NUM 



OAK 



length reduced by Scipio Africanus, who 
brought against it an army of 60,000 men, 
B.C. 134. The conqueror received the sur- 
name of Numantieus. 

NuMAifTiNE War, between the Eomans 
and the Celtiberians (q.v.), whose chief 
town was Numantia, commenced B.C. 140, 
and was brought to a close by Scipio ^mi- 
Manus, the conqueror of Carthage, who 
levelled the city of Ifumantia with the 
ground, B.C. 133. 

Ntjmidia (Africa).— The Eomans became 
acquainted with this country B.C. 264, during 
the first Punic war when its people formed 
the cavali-y of the Carthaginians. They 
transferred their services to the Eomans 
B.C. 256, and aided them throughout the 
second Punic war, B.C. 218—201. Masi- 
nissa, the king,who was rewarded with a large 
accession of territory, died B.C. 149 ; his 
son Micipsa at his death left the kingdom 
to Adherbal and Hiempsal, his sons, and 
his nephew Jugurtha, B.C. 118. Jugurtha 
having murdered his cousins, the Eomans de- 
clared war against him B.C. Ill ; and he was 
captured and put to death B.C. 106. The 
country was made a Eoman province by 
Julius Csesar for having taken part in the 
civil war against him, and Sallust the histo- 
rian was appointed governor B.C. 46. Cali- 
gula changed the government of the province 
A.D. 39. The province was wrested from 
the Eomans by the Yandals, under Genseric, 
in 427. They were subdued by Belisarius, 
general of the emperor Justinian I., in 533. 
The Mohammedans, commanded by Akbah, 
seized Numidiain 667. 

Numismatics. — The Greeks and Eomans 
formed collections of coins as objects of 
beauty, but not for purposes of historical in- 
quiry. The earliest known collection is that 
of the poet Petrarch, who died a.d. 1374, 
and the first vmter on numismatics is Eneas 
Vico, whose discourse on medals appeared 
at Venice in 1555. The science was fiurst 
applied to aid profound and critical research 
into antiquity by Spanheim, about 1671, 
and in 1692 the labours of previous authors 
were consolidated by Jobert in his " Science 
de Medailles." Addison's dialogues on the 
Usefulness of Ancient Medals were first 
pubMshed in a separate form in 1724. 

NxTNCio is the name given to an ambassa- 
dor from the papal court, when he is not a 
cardinal. {See Legates.) James II. re- 
ceived in public Francisco d'Adda, the last 
papal nuncio sent to the court of England, 
July 3, 1687, whereupon several noblemen 
and gentlemen resigned their offices. 

NuNHEAD Cemeteet (Loudou), Compris- 
ing fifty acres of ground, was consecrated 
by the bishop of Winchester, July 29, 1840. 
Nunneet and ISTuNS. — Saint Syncletica, 
who died about the year 310, aged 84 years, 
is usually regarded as the founder of the 
first monasteries for women. The first in- 
stitution of the kind in England was founded 
at Folkstone by Eadbald, king of Kent, in 
630. By 13 Edw. I. st. 1, c. 34 (1285), the 
abduction of a nun from her convent, even 



with her ovra consent, was punished with 
three years' imprisonment. Convents, as 
well as monasteries, were suppressed by 
Henry VIII. in 1539. In 1633 a Protestant 
nunnery was in existence at Gedding Parva, 
in HuntiDgdonshire. 

Nueembeeg, or NlJRirBEEG (Bavaria), 
received from Henry III. power to coin 
money, and other privileges, about the 
middle of the 11th century, and was made 
afree city a.d. 1219. The people of Nurem- 
berg embraced the cause of the Protestants, 
and diets were held here in 1523 and 1524 ; 
and the first religious peace, called the Peace 
of Nuremberg, was concluded here in July, 
1532, and ratified at Eatisbon Aug. 2. The 
Protestants, who were allowed the free exer- 
cise of their religion, promised obedience to 
the emperor, and engaged not to protect the 
Zwinglians and the Anabaptists. It retained 
its independence till 1803, when Napoleon I. 
bestowed it upon the king of Bavaria. The 
castle, built by the emperor Conrad a.d. 1030, 
was presented by the town to the king in 1855. 
The Protestant church of St. Lawrence, rich 
in old German paintings, was built by the em- 
peror Adolphus (1292—1298) . The church of 
St. Sebaldus, with the bronze shrine of the 
saint, was completed, after thirteen years' 
labour, by Peter Vischer in 1519. The 
Frauenkirche, with its famous astronomical 
clock, founded by Charles IV., was com- 
pleted in 1361. The town-haU, adorned 
-with paintkigs by Albert Durer, was built in 
1619. The Gymnasium was opened in 1526, 
by Melancthon, to whom a statue was erected 
in 1826. 

Nttesia (Italy), a Sabine city, first men- 
tioned as furnishing volunteers to the army 
of Scipio during the second Punic war, 
B.C. 205. Octavian punished the inhabitants 
for their conduct in the Perusian war, about 
A.D. 40. It was made the seat of a bishopric 
in the 5th century ; the fio'st bishop of whom 
any record remains was living in 495. St. 
Benedict, founder of the monastic order 
bearing his name, was bom here a.d. 480. 

Nystadt (Finland). — A treaty of peace 
was signed between Peter the Great of 
Eussia and the Swedish regency at this 
town, Aug. 30, 1721. Sweden ceded Livonia, 
Ingria, Esthonia, and Carelia, part of Wiborg, 
and some small islands, in return for Finland 
and 2,000,000 of rix-dollars. 



Oae:. — ^The evergreen oak was introduced 
into this country from the south of Europe 
before a.d. 1581 ; the scarlet oak from 
North America before 1691 ; the chestnut- 
leaved oak from North America before 
1730 ; and the Turkey oak from the south 
of Europe before 1735. The tree in which 
Charles II. concealed himself at Boscobel, in 
Shropshire, after the battle of Worcester, 
Sept. 3, 1651, denominated the Eoyal Oak, 
was preserved with great care. 

Oakham (Eutlandshire) . — By an ancient 



OAK 

custom the lord of the manor was entitled to 
demand from every peer passing through his 
domains a shoe from one of his horses, or 
the equivalent in money, and the ruins of the 
old castle of Oakham, supposed to have been 
built in the reign of Henry IT., are covered 
vrith horse- shoes obtained in this manner by 
its former possessors. The grammar-school 
was founded in 1581, and the Agricultural 
Hall in 1837. 

Oak Stnob was held in June, a.d. 403, 
in a suburb of Chalcedon called the Oak, 
where a church and a monastery had been 
founded by Eufinus. Theophilus, archbishop 
of Alexandria, had brought accusations against 
Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, 
and charges embodied in forty-seven articles 
were launched against him at this synod. It 
lasted fourteen days, and forty-five bishops 
subscribed the sentence of deposition against 
Chrysostom, who refused to appear. The 
synod appealed to the emperor ; Chrysostom 
was arrested, but was speedily reinstated, and 
a council held at Constantinople pronounced 
in his favour. 

Oasis, or Atjasis (Africa). ^ — Three of 
these solitary places in the deserts of 
Libya, were celebrated in ancient history 
under this name, — the Greater Oasis, accord- 
ing to Herodotus seven days' journey west 
of Thebes ; the Ammonium, the site of the 
famed temple of Jupiter Ammon, visited 
by Alexander the Great b.c. 333, with its 
celebrated oracle; and the Lesser Oasis. 
Juvenal is supposed to have been the first 
person banished to one of these sohtary 
places, in the sandy deserts of Libya, a.d. 
94. Timasius, the master-general of Theo- 
dosius, was banished by Eutropius to the 
Oasis in 396. Nestorius was also transferred 
from Petra to the Oasis in 435. 

Oates's Plot. {See Popish Plots.) 

Oaths. — Abraham sealed his covenant 
with Abimelech by an oath, B.C. 1891 
(Gen. xxi. 23) ; and they were sanctioned by 
the Mosaic law B.C. 1496 (Lev. v. 4). Oaths 
were common amongst the Greeks and Eo- 
mans. They were introduced into judicial 
proceedings in England by the Saxons a.d. 
600 ; and 150 monks were sworn at a synod 
held at Cliff, in Aug. 824. With reference to 
the claim set up by Innocent III. a.d. 1200, 
and maintained by his successors, to grant 
dispensations from promissory oaths, Hal- 
lam (" Middle Ages," c. vii. p. 2) remarks : 
•' Two principles are laid down in the Decre- 
tals — that an oath disadvantageous to the 
Church is not binding ; and that one extorted 
by force was of slight obligation, and might 
be annulled by ecclesiastical authority. As 
the first of these maxims gave the most un- 
limited privilege to the popes of breaking aU 
faith of treaties which thwarted their inter- 
est or passion, a privilege which they con- 
tinually exercised, so the second was equally 
convenient to princes weary of observing 
engagements towards their subjects or their 
neighbours. They protested with a bad 
grace against the absolution of their people 
&om aflegiance by an authority to which 



OBS 

they did not scruple to repair in order to 
bolster up their own perjuries." (See Abjtj- 
kation. Allegiance, Act of Supbemact, 
Jewish Disabilities Bill, &c.) 

Obelisks. — PHny mentions two that stood 
before the temple in Alexandria; one, Cleo- 
patra's Needle, is stiR in existence, and bears 
the name of Eameses II., who flourished b.c. 
1360. The emperor Augustus (b.c. 31 — 
A.D. 14) removed several from Egypt to 
Eome, and succeeding emperors following 
his example, forty-eight in all were trans- 
ported. Eour of these were restored and 
set up by Pope Sixtus V. Another was set 
up by Innocent X. ia 1651 ; another by Alex- 
ander VII. in 1667 ; and one for Pius VII. 
in 1822. An obeHsk, removed by the French 
from Luxor, was erected in the Place de la 
Concorde, Paris, Oct. 25, 1836. 

Obidos (Battle).— The duke of Wellington 
defeated the French in an encounter near 
this fortified town in Portugal, Aug. 15, 
1808. It is memorable as the scene where 
English blood was first spilt in the Peninsu- 
lar war. 

OsLivioiir. — The title Act of Oblivion was 
given to 13 Charles II. c. 3 (1660), which 
granted a general pardon and indemnity to 
aU state offences committed between Jan. 1, 
1637, and June 24, 1660, excepting to the 
persons mentioned by name in 13 Charles II. 
St. 1, c. 15 (1660) ; to those who had embez- 
zled the king's goods; to Eomish priests or 
persons engaged in the Irish rebellion of 
1641. Fifty-six of these regicides were at- 
tainted, of whom twenty -nine were brought 
to trial, and eleven executed. Disquahfica- 
tion from office was the punishment imposed 
upon twenty others. 

Obseevants. — When St. Bernard of 
Siena reformed the Franciscans, about a.d. 
1400, those that remained under the re- 
laxed rule were termed Conventuals, and 
those that accepted the Eeformation, Observ- 
ants or EecoUects. The reformation was 
confirmed by the council of Constance, the 
seventeenth general council, held from Not, 
16, 1414, to April 22, 1418, and afterwards 
by Pope Eugenius IV., who ascended the 
papal cnair in 1431. 

Obseevatoet. — The tower of Babel, 
erected about b.c. 2247 (Gen. xi. 1—9), is 
supposed by some writers to have been an 
observatory. The tomb of Osmandias in 
Egypt was an edifice of this kind. Observa- 
tories existed amongst the Chinese and the 
Hindoos at a remote period. The observa- 
tory at Alexandria, buUt B.C. 300, was the 
most celebrated of ancient times. The first 
modern observatory was erected at Cassel 
A.D, 1561. 

Cassel 1561 Edinburgh July 22, 1776 

Is] e of Huen Aug. 13, 1576 Dublin 1785 

Dantzic .... (about) 1640 Konigsberg 1814 

Copenhagen 1656 Cape of Good Hope 1821 

Paris 1670 Paramatta 1822 

Greenwich Aug. 10, 1675 Cambridge 1824 

Berlin 1711 Christiania 18.33 

Petersburg 1725 Pulkowa 1839 

Padua 1769 Cambridge, U.S. .. 1840 

Oxlord 1772 Washington . U. S. 1842 

615 



OCA 

OcAJTA (Bailie).— The French, under' 
Mortier and Soult, defeated the Spaniards 
in a plain near this town in Spain, Nov. 19, 
18U9. The French made 20,000 prisoners, 
took 45 pieces of cannon, and all the ammu- i 
nition of the Spanish army. 

Ocean Monaech. — This American emi- 
grant ship, on the same day that she sailed 
from Liverpool with 399 persons on board, 
took fire off Orme's Head, Aug. 24, 1848, 
and was burned to the water's edge in a few 
hours, 178 hves being lost. 

OcKLEY (Battle).— Ethelwulph, king of 
Wessex, and his son Ethelbald, defeated 
the Danes in a great battle near this town, 
in Surrey, a.d. 851. 

Octarchy. (See Heptarchy.) 

October, the eighth month of the Eoman 
year, as its name implies, was introduced 
into the calendar of Eomulus B.C. 753. 

October Club was first formed in Lon- 
don during the reign of Wfiham III. and 
Mary, about a.d. 1690. It consisted of a large 
number of members, many of them being Ja- 
cobites. In 1703 the club consisted of about 
150 county members of parhament, who 
were of opinion that their party was too 
backward in punishing and turning out the 
Whigs. Their meetings, first held at the 
BeU, were afterwards transferred to the 
Crown, in King Street, Westminster. 

Octroi.— This excise duty, levied by the 
government on all articles entering Paris 
a ;d other large towns of France, was first 
imposed in the middle of the 14th century. 
It was abolished by the National Assembly 
in 1790, and it was restored Oct. 18, 1798. 
This tax was abolished in Belgium in 1848. 

OczAKOw, OczAKOFP, or Otchakoe 
(Eussia) , possessed a citadel at a very early 
period. The Eussian army, under Mtinnich, 
amounting to 70,000 men, with a powerful 
artillery train, besieged it July 10, and a 

Eowder-magazine having blown up and 
uried 6,000 men in the ruins, the Turkish 
garrison surrendered July 13, 1737. The 
Turks laid siege to it Oct. 28, but were com- 
pelled to withdraw, on account of sickness in 
their ranks, Nov. 10, 1737. The Turks re- 
gained possession in 1738. It was assailed, 
though without success, by the Eussians in 
1769 ; was invested by Prince Potemkin 
July 12, 1788; and taken Dec. 17. It 
was finally ceded to Eussia Jan. 9, 1792. 
The fortifications were blown up on the ap- 
proach of the French and Eughsh, Oct. 18, 
1855. 

Odd Fellows. — Nothing positive seems 
to be known respecting their origin. In the 
Odd Fellows' Magazine for March, 1837, an 
Odd FeUow is said to be " hke a fox for 
cunning ; a dove for tameness ; a lamb for 
innocence ; a hon for boldness ; a bee for 
industry ; and a sheep for usefulness." The 
first number of an Odd Fellows' Magazine 
appeared at Manchester in March, 1828. It 
was continued till Jan., 1843. An Odd Fel- 
lows' newspaper, of which 52 numbers were 
issued, was pubhshed in London in 1839. 
Odense, or Odensee (Denmark) .—One of 
616 



OEN 

the most ancient towns in the kingdom, the" 
foundation of which is referred by tradition 
to Odin. The cathedral, commencedA.D.1080, 
was completed in 1301. A diet assembled 
here a.d. 1527 secured the reUgious hberty 
of Denmark. 

Odessa (Eussia) was founded by the em- 
press Catherine a.d. 1794, and received as 
its governor the duke of EicheUeu, a French 
emigrant, in 1803. In 1817 it was declared 
a free port for thirty years, a pri^Tlege after- 
wards extended by imperial ukase tiU Aug. 
27, 1854. The batteries having fired upon 
the Furious steam frigate, under a flag of 
truce, in April, 1854, it was bombarded by 
the French and English fleets, April 22. 
The steam frigate Tiger, having stranded 
here, was fired upon in a cowardly manner 
by the garrison of Odessa, May 12, 1854. 
The Enghsh and French expedition to the 
Bug and the Dnieper lay at anchor off 
Odessa from Oct. 8 to 14, 1855. 

Odessus. — This town, near the site of 
which the modern Varna stands, is said to 
have been founded by the Milesians about 
B.C. 592. The Bulgarians seized it a.d. 679. 

Odontology, the science of the teeth, 
was first accuratelv treated of by Purkinj^, 
A.D. 1835, and by Eetzius in 1837. The re* 
lations between the teeth and the rest of the 
body were explained by Professor Eichard 
Owen to the French Academy of Sciences in 
Dec, 1839. The same gentleman pubhshed 
his Odontography/ in 1840 — 1845. 

Odkys^ are mentioned in connection 
with the Scythian expedition of Darius, B.C. 
507; and they raised an army of 150,000 men 
against Macedonia B.C. 429. Xenophon and 
the Ten Thousand, in their "retreat," as- 
sisted to restore Seuthes, one of their kings, 
to the throne, B.C. 400. They were engaged 
in dissensions with the Athenians respecting 
the possession of the Thracian Chersonese, 
B.C. 382 — 357, and ceded the disputed terri- 
tory in the latter year. Phillip II. of Mace- 
don, after a ten years' contest, brought 
them under tribute, and founded Philippo- 
pohs in the heart of their country, B.C. 343. 
Sadales bequeathed his kingdom to the Eo- 
mansB.c. 42. A formidable rebellion against 
their Eoman masters was with difficulty put 
down by Poppaeus Sabinus a.d. 26. Vespa- 
sian incorporated the country with the em- 
pire about the year 72. 

Oedenburg, or Odenburg (Hungary), 
the ancient Scarabantia, called by the Hun- 
garians, Sopron, or Soprony, is celebrated in 
modern times as the scene of a diet held by 
Leopold I. A.D. 1681, with a view of concUiat- 
ing the Hungarians. The Hungarians de- 
feated the Austrians here, May 7, 1849. 

Oeland, or Oland (Baltic Sea).— This 
island, belonging to Sweden, seized by the 
Danes a.d. 1360, was soon after restored. 

QSniad^ (Greece) is first noticed B.C. 
455, and was unsuccessfully besieged by Pe- 
ricles b.c. 454. The inhabitants, who sided 
with the Lacedaemonians in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, were compelled, chiefly through 
the instriunentality of Demosthenes, to de- 



OES" 



OLD 



dare for Atlions, b.c. 424. The iEtolians 
made themselves masters of (Eniadse about 
B.C. 350, and retained possession till B.C. 219, 
when it was taken by Philip V. of Macedon. 
It was captured by the Romans, and made 
over to their allies, the iEtolians, b.c. 211, 
but restored to the Acarnanians B.C. 189. 
Colonel Leake described its ruins a.d. 1855. 

CEifOPHTTA (Battle) was fought B.C. 456, 
between the Athenians, commanded by My- 
ronides, and the Boeotians. The latter were 
signally defeated. 

OESEii (Baltic Sea). — This island was taken 
from the Teutonic knights by the Danes, 
who ceded it to Sweden a.d. 1645. It 
was captured by Peter the Great a.d. 1710, 
and was, with the government of Livonia, 
ceded to Russia by the treaty of Nystadt, 
Aug. 30, 1721. 

Ofejt. {See Buda.) 

Opfa's Dyke, extendingfrom Bristol to the 
north of Flint, was constructed by Offa, king 
of Mercia, a.d. 779, in order to protect his 
territories from the attacks of the Welsh. 

Offices. — The purchase and sale of offices 
was abolished by5 &6 £dw. VI. c. 16 (1552). 
An order in council, enforcing the prohibi- 
tion, appeared July 19, 1702. By 31 Geo. II. 
c. 22 (1758), a duty was imposed upon aU 
salaries, fees, and perquisites of offices and 
pensions payable by the crown, exceeding 
the value of £100 per annum, and it was 
made perpetual by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 97 
(Aug. 19, 1836) . 

Oglio (Battle).— The brothers Visconti, 
of Milan, were defeated on the Oglio with 
great loss by Count Lando, chief of an irregu- 
lar band, a.d. 1357. 

Ogulnian Law. — So called from tribunes 
of the name of Ogulnius, by whom it was 
proposed, b.c. 300. Its object was to remove 
the last exclusive privilege retained by the 
patricians; namely, that of being alone 
eligible for the sacred offices of Pontificate i 
and Augurate. By this law aU orders of 
priests were increased, and the priesthood 
opened to the plebeians. 

Ohio (North America) was explored a.d. 
1673, by the French from Canada, who de- 
sti'oyed an EngHsh settlement on the Great 
Miami in 1752, bringing on the war between 
France and England, of 1755. At the peace, 
it was, with Canada, ceded to the English, 
Feb. 10, 1763, and passed into the power of 
the United States government after the War 
of Independence, Sept. 15, 1783. The first 
territorial legislature met in September, 1799, 
and Ohio was admitted into the Union as a 
separate state in 1802. 

Ohud, Mount (Battle). — Mohammed was 
defeated by the Koreish on Mount Ohud, 
near Medina, a.d. 623 or 624. Mohammed j 
himself v'as wounded in the face with a I 
javelin, and two of his teeth were broken. I 

Oil. — Jacob poured oil on the stone which ' 
formed his pillow at Bethel, b.c. 1760 (Gen. \ 
xx\'iii. 18). It was extensively used in the '' 
sacrificial worship of the J^ws, and in the 
anointment of their high priests and kings, j 
The ancient Egyptians extracted oils from | 



the ohve, castor-berry tree, lettuce, flux, and 

other sources, and used them in the toilet, as 

well as for lamps and in cookery. Athens 

exported large quantities of olive oil ; and at 

Rome, bathers and the athletse habitually used 

it for purposes of anointment. Jan Van 

] Eyckis regarded as the inventor of oil colours 

i A.D. 1410, but there is httle doubt that they 

j were known at least two centuries before 

his time. AU vessels containing oil were 

ordered to be gauged by 4 Rich. II. c. 1 
(1380), which was repeated and enforced by 
subsequent acts. Imported oils were taxed 
by 12 Charles II. c. 4 (1660), and the duty 
on olive oil was increased by 2 Will. & Mary, 
s. 2, c. 4 (1690). The duty on chemical or 
essential oils was fixed at one shilling per 
lb. by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 14, 1855), 
which repealed the duties on vegetable and 

fish oils. Taylor's apparatus for the 

manufactm-e of oil-gas was invented in 
1815. 

Old Bailet (London).— The Sessions or 
court house, commenced a.d. 1770, was not 
completed until 1783. Improvements were 
made in 1808. The piUory in the Old Bailey 
was used for the last time June 22, 1830. 

Oldenburg- (Germany). — The title of 
count was assumed by Christian I. a.d. 1155, 
and the duchy was formed of the two coun- 
ties, Oldenburg and Delmenhorst, by 
Joseph II. in 1773. It joined the confede- 
ration of the Rhine in 1808, was incorporated 
with the French empire by Napoleon I. 
in 1810, and was restored to the duke in 
1814. Augustus first assxmied the title of 
grand-duke in 1829. Kuiphausen was added 
to the grand duchy in 1854. 

Old Fort (Crimea) .—The allied Enghsh, 
French, and Turkish army, reached Old 
Fort, near Eupatoria, Sept. 12, 1854. In 
the com'se of a few days the forces disem- 
barked with their material. The English 
mustered 26,000 men and 54 guns; the 
French 24,500 men and 70 guns, and the 
Turks about 7,000 men. 

Old Man of the Mountain. — The name 
given in Europe to the leader of the Assas- 
sins [q.v.). 

Old Style. — An attempt was made in 
England to reform the calendar (q. vA 
March 16, 1585, when a biU, entitled " An 
act giving her Majesty authority to alter 
and new-make a calendar, according to the 
calendar used in other countries," was read 
a first time. It was read a second time 
March 18, 1585, and then the subject dropped. 
The alteration was effected by 24 Geo. II. 
c. 23 (1751), entitled " An act for regulating 
the commencement of the year, and lur 
correcting the calendar now in use." This 
measure effected two great reforms, first in 
substituting the Gregorian for the Julian 
calendar, and, secondly, in abohshing the 
practice of commencing the legal Aear on 
the 25th of March. (See Yeah.) The act 
provided : "That throughout aU his Majesty's 
dominions in Europe, Asia, Africa, and 
America, the supputation according to which 
the year of our Lord began on the 25th of 
617 



OLE 

Marcli shall not be used after the last day of 
December, 1751 ; and that the first day of 
January next following shall be reckoned 
as the first day of the year 1752, and so in 
all future years. That from and after the 
1st day of January, 1752, the several days of 
each month shall go on and be reckoned and 
numbered in the same order, and the feast 
of Easter and other movable feasts thereon 
depending shall be ascertained according to 
the same method as they now are, until the 
2nd of September, 1752 ; that the natural 
day next immediately following the 2nd of 
September, 1752, shall be called and reckoned 
as the 14.tli day of September, omitting the 
eleven intermediate nominal days of the 
common calendar ; that the day which 
followed next after the said 14th of Sep- 
tember shall be reckoned in numerical order 
from that day ; and all pubhc and private 
proceedings whatsoever after the 1st of 
January, 1752, were ordered to be dated 
accordingly. That the several years of our 
Lord 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, or any 
other hundredth years of our Lord which 
shall happen in time to come (except only 
every fourth hundredth year of our Lord), 
whereof the year 2000 shall be the first, shall 
not be deemed bissextile or leap-years, but 
shall be considered as common years, con- 
sisting of 365 days only ; and that the years 
of our Lord 2000, 2400, 2800, and every 
other fourth hundredth year of our Lord, 
from the year 2000 inclusive, and also all 
other years of our Lord, which by the 
present supputation are considered bissextile 
or leap-years, shall for the future be esteemed 
bissextile or leap-years, consisting of 366 
days. That whereas, according to the rule 
then in use for calculating Easter-day, that 
feast was fixed to the first Sunday after the 
first full moon next after the 21st of March ; 
and if the full moon happens on a Sunday, 
then Easter-day is the Sunday after, which 
rule had been adopted by the general council 
of Mce, A.D. 325 ; but as the method of com- 
puting the full moons then used in the Church 
of Eugland, and according to which the table 
to find Easter prefixed to the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer was formed, had become con- 
siderably erroneous, it was enacted that the 
said method should be discontinued, and that 
from and after the 2nd of September, 1752, 
Easter-day, and the other movable and 
other feasts were henceforward to be reck- 
oned accordiag to the calendar, tables, and 
rules annexed to the act, and attached to the 
Books of Common Prayer." {See New 
Style.) 

Oleron (British Channel) .—This island, 
the ancient Uliarus Insiila, was ceded to 
England by the treaty of Bretigny, May 8, 
1360. 

Olekon- (France) .—Tinder the mediation 
of Edward I. of England, a treaty of peace 
was signed at this town of Beam, a.d. 1288, 
between Philip IV. of Prance and Alfonso III. 
of Aragon. 

Oleeon Laws. — Hallam (Middle Ages, 
oh. ix. pt. 2) remarks, with reference to this 
618 



OLM 

celebrated code of maritime law, — "A set of 
regulations, chiefly borrowed from the Con- 
solato, was compiled in France under the 
reign of Louis IX., and prevailed in their 
own country. These have been denominated 
the laws of Oleron, from an idle story that 
they were enacted by Eichard I., while his 
expedition to the Holy Land lay at anchor 
in that island." At the time this code was 
formed the EngUsh navy consisted of thirty- 
three ships. 

Oliva. — A. treaty of peace was ratified at 
Oliva, May 3, 1660, between Poland, Den- 
mark, Sweden, and the emperor. The Polish 
king renounced aU claim to the crown of 
Sweden. Drontheim and Bornholm were 
ceded to Denmark, and Esthonia and Livonia 
to Sweden. 

Olive, " in the western world," says Gib- 
bon, " followed the progress of peace, of 
which it was considered as the symbol. Two 
centuries after the foundation of Eome, both 
Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful 
plant ; it was naturaUzed in these countries, 
and at length carried into the heart of Spain 
and Gaul." A law of the Roman republic 
prohibited the culture of the vine and the 
oHve beyond the Alps, that the value of those 
in Italy might be kept up. It was so highly 
valued by the Israelites that it was planted 
in the outer court of the second temple 
(Ps. xcii. 13, &c.). Olive-trees were culti- 
vated in the botanic garden at Oxford in 
1648, and some trees planted in the open 
ground at Camden House, Kensington, in 
1719, produced fruit. The Cape ohve, and 
the weather-leaved olive, were introduced 
from the Cape in 1730, the sweet-scented 
oHve from China in 1771, and the laurel- 
leaved ohve from Madeira in 1784. 

Olivewza (Spain). — This town, belonging 
to Portugal, was taken by the Spaniards 
May 20, 1801, and a treaty was concluded by 
which Ohvenza was confirmed to Spain, Sept. 
29, 1801 . The French, under Soult, captured 
it Jan. 22, 1811, and it was retaken by the 
Enghsh, under Beresford, after a few days' 
siege, April 17, 1811. It was again occupied, 
June 24, 1811, by the French, who blew up 
the fortifications. Olivenza was restored to 
Portugal by the congress of Vienna in 1814, 
but Ferdinand VII. refused to give it up, and 
the town is stiU held by Spain in spite of the 
treaty. 

Olmtttz (Austria). — This town, at a later 
period the capital of Moravia, resisted an 
attack by the Mongols a.d. 1242. Here 
Matthias concluded what was termed the 
perpetual peace, with the kings of Bohemia 
and Poland, in July, 1479. Sigismtmd, king 
of Poland, held a congress here in April, 
1527. It was taken by the Swedes, under 
Torstenson, during the Thirty Years' War, 
A.D. 1642, and was besieged unsuccessfully 
by Frederick the Great for seven weeks, a.d. 
1758. Here Lafayette was imprisoned in 
1794, and Ferdinand II. resigned the crown 
to his nephew, Dec. 2, 1848. The cathedral 
was founded about a.d. 1300 ; and the uni- 
j varsity was transferred to Kremsir in con- 



OLO 

sequence of the outbreak in 1848. A 
conference, under the auspices of the empe- 
ror of Eussia, at which the plenipotentiaries 
of Austria and Prussia came to terms on the 
Hesse-Cassel dispute, was held here Nov. 29, 
1850. 

Olot (Spain). — This ancient town, of 
which some Roman remains stiU exist, was 
almost entirely destroyed hy an earthquake 
A.D. 1427. It was rebuilt, and suffered 
severely during the war of independence. 
The Spaniards were defeated by the French 
at Olot, Dec. 18, 1809. 

Oltenitza (Battle).— About 12,000 Turks 
who crossed the Danube from Turtukai, 
Nov. 2 and 3, 1853, estabhshed themselves 
at Oltenitza, where they were assailed by 
the Russians, Nov. 4. The engagement ter- 
minated in favour of the Turks, who only 
lost 106 men. The Russian loss amounted to 
1,000 in killed and wounded. 

Olympia (Battle). — The Eleians were de- 
feated by the Arcadians, in the neighbour- 
hood of Olympia, b.c. 364, and at the time 
of the celebration of the 104th Olympiad, 
the Arcadians were in possession of Olympia. 
Assisted by the Achaians, the Eleians sur- 
prised the Arcadians in the celebration 
of the games, and obtained a complete 
victory. 

Olympia (Greece) .—The temple and sacred 

frove of Zeus Olympius were planned after the 
estruction of Pisa by the Eleians, b.c. 572, 
when the spoils of the conquered cities were 
devoted to the erection of a temple, which 
was completed about b.c. 472. Phidias 
executed the colossal statue of Zeno in ivory 
and gold, and the figures in the pediments, 
B.C. 437 — 433. The site, plan, and dimen- 
sions of the temple have been shown by the 
excavations of the French commission. 

Olympiad, a term of four years, 
deriving its name from the Olympic games, 
commenced with the new moon of the 
summer solstice, July 1, 776 B.C. This 
system of computing time was employed 
by the ancient Greeks, and it ceased after 
the 305th Olympiad, a.d. 440. 

Olympic Games. — ^The chief of the four 
great national festivals of the ancient Greeks, 
celebrated every fifth year at Olympia (q-v.), 
whence the name. The exact interval 
at which they recurred was one of forty- 
nine and fifty Ivmar months alternately. 
The origin of the games, which lasted five 
days, is unknown. Some authors assert 
that they were founded by the Idsei Dactyh 
B.C. 1453. There was a tradition that Iphi- 
tus, king of the Eleians, had revived the 
festival, B.C. 884 according to Eratosthenes, 
and B.C. 828 according to Callimachus. 
Herodotus recited parts of his history at the 
Olympic games, b.c. 456. They were cele- 
brated at Antioch a.d. 44, and were discon- 
tinued at Ehs in 394, and at Antioch by a 
decree of Justin I. in 520. 

Olympic Theatre (London) was built in 
1805, by Phihp Astley, of Astley's Amphi- 
theatre, and opened Sept. 18, 1806. It was 
burnt to the ground March 29, 1849, and 



OMM 

having been rebuilt, was opened Dec. 26, 
1849. 

Olynthian War.- The Olynthians had 
become so powerful that Acanthus and Ap- 
poUonia, jealous of their supremacy, applied 
to Sparta for aid, B.C. 383, The Spartans 
sent an army, under Eudamidas, B.C. 382, 
and Teleutias joined him soon after with 
10,000 men. Both generals were utterly de- 
feated, and Teleutias lost his life, B.C. 381. 
In the next campaign the Olynthians sub- 
mitted to Polybiades, the Spartan general, 
B.C. 379. War broke out between the Olyn- 
thians and Philip II., king of Macedon, B.C. 
350, which ended in the entire destruction of 
the city of Olynthus, B.C. 347. 

Olynthtjs (Greece) . — Artabazus, the Per- 
sian general, having captured the town and 
put all the inhabitants to death, gave it to 
the Chalcidic Greeks. From its situation it 
became of great importance, B.C. 392. {See 
OLYifTHiAN War.) 

Oma&h (Ireland), anciently called Oigh- 
Magh, signifying " the seat of the chiefs," 
is supposed to have been founded a.d. 792. 
The soldiers of James II. set fire to the town, 
and destroyed it with its church and castle in 
1689. The tovm having been rebuilt, was 
again destroyed by fire. The county in- 
firmary was estabhshed in 1796. 

Omercote (Scinde). — This fortified town 
was taken by the Ameers of Scinde from the 
rajah of Joudpore in 1813. The north-west 
tower of the fort was swept away in 1826 by 
the overflowing of a branch of the Indus. 

Omer, St. (France). — The cathedral, a 
fine bmlding in the Gothic style, was com- 
pleted in the middle of the 16th century. 
Within the walls of the abbey of St. Bertin, 
the only remaining fragment of which is a 
tower built in the 15th century, Childeric III., 
the last of the Merovingian kings of France, 
was confined by Pepin in 752. The French 
captured St. Omer in 1487. Wilham III., 
prince of Orange, was defeated in battle here 
by Marshal Luxemburg in 1677, and the town 
was ceded to France by the treaty of Nime- 
guen, Aug. 10, 1678. 

Ommiades. — This dynasty was founded in 
Arabia by Moawiyah, a.d. 655 or 661. Mer- 
wan II., the fourteenth and last caMph of this 
race, was slain in a mosque on the banks of 
the NUe, Feb. 10, 750, when the Abbassides 
(q.v.) assumed the reins of power. Abder- 
haman, the only member of the Ommiades 
who escaped the massacre at Damascus, 
founded acahphate inSpainin755. Eighteen 
caHphs reigned ; Hixem III., who resigned in 
1031, being the last. 



Began to 
reign. 

A.D. 

Moawiyah I. ..655 or 661 

Yezid 1 680 

Moawiyah 11 683 

Merwan 1 684 

Abdahnelik 684 

Walid 1 705 

Soliman 715 



Began to 
reign. 

AJ). 

Omarll 717 

Yezid II 720 

Hashem, or Hixem 724 

Walid II 743 

Yezid in. (5 months) 744 
Ibrahim (3 months) 744 
Merwan II 744 



OMN" 



OPE 



Began to 




reign. 




A.D. 


Abderahmanl... 


.. 755 


Hixem I., or Hashem 787 


Alhakem 


.. 796 


Abdeialiman II. 


.. 821 


Mohammed L . . 


.. 85-2 


Almondhir 


.. 886 


AbilaUah 


888 


Abderahman III 


.. 912 


Alhakem II 


. 961 


HixemIL 


.. 976 



Began to 
reign. 

A.D. 

Mohammed H 1009 

Suleyman 1009 

Ali Ben Hamud . . 1016 
Abderahman IV. . . 1017 

Alc.ssim 1021 

AbdfrahmanV. ..1023 
Mohamad III. (cousin 

of Hixem II.) . . 1023 
Hixem III 1025 



Omnibus. — Charles Kniglit says "the 
omnibus was tried about 1800, with four 
horses and six wheels ; but we refused to 
accept it in any shape till we imported the 
fashion from Paris in 1830." The omnibus 
was introduced there in 1827, and Mr. ShiUi- 
beer started the first pair in the metropohs, 
from the Bank to the Yorkshire Stingo, 
New Eoad, July 4, 1829. Omnibuses began 
to run in Amsterdam in September, 1839. 

Oa'e-Pound B'otes were first issued by 
the Bank of England March 4, 1797. They 
were withdrawn in 1823. They were again 
issued Dec. 16, 1852, for a short time, to 
relieve commercial distress. 

Onoee (Hindostan). — This place, near 
Bombay, was captured by the Portuguese 
A.D. 1569. General Mathews took it by 
storm Jan. 5, 1783, when the inhabitants are 
said to have been cruelly treated. 

OoDETPOEE, or Mewar (Hiudostau). — 
Its former capital, Chittor, was sacked a.d. 
1303 by the Mohammedans, and again 
March 16, 1527. Chittor was taken in 1568 
by the emperor Akbar, and most of its 
inhabitants perished. On the loss of his 
capital, the nana, Oody Singh, founded the 
city of Oodeypore, since that time the capi- 
tal of Mewar. The nana of Oodeypore 
entered into a treaty with the East-India 
Company in 1818, by which he became a 
tributary of the British government. 

Oojein (Hindostan), one of the seven 
sacred cities of the Hindoos, is supposed to 
be the Ozoana mentioned by Ptolemy. Vi- 
cramadilya, king of Oojein, was so celebrated 
that the Samoat sera used to this day through- 
out India dates from the commencement of 
his reign, b.c. 57. Oojein was taken by the 
Mohammedans in 1310, and it came under 
the power of the Patans in 1387. It was sub- 
jugated by Akbar in 1561. The Mahrattas 
took it in the middle of the 18th century, 
and it was the capital of Scindia's posses- 
sions tin 1810, when the seat of the govern- 
ment was fixed at Gwalior. 

OoTAKAMUND (Hindostau). — A sanitary 
station at this place, on the Neilgherry HiUs, 
was founded a.d. 1822. 

Opera. — This term, at first applied to the 
earhest Itahan plays of a mixed character, 
and then to lyrical dramas, was afterwards 
restricted to musical compositions. Menes- 
trier, the Jesuit, considers the Song of 
Solomon to be the earhest opera on record. 
The more probable account is that the opera 
proceeds from the sacred musical plays of 
t20 



the 15th century. "The Conversion of St. 
Paul" was performed at Rome a.d. 1440, 
and " Orfeo," or the descent of Orpheua 
into heU, was produced in that city in 1480. 
Sutherland Edwards, in his " History of the 
Opera," from which much of the informa- 
tion in this article is derived, states that 
Clement IX. was the author of seven 
libretti. 



A.D. 

1574 Clandio Merulo composes the music of a 

drama, which is played beJore Henry HE. 

of France at Venice. 
1581. Baltasarini, alias Beaujoyeux, produced the 

Ballet Comique de la Reyne, which is said 

to have cost 3,600,000 francs. 
1597. The opera of Dafne is pertbimed for the first 

time in the Corsi palace at Florence. 
1600. Euridice is represented publicly at Florence, 

on the occasion of the marriage of Henry IV. 

of France with M.irie de Medicis. 
1608. Gagliano composes new music to the libretto 

of Dafne, and Monteverde's Orfeo is pro- 

ducea in Italy. 

1645. Cardinal Mazarin introduces the Italian 

opera into Paris. 

1646. The first French opera, entitled Ak6bar, Jtoi 

de Mogol, is pioduced in the episcopal 
palace of Carpeutras. 

1656. The first English opera is produced at Sir W. 
Davenant's thtatre. 

1671. The seconi i Fj ench opera, La Pastorale en 
Musique, is privately performed at Issy. 
The third, Pomone. being the first French 
opera heard by the Parisian public, is pro- 
duced this year. 

1673. LulU. in conjunction with Quinault, wi-ites 
Cadmus and Bermione, which is produced 
upon the French stage. 

1677. Purcell (bom 1659) produces his first opera. 

Dido and JEneas. 

1678. Thiele's ^dam and .Cve. the first opera pro- 

duced in public in Germany in tho German 
language, is played at Hamburg. 
1685. Dryden's celebrated opera, the music by Gra- 
but, Albion and Albanlus, is performed 
at the Duke's Theatre. 

1690. Purcell composes music for the Tempest. 

1691. Purcell produces his King A rtliur in England. 

1710. The Italian opera is introduced into Kngland 

about this time. Buououciui's Almahide 
is produced in Kngland, being the first work 
performed entirely in the Italian language. 

1711. Handel's first opera, Rinaldo, is produced at 

the Queen's 'Theatre, in the Haymarket. 

1712. Handel's 11 Pastor Fido is produced at the 

King's Theatre. 

1713. Handel's Teseo is produced. 
1715. Handel's Ainadigi is brought out. 

1722. Bu(moucini's Griselda is produced. 

1723. Handel's Ottone and Flavio are brought out. 
1724 Handel's Giulio Cesare and Tamerlano are 

produced. 
1727. Buononcini's last opera.^ styanax,is produced. 
1733. Eameau's Hippolyte et Aricie is produced at 

Paris. 
1737. Rameau produces his Castor and Pollux. 
1752. Pergolese's Serva Padrona is produced in 

Paris. This opera causes the cele'a-ated 

dispute between the French and Italian 

stage. 
1760. Galuppi's Mondo della Luna is represented 

in Loudon. 
1780. Paisiello's Barbieredi Siviglia is produced at 

St. Petersburg. 
1794. Jan. 21. Admission to the National Opera of 

Paris is granted free of charge. 
1806. Catalani appears in London. 
1821. Weber's Der PreischUtz is performed at 

Berlin. 
! 1826. Oberon, "Webei-'s last opera, is produced at 
' Coveut Garden. 

i 1828. Catalan! sang for the last time in Dublin. 



OPE 



1829. Aug. 3. GuiUaume Tell, the last opera -written 
by Rossini, is represeuted for the first time 
at the Aciid6in;e Royale, Paris. 

1831. Meyerbeer's Robert le Diable is produced at 
the AcHd6inie Royale. 

.1832. Giulia, or Giulietta, Grisi first distinguishes 
herself a^ Adalgisa, in Norma, at Milan. 

1835. / Puriiani is played for the fiist time in 

London, for Grisi's benefit. 

1836. Jan. 26. Meyerbeer's second grand operR, Ze« 

Huguenots, is produced at the Acad6mie 
Royale. 

1840. Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia is produced at 
Paris. 

1844. Donizetti's last opera, entitled Catarino Co- 
mar o, is performed at Naples. 

1847. Madem.oiselle Altaoui appears at the Royal 

I'alian Opera, Covent Garden. 

1848. April 8. Donizotti d'es at Bergamo, in his 

fifty-second year, having composed sixty- 
four operas. 

1849. Meyerbepr's third opera. Le Prophite, is pro- 

duced at the Accidfemie Royale. 
1861. Giulia Giisi retires from the stage. 

Opeka-House (London). — The Italian 
Opera-house, or Her Majesty's Theatre, 
built by Sir John Vanbrugh a.d. 1705, was 
burnt down June 18, 1789. The present 
edifice was built in 1790, by an architect 
named jVovasielsky. The colonnade and 
arcade were added m 1818. 

Ophir, the name of an ancient country 
celebrated for gold. Its position has not 
been ascertained ; and Arabia, India, and 
Africa, are contended for by diiferent au- 
thorities. The ships of Solomon and of 
Hiram, king of Tyre, brought 450 talents of 
gold to Jerusalem, b.c. 1000 (1 Kings vs.. 
26—28, X. 11, and 2 Chron. -riii. 17 and 18, 
and ix. 10). Jehoshaphat built ships at 
Tharshish, to go to Ophir for gold, about 
B.C. 913 (1 Kings xxii. 48, and 2 Chron. xx. 
36 and 37). Gold from Ophir is also men- 
tioned in Job xxii. 24, and xxviii. 16 ; Psalm 
xlv. 9 ; and Isaiah xiii. 12. 

Oi'HTHALMic Hospital. — The first insti- 
tution of this description in England was 
founded in Moorfields a.d. 1804, and was 
called the Rojal London Ophthalmic Hos- 
pital. The Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital 
was founded in 1816, the North London in 
1841 , and the Central London in 1843. The 
Ophthalmic Infirmary was founded in Bur- 
lington Gardens in 1804. 

Opium, chiefly obtained from Persia, 
Arabia, and India, was anciently prepared 
at Thebes. The opium trade to China be- 
came a monopoly in the hands of the East- 
India Company a.d. 1773, and was trans- 
ferred to the Board of Trade in 1793. The 
Chinese prohibited the importation in 1796. 
The cultivation of opium in India was 
restricted to the districts of Bahar and 
Benares in 1797. Turkey opium was intro- 
duced into the Indian Archipelago in 1815. 
On the cessation of the East-India Company's 
trading powers in 1834, a superintendent of 
trade was sent out to China by the Bi-itish 
gOTemment. Disputes arose with the Chinese, 
who, in 1839, destroyed 20,000 chests of opium. 
Serturner proved opium to be a compound 
substance in 1612. 



OPT 

Opoeto (Portugal) stands near the site of 
the ancient Cale, or Calem, also called 
Portus Cale, whence the name Portugal is 
by some writers derived. The Alani after- 
wards foimded Castrum Novum, of which 
the present city of Oporto, i. e., the Port, is 
supposed to occupy the site. It was taken 
by the Arian Goths, under Leovogildo, a.d. 
540. The Goths gave way to the Moors in 
716, and the tovra was utterly destroyed by 
Almanzor of Cordova in 820. It was rebuilt 
and re-peopled by Gascons and French in 
999, and it again feU into the hands of the 
Moors, who retained possession till 1092, 
when it was finally taken by the Christians. 
A tax having been laid upon Hnen manufac- 
tures, the women rose and routed the solcUers 
in 1628. Another riot ensued in 1661, on ac- 
count ofatax imposed upon paper. Aninsur- 
rection occurred in 1756, when the wine mono- 
poly was created by Pombal, and for this in- 
surrection twenty-six: persons were put to 
death. The Erench, under Soult, took 
Oporto by storm March 29, 1809. The 
duke of WeUington passed the Douro 
May 11, 1809, and surprised Soult, who was 
obhged to retreat. The Miguelites seized 
Oporto July 3, 1828. Don Pedro landed 
near Oporto, of which he took possession, 
July 8, 1832. The Miguehtes attacked the 
place Sept. 19, and were repulsed with 
great slaughter. They continued the siege, 
and failed in another assault, March 4, 
1833. 

_ Oppido (Italy), supposed to occupy the 
site of the ancient Mamertium, was made a 
bishop's see about a.d. 1301. The town was 
ahnost entirely destroyed by an earthquake 
in 1783. 

O. P. Riots (Covent-Garden Theatre).— 
The new theatre was opened Monday, Sept. 
18, 1809, and the prices of admission having 
been raised, the pubhc assembled in large 
nunbers, and by uttering loud cries of 0. P., 
meaaiug old prices, prevented the actors 
from being heard. This was repeated night 
after night. The managers having tried in 
vain to overcome the opposition by the aid 
of a pugilistic corps, with Dutch Sam at 
their head, submitted Dee. 16, 1809, by re- 
turning to the old prices. 

Opslo (Battle). — Christian of Denmark 
suppressed a revolt of the Norwegian nobles 
at this town, the ancient capital of Norway, 
A.D. 1508. Opslo was almost completely 
destroyed by fire. May 24, 1624, and Chris- 
tiania was soon after "founded upon its site 
and made the capital. 

Optics, the science which treats of the 
nature of light and vision, was very imper- 
fectly known until the 16th and 17th cen- 
turies. 



424. Burning glasses are mentioned by Aristo- 
phanes, in the comedy of the " Clouds." 
300. Euclid writes the first treatise on Optics. 

A.D. 

65. Seneca observes the magnifying power of 
convex lenses and the refraction of light 
by prisms. 

621 



OPT 



A.D. 

140 (about). Claudius Ptoleray, the astronomer, 
wi-ites his five books of Optics, in which 
the subject is first treated in a scientific 
manner. 

174 Galen announces the principle of binocular 
vision. 

1100. The Arabian philosopher Alhazen makes im- 
portant discoveries in the theory of vision, 
and in the laws of reflection and refrac- 
tion. 

1266 (about). Koger Bacon describes the applica- 
tion of lenses to aid defective sight, or to 
counteract the effects of distance, in his 
Opus Majus. 

1270. The science is cultivated by Vitello. 

1525. Maurolycus makes important researches into 
the laws of light and shade. 

1558. BaptistaPortapublishes his J/ag-iaiV^atoraiis, 
which contains a description of the Camera 
Obscura (q v.). 

1571. J. Fleschier publishes a work on the rainbow. 

1600. Guido Ubaldi explains the laws of perspec- 
tive. 

1604. Kepler explains the functions of the retina. 

1611. Kepler founds the science of Dioptrics, which 
treats of the transmission of light through 
transparent substances. 

1619. Christopber Scheiner proves the resemblance 
between the eye and the camera obscura. 

1621. WiUebrord Snellius, of Leyden, discovers the 
true theoiy of refraction. 

1630. Descartes publishes his " Dioptrics." 

1663. Death of Francis Maria Grimaldi, discoverer 
of tbe inflection of light. Dr. Houke pub- 
lishes his " Experiments upon Colours." 

1669. Eiasmus Bartholinus discovers double refrac- 
tion. 

1672. Newton announces the different refrangibUity 
of light. 

1675. Koemer discovers the velocity of light. 

1676. Newton announces his theory of " Colours." 
1678. Christian Huyghens announces the wave 

theory of light, and discovers the pheno- 
menon of polarization. 
1800 to 1803. Dr. Thomas Young supports the wave 
theory of light, and demonstrates the 
general law of interference. 

1810. Colonel E. L. Mains discovers polarization by 

reflection. 

1811. Frangois Arago investigates the colours of 

polarized light, and discovers circular 
polarization. 

1812. M. Blot announces his fallacious theory of 

movable polarization. 

1818. M. FresKeJ estaijlishes bis theory of double 
refraction, and publishes the true theoi-y 
of the inflection of light. 

1830. Sir David Brewster proves the identity of the 
phenomena of metallic and elliptic polari- 
zation. 

{See Photogeapht, &c.) 

Optimists. — This sect of philosophers 
maintain, not merely that " whatever is, is 
right," but that whatever is, is absolutely 
best, and hence that even crimes form part 
of the divine plan in the government of the 
universe. Malebranehe, who was born a.d. 
1637, and died in 1715, and Leibnitz (1646 to 
1716) are regarded as the founders of optimist 
philosophy. 

Oeacles. — The most ancient oracle was 
that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of Epirus. 
It was destroyed by the ^EtoHans B.C. 219, 
when the temple of the god was razed to the 
ground. The celebrated oracle of Apollo, 
at Delphi, was founded B.C. 1236. The 
temple was destroyed by fire B.C. 548. The 
Amphietyons rebuilt it at a cost of 300 
talents, or about £115,000. The temple was 
plundered by Sylla and l^ero, and having 
622 



OEA 

fallen into neglect, was restored by Ha- 
drian. The oracle was finally silenced by 
Theodosius. 

Oean (Algeria) was in the possession of 
the caliphs, and it contained extensive 
bazaars and flourishing manufactures in 
the 12th century. The Pisans formed estab- 
lishments at Oran and on the surrounding 
coasts, A.B. 1373, and the Spaniards, under 
Cardinal Ximenes, invaded and captured 
Oran in 1509. It was retaken by the 
Algerines in 1708, and in 1732 was again 
captured by the Spaniards, who finally 
left it 1791, after an earthquake had de- 
stroyed everything except the fort. The 
French took Oran Dec. 10, 1830. They 
constructed docks, which were opened in 
1850, and added many public buildings and 
streets to the old town. In 1837 a military 
colony of spahis (native cavalry) was estab- 
hshed, and the colony has, since its acquisi- 
tion by France, been under the control of 
a mihtary governor. 

Oeange (France). — This town is remark- 
able for its Roman remains, consisting of a 
triumphal arch, supposed to commemorate 
the triumph of Marius over the Teutones at 
Aix, B.C. 102, a theatre, and a circus or hip- 
podrome. The town was called by the Ro- 
mans Arausio. In the Middle Ages it was 
the capital of a small principahty of the same 
name. On the death of the prince of Orange 
in 1531, without children, it was inherited 
by his sister, who married the prince of 
Nassau, and the Nassau family were con- 
firmed in possession by the treatv of Rys- 
wick, Sept. 11, 1697. The king of Prussia 
claimed it on the death of William III. of 
England in 1702, and by the treaty of 
Utrecht, April 11, 1713, he was allowed to 
exchange it for other possessions with the 
king of France. 

Oeange Lodges. — The first was formed 
by the Orangemen (q. v.) at Armagh, Sept. 
21, 1795; and the duke of York became a 
patron in 1797. They fell into comparative 
neglect at the close of the war in 1815. It 
was decided to revive them in Ireland, Aug, 
28, 1828, and at a great Orange meeting 
held in Dubhn Sept. 15, 1828, the accept- 
ance, by the duke of Cumberland, of the 
office of grand master of the Orangemen of 
the United Kingdom, was announced. De- 
bates respecting the legahty of the Orange 
lodges occurred in the House of Commons 
March 4 and 6, and Aug. 4, 11, 15, 19, and 
20, 1835 ; and a series of resolutions against 
them was agreed to in the House of Com- 
mons Feb. 23, 1836. Many magistrates 
were dismissed in 1845 because they were 
members of Orange lodges. 

Oeangemen-. — This name was given by 
the Roman CathoKcs of Ireland to the Pro- 
testants of that country, on account of their 
support of the cause of WiUiam III., prince 
of Orange. It was first assumed in 1795 as 
the designation of a pohtical party by the 
Protestants, who formed loyal associations 
in opposition to the society of United Irish- 
men, organized in 1791 for the purpose of 



OEA 

creating an insurrection, and establishing a 
republic in connection with France. 

Okange Eiveb (Africa) . — A district 
watered by a river of this name, was made 
British territory after the suppression of 
the Caffre rebellion, a.d. 1848. It was erected 
into a free state in 1854. 

Orange -Tree. — This tree, introduced 
into Europe by the Moors, was cultivated 
at Seville towards the end of the 12th, and 
at Palermo and Rome in the 13th century. 
Orange-trees are also said to have been 
brought from China to Portugal in 1547. 
Oranges are supposed to have been intro- 
duced into England by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
In the early part of the 16th century orange- 
trees were planted at Beddington, in Surrey, 
and in the beginning of the 18th century they 
had attained the height of 18 feet. They 
were all destroyed by frost in 1739. The 
Syringa, or mock orange, was brought from 
the south of Europe before 1596. The duty 
on oranges was repealed in 1860. 

Obatians, or Fathers of the Oratory, were 
founded in Italy by Philip Neri, and re- 
ceived the public approval of Gregory XIII. 
A.D. 1577. The name is derived from the 
chapel or oratory, built by Neri at Florence. 
The French society of Fathers of the Ora- 
torv of the Holy Jesus was instituted by 
John Berulle in 1613. 

Oratorio. — Some composition of this kind 
was known in the Church in the Middle 
Ages, though the modern oratorio is generally 
believed to have originated in Italy about 
A.D. 1540. Oratorios were introduced into 
England by Handel in 1720, but were not 
performed in public tiU 1732. They were 
so successful that in 1737 they were per- 
formed twice a week during the season 
of Lent. Handel's "Messiah" appeared 
in 1741; Haydn's "Creation" in 1798; 
Mendelssohn's " St. Paul" Sept. 20, 1837, 
and his "Elijah" Aug. 26, 1846, 

Orbazzano, or Marsaglia (Battle). — The 
French, under Catinat, defeated the troops 
of Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, at this 
town, in Piedmont, Oct. 4, 1693. 

Orcades (North Sea), — Ancient writers 
represent this group, at the extreme north 
of Britannia, to consist of between thirty 
and forty small islands, supposed to be 
the modern Orkney and Shetland Islands 
(q.v.). 

Orchards, from the Anglo-Saxon ort- 
geard, or wyrt-yard, existed in this country 
in ancient times as appendages to monastic 
establishments, yet do not seem to have 
become numerous before the beginning of 
the 17th century. 

Orchestrion. — A musical instrument, in- 
vented in France by the Abbe Vogler a.d. 
1789. Kunz, a Bohemian, gave the same 
name to an instrument invented by him in 
1796. 

Orchian Law. — A sumptuary law, pro- 
posed b.c. 181, by Orchius (whence its name), 
one of the tribunes, on the I'ecommendation 
of the senate. It limited the number of 
guests at any entertainment, ordering the 



OED 

doors of the house to be left open during 
the meal, to guard against any infringement 
of the law. 

Orchomenijs (Arcadia).— This city was 
built, according to Pausanias, by a son of 
Lycaon ; and the kings of Orchomenus are 
said to have ruled over the greater part of 
Arcadia. During the Peloponnesian war, 
the Lacedaemonians left the hostages they 
had taken from the Arcadians in Orcho- 
menus. The people were, however, com- 
pelled to surrender them to the Athenians, 
B.C. 418. ItfeU into the hands of Cassander 
B.C. 313, in the war waged by him against 
Polysperchon. 

Orchomenxjs (Bceotia), capital of the 
powerful tribe of the Minyse, became a 
member of the Boeotian confederacy sixty 
years after the Trojan war. It continued 
on friendly terms with the Thebans until 
war broke out between Sparta and Thebes, 
B.C. 395, when Orchomenus assisted the 
Spartans. At the peace of Antalciadas 
(q.v.), B.C. 387, Thebes acknowledged the 
independence of Orchomenus. After the 
battle of Leuctra {q. v.), b.c 371, the 
Thebans became undisputed masters of 
Bceotia, and burnt Orchomenus to the 
ground, killed aU the male inhabitants, and 
sold the women and children into slavery, 
B.C. 368. It was rebuilt during the Phocian 
war ; and at the conclusion of the Sacred 
war, B.C. 346, Philip II. gave Orchomenus 
to its old enemy Thebes, and the people 
destroyed the city a second time, and sold 
all its inhabitants as slaves. After the 
battle of Chaeroneia {q.v.), in which the 
Thebans and the Athenians were defeated, 
B.C. 338, it was rebuilt by order of Philip II., 
but it never regained its former importance. 

Ordeals, or God's judgments, are of 
great antiquity, some writers being of 
opinion that the jealousy-oifering mentioned 
in the 5th chapter of If umbers, B.C. 1496, 
is a test of this kind. Ordeal of fire was 
known to the Greeks, and was practised by 
the Brahmins. Blackstone says : " The 
most ancient species of trial was that by 
ordeal; which was peculiarly distinguished 
by the appellation of Judicium Dei, and 
sometimes Vulgaris Pargatio, to distinguish 
it from the canonical purgation, which was 
by the oath of the party." The trial by 
ordeal in England was of two sorts, either 
fire ordeal or water ordeal. Fire ordeal 
was performed, either by taking up in the 
hand a piece of red-hot iron, of one, two, 
or three pounds weight ; or else by walking 
barefoot and blindfold, over nine red-hot 
ploughshares, laid lengthwise at unequal 
distances ; and, if the party escaped being 
hurt, he was adjudged innocent ; but if it 
happened otherwise, as vrithout collusion 
it usually did, he was then condemned as 
guilty. Water ordeal was performed, either 
by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow 
in boihng water, and escaping unhurt there- 
by ; or by casting the person suspected into 
a river or pond of cold water, and if he 
floated without any action of swimming, it 
623 



ORD 

was deemed an evidence of his guilt, but if 
he sank he was acquitted. There were 
several other species of ordeal in use in 
different countries. Notice of ordeals in 
England first occurs in the laws of Ina, who 
reigned in Wessex from a.i>. 628 to 727. 
This mode of punishment was formally abol- 
ished by Henry III. in 1218, when assize of 
battel, or trial by combat (g-.w.), for some 
time took its place. 

Ordees in Cotjitcil, provoked by l^apo- 
leon I.'s Berlin decree (q.v.), were issued 
by the Enghsh government Jan. 7 and 
Nov. 11, 1807. They prohibited trading to 
any ports under the influence of France. 
These orders, which led to several discus- 
sions in the houses of parliament, were 
revoked, as far as the United States were 
concerned, June 23, 1812, and were alto- 
gether repealed in 1814. 

Ordinances. — French laws were, after 
the reign of Philip IV., or the Fair, of 
France (a.d. 1285—1314), usually styled 
ordinances. Louis XIV. ordered a collec- 
tion of these ordinances to be published, 
and the first volume appeared ia 1723. The 
ordinances of Charles X., which led to the 
expulsion frona France of the elder Bour- 
bons, appeared in the Monifeur July 25, 
1830. During the great rebellion, the more 
important affairs of the kingdom were set- 
tled by ordinances. {See Selp-Denying 
Ordinance.) 

Ordnance. — As early as the reign of 
Henry III. the military stores of the country 
were under the charge of an officer called 
the " Balistarius," or " keeper of the cross- 
bows.'' The functions of this officer became 
extinct in the reign of Henry VI. The mas- 
ter of the king's ordnance was first appointed 
about A.D. 1461. The ofiice was formerly 
conferred for life, and was so bestowed 
by Queen Ehzabeth on the earl of Essex. 
March 29, 1596. The last master-general 
appointed for life was Sir William Compton, 
who assumed the office Jan. 22, 1660. The 
letters patent of the master-general of the 
ordnance were revoked May 25, 1855, when 
the civil administration of the army was 
vested in the hands of the secretary of 
war. 

Ordnance Ofeice (London) was built 
A.D. 1767. 

Ordnance Survey. — The trigonometri- 
cal survey of England was commenced a.d. 
1783, for the purpose of connecting the ob- 
servatory at Greenwich with the French are 
of tlie meridian at Paris. This led to the 
great undertaking of a general survey of the 
British isles, begun in 1791. The ordnance 
survey of Ireland commenced in 1824, and 
the great survey of India in 1804. 

Orebro (Sweden).— Here, in 1540, the 
act of succession in favour of Gustavus Vasa 
originated. It was confirmed at Westeraas 
in 1542. Bernadotte was elected crown 
prince of Sweden at Orebro in 1810, and a 
treaty of peace was signed here between 
Great Britain and Sweden, July 18, 1812. 
It consisted of four articles, and was ratified 



om 

by the prince regent of England Aug. 4, 
and by the king of Sweden Aug. 17. 

Oregon (North America) is said to have 
been visited by the Spaniard Bartolomi 
Ferrelo, a.d. 1543. Sir Francis Drake 
touched here in 1579 ; Captain Gray, an 
American trader, sailed along part of the 
coast in 1789 ; Captain Baker, an English- 
man, entered the mouth of the Columbia in 
1792; and Lieutenant Broughton, E.N., 
sailed a hundred miles up the river, taking 
formal possession in the name of George III, 
in 1792. A dispute having arisen between 
Spain and England as to the sovereignty, 
both countries relinquished exclusive pos- 
session by the convention of Madrid, when 
Nootka Sound was ceded to England 
(1790). An American company, formed by 
Mr. Astor, of New York, made a settlement 
at a point in the mouth of the Columbia 
which was named Astoria, March 24, 1810. 
It fell into the hands of the Enghsh in 1814. 
The United States government laid claim to 
the territory, and after much negotiation, 
it was agreed by treaty, June 12, 1846, that 
the United States should possess up to 49° 
N. latitude, leaving free to England the 
navigation of the Columbia. Oregon was 
constituted a territory by act of congress, 
Aug. 14, 1848. 

Orel (Eussia), the chief town of a go- 
vernment of the same name, first rose into 
importance during the 17th century. A 
great part of this city was destroyed by fire 
June 7, 1848. 

Organ. — An instrument of an inferior 
kind was in use at a very early period. 
Athenaeus says the organ was invented by 
Ctesibius, a native of Alexandi-ia, B.C. 150 — 
120. Other authorities assert that it was 
used in Spain as early as a.d. 450 ; that Pope 
Vitalian invented it in 660, and that the first 
organ erected in France was in the church 
of St. CorneiUe, at Compiegne, in 757. 
According to the best authorities, the organ 
did not assume its present form until the 
15th century. Bingham contends that the 
use of organs was introduced into the church 
after the time of Thomas Aquinas, a.d. 1250. 
According to his view, Martin Sanutus, who 
flourished about 1290, first introduced wind 
organs into churches, whence he was sur- 
named Torcellus, the Italian term for an 
organ. Bingham shows that the story of 
the invention by Pope Vitahan is altogether 
unworthy of credit. 

Organo-Ltricon, a musical instrument 
invented by M. de St. Pern at Paris, a.d. 
1810. 

Oriel College (Oxford) was founded 
by Edward II. Dee. 6, 1324, at the instiga- 
tion of his almoner, Adam de Brom, who 
became its first provost in 1326. Edward 
III. granted the college, in 1327, a large 
messuage, called La Oriole, to which the 
college was removed, and from which it 
takes its name. The south and west sides 
were rebuilt in 1620, and the north and east 
between 1637 and 1612. The first library 
was built in 1444, and lasted till the rebuild- 



OEI 

ing of part of the college in 1637. In 1372 
tlie students obtained a licence for a chapel 
within their premises, which was buUt at the 
expense of the earl of Arundel. This chapel 
was pulled down in 1620, and the present 
edifice was finished in 1642. Carter's Build- 
ing was erected in 1729. The library was 
commenced in 1788, and the college was en- 
larged in 1817. 

Oriental Club (London). — This club 
was founded by Sir John Malcolm in 1824. 

Okiflamme of St. Denis, or royal ban- 
ner of France, was borne at the head of the 
French armies from the 12th to the 15th 
century. Fabian, quoting a description 
from Eobert Gaguin, whom Erasmus calls 
a discreet historiographer, says it was " a 
cloth of red silk, which was named the auri- 
flamme, and borne for a banner in the field 
against the barbarian or heathen people, 
by virtue whereof the French princes won 
many victories ; but after, when this pre- 
cious relic, or auriflamme, was borne against 
Christian princes, the virtue thereof ceased, 
and was at length lost, but yet the like 
thereof is kept at St. Denys, and had in great 
reverence of the bishops and abbots of the 
same place." Louis VI., the Fat, used it 
for the first time as a royal standard in his 
war against Henry I. of England, a.d. 1124, 
and he afterwards took it from the altar of 
St. Denis whenever he went on an expedi- 
tion ; and Louis VII. of France took it with 
him in the second crusade in 1148. Fabian 
relates that it was borne by the French in 
the battle of Poitiers in 1356 ; and it is said 
to have been borne in battle for the last 
time by Louis XL at the battle of Mont- 
Ihery {q,v.), July 16, 1465. 

Okigenists. — The supporters of Origenes, 
or Origen, a Christian father, born in Egypt 
A.B. 184 or 185. He was ordained a pres- 
byter at Csesareia, in Palestine, in 228, and 
he died in 253. In the 4th century a great 
controversy arose respecting Origen, whose 
name, in spite of his various erroneous opi- 
nions, had always been held in veneration. 
The orthodox condemned his writings a.d. 
378. Justinian I. issued an edict against the 
Origenists in 544, and they were condemned 
by the second council of Constantinople, 
being the fifth general council. May 4 to 
June 2, 553. 

Oeihtjela (Spain). — TheEomansare sup- 
posed to have had a station at this town. 
Though it was not, as some writers assert, 
the ancient Orcelis, it might have been the 
ancient Thiar. The Moors took it a.d. 713, 
and it was finally wrested from them by 
Jayme I. of Aragon in 1265. It was sacked 
in 1520, and has suffered severely from the 
ravages of war, intmdations, and plagues. 
An earthquake did considerable damage 
March 21, 1829. It was made the seat of 
a bishop March 23, 1566. The university, 
estabUshed in 1568, was suppressed in 1835. 
The episcopal palace and the theological 
seminary of San Miguel were both founded 
in 1733. The poor-house, founded in 1743, 
was enlarged in 1818. The hospital was 
625 



GEL 

founded in 1764, and the cathedral was ex- 
tended in 1829. 

Oeion.— A steam-shii) thus named, plying 
between Glasgow and Liverpool, was lost on 
the rocks close to Portpatrick lighthouse, 
June 18, 1850, when nearly a hundred pas- 
sengers perished. 

Obissa, or Oeixa (Hindostan). — This 
country was wrested from its Hindoo princes 
by Akbar, a.d. 1592. The English received 
permission to trade to Piplee, in Orissa, in 
1634. Clive captured it a.d. 1755, and the 
East-India Company were empowered to 
receive the revenues of Orissa, Bahar, and 
Bengal, by the treaty of Allahabad, Aug. 12, 
1765. 

Orizaba (Mexico).— The peak of Orizaba, 
an extinct volcano near the town of the 
same name, was explored by Lieutenant 
Eeynolds, a.d. 1848. 

Oeknet and Shetland Isles, or Oe- 
CADES (North Sea), originally peopled by 
Scandinavians, were seized by Keneth 
II. of Scotland a.d. 889. The Norwegians 
conquered them in 1099, and held them tiU 
1263, when they were driven out by Alex- 
ander III., king of Scotland. The islands 
were afterwards retaken by the Danes. 
James III. of Scotland, who married Mar- 
garet, daughter of the king of Denmark, in 
1469, received the Orkney and Shetland 
Isles as her dowry, and they have since 
remained part of Scotland. A lighthouse 
was built in 1806 on the Point of Start. 
Some ancient relics of the earliest Scandina- 
vian or Scottish kings were discovered in 
these islands April 6, 1858. 

Oeleans (France), the Genabum of the 
Eomans, was afterwards named Aurelianum, 
from Marcus Aurelius, who rebuilt it in the 
2nd century. Caesar mentions a great insur- 
rection which occurred here B.C. 52, after 
which he burned the town. Attila, who 
besieged Orleans a.d. 451, was defeated 
under its walls by ./Etius. JSgidius de- 
feated the Visigoths in a battle near this towna 
in 463. A council was held, July 10, 511, to 
regulate ordination and the use of litanies ; 
and another, May 7, 538, by which many 
indignities were inflicted on the Jews. Other 
councils were held June 23, 533 ; in 541 ; Oct. 
28, 549 ; in 638 ; and in 1022, when thirteen 
Manichseanswere condemned to be burnt. On 
the death of Clotaire in 561, his kingdom 
was divided among his sons, and Orleans 
fell to the lot of Gontran. The Northmen 
captured it in 855, and again in 865. The 
siege of Orleans was commenced by the 
Enghsh Oct. 21, 1428. Joan of Arc relieved 
the city April 29, 1429, and the siege was 
raised May 8. The Huguenots, under the 
prince of Conde and Cohgny, assembled here 
in 1562. Orleans was besieged Feb. 24, 1563, 
by the duke of Guise, who was assassinated 
under its walls by Poltrot de Mer6. The 
struggle was brought to a close by the edict 
of Amboise, March 19, when the two parties 
united for the purpose of wresting Havre de 
Grace from the English. The cathedral was 
begun by Henry IV. in 1601. 

2 S 



OEM 

Oemtis, or HoEMTJz (Persian Gulf) . — The 
kings of Ormiis, celebrated for its pearl- 
fishery and great wealth, became tributaries 
of the sultans of Kerman, until they were 
dehvered, about a.d . 1505 , by the Portuguese, 
who took possession of this island a.d. 1507. 
They were expelled by the Persians, assisted 
by the EngUsh, in 1622. The disciples of 
Zoroaster took refuge in its caves, and 
were afterwards called Parsees {q. v.). Mil- 
ton, in " Paradise Lost" (b. ii.), aUudes to 
its reputation for wealth — 

" Higb on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Orrnus and of Ind." 



Ohkithology. — Aristotle, in his "History 
of Animals," B.C. 350, gives a brief account of 
birds; and Pliny in his "jS'atural History," 
A.D. 72, also deals with the subject. Pierre 
Belon wrote upon it in 1551 ; Conrad Ges- 
ner of Zurich in 1555 ; and the three volumes 
of Aldrovandus of Bologna appeared a.d. 
1559 — 1603; WiUughby's " Ornithologiae 
Libri tres" was pubHshed posthumously in 
1676, and Ray's "Synopsis" in 1713. The first 
edition of " Systema Katurae," by Linnaeus, 
was published at Leyden in 1735 ; Wilson's 
"American Ornithoiogj^," 1808 — 1814; Cu- 
"vier's "Animal Kingdom" in 1817; and 
Latham's " History of Birds," 1821—18:^4. 

Oeopus (Greece), a Boeotian town, was 
taken at an early period by the Athenians, 
who were expelled B.C. 412. Some of the 
inhabitants founded another town of the 
same name, further inland, B.C. 402. It was 
a frequent souj-ce of strife between the 
Boeotians and the Athenians; and it was 
given to the latter by PhiHp II. b.c. 338. The 
inhabitants recovered their independence 
B.C. 318, and Cassander obtained possession 
of the town b.c. 312, but did not hold it 
long. The inland town is supposed to have 
been abandoned soon after tlus time. | 

Oephan Institutions. — It is not known 
when asylums for the maintenance of 
orphans were first estabhshed, though they 
evidently existed among the Eomans. Tra- 
jan, the Antonines, and Alexander Severus 
founded several, but they do not appear 
to have become frequent until the in- I 
troduction of Christianity. During the i 
Middle Ages thev were very numerous, 
especially in the Netherlands. The most 
celebrated orphan asylum in the world is 
that established by A. H. Franke at I 
Halle in 1698. The following are the 
principal orphan asylums in the metropohs 
and its vicinity : — i 



Adult Orphan Institution, Eegent's Park 

Asylum for Fi-iendless and Deserted Orphan 

Girls, Lambeth 

Bayswdter Episcopal Chapel Female Orphan 

school 

British Orphan Asylum, Clapham Rise .....[ 

Clergy Oi-phau Society, St. Jov-n's Wood 

Infant Orphan Asylnm, Waustead 

Jews' Orphan Asylum, Goodman's Fields '.*. .. 

London urphan Asylum, Clapton .' 

llerchnnt Seamen's Orphan Asylum, Bow 

Eoad 

626 



GET 

A.TK 

National (late Cholera) Orphan Home, Btam 

Common 1849 

New Asylum for Infant Oi-phans, Stamford 

HUl 1844 

Orphan Working School, Haverstock Hill . . 1758 
Eoyal Military Asylum, Chtlsea, supjKirted 

by Parliament 1801 

Sailors' Orphan Girls' School and Home, 

Whitechapel 1829 

School of Industry for Female Orphans, St. 

John's Wood 1786 

Oepheonists. — A party of three thousand 
arrived in London trom Prance to fulfil a 
musical engagement at the Crystal Palace, 
June 24, 1860. 

Oeeeet. — The Chinese are said to have 
constructed such pieces of mechanism to 
illustrate planetary motion B.C. 2000. Ar- 
chimedes constructed one B.C. 287 — 212; 

I and Posidonius B.C. 51. Huyghens (a.d. 
16'29 — 1695) attended to their construction ; 
and Eoemer invented one which he described 
A.D. 1735. Mr. George Graham constructed 
one which was presented to the earl of 
Orrery, from whom it derives its name, 
about 1700. The Eoyal Institution, London, 
had one made in 1801, and another, on 
a much larger scale, by Dr. Pearson, in 
1813. 

I Oesini Conspiract. — This attempt to as- 
sassinate the emperor Napoleon III. and the 
empress, on their way to the opera at Paris, 
by throwing hand-grenades at the carriage, 
was made Jan. 14, 1858. Orsini, Eudio, and 
Pieri, were condemned to death, and Gomez 
to hard labour for fife, Feb. 26 ; Orsini 
and Pieri were guillotined at Paris, and 
Eudio' s sentence was commuted to penal 
servitude for life, March 13. Dr. Ber- 
nard was arrested at Bayswater Feb. 14; 
and, after a trial at the Old Bailey ex- 
tending over six days, was acquitted 
April 17. Violent addresses against Eng- 
land, from the colonels of the French army 

j to the emperor, appeared in the Moiii- 
teur, Jan. 27, 1858. Lord Pahnerston's 
eonspiracy-to-murder biU was introduced 
into the House of Commons, Feb. 8, 1858 ; 
and defeated on the second reading by a 
majority of 19, Feb. 19, 1858, which led to 
the resignation of the first Palmerston ad- 

I ministration. 

Oesini Faction, opposed to the Colonna 
family, adherents of the GhibeUine party at 
Eome, joined the Guelphs about a.d. 1200. 
Their influence decHned in 1280. 

Obsova( Turkey) .-This strongly-fortified 
town of Wallachia, taken by the Turks in 
1738, was ceded by Austria to the Porte, 
Sept. 1, 1739. The Austrians were de- 
feated near Orsova by the Turks, Aug. 8, 
1788, when the victors set fire to the town. 
New Orsova, which forms part of Servia, 
was captured by the Austrians, April 16, 
1790. 

Oete&al (Sea-Fight). — Commodore Fox 
attacked a French fleet and convoy, amount- 
ing in aU to 170 sail, off Cape Ortegal, June 
20, 1747. The ships of war being fast-sailing 
vessels escaped, but forty-eight merchant- 
men were captured. Their united tonnage 



ORT 

amounted to 16,051 tons, and the crews to 
1,197 men. 

Oethes, or Orthez (France), was the 
residence of the princes of Beam till the 
end of the 15th century; and of Jane 
d'Albret, mother of Henry IV., who 
founded a Protestant college here about 
1562. A year's truce was concluded at 
Orthes by Ferdinand of Spain with Louis 
XII. April 1, 1513. The governor, Viscount 
d' Orthez, refused to obey the royal order 
for the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 
24, 1572. In the vicinity, Wellington gained 
a victory over Soult, Feb. 27, 1814. The 
castle of Moncada was built by Gaston de 
Foix in 124i<), and formed for two years the 
prison of Blanche of Navarre, poisoned by 
her sister in 1462. 

Orvieto (Italy).— This town, built upon 
the site of the ancient Herbanum, possesses 
one of the finest churches in Italy, founded 
A.D. 1290. A league between the Pope, 
Venice, and Naples, against the Greek 
empire, was concluded here in 1281. It was 
dissolved by the Sicihan Vespers (q.v.) in 
1282. 

OsBOENE HotrsE (Isle of Wight). — The 
original name of this manor was Auster- 
borne. It was purchased by Queen Victoria 
from Lady Isabella Blatehford in 1845, when 
the old house was pulled down, and the 
present mansion erected from the designs of 
Mr. Cubitt. 

OscHOPHOEiA, a festival thus named, from 
the practice of carrying boughs hung with 
grapes, was instituted at Athens, in honour 
of Minerva and Bacchus, or Ariadne and 
Bacchus, by Theseus, about b.c. 1235. 

OsiMO. (See Attximtjh.) 

OsMA, or UxAMA (Spain). — This town 
was taken and destroyed by Alonso II. of 
Leon A.D. 746. It was rebuilt in 938, and 
fortified in 1019. The cathedral was founded 
in 1232, and the university inl550. The see 
was estabUshed about 597. 

Osmium. — This metal was discovered by 
Tennant in the grains of native platinum, 
A.D. 1803. 

OsNABUEft, or OsjsrABEUCK (Hanover), 
was surrounded by walls a.d. 1082. The 
cathedral at this town was buUt in the 13th 
century, and a council against heretics was 
held there in 1538. A university was esta- 
blished in 1632, but was suppressed the fol- 
lowing year. The treaty of Westphalia was 
signed at Osnaburg and Munster, Oct. 24, 
1643. Charlemagne founded the bishopric 
of Osnaburg in 780. Since the peace of 
Westphalia it has been held by a Roman 
Cathohc and a Protestant bishop alternately. 
It was secularized and united to Hanover in 
1803. 

OssoEY (Bishopric). — This bishopric is re- 
garded as the most ancient in Ireland. It 
was founded by St. Eaaran, a.d. 402, at 
Saighir, or King's county, and was trans- 
ferred to Aghabo, or Aghavoe, in 1052, and 
to Kilkenny in 1180. According to the pro- 
visions of the Church Temporahties Act, 
3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the 
627 



OSW 

sees of Ferns and Leighhn were united to 
Ossory on the death of Bishop Elringtou in 

OsTEKD (Belgium), from a small village 
in the 9th century, had become an impor- 
tant seaport about a.d. 1100. It was de- 
stroyed by the sea in 1334. Having been 
rebuilt, it was walled in by PhiUp in 1445 ; 
and fortified by the prince of Orange in 1583. 
The siege by the Spaniards, commencing in 
1601, terminated, after a loss of 50,000 men 
to the garrison, and 80,000 to the besiegers, 
in 1604, with the capitulation of the town. 
It again capitulated to the allies July 6,- 
1706 J was ceded to the emperor of Germany 
in 1715, and surrendered to the French Aug. 
15, 1745. The French took possession of 
Ostend July 13, 1794; and the British as- 
sailed it unsuccessfully May 20, 1798. It 
was given up by the treaty of Paris May 30, 
1814. The town sufiered considerable 
damage by the explosion of a powder ma- 
gazine in 1826. 

OsTEND Company, for carrying on trade 
with the East Indies, was established here 
A.D. 1717; received a charter from the em- 
peror Charles in August, 1723; and was 
suspended in 1727. 

OsTiA (Italy) was founded by Ancus 
Martins B.C. 640, and exempted from mili- 
tary levies B.C. 207. Application for exemp- 
tion from naval levies was also made, but 
refused, B.C. 191. A squadron in its harbour 
was destroyed by Ciiician pirates B.C. 67 ; and 
in the civil wars the town was taken by Marius 
and given up to plunder by his soldiers, 
B.C. 87. It dechned gradually, and had 
fallen into a state of ruin a.d. 827 ; but it 
afterwards revived, and was occupied by 
Ladislaus, king of Naples (1386 — 1414), and 
fortified by Sixtus IV., who built the castle. 
The French seized it, and were driven out 
by Pope Julius III., who formed a "holy 
league" against them, Oct. 4, 1511. 

OsTEACiSM. — This mode of banishment 
among the Athenians, at first for a term of 
ten years, afterwards reduced to five, is 
said to have been established by Cleisthenes 
B.C. 510. It was discontinued B.C. 452. 

OsTEOGOTHs, or Eastekx Goths, with 
the other branches of the same nation, took 
possession of Dacia a.d. 275, and were 
subjected by the Huns in 376. Their 
king, Theodoric the Great, served under 
the emperor Zeno in 482 or 483, and from 
Pannonia marched with aU his tribe into 
Italy in 4S8, and conquered and put to death 
Odoacer, estabhshing his authority over that 
country in 493. Their dominion was anni- 
hilated by Belisarius and Narses about 55;-(. 

OsTEOLENKA, (Battle,) between the Poles 
and the Russians, in which the latter wei e 
defeated, was fought May 26, 1831. 

Oswego (North America). — This town, 
situated on both sides of the Oswego river, 
was founded a.d. 1722. A fortress was built 
on the western side of the river in 1727, and 
a fort was erected on the opposite lank in 
1755. They were both captured by Mont- 
calm in 1756, and were afterwards given up 
2^2 



osw 

to the English, who held them till 1795. 
Oswego was taken by the EngUsh May 6, 
1814. 

OswESTET (Shropshire), anciently called 
Oswaldstree, is said to have been named after 
Oswald, king of ISTorthnmbria, killed in the 
battle of Maserfield, Aug. 5, a.d. 642. By 
some authorities the site of the battle is fixed 
at Winwick, in Lancashire, and by others at 
Oswestry. Oswald was honoured as a saint, 
his day falling on the anniversary of his 
death, Aug. 5. 

Ota&o (Nevr Zealand) was settled by 
members of the Free church of Scotland, 
A.D. 1848. 

Otaheite (Pacific Ocean) was discovered 
by the Spaniard Quiros a.d. 1606 ; visited by 
Captain Wallis in 1767, and by Cook several 
times between the years 1769 and 1778. 
Missionaries arrived in 1797, and the king, 
Pomaree II., embraced Christianity in 1816. 
By a treaty with the queen Poinare, it was 
placed under French protection, Sept. 9, 
1842 ; and the French admiral on that sta- 
tion asserted the complete sovereignty of 
France over it in November, 1843. This led 
to a remonstrance on the part of England, 
and his proceedings were disavowed by the 
government Feb. 29, 1844. 

Otfohd (Battle). — The Kentish men were 
defeated at Otford, by Oila, king of Mercia, 
and his army, a.d. 774. 

Oteanto" (Italy). — The ancient Hydrun- 
tum, or Hydrus, founded at a very earl)'^ 
period, probably by Greeks, was a port of 
some importance B.C. 191, and the usual 
place of passage from Italy to the East a.d. 
400. It was one of the last cities in the 
south of Italy held by the Greek emperors, 
who lost it in the 11th century. About 
12,000, being more than one-half the popula- 
tion, were slaughtered by the Turks when 
they sacked the city a.d. 1480. 

Ottawa (Canada), formerly called By- 
town, which name was changed to Ottawa 
A.D. 1854, was made the capital of Canada 
in 1858. 

Otterbtirk, or Chevt Chase, (Battle), 
on which the well-known ballad seems to be 
founded, was fought between the English, 
under Henry Percy, son of the earl of Nor- 
thiunberland, and the Scots, commanded by 
the earl of Douglas, Aug. 10, 1388. The for- 
mer having been taken prisoner and the latter 
slain, the victory remained undecided. 

Ottomah- Empiee. — This empire was 
founded by Osman, the son of Ertoghrul, 
whose name has been corrupted into Othman, 
or Ottoman. The Ottomans style them- 
selves Osmanlis. 



12.58. Birth of Othman, or Osman. 

1299. Othman, or Osman I., murders his uncle 

Deindar, and founds the Ottoman empii-e. 
1321. The Ottomau Turks enter Europe, and ravage 

Thrace and Macedonia. 

1326. Death of Otlunan, who is succeeded by his 

son Orchan. 

1327. Orchan makes Prusa, or Boursa, his capital, 

and completes the coniiuest of Bithynia. 



1333. 
1336. 



13/2. 
1376. 
1380. 
1382. 



1390. 
1391. 
1396. 

1400. 
1402. 
1403. 



143.5 
1443. 



OTT 



The Ottoman Turks conquer Nicsea, in 
Bithynia. 

Orchan forms an alliance mth the Greek 
emperor Andronicus. 

Khorasi, the ancient Mysia, is conquered by 
the Turks. 

Karamania, the ancient Phrygia, is reduced 
under the Turkish yoke. 

The Turks make their first permanent settle- 
ment in Eui-ope, on the co^^st of Thrace. 

Amurath I., son of Orchan, captures GalUpoli. 

He takes Hadi-ianople, and erects it into his 
capital. 

Servia and Bulgaria are reduced to subjec- 
tion. 

Kermian is annexed to the Ottoman do- 



1461. 
1463. 
1466. 
1472. 
1474. 



1511. 
1514. 
1515. 



Amurath I. purchases the territories of the 
emir of Hamid. 

Amurath I. subdues Natolia. 

Part of Albania is brought under the Ottoman 
yoke. 

Aug. 27. The king of Servia, is defeated at 
the battle of Cossova, by Amurath I., who 
is assassinated in the moment of victoi-y. 

Bajazet I. conquers Philadelphia, in Asia 
Minor. 

He conquers Wallachia, and obtains a footing 
in Constantinople. 

Sept. 28. He defeats Sigismund of Hungary, 
at the battle of Nicopolis. He annexes 
Bulgaria to the Ottoman empire. 

Sept. 1. War commences between Bajazet I. 
and Timour. 

July 28. Timourdefeats B.-yazet I., and makes 
him prisoner, at tbe battle of Angora. 

March. The death of Bajazet I. in captivity is 
followed by the dismemberment of hia 
empire by his three sons. Soliinan I. esta- 
blishes his government at Hadrianople, Isa 
at Prusa, aud Muhammed in Amasia, and 
the three wage civil war. 

Mohammed I.. annexes Wallachia. 

The Ottoman empire is reunited by Amu- 
rath II. 

;o 1437. War with Venice. 

ScMuderbeg restores Albania to independence. 
Nov. 3. J<'hn Huuiades defeats the Turks 
at the battle of Nissa. 

July 12. Amurath II. resigns all claim to 
Servia by the treaty of Segedtn. Nov. 10. 
Amurath II. defeats and slays Ladislaus IV. 
of Htmgary and Cardinal Julian at the 
baitle of Varna. 

John Huniades invades the Ottoman terri- 
tories, and is defeated with great loss at 
Cossova. 

April 6. Mohammed II., the Great, lays siege to 
Constantinople. May 29. The city sun-en- 
ders, and the Eastern empire is dissolved. 

Mohammed II. is defeated by John Huuiades, 
with the loss of 40,000 men, at the battle 
of Belgrade. 

The Peloponnesus is conquered by the Turks. 

War is declared against Venice. 

Epirus is annexed to the Ottoman empire. 

The Turks enter Italy. 

The Geuoese possessions in the Crimea are 
seized by the Turks. 

Peace is restored with Venice. 

Mohammed II. takes Otranto, and sustains a 
teiTible defeat in his attempt upon Khodes. 

Spain is invaded by the Turks. 

Bon-ak Keis defeats the Venetians at the 
naval battle of Lepanto. 

The Morea is wrested from the Venetians. 

Peace is concluded with Venice, whose pos- 
sessions on the mainland of Greece are 
ceded to the Turks. 

The Janissaries dethrone Bajazet II., and cen- 
ter the sceptre on his son Selim. 

Selim I. defeats tbe Persians at the great 
battle of Shaldii-in, or Kalderoon. 

Selim I. defeats the Persians at Khai-gandede, 
and subdues Mesopotamia and Kurdistan. 



OTT 



1516. Aug. 24. Selim I. defeats and slays Ghori, 

sultan of Egypt, at the battle of the Darik, 
nt-ar Aleppo. 

1517. Selim I. aunexes Egypt to his dominions. 
1521. Aug. 20. Soliman XL, the Magnificent, takes 



1522. 
152(5. 



1533. 
1536. 



1541. 
1552. 



1574. 
1583. 
1585. 



1602. 
1603. 



1636. 
1637. 



1642. 
1645. 
1664. 



1678. 
1681. 



He conquers Ehodes. 

He assails Austria and Hungary, and defeats 

the Hungarians at Mohacz, Aug. 29. 
He is compelled, after heavy losses, to raise 
the siege of Vienna. 

Peace is restored with Austria and Hungary. 

Soliman II. forms an alliauce with Francis I. 
of France against the emperor Charles V. 

The southern parts of Arabia are subdued, 
and an unsuccessful invasion of India is 
conducted by Suleiman Pasha. 

War recommences in Hungary, and the 
Turks take Buda. 

Transylvania is made tributary to the Turks. 

Bajazet, son of Soliman II., rebels against his 
lather. 

Aug. 1. The capittdation of Famagusta com- 
pletes the conquest of Cyprus. Oct. 7. 
The Turks sustain a terrible defeat from 
the combined Christian fleets under Don 
John of Austria at the naval battle of 
Lepanto. 

Amurath III. signalizes his accession by the 
murder of his five brothers. 

Commercial relations are fli'st established 
with Kngland. 

The Turks conquer the district of Van, in 
Persia. 

The Persians obtain peace by ceding the pro- 
vinces of Georgia, Azerbijan, Shirwan, and 
Loristan to Turkey. 

Mohammed III. succeeds his father, and mur- 
ders his nineteen brothers and the concu- 
bines of his father. 

Abd al Kalim Karayasiji, the "Black Scribe," 
commences a formidable revolt in Asia. 

The Black Scribe is defeated and slain. 

The accession of Achmed, or Ahmed I., is 
memorable fiom his refusal to murder his 
brothers. 

Tobacco is introduced into Turkey. 

Georgia, Erivan, and Tabriz are ceded to 
Persia^ Mustapha II. is deposed. 

Othman, or Osinan II., is mui-dered by his 
subjects, who restore Mustapha II. 

An insm-rection of the Janissaries is sup- 
pressed with horrid cruelty. 

Amiirath IV. murders his brothers Bajazet 
and Suliman. 

He murders his brother Kazim. 

Azof is taken by the Cossacks. 

The Turks take Bagdad and massacre the 
inhabitants. 

Azof is recaptured. 

War is declared against Venice. 

The grand vizier, Ahmed Koeprilii, is de- 
feated by the Imperialists under Montecu- 
culi at the battle of St. G.ithard. 

Caudia is taken from the Venetians. (See 
Caudia.) 

The Tui'ks are defeated by the Poles, with the 
loss of more than 30,000 men, at the battle 
of Choczim. 

War is commenced against Eussia. 

The Ukraine and Cossack territories are ceded 
to Kussia, and peace is restored. 

Sept. 12. Vienna, on the point of surrendering 
to Mohammed IV., is relieved by John 
Sobieski. 

Buda, is retaken by the Austrians. 

Mohammed IV. is deposed by his brother, 
Soliman III. 

Belgrade, Bosnia, Croatia, and Slavonia are 
wrested from the Turks. 

Belgrade is recovered. 

The Imperialists totally defeat the Turks at 
the battle of Peterwai-dein, or Salankemen, 
in which the vizier Mustapha Koeprilii is 



1703. 
1710. 
1711. 



1715. 
1716. 

1717. 

1718. 
1726. 
1730. 
1732. 

1739. 

1743. 

1749. 

]766. 
1768. 
1770. 



1773. 
1774. 



1787. 
1788. 



1790. 
1791. 



1798. 
1799. 

1802. 



1812. 
1813. 



1820. 
1821. 



OTT 



Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at the battle 
of Zeuta, in which they lose 20,000 men 
killed, and 10,000 drowned in the retreat. 

Jan. 26. Peace is restored to TJjirkey by the 
humiliating treaty of Carlowitz. 

The Janissaries revolt and depose Mustapha II. 

The Turks declare war agaiust Russia. 

July 10. Baltanji Mohammed compels Peter 
the Great to accede to the treaty of Falczi 
(q. v.), by which the Turks regain Azof. 

Charles XII. of Sweden is made prisoner at 
Bender {q. v.). 

The Turks reconquer the Morea. 

The Austrians seize Temeswar. 

Aug. 16 (N.S.). Prince Eugene gains the 
battle of Belgrade {q. v.). 

July 21. Peace with Austria and Venice is re- 
stored by the treaty of Passarowitz. 

War is declared agaiust Persia. The printing- 
press is introduced into Turkey. 

Sept. 17. Achmet, or Ahmed III., abdicates in 
favour of his nephew, Mohammed V. 

Peace with Persia is restored by the treaty of 
Eiivan, wh ich cedes all the territory beyond 
the Araxes to the sultan. 

July 22. The Austrians are defeated at the 
disastrous battle of Krotzka. Sept. IS. 
The Austrians accede to the treaty of Bel- 
grade (5. v.). 

The recognition of Turkey by the great 
powei-s as an integral portion of Europe 
Commences about this year. 

The Wahabee insiu-rection commences. (See 
Wahabees.) 

Insurrections break out in Georgia. 

War is declared against Russia. 

The Turkish fleet is destroyed by the Russians 
in the bay of Tchesme. Ali Bey revolts in 
Egypt. The Russians take Akermann, 
Azof, Bender, and Crim Tartary. 

The Egyptian insurrection is quelled. 

July 21 (N.S.). Peace with Russia is restored 
by the treaty of KoutchoukXainarclj i, by 
which the Tartars are declared iudepenJent 
in the Crimea, Cuban, and Bessarabia, and 
tlio Porte engages to govern Moldavia and 
Wallachia with greater equity. 

Jan. 8. The Crimea is ceded to Russia by the 
convention of Constantinople. 

War is renewed with Russia. 

W«r with Austria recommences. Dec. 17. 
The Russians, under Prince Potemkin, 
storm Oczakow, and massacre 20,000 
Tui-ks. 

Dec. 22. Suwarrow storms Ismail, and mas- 
sacres 45,000 Turks. 

Aug. 11. The treaty of Galatz restores peace 
with Russia,, which receives important con- 



War is declared against France. {See Egypt.) 

An alliance is formed with England. 

Jan. 25. Peace with France is restored by the 
treaty of Paris. 

Jan. 7. War is declared against Russia. 
Feb. 19. Sir John Duckworth forces the 
passage of the Dardanelles {q.v.). May 29. 
Selim is deposed by M ustapha III. 

The Janissaries revolt at Constantinople and 
massaci-e the regular troops. 

May 28. Peace with Russia is restored by the 
treaty of Bucharest (7. v.). 

A Ttrrkish anmy of 100,000 men ravages 
Servia. 

The Wahabees are finally subdued. 

Revolt of Ali, pasha of Albania. 

March. Moldavia and Wallachia rebel. 
April 23 (Easter Sunday). The Chri.^tians 
are persecuted, and the Greek patriarch of 
Constantinople is hanged by the Tmkisix 
mob. {See Greece.) 

April 11. The Turks take Scio and massacre 
the inhabitants. {See Scio.) 

The Greek inhabitants of Pergamo are mas- 
sacred, 

March 2. Mehemet Ali revolts. 

629 



ia34. 

18:38, 



OTT 



Oct. 7 The Turkish fleet is almost annihi- 
lated by the Greeks at Mitylene. Nov. 23. 
1 he Turks evacuate Moldavia. 

June^-5. Tde Janissaries are massacred, and 
the army is placed under a European system 
of discipline. 

Oct 20. The Turkish fleet, numbering 
30 vessels, is destroyed by the allied 
English and French squadi-ons at Navarino 
{q. v.). 

Jan 5. 132 French residents, 120 English, 
and 85 Russians, are expelled from Turkey. 
April 26. War is declared by Kussia. 
May 20 1 he emperor of Russia heads his 
army in person. June 19. Brailow sur- 
rendei-s to the Russians. June 23. They 
seize Anapa. July 20, They gain the 
heights of Shumla, Aug. 5. Nicholas com- 
mences the siege of Varna. Aug. 24. Prince 
P-skiewitch Erivanski defeats the Turks at 
the brtttle of Akhalzikh, in Georgia. Sept. 8. 
The Tui-ks close the Bosphorus. Sept. 9. 
The Russians take the fortress of Bajazet. 
Sept 24. They take Toprak-Kali. Oct. 11. 
Varna surrenders to the Russians. Oct. 15. 
The Russians retire from Shumla and re- 
cross the Danube. Oct. 18. The Bui-sians 
blockade the Dardanelles. Oct. 30. The 
garrison of the castle of the Morea sur- 
renders to the French general Maison. 
Nov. 10. The Russians raise the siege of 
Silistria. 

May 6. The Russians again cross the Danube. 
June 11. The Turks sustain a seveie de- 
feat frum the Russians st Koulawtscha. 
June SO. Sibstria sun-enders to the Rus- 
sians, and Prince Paskiewitch gains a great 
victory over the pasha of Erzeroum. 
July 2. Paskiewitch defeats 20,000 Turks 
at the battle of Milliduse. July 9. He 
seizes Erzeroum. July 27. General Kras- 
sowsky defeats 10,000 Tui-ks at bhumla. 
Au2. 20. I'he Russians occupy Hadrianojile. 
Sept. 14. Peace with Russia is restored by 
the treaty of Hadrianople. 

April 23. l\irkey acknowledges the indepen- 
dence of Greece. May 7. A t'eaty is con- 
cluded with the United States. May. 
Albania rebels against the Poite. 

The Albanian insun-cction is suppressed, the 
first T\irkish newspaper is established, and 
the cholera appears in the country. Me- 
hemet Mohammed Ali revolts in Egypt, 
and invades ^yl■ia. 

May 27. Ibrahim Paeha, son of Mohammed 
Ali, takes St. Jean d'Acre. Aug. 1. He 
seizes Autioch. Dec. 21. The grand vizier, 
Reschid Pasha, is defeated by Ibrahim, at 
Konieh, or Iconium, with the loss of 30,000 
men. Feb. 18. A Rus.sian squadron arrives 
at Constantinople to assist the stdtan 
against Mohammed Ali. Feb. 21. The 
Porte accepts the mediation of Fr-ance 
to arrange its disputes with Mohammed 
Ali. May 6. The Porte concludes a peace 
with Mohammed, who is declared inde- 
pendent, and inve.=ted with the govern- 
ment of Svria and Adama. July 20. A 
trea'y of peace and alliance is concluded 
with Russia. 

A regular postal system is first established in 
Turkey. 

Mai-ch 30. The office of gi-and vizier is 
abolished. Aug. 16. A commercial treaty 
is concluded with England and Fi-ance. 

Mohammed Ali revolts in Syria {g. v.). 

July 15, By the treaty signed at London, 
England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, 
agree to aid Turkey against Mohammed 
Ali. 

War is declared against Persia. 

April 30. A commercial treaty is concluded 
with Rus.«ia. 

Insurrections break out in the Danubian 
principalities. 



1855. 
1856. 

1857. 



OTT 



April 30. A treaty relative to the government 
of the Danubian principalities is concluded 
with Russia. Aug. 21. The Hungarian 
generals, Bern and Kossuth, take refuge in 
New Oi-sova. {See Hungary.) Sept. 16. 
The Porte refuses to surrender the Hun- 
garian refugees to Austrra and Ru!-sia. 
Nov. 3. Ihe Hungarian fugitives are traus- 
feried to Shuiula. Nov. 4. The British 
fleet under Sir William Parker arrives in 
the Dardanelles, to the assistance of the 
Porte. Dec. 31. Russia resumes diphimatic 
relations with Turkey, which had been 
suspended in Ci)iisequenceof the Hungarian 
refugee difficulty. 

April 6. Austria resumes diplomatic rela- 
tions. 

Feb. 1. Mustapha Pasha suppresses an insur- 
rection m Samos. Itfaroh 4. An insurrec- 
tion breaks out in Turkish Croatia. March 
19. Omar Pasha defeats the rebels at a 
battle near Jayca. 

Feb. 14. A treaty respecting the Holy Places 
of Palestine is concluded with France. 

Feb. 28. Prince Menschikoff aiTives at Con- 
stantinople as anih«ssador extraordiujiry 
from the court of Russia, to insist on the 
repeal of the concessions made to Roman 
Catholic christians respecting the Holy 
Places. May 5. Menschikolf presents his 
ultimatum. May 19. The Porte concedes 
some points to Russia. May 21. They are 
deemed unsatisfactoiy, and the Russian 
ambassador quits Constantinople. June 6. 
Ali Christian nations receive a confirma- 
tion of ttie privileges and rights granted 
to their worship in Turkey. June 26. 
'Ihe emperor of Russia publishes a mani- 
festo against Turkey. July 2. A Russian 
army of occupation, un'ier Prince Gorts- 
chakofi', enters the Danubian principalities. 
July 14. The Porte protests against the 
occupation of the principalities. Seut. 26. 
A grand national council of the Turkish 
nation insists on the evacuation of the 
principalities. Oct. 5. War is declared 
against Russia. 

Jan. 27. The Greek provinces of Epirus and 
Albania revolt. March 14. The rebels are 
assisted by volunteers from Athens. March 
19. The Porte demands that the Greik 
government should prevent its subjects 
from aiding the Albanian rebels. March 
21. His ultimatum is rejected. March 28. 
The Greek ambassador quits Constan- 
tinople. April 22. Abdi Pasha defeats the 
Greeks at Damoko. April 25. Osman 
Pasha seizes Peta, the head(|uarters of the 
insurrection. May 25. Greece promises to 
preserve stiict neutrality in the Tm-kish 
question. (.See Greece.) June 14. A conven- 
tion respecting the Danubian principali- 
ties is sigTied with Austria, and she agrees 
to occupy the principalities with her troops 
until the conclusion of peace. June 18. The 
insurgent camp at Kalabak is taken by 
Abdi Pasha. Sept. 20. The Russians eva- 
cuate the principalities. 

March 15. A treaty of alliance is concluded 
with Sardinia. 

March 30. Peace with Russia is restored by 
the treaty of Paris. May. An insurrection. 

Jan. 21. A treaty is concluded with Austria 
for the esto,blishment of telegraphic com- 
munication. 

Jan. 7. Death of Reschid Pasha. May 23. 
Death of Abdi Pasha. July 21. The 
Montenegiins are defeated near Kostain- 
izza. July 25. Massacre of the Christian 
inhabitants of Jeddah (g.i>.). July 28. The 
Montenegrins seize Kolaichin. Aug. 18. 
The sultan adopts important fijiancial re- 
forms. Nov. 8. Ihe Montenegrin bound- 
aries are fixed by the commissioners of the 
allied powers at Constantinople. 



OUD 



859. July 31. The Christians are persecuted in 
Candia. Sept. 17. A plot against the 
sultau is discovered at Constantinople. 

1860. May 5. Prince Gortschakoff states that the 

Christians in Turkey are again subjected 
to ill treatment. May 30. The Turkish 
government examines the charge. June 1. 
England refuses to interpose iu favour of 
the Christians, as contrary to the treaty of 
Paris. June 3. The French and Russian 
ambassadors declare that their govern- 
ments are satisfied by the conduct of Tur- 
key with respect to the Christians. {See 
Druses and Maronxtes.) Oct. 23. A large 
proportion of the Bulgarian clergy join 
the Eomish communion. 

1861. Jan. 28. A revolution breaks out in Herze- 

govina. April 29. A commercial treaty is 
concluded wiih France. May 16. Omar 
Pasha, with an international commission 
of foreign consuls, goes to Herzegovina to 
restore order. June 5. The French eva- 
cuate Syria. June 25. Death of the Sultan 
Abdul Medjid, who is succeeded by his 
brother Abdul Aziz. 

OXTOMAN EMPEEOES. 



A.D. 

Osmanll 1618 

Mustapha I. (again) 1622 

Auiurath IV 1623 

Ibrahim 1640 

Mohammed IV. .. 1648 

Soliman III 1687 

Ahmed, or Achmet 

n 1691 

Mustapha IT 1695 

Abmed, or Achmet 

III 1703 

Mohammed V 1730 

Osmanlll 1754 

Mustapha III 1757 

Abdul -Ahmed .... 1774 

Selimlll 1789 

Mustapha IV 1807 

Mahmoud, or Mo- 
hammed VI 1808 

Abdul-Medjid .... 1839 
Abdul-Aziz 1861 



A.D. 

Osman, Othman, or 

Ottoman 1 1299 

Orchan 1326 

Amui-ath I. 1360 

Bajazet I., Ilderim, or 

The Lightning .. 1389 
SoUman I., Isa, and 

Mohammed 1403 

Musa-Chelebi 1410 

Mohammed 1 1413 

Amm-athll 1421 

Mohammed 11 1451 

Bajazet II 1481 

Selim 1 1511 

Soliman II., the 

Magnificent .... 1520 

Selim II 1566 

AmurathlTI 1574 

Mohammed III. .. 1595 
Ahmed, or Acnmet 

I 1603 

Mustapha 1 1617 



Ottde (Hindostan), one of the first pro- 
vinces of India, colonized from the west 
about B.C. 1366. The general of the emperor 
of Delhi conquered it a.b. 1195, andBabar's 
army, which had been sent to subdue the 
country, was defeated by the Aflfghans a.d. 
1528. It was conquered by Akbar a.d. 1559, 
and the dynasty of Saadat Ali estabhshed in 
1720. An action, in which the English were 
■victorious, under Major Hector Munro, was 
fought at Baksar Oct. 23, 1764; a treaty 
with Warren Hastings was concluded in 
1773 ; and another, which resulted in the 
spoliation of the Begums and the subsequent 
impeachment of Hastings, was signed Sept. 
19, 1781. The nuwab was deposed, and 
Saadat II. raised to the throne Jan. 21, 1798, 
and Wajid Ali was pensioned off with 
£120,000 per annum, the territory annexed, 
and the title of king abohshed Jan. 1, 1856, 
the fact being announced by official procla- 
mation Feb. 7, 1856. 

OuDENAEDE (Belgium) surrendered to a 
force of French and EngUshA.D. 1658. It 
was besieged by the stadtholder in 1674, and 
the French were defeated here by Marlbo- 
rough and Eugene, when Prince George, 



OYI 

afterwards George II., distinguished him- 
self, July 11, 1708. 

OuLAKT (Battle).— A picked detachment 
of 110 men, chosen from the North Cork 
militia, under Lieutenant -Colon el Foote, at- 
tacked the Irish rebels under Father John 
Murphy at the Hill of Oulart, in Wexford, 
on Whitsunday, May 27, 1798. The rebels 
were driven from their position and were in 
full retreat, when an alarm that they were 
rushing on a body of cavalry caused them to 
turn on their pursuers, who were all slain 
except Colonel Foote, a sergeant, and three 
privates. 

OiTEiQTJE (Battle).— Near this small town 
of Portugal, Count Alfonso Henriques, with 
a force of 13,000 soldiers, defeated the com- 
bined armies of five Moorish sovereigns, 
July 25, 1139. The five leaders of the 
infidels fell in the action, and the victorious 
Alfonso was immediately hailed as king of 
Portugal. 

Ouzel Galley Society (Dublin) .-This 
society, for deciding commercial difficulties 
by arbitration, originated in the following cir- 
cumstance. Early in the year 1700 much legal 
perplexity was occasioned by the case of the 
Ouzel Galley, a vessel in the port of Dubhn, 
and it was referred to the arbitration of a 
committee of merchants, who decided to the 
satisfaction of all parties. A permanent 
society was estabhshed in consequence, 
which received the name of the Ouzel Galley 
Society, in 1705. Its members consist of a 
captain, lieutenants, and crew, elected from 
the most respectable merchants of Dubhn, 
and the general business of the society is 
transacted at periodical convivial meetings. 

Ovation. — The first ovation, or lesser 
triumph among the Komans, was accorded 
to Pubhus Postumius Tubertus, after his 
victory over the Sabines, B.C. 469. 

Oteeland Mail. — The new route to 
India, via Trieste, on the Adriatic, was 
tried by Lieutenant Waghorn, under whose 
superintendence the express which arrived 
at Suez Oct. 19, 1845, reached Alexandria 
on the 20th, and was by him conveyed to 
London, where it arrived on the 31st, at 
4.30 a.m. The overland route via MarseOles 
was established about the same time. 

Oveeseees of the poor were appointed 
for parishes by 43 Ehz. c. 1 (1601), and for 
townships by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12 (1633). 

OvEETTTEES, Called sinfonia by the Itali- 
ans, originated in France, where LulH, the 
father of French dramatic music, assisted to 
give them a settled form a.d. 1633 — 1687. 
They were introduced into concert-rooms 
and theatres about the end of the last 
century. 

OviEDO (Spain), the capital of a pro- 
vince of the same name, and known in the 
Middle Ages as Civitas Episcoporum, from 
the number of bishops who found refuge m 
it from the Moors, is beheved to have been 
founded by Fruela I. a.d. 759. A great part 
of the town was destroyed by fire in 1521. 
The fortress was built "by Alfonso III. in 
913, and the university was founded by 
* 631 



OWH 



Philip III. A.D. 1604. The diurch, erected in 
the 9th century, was taken down and the 
cathedral commenced in the lith century, 
one of the towers having been finished in 
1575. The library was founded in 1764; the 
hospicio provincial in 1752 ; and the conso- 
lidated hospitals of San Francisco in 1837. 

OwHTHEE (Pacific Ocean) was discovered 
by Captain Cook a.d. 1778, and revisited by 
him on his return from Behring's Strait, 
when he was murdered by the natives, Feb. 
14, 1779. His bones were preserved bythe 
priests, receiving homage and the offerings 
of the people, tiU. the abohtion of idolatry ia 
1819. 

OxFOED (Bishopric) . — This see was found- 
ed by Henry VIII. a.d. 1541. 

Oxford (Oxfordshire) is said to have 
been founded by Alfred a.d. 849—901. Ed- 
mund Ironside died here Ifov. 30, 1016, 
and Canute held several national councils at 
Oxford. Eefusing to admit the l^ormans, it 
was stormed by William I. in 1067. It sus- 
tained a three months' siege from Stephen. 
The empress Maud made her escape, and 
it surrendered Dec. 21, 1142. The great 
charter, with aU the privileges and hberties 
of London, was granted by Henry II. 
(1154 — 1189). John Bereford's riot, when 
the colleges and halls were sacked by the 
townsmen, took place a.d. 1355. Henry 
VIII. made it his residence for some time 
in 1518. Queen Elizabeth dehvered a long 
Latin speech on her visit in 1592. Here 
Latimer and Eidley suffered at the stake 
Oct. 16, 1555, and Cranmer March 21, 1556. 
After the battle of EdgehiU, Charles I. took 
possession of the town Oct. 26, 1642. He 
estabHshed a mint, where the plate of 'New 
Inn HaU was coined for his use, and settled 
the exchequer here Feb. 13, 1643. Charles 
I. also summoned a parhament which sat 
from Jan. 22 tiU AprU, 1644. The city sur- 
rendered to the parhamentary forces June 
24, 1646. Parhament met here Oct. 9, 1665, 
during the plague of London, and March 21, 
1681. The faniily of the Veres, to whom it 
gave a title, became extinct a.d. 1702, but 
the title was revived in 1711. The town-haU 
was erected in 1753 ; the new county hall and 
courts in 1840. 

Oxford Administeatiok. — See (Haelex 

ADMIlflSTEATION.) 

OxFOED Steeet (London).— By 2 & 3 
Vict. e. 80 (Aug. 24, 1839), permission was 
given to the authorities to extend this street 
to Holborn. 

OxFOED Univeesitt. — The Britons and 
Saxons estabhshed schools of learning at 
Oxford, which were restored by Alfred the 
Great, the reputed founder of the univer- 
sity, about A.D. 879. In Alfred's time the in- 
stitution was styled the school or the schools, 
and it is mentioned as the university in a 
deed dated 1190. Edward III. granted a 
great charter to the students, June 27, 1355, 
and their privileges were confirmed by a 
charter of Henry VIII. in 1510. The uni- 
versity was incorporated by 13 EUz. c. 29 
(1570). During the civil war the colleges 
632 



OXY 

espoused the king's cause, and in January, 
1643, they sent their plate to the mint to be 
coined for his use. A commission of in- 
quiry into the state of the university was 
issued Aug. 31, 1850, and the report of the 
commissioners was presented April 27, 1852. 
The constitution of the university was 
changed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 81 (Aug. 7, 
1854) , which was amended by 19 & 20 Viet, 
c. 3 (June 23, 1856). There are 19 colleges 
at Oxford, which, with the date of their 
foiuidation, are as follows : — 



Name of College. 


Found- 
ed. 


By whom Founded. 


University 


A.D. 

872 
1263 


Alfred. 


BaUiol 1 


aud 
1268 


John Balliol. 


Merton 


1264 


Walter de Merton. 


Exeter 


1314 


Walter de Stapleton. 


Oriel 


1326 
1340 


Edwai-d II. 


Queen's 


Kobert de Eslesfield. 


New 


1386 
1428 


WUliam of Wykeham. 


Lincoln 


Richard Flemmyng. 


All Souls 


1437 


Henry Chicheley. 


Magdalen 


14.58 


William Wayuflete. 


Brasenose 


1508 


William Smith aud Sir 
Bichard Sutton. 


Corpus Christi . . 


1516 


Richard Fox. 


Christ Cliuich .. 


1524 


Cardinal Wolsey. 


Trinity 


1554 


Sir Thomas Pope. 


St. Jolin's 


1557 


Sii- Thomas White. 




1571 
1613 


Queen Elizabeth. 


Wadham 


Nicholas Wadham. 




1624 




Worcester 


1714 


Sir Thomas Cookes, Bt. 



The difference between colleges and halls 
!, that the latter are not incorporated. 



Name of TTR.n 


Found- 
ed. 


By whom Foimded. 


St. Edmund's.... 

St. Mary 

New Inn 

Magdalen 

St. Alban ....< 


A.D. 

1269 
1333 
1392 
1487 
Shortly 
after 
1547 


Canons of Oseney. 
Oriel College. 
William of Wykeham. 
WUliam Waynflete. 

iMerton College, 



Oxygen was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
Aug. 1, 1774, and by Scheele, who called it 
empyreal air, in the following year. 

OxTEYNCHUS (Egypt). — The name is 
derived from a fish of the sturgeon species, 
worshipped here in early times. It was made 
the seat of a bishop in the 4th century. 
The first bishop, Theodore, is represented 
in 372 as stUl occupying the episcopal throne. 
According to Gibbon, this stately and popu- 
lous city, the seat of Christian orthodoxy, 
had devoted the temples, the pubhc edifices, 
and even the ramparts, to pious and chari- 
table uses. 



OYE 



PAD 



Oyer and Terminee.— Writs of Oyer 
and Terminer were only to be granted before 
justices of either bench in eyre, save in 
exceptional cases, when a special royal 
warrant was required by 13 Edw. I. st. 1, 
c. 29 (1285). These regulations were en- 
forced by 2 Edw. III. c. 2 (1328) ; 9 Edw. 
III. St. 1, c. 5 (1335) ; and by 20 Edw. III. 
c. 3 (1346). The rule by which no judge or 
other lawyer could act in this commission 
within his'own county where he was born or 
lived, was aboMshed by 12 Geo. II. c. 27 (1739) . 

Oyes. — In the old Norman law courts 
silence was commanded by the crier pro- 
nouncing oyez, " hear ye." This injunction, 
corrupted into the meaningless phrase, " Oh 
yes," is still used by pubhc criers and 
heralds. 

Oysters. — British oysters were much es- 
teemed by Roman epicures, and Juvenal, in 
his 4th satire, commemorates those of 
Eichborough in Kent as possessing pecuhar 
excellence. The stealing of oysters, or 
oyster brood, from the beds, was declared 
larceny by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 36 (June 
21, 1827). In 1839 a convention was agreed 
to by Erance and England for setthng the 
hmits of the oyster-beds of each nation. 
The regulations thus estabhshed were em- 
bodied m the act 6 & 7 Vict. c. 79 (Aug. 22, 
1843) , which hmited the period of the oyster 
fishery to the interval between the 1st of 
September and the 30th of April. All oysters 
and dredges found on fishing vessels from 
the 1st of May to the 31st of August may be 
seized by the coast guard and excise officers 
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 101 (Aug. 14, 1855), The 
growth of the oyster in Erance has been 
much improved since 1858 by the labours of 
M. Coste. 

Ozone. — Attention was first directed to 
this odour, evolved during the working of 
the electric machine, by Professor Schonbein 
of Basel, a.d. 1840. 



PACiFiCATioiir. — This term was usually 
apphed to the edicts issued by the Erench 
monarchs in favour of the Huguenots, or 
Protestants. The first was promulgated by 
Charles IX. a.d. 1562. The edict of Amboise, 
granting full liberty of worship to the Pro- 
testants within the towns of which they were 
in possession up to that date, was issued 
March 19, 1563. It was revoked in 1568. 
A fresh edict was issued in August, 1570, 
which was followed by the massacre of 
St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. Other 
edicts followed, and were in turn revoked, 
until Henry IV. issued the famous edict of 
Nantes, April 13, 1598. This secured to the 
Huguenots freedom of worship in all the 
towns where their creed prevailed. It was 
revoked Oct. 22, 1685, when the exercise of 
the reformed rehgion was forbidden, and all 
the Protestant ecclesiastics were ordered to 
quit Erance within fifteen days. The Paci- 
fication of Ghent, by which several provinces 



of HoUand united against Spain, was signed 
in that town Nov. 8, 1576. A treaty signed 
at York June 18, 1639, between Charles I. 
and the commissioners sent by the Scotch, is 
known in Enghsh history as the Pacification 
of York. 

Pacific Ocean, or the South Sea, was 
first seen by Vasco Nunez de Balboa iu Sep- 
tember, 1513. Magelhaens rounded Cape 
Horn, and entered this ocean, to which, on 
account of the calm weather that prevailed, 
he gave the name of the Pacific, in 1521. 
Sir Francis Drake, the first Englishman who 
saw it, reached its shores in 1573. 

Pacific Steamer, belonging to the Collins 
line, running between New York and Liver- 
pool, was totally lost, with all on board, in 
the early part of 1856. She left Liverpool 
Jan. 23, 1856, with forty-five passengers and 
a crew of 141 men, and was never heard of 
afterwards. It is supposed that she struck 
suddenly on an iceberg, and foundered with 
all on board. A bottle was picked up in 1862, 
containing a few lines, supposed to have been 
written as the vessel was sinking, and bearing 
date April 12, 1856. 

Paderborn (Prussia) . — This ancient town 
of Westphalia, made a bishopric by Charle- 
magne, afterwards became a member of the 
Hanseatic League. The cathedral, com- 
menced early in the 11th century, was not 
finished till 1143. The town was taken and 
pillaged by the duke of Brunswick in 1622, 
and was annexed to Prussia in 1802. Coun- 
cils were held here in 777, 780, 782, and 785. 
At the first, generally designated the diet 
of Paderborn, multitudes of the Saxons 
were baptized. 

Padlock. — Du Cange states that a lock 
of this description was in use as early as 
A.D. 1381, though a later date is usually 
assigned for the invention. 

Padstow (Cornwall). — This town was 
destroyed by the Danes a.d. 981. 

Padua (Italy).— The ancient Patavium 
was, according to Virgil, founded by Ante- 
nor, who escaped thither after the faU of 
Troy. The Patavians were constantly at 
war with the Cisalpine Gauls, and B.C. 301 
they defeated Cleonymus the Lacedaemonian, 
who had landed on the Medoacus. Patavium 
gradually fell into the power of Rome, 
though it seems to have retained some of its 
former independence, as M. j^Emihus, a 
Roman consul, was sent to quell a riot here 
B.C. 174, and the inhabitants refused to 
receive the emissaries of M. Antonius B.C. 
43. Patavium was occupied, a.d. 69, by 
Primus and Varus, the generals of Vespa- 
sian, on their advance into Italy. Attila 
destroyed it in 452; it is mentioned as 
one of the chief cities when the province 
was overrun by the Lombards under Alboin 
in 568 ; and was burned to the ground by 
Agilulph, king of the Longobardi, in 601. In 
1164 Padua formed a league with other states 
against Frederick I., or Barbarossa; in 1167 
it joined the great Lombard league ; and by 
the peace of Constance in 1183, its freedom 
was recognized. EcceUno da Romano made 
633 



himself master of Padua in 1239, but was 
driven out in 1256, by a coalition of the towns 
of Upper Italy. In 1337 it came under the 
sway of the Carrara family, who held it till 
1405, when it was taken by the republic of 
Yenice. Maximilian I. besieged it Sept. 15, 
1509, and retired Oct. 3. The French occu- 
pied it April 28, 1797, and it passed into the 
power of Austria by the treaty of Campo- 
formio. The hospital was founded in 1420, 
and the pubhc library in 1540. The botan- 
ical garden was instituted by the Venetian 
senate in 1545, and the observatory dates 
from 1767. In consequence of disturbances 
among the students which took place Feb. 9, 
1848, the university was closed, and it was 
not reopened luitil 1850. A council was 
held here in 1350. 

PiEONiA (Macedonia). — This district, in- 
habited by the Pasones, was overrun by 
Megabazus B.C. 506, and was finally annexed 
to Macedon by Alexander the Great. 

Pa&ans. — This term, from pagani, or 
dwellers in the pagi, was appHed to the 
heathens, because the inhabitants of the 
country districts were the last to receive 
Chjistianity. The Eoman senate renounced 
paganism a.d. 388 ; and a few years after 
the death of Theodosius I., which occurred 
Jan. 17, 395, few vestiges of paganism 
remained. Pagan ceremonies were revived 
in Christian churches in the beginning of 
the 5th century. Paganism was imputed to 
the classic enthusiasts of the 15th century, 
who professed a secret devotion to the gods 
of Homer and Plato. 

Pa&as^ (Thessaly), celebrated in mytho- 
logical history as the port at which Jason 
built the ship Argo, was conquered bv 
Philip II. of Macedon B.C. 353. The in- 
habitants were transferred to Demetrias, 
founded b.c. 290. Pagasse was afterwards 
restored, and became a flourishing city. 

Pains and Penalties. — Certain bUls, 
passed by the legislature to inflict specified 
penalties for particular acts against state 
oifenders, were known bj this title. The 
last instance was the biU of pains and 
penalties introduced against Queen Caroline 
A.D. 1820. It passed the House of Lords, but 
was not carried further. 

Painting. — This art appears to have 
originated in Egypt, where it was employed 
about B.C. 2100, to commemorate the ex- 
ploits of Osymandyas ; whence it was most 
probably imparted to the Greeks, who, 
however, attribute its origin to their an- 
cestors. {See Deawing.) The earliest 
painter whose name is recorded is Bular- 
chus, whose picture of a battle of the 
Magnetes was purchased by Candaules, king 
of Lydia, either for its weight in gold or for 
as much gold coin as would cover it, about 
B.C. 716. Greek art was not established on 
an independent basis until the period ot the 
Persian invasion in the 5th century B.C., it 
having been previously a mere adjunct to 
architecture and the celebration of reHgious 
mysteries. Polygnotus, who removed from 
Thasos to Athens, about b.c. 463, painted 



PAI 

the first portrait, and is regarded as the 
founder of historic painting. ApoUodorus 
of Athens, who was born about B.C. 460, first 
practised nice discrimination of light and 
shade, in which he was much excelled by 
the celebrated Zeuxis of Heracleia, who was 
bom about B.C. 450. ApeUes, who flourished 
from B.C. 350 to 310, was remarkable for his 
delicacy of finish, and is regarded as the 
prince of ancient portrait-painters. En- 
caustic painting was invented by Pausias of 
Sicyon about B.C. 332, who was also highly 
celebrated as a flower-painter. The classic 
period of painting began to decHne about 
B.C. 300, when Antipholus the Egyptian, and 
others, introduced caricatures and pictures 
of stiU-life. Fabius Pictor introduced paint- 
ing into Eome B.C. 289, but the greatest 
impetus was given to the art by the number 
of chefs-d'oeuvre which Mummius brought 
from Corinth B.C. 146. The materials of 
ancient art appear to have been wood, clay, 
plaster, stone, parchment and canvas, on 
which pictures were painted in distemper or 
with a medium of wax. The establishment 
of Christianity and the subversion of the 
Eoman empire by the northern barbarians, 
occasioned a decline in painting as well as 
in the other arts ; and the ravages of the 
Iconoclasts, which began a.d. 728, destroyed 
many valuable specimens of the semi-bar- 
barous Byzantine school, which was chiefly 
employed in the decoration of churches. 
(<See Iconoclasts and Illumination.) Gio- 
vanni Cimabue, born in 1240, is regarded as 
the restorer of painting ; but the trammels 
of the Byzantine school were first shaken off 
by Giotto di Bondone, who was born in 1276. 
Leonardo da Yinci (1452 — 1519) and Michael 
Angelo Buonarroti (1475—1564) were the 
most eminent artists of the Florentine 
school; Eaphael Sanzio d'Urbino (1483— 
1520) founded the Eoman school; and 
Tiziano YeceUio, better known as Titian 
(1477 — 1576), was the greatest master of the 
Yenetian school. The earliest master of the 
German school was WUhehn von Coin, or 
William of Cologne, who flourished in 1380. 
Hubert Yan Eyck (1366—1426) and his 
brother John ^1395 — 1441) are eminent 
masters of the Flemish school, which they 
estabhshed at Bruges. They are also the 
reputed inventors of oil-painting, although 
there is no doubt that art was only con- 
siderably improved by them, having been 
known at a much earher period. The 
Spanish school was founded by Antonio del 
Euicon about 1446 ; the Dutch by Luke of 
Leyden, born in 1490 ; the French by 
Jeannet Clouet about 1523 ; and the English 
school may be said to have taken its rise 
when Holbein settled at the court of 
Henry YIII. in 1526. 

Paisley (Scotland) owes its origin to a 
monastery founded a.d. 1160 by Walter, 
high steward of Scotland. Pope Honorius 
erected it into an abbey in 1219. It was 
burnt by the Enghsh in 1307, and afterwards 
rebuilt with great splendour. James IV. 
erected the smaU town into a burgh in 14S8. 



PAL 

In the times of the reformers the abbey was 
stripped of its altars and figures, and the only 
part of the edifice that remains, is now used 
as a parish church. Linen thread was first 
made in Paisley in 1722 ; silk gauze in 1760 ; 
and nearly 27,000 people were employed 
in the manufacture in 1784. Towards the 
end of the 18th century the manufacture of 
shawls was introduced. The grammar-school 
was founded Jan. 3, 1576; and the county 
hall or castle in 1818. A society for the pro- 
motion of the fine arts, estabKshed here, held 
their first exhibition in May, 1831. 

Palace Couet, superseding in many 
respects the ambulatory court of the Board 
of Green Cloth, or Court of Marshalsea, was 
instituted by Charles I. a.d. 1631, and had 
jurisdiction over all personal actions what- 
soever within twelve miles of his Majesty's 
palace at Whitehall. It was abolished by 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 101 (Aug. 1, 1849), audits 
powers ceased Dec. 1 in the same year. 

Pal^eogeapht, or the art of deciphering 
ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, was 
greatly improved by the Benedictines of St. 
Slaur, who pubhshed a compilation of palseo- 
graphical knowledge a.d. 1748. 

Pal^ologi. — This illustrious Byzantine 
family is first mentioned about a.d. 1078, 
when Nicephorus Palseologus was a faithful 
servant of the emperor Nicephorus III. He 
was killed while defending Dyrrhachium, or 
Durazzo, against the Normans in 1081. The 
Palaeologi were the last Greek family that 
occupied the throne of Constantinople, and 
they reigned from 1260 to 1453. A branch 
of the Palaeologi ruled over Montferrat in 
Italy from 1305 to 1530. 

Paleontology. — This science, treating 
of the evidences of the fossil remains of 
plants and animals in the earth's crust, has 
received illustration from the works of 
Cuvier (born Aug. 23, 1769, and died May 
13, 1832), Owen (born in 1814), Forbes 
(born in 1815, and died Nov. 18, 1854), and 
others A society, called the Palseontological 
Society, for the illustration and description 
of British fossil organic remains, was founded 
in London in 1847. 

Palamites, the supporters of Gregory 
Palamas, a Greek ascetic of the 14th century, 
who renoimced the world, retired into a cell, 
and practised great austerities. Having 
spent ten years at Mount Athos, and ten 
years at Berrhcea, he repaired to Thessa- 
lonica for the restoration of his health. He 
took the lead of the monks against Barlaam, 
and gained a triumph over mm at a council 
held at Constantinople, June 11, 1341. At 
another council, held at Constantinople in 
1345, the Palamites were condemned, and 
Palamas was cast into prison in 1347. Having 
obtained his release, he was nominated but 
not ordained patriarch, and in 1354 was 
consecrated archbishop of Thessalonica, but 
the magistrates refused to admit him, and 
he retired to Lemnos. 

Palatinate (Germany). — This division, 
consisting of two parts, was under one 
sovereign until a.d. 1620, when the elector j 



PAL 

Ferdinand having accepted the crown of 
Bohemia, was defeated in a battle near 
Prague, and lost his dominions and electoral 
dignity, which were given by the emperor 
Ferdinand II. to Bavaria. Charles Louis 
recovered the Lower Palatinate by the 
treaty of Westphalia in 1648. Maximihan 
Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, having been 
placed under the ban of the empire, the 
elector palatine, John William, recovered the 
Upper Palatinate and the ancient ri^jhts of 
his house in 1706 ; but by the treaty ol peace 
between Charles VI. and Louis XIV. in 1714, 
the elector of Bavaria regained the Upper 
Palatinate. In the wars of the French 
revolution, the French took possession of 
that part of the Palatinate which lay on the 
left bank of the Ehine, and retained it by 
the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. The 
territory on the right bank of the Ehine 
was ceded by Bavaria in 1802 for other 
possessions. By the treaty of 1819, Bavaria 
regained the greater part of the territory on 
the left bank of the Ehine which it had lost 
in 1801, the remainder being allotted to 
Eussia and Hesse-Darmstadt. 

Palatine Counties. — Selden, referring 
to counts palatine, says : " The name was 
received here doubtless out of the use of the 
empire of France, and in the like notions as 
it had in that use." Three EngHsh counties, 
viz., Chester, Durham, and Lancashire, and 
one Welsh county, viz., Pembroke, were 
counties palatine. The palatine of Chester 
was conferred by William I. upon Hugh 
Lupus A.D. 1077. In the reign of Henry 
III. it was annexed to the crown, giving 
the title of earl of Chester to the king's 
eldest son. The palatine of Lancaster 
was instituted by Edward III., who 
created Henry, earl of Derby, duke of 
Lancaster, March 6, 1351. In the reign of 
Edward IV. it was vested in the crown. 
Durham was a county palatine till 1836, 
when by 6 WiU. IV. e. 19 (June 21), the 
jurisdiction was transferred to the crown. 
The palatine jurisdiction of Pembroke was 
taken away by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26 (1536). 

Pale (Cephalonia). — This town is first 
mentioned in the Persian war, when 200 of 
its citizens fought at the battle of Platsea, 
B.C. 479. It joined the Athenian alliance 
B.C. 431, surrendered to the Eomans b.c. 
189, and afterwards became the capital of 
the island. 

Palembang (Siimatra). — In 1780 the 
Dutch placed the rajah Muda on the throne, 
Palembang being his capital. They had 
only a factory at Palembang in 1811, when 
the stdta,n began hostilities against them, and, 
under pretence of carrying them to Batavia, 
sunk their ships. The"^Dutch regained their 
East -India possessions in 1816, but the 
country remained in rebellion till 1821. 

Palencia (Spain), the ancient Pallantia, 
is the chief town of a province of the same 
name, and was made a bishop's see of the 
early church. In the 10th century Al- 
fonso VIII. of Castile founded the celebrated 
school, which was transferred to Salamanca 
635 



PAL 

in 1240. The cathedral, commenced in 1321, 
was completed in loi34. The French cap- 
tured Palencia in 1808 ; the English entered 
in September, 1812 ; and Wellington de- 
feated the French in some warmly-contested 
combats in the neighbom-hood a few days 
afterwards. CouncSs were held here Oct. 
25, 1114, in 1129, and Oct. 4, 1388. 

PAiiEEMO (Sicily), the ancient Panormus, 
is first mentioned in histoxy B.C. 480, when 
the great Carthaginian armament, under 
HamUcar, landed here and made it their 
head -quarters. It was a principal naval 
station B.C. 406, and was one of the few 
cities that remained faithful to the Cartha- 
ginians at the time of the siege of Motya, 
B.C. 397. Pyrrhus attacked and made him- 
self master of Panormus B.C. 276 ; but it 
was soon retaken by the Carthaginians, who 
held it at the outbreak of the first Punic 
war, B.C. 264. The Eoman consuls, Atihus 
Calatinus and C. Scipio, captured Panormus 
B.C. 254, and it became one of their principal 
naval stations. Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian 
general, was defeated by L. C. MeteUus, in 
a decisive battle, B.C. 250. It received a 
Koman colony B.C. 20. It afterwards feU, 
with the rest of Sicily, into the hands of the 
Goths, and was the last city of the island 
wrested from them by Behsarius, a.d. 535. 
The Saracens captured it in 855. From the 
top of the royal palace, built by King Eoger 
the jSTorman in 1129, Father Piazzi dis- 
covered the planet Ceres in 1801. The 
cathedral, a magnificent Gothic structure, 
was built in 1180 by Archbishop Walter, an 
Enghshman, and contains the tombs of 
Eoger the Norman and the emperor Fre- 
derick II. When Sicily was united to ISTaples, 
the court was removed from Palermo, but 
again resided here from 1806 to 1814. Pa- 
lermo revolted Dee. 12, 1848, against Fer- 
dinand, king of Naples, and, after three 
days' fighting, a provisional government was 
proclaimed. The king of Naples issued the 
charter of a constitution for his Sicilian 
subjects Feb. 28, 1849 ; but hostilities were 
resiuued March 26. Through the mediation 
of the French and Enghsh adiuii-als, the city 
was given up to General Filangieri, May 13. 
Palermo was attacked by Garibaldi May 27, 
1860, and the royal troops were driven out 
of the town, and took refuge in the citadel, 
which afterwards surrendered. The two 
SicDies were annexed to Sardinia Nov. 3, 
1860. The university was foimded in 1447. 
Acoimcil was held at Palermo Nov. 10, 13S8. 

Palestine.— At the time of the call of 
Abraham, B.C. 1921, this coimtry was in- 
habited by the Jebusites, Amorites, Gir- 
gashites, Hivites, Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, 
Zemarites, and Hamathites,— descendants of 
Ham, or Canaan, son of Noah. The Periz- 
zites are first mentioned in Gen. xiii. 7 
(B.C. 1918) ; and at the time of the Jewish 
Exodus, B.C. 1451, it was peopled by seven 
tribes, viz., the Canaanites, Hittites, Amor- 
ites, Perizzites, Hivites, Jebusites, and 
Girgashites. Antiochus, king of Syria, re- 
duced the whole of Palestine under his 



PAL 

authority B.C. 198, and it was erected into a 
Eoman province bj^ Augustus a.d. 6. The 
division of the country into First, Second, 
and Third Palestine, is first mentioned ia 
the Theodosian code in 409. 

Palesteina (Italy), the ancient Prseneste, 
submitted to Eome B.C. 375. It became the 
stronghold of the Colonna family in the 
Middle Ages, and capitulated to the papal 
crusaders in 1299, when Pope Boniface VIII. 
expelled its rulers. After his death, Oct. 11, 
1303, it was recovered and fortified by the 
Colonna family. Eienzo, the Eoman sena- 
tor, made a vain attempt to take it in 1354. 
It was wrested from the Colonna family by 
Eugenius IV. in 1487, and Urban VIIT. con- 
ferred it upon the Barberini, whose palace 
now exists. Fragments of a Eoman calendar, 
discovered here in 1773, were published at 
Eome under the title of Fasti Praenestini 
in 1799. 

Palestro (Battles). — Two were fought 
near this town, in Piedmont, between the 
Austrians and the Sardinians aided by the 
French, in 1859. The first took place May 30, 
when the Sardinians were victorious, cap- 
turing more than 1,000 prisoners and 80 
cannon; and the second June 1, when the 
Sardinians were again successful. 

Palimpsests. — The term is apphed to 
parchments from which the original writing 
has been erased by means of pumice-stone or 
some other substance, to make room for a 
fresh subject being written thereon. The 
practice became general with the Latins in 
the 9th and 10th centuries, and reached its 
greatest height in the 11th century. Edicts 
forbidding it were issued in Germany in the 
13th and lith centuries. The Clementine 
constitutions were printed by Nicolas Janson 
upon pahmpsest parchment in 1476. Cicero's 
treatise "DeEepubhea," written on a pahm- 
psest, was discovered in the Vatican hbrary at 
Eome, and printed in 1821. The New Testa- 
ment, written on pahmpsest fragments, was 
pubhshed in Paris by Dr. Tischendorf in 
1843, and he completed the work by the 
addition of the fragments of the Old Testa- 
ment in 1845. 

Palladium, generally found as an aUoy 
with platinum and other metals, but some- 
tunes in a pure state, was discovered by 
Dr. Wollaston, a.d. 1803. 

Palladium. — The ancient authors give 
different traditions respecting the origin of 
this celebrated statue of Minerva; some 
stating that it fell from heaven during the 
building of Hiuin, others that it feU at Pes- 
sinus, in Phrygia, others that Electra gave 
it to her son Dardanus, and others that it was 
merely an ingenious automaton, but all agree 
that the fate of Troy depended on its pre- 
servation. Its capture consequently became 
a great object with the Greeks during the 
siege of Troy, and it was at length stolen by 
Ulysses and Diomedes, B.C. 1183. Other 
authorities state that only a fictitious statue 
was stolen, and that the real palladium was 
conveyed into Italy by ^neas, B.C. 1181, and 
was preserved with great secrecy in the 



PAL 

temple of Vesta. The profligate Eoman 
emperor Elagabalus attempted to steal it 
from their keeping a.d. 219; but they sub- 
stituted a counterfeit image in its stead. 
The Eoman palladium was a small statue, 
three cubits and a half in height, and it was 
kept in a barrel and placed near other 
barrels to prevent theft. 

Pallas.— This planet was discovered by 
Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, March 28, 1802. 

Pallene (Sea-fight). — The knights of 
Ehodes destroyed a Turkish fleet off this 
headland, in the ^gean Sea, a.d. 1344. 

Pall Mall (London) derives its name 
from the game of Pail^e MaUle, somewhat 
analogous to cricket, introduced from France 
into England in the reign of Charles II., and 
at that time played in St. James's Park. 
Pell MeU is first mentioned by Pepys July 26, 
1660. 

Pall, or Pallittm.— The origin of this 
vestment, sent from Eome to all archbishops 
of the Eoman Catholic church, is disputed. 
It was worn by the bishops at Eavenna as 
early as a.d. 540. In the time of Gre- 
gory VII. archbishops were in the habit of 
going to Eome to receive it. The popes 
derived a large revenue from the sale of 
paUia in the 13th century. Gregory XI. 
(a.d. 1370 — 1378) issued a decretal which 
declared that an archbishop could not call 
a council, bless the chrism, consecrate 
churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a 
bishop before he had received his paUium ; 
and that before any archbishop could obtain 
this sacred vestment he should swear fidehty 
to the pope. It was also decreed, that upon 
the translation of an archbishop he was not 
to carry away his pall, but apply to the pope 
for a new one, and that his successor should 
make no use of the one left behind. Ter- 
tullian (a.d. 197—213) wrote a treatise en- 
titled " De Pallio." 

Palmaet Synod, held at Eome by Theodo- 
ric, Nov. 6, 502 a.d., was called the Palmary 
synod from an edifice or haU of that name 
in which it was held. Its object was to 
investigate charges brought against Pope 
Sjonmachus, who was declared innocent, 
and he resumed the pontifical throne with 
the full authority of the synod, composed of 
120 bishops. 

Palmeeston" Administeatiou'S. — The 
vote of censure against the Aberdeen admi- 
nistration (g.v.), for its conduct of the war 
against Eussia, having been carried in the 
House of Commons, Jan. 29, 1855, by 305 
against 148, the resignation of that ministry 
was announced Feb. 1. After various nego- 
tiations, an intimation was made in parha- 
ment, Feb. 8, to the eifectthat Lord Pahner- 
ston had accepted office as prime minister, 
and the cabinet was, Feb. 16, announced as 
follows : — 



Treasury Viscount Palmei-ston. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Cranworih. 

Pi-esideut of the Council. .Earl Granville. 

Privy Seal Duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Mr. Gladstone. 
Home Secretary Sir George Grey, Bart. 



PAL 

Foreign Secretary Earl of f'lrkroiidou. 

Colonial Secretary Mr. Sidney Heil>ert. 

Admiralty Sir .TamHsGinliaui, Bart. 

Board of Control Sir Charles Wood, Bart. 

Secretary at War Lord Faniuure. 

Public Works Sir Win. Molesworth, Bt. 

Without office Marquis of Lausdowne. 

The PeeHte section of the cabinet objected 
to the appointment of the committee of 
inquiry into the conduct of the war ; and 
the resignation of Sir James Graham, Messrs. 
Sidney Herbert and Gladstone, was announced 
Feb. 22, whereupon the follovnng changes and 
additions were made in the cabinet : — 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 

Colonial Secretary Lord John Kussell. 

Admiralty Sir C. Wood, Bart. 

Board of Control Mr. Vernon Smith. 

Board of Trade Lord Stanley of Alderley. 

Postmaster-General Viscount Canning. 

''^orCcasfer!'.!.^"*'}^-! of Harrowhy. 

Lord John EusseU, on his return from the 
Vienna miission, was sworn into office May 1. 
He resigned office, for the second time during 
the same year, July 16, and his place was 
fiUed by Sir William Molesworth, Bart., 
who died Oct. 28, and was succeeded as 
colonial minister by Mr. Henry Labouchere. 
The duke of Argyll was made postmaster- 
general on the appointment of Lord Canning 
to the governor-generalship of India, and 
the earl of Harrowby became lord privy seal. 
He was succeeded in the chancellorship of the 
duchy of Lancaster by Mr. M. T. Baines. An 
amendment on the second readipg of the 
Conspiracy Bill was carried against the Pal- 
merston administration in the House of 
Commons, Feb. 19, 1858, by 234 to 215, and 
the members of the cabinet resigned office 
on the following day. {See Deebt ADMiiiris- 
TEATiONS.) The second Palmerston ad- 
ministration was formed on the resignation 
of the ilrst Derby administration, June 11, 
1859. The cabinet announced in parhament 
June 30 was thus constituted : — 

Treasury Viscount Palmerston. 

Lord Chancellor Lord CampbeU. 

President of the Council.. Earl Granville. 

Privy Seal Buke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . .Mr. Gladstone. 

-r^ „ ^ f Sir G. CornewaU Lewis, 

Home Secretary | -^^^^ ' 

Foreign Secretary Lord John Bussell. 

Colonial Secretary Duke of Newcastle. 

Admiralty Duke of Somerset. 

India Sir Charles Wood, Bart. 

ci i„™ „+ ■„r„„ / Mr. Sidney Herbert, cre- 

Secretary at War | ^^^^ j^ord Herbert. 

Postmaster-General ' Earl of Elgin. 

Duchy of Lancaster Sir George Grey. 

Poor Law Board Mr. Milner Gibson, 

Chief Secretary for Ire- "I ^^ CardweU. 
land J 

Mr. Milner Gibson was appointed president 
of the Board of Trade with a seat in the 
cabinet, his place at the Poor-Law Board 
being supphed by Mr. C. P. Villiers, who 
also obtained a seat in the cabinet. The 
earl of Elgin was sent on a mission to China, 
and Lord Stanley of Alderley succeeded him 
as postmaster-general in 1860. Mr. Sidney 



PAL 

Herbert was created a peer in 1861, and died 
Aug. 2, when his place as secretary at war was 
supplied by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Bart. 

Palm Sunday, also called Passion 
Sunday, the last Sunday in Lent, is so 
named from the ovation received by our 
Saviour on his way to Jerusalem to present 
himself in the teJinple (Matt. xxi. 8 & 9), 
April 1, A.D. 30. Caxton, in his directory 
for the festivals, 1483, says that the yew was 
our substitute for the palm. Li loS-i, being 
the second year of the i-eigu of Edward VI., 
proclamations were issued, abolishing many 
of the ceremonies connected with this day. 

Palmtea (Syria), the Tadmor or Thad- 
mor of the Hebrews (1 Kings ix. 18, and 
2 Chron. viii. 4), was founded, or enlarged 
by Solomon, about B.C. 1001. Both its 
Greek name Pahnyra, and its Hebrew name 
Tadmor, signify the city of palms, and 
the Arabs call it Tedmor. It submitted to 
the emperor Hadrian a.d. 130, and rose to 
its highest power in the 3rd century. Sapor, 
Idng of Persia, was defeated here by Ode- 
nathus in 260. Odenathus was mui-dered 
about 266, and his wife Zenobia assumed the 
title of queen of the East. She was besieged 
in her capital by the emperor Aureliau in 
272. It surrendered in 273, and having been 
destroyed, was restored by Justinian I. in 
527. It was plundered by Tamerlane in 
1400. The ruins were discovered by some 
Enghsh merchants in 1691. Their account 
was not believed; but these reports were 
confirmed in 1751, when Pahnyra was 
visited by Wood and Dawidns, who pubhshed 
a most elaborate account of the ruins, and 
the inscriptions. Tiby and Mangles visited 
the ruins m 1816. 

Palos (Spain). — From this small seaport 
town of Andalusia, Christopher Columbus 
sailed on the voyage in which he discovered 
America, Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, and here he 
landed on his return, March 15, 1493. Vin- 
cent Pinzon sailed from Palos in December, 
1499, on the voyage in which he discovered 
the Amazon, and Cortes lauded here after 
the conquest of Mexico in 1528. 

Pampeluna, or Pamplona (Spain). — 
This town, rebuilt by the sons of Pompey 
B.C. 68, was taken from the Eomans by 
Euric, A.D. 466. Childibert I. sacked it in 542, 
and Charlemagne captured it in 778. The 
Saracens captured it in 802, and it was re- 
captured in 806 by the Franks, who re- 
pulsed an attack by the Saracens in 868. 
It became the capital of K^avarre in 978. 
The bishopric was founded in 1130. Pam- 
peluna was seized by the French general 
d'Armagnac, Feb. 9, 1808. The Enghsh, 
under General Hill, blockaded Pampeluna, 
in June, 1813. The blockade, raised July 
27, was renewed in September, and the town 
surrendered Oct. 31, 1813. The citadel 
was seized by Marshal O'Donnell, and 
held for a short period, in Sept. 1841. The 
Gothic cathedral was built by Charles III. 
of Navarre in 1397, on the site of an older 
edifice, founded in 1100; the citadel .was 
strengthened in 1521 by Charles V,, and 



PAN 

I enlarged by Phihp II. in 1551. A council 
was held here in 1023. 

Pamphlets were in common use in 
England, in pohtical and rehgious contro- 
versy, about the middle of the 16th century. 
The pubhcation of pamphlets without a 
hcence was declared illegal by the judges. 
May 16, 1680, and a stamp duty was first 
imposed upon them by 10 Anne, c. 19, passed 
in 1712. 

Panama (Central America). — The 
Isthmus of Panama or Darien, connecting 
l^orth and South America, was first seen 
b}^ Columbus A.D. 1502, and the first Spanish 
settlement took place in 1510. The town of 
Panama was destroyed by the buccaneer 
Sir Henry Morgan, in 1670. The Scotch 
attempted to found a colony on the west 
coast of Panama in 1698. [See Dahien.) 
The Panama railway, commenced in 1850, 
and completed in 1854, was opened through- 
out for tratiic, Jan. 28, 1855. 

PANATHENiEAN Games. — Thcse festivals 
in honour of Minerva were instituted at 
Athens B.C. 1495, or B.C. 1397. Theseus 
ordained that they should be celebrated 
every fiilh year B.C. 1234. Besides the 
great festival, there were the lesser Pana- 
thenaea which were celebrated annually. 

Pandects, the chief rules of law contained 
in the writings of the Koman jurisconsulti, 
were ordered by Justinian to be prepared in 
December, a.d. 530. They were pubhshed 
at the end of three years (December, 533), 
although he had granted ten for the per- 
formance of the work. A story Avas long 
current that a copy of the Pandects had 
been found by the emperor Lotharius at 
Amalphi, after the capture of the town, a.d. 
1135. 

Pandosia (Greece). — The date of its 
foundation, fixed by Eusebius B.C. 774, is 
uncertain. Alexander, king of Epirus, lost 
his life in an engagement •with the Bruttians 
here B.C. 326 ; and it was captured by the 
consul P. Sempronius in the second Punic 
war, B.C. 204. 

Paneeput (Hindostan). — The DeUii 
dynasty was defeated at this town, and 
the Mongol dynasty founded by the sultau 
Baber, a.d. 1525. Here the Affghans, 
under Ahmed Shah, gained a victory over 
the Mahrattas, of whom 60,000 were slain, 
and 20,000 made prisoners, in 1761. 

Pang^um, or Pan GiEUS (Macedonia). — . 
Gold was discovered in this mountain B.C. 
356. It also produced silver. 

Panius, or Panium (Battle). — Antiochus 
the Great defeated Scopas and the Jitohans 
at this town, on the coast of Thrace, B.C. 
198. 

Panmelodicon. — This musical instrument 
was invented by Leppich at Vienna, a.d. 
1810. 

Pannonia. — This country, inhabited by 
Celtic tribes, was attacked by the Eomans, 
under Octavianus, B.C. 35, and made a 
Eoman province by Tiberius a.d. 8. It was 
ceded to the Huns by the emperor Theo- 
dosius II. about 447 ; came into the hands 



PAN 

of the Ostrogoths at the death of Attila in 
453 ; and to the Longobardi in 500, from 
whom it passed to the Avari in 568. The 
Ungri, or Hungarians, settled here in 862, 
and from them it received the name of 
Hungary. 

PAJfOPTicoN (London). — The Koyal Pa- 
nopticon Institution was incorporated by 
charter, Feb. 20, 1851, and the building in 
Leicester Square, built from the designs of 
Mr. T. Hayter Lewis, was opened March 16, 
1854. It failed as a scientific institution, and 
was converted into a circus for equestrian 
performances, and its name changed to the 
Alhambra Palace. It was opened with a 
rehgious service, and a concert of sacred 
music, Sunday, Feb. 7, 1858. 

Panorama. — This pictorial contrivance 
was invented by Eobert Barker, an Enghsh 
artist, about a.d. 1794. His first work of 
the kind was a view of Edinburgh. Thomas 
Girtin produced a semicircular view of Lon- 
don, taken from the top of the Albion mills, 
near Blackfriars bridge, about the same time. 

Pantalone. — This musical instrument 
was invented by Hebenstreit towards the 
end of the 17th century. 

Pantaloon appears to have been first 
introduced on the English stage early in the 
reign of Ehzabeth (1558— 1603) . 

Pantaloons, trowsers fitting tight to the 
leg or knee, with this name, came into 
fashion about a.d. 1790. The word was, 
however, used before that time. 

Pantheism is fully developed in the 
"Vedas" of the Hindoos, a compilation 
which, according to some Oriental scholars, 
dates as far back as b.c. 1600. Speculations 
of this kind, among the Greeks, seem 
to have originated with Anaximander, of 
Miletus, B.C. 611 — 547 j and were prose- 
cuted by Pythagoras B.C. 584 — 489; Hera- 
chtus, B.C. 503; and by Xenophanes, B.C. 
617 — 517. The system was supported by John 
Scotus Erigena a.d. 845 — 886 ; and Giordano 
Bruno, burned alive as a heretic, in the 
Campo di Fiore, at Kome, Feb. 17, 1600. 
It was advocated by Spinoza a.d. 1632 — 1677; 
followed by Frederick ScheUing a.d. 1775 — 
1854; and Hegel 1770— 1831. 

Pantheon (London). — This building, 
originally designed by James Wyatt as a 
theatre and pubhe promenade, was first 
opened in January, 1772. It was burnt down 
Jan. 14, 1792, but was rebuilt. The second 
building was taken down in 1812, and restored 
the same year, and in 1834 it was converted 
into a bazaar by Sydney Smirke. 

Pantheon (Kome) was built by Agrippa, 
son-in-law of Augustus, and dedicated to 
Cybele and Neptune, B.C. 25. It was con- 
secrated as the church of Santa Maria ad 
Martyres, by Boniface IV., on the calends 
of November, a.d. 608. 

Pantograph. — This instrument for copy- 
ing, reducing, or enlarging plans, was in- 
vented by Christopher Scheiner a.d. 1603. 
Professor Wallace improved upon it, and 
produced the eidograph {q. v.). 

Pantomime. — This dramatic entertain- 



PAP 

ment, in which the actors express them- 
selves by gestures and attitudes, was in 
vogue among the ancients from the earliest 
times, and was introduced on the Koman 
stage by Pylades and Bathyllus B.c. 22. 
Gibbon (ch. xxxi.) says : " The pantomimes, 
who maintained their reputation from the 
age of Augustus to the 6th century, ex- 
pressed, without the use of words, the 
various fables of the gods and heroes of an- 
tiquity; and the perfection of their art, 
which sometimes disarmed the gravity of the 
philosopher, always excited the applause and 
wonder of the people." The modern panto- 
mime was invented in Italy by Kuzzante, an 
author and actor, who lived about a.d. 1530, 
and was introduced into England shortly 
after. 

Papal Aggression. — The arrival of a papal 
brief from Rome, constituting an episcopal 
hierarchy in England and Wales, in place of 
the vicars apostohc, took place in October, 
1850. By this instrument England was par- 
celled out into Romish dioceses, and Dr. 
Wiseman was constituted first archbishop of 
Westminster ; the ceremony of his enthroni- 
zation being performed with great pomp at 
the cathedral church of St. George's, South- 
wark, Dec. 6, 1850. The agitation caused 
by this act of papal aggression, led to the 
passing of the Ecclesiastical Titles BiU, July 
29, 1851, which prohibited the constitution 
of bishops of pretended provinces under a 
penalty of £100. 

Papal States (Italy). — Rome was go- 
verned by its bishops after the fall of the 
western empire. When Gregory II. con- 
demned the emperor Leo, it refused to pay 
him the accustomed tribute, a.d. 726. Pepin 
having defeated Astolphus, king of the 
Lombards, obliged him to give up the ex- 
archate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis " to 
the holy church of God and the Roman re- 
pubhc," A.D. 755 ; a cession which was con- 
firmed and added to by Charlemagne in 774. 
The countess Matilda ceded territory to 
Gregory VII. in 1077, and the whole of her 
states to Pascal II. in 1102. The claim of the 
Church was disputed by some of the empe- 
rors, but Innocent III. succeeded in esta- 
blishing it in 1197, and Rodolph of Habs- 
burg, by letters patent, defined and recog- 
nized the States of the Church in May, 1278. 
The papal court having been removed from 
Rome to Avignon by Clement V. a.d. 1309, 
was brought back to the former city, and 
the government reduced to a regular form 
in 1371. Pope Juhan II. conquered Ro- 
magna, Bologna, and Perugia, a.d. 1.503 — 
1513. Ferrara was annexed in 1597 ; Urbino 
in 1632 ; and Castro and Ronceglione in 1650. 
The legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Forh, 
and Ravenna, were incorporated with the 
Cisalpine repubhc by Napoleon Bonaparte, 
July 9, 1796. The pope, deprived of his tem- 
poral power, was sent oif to Sienna, Feb. 23, 
1798, and his dominions erected into the 
Roman republic, March 2i), 1793. The 
pontiff" having been restored, a concordat 
was signed between Rome and France, iu 
639 



PAP 

September, 1801; but his dominions were 
annexed to the kingdom of Italy, May 21, 
1808, and he was carried prisoner to Savona 
Jioly 6, 1809. He was restored to Uberty, 
and allowed to return to Eome, Jan. 23, 
1814. Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, jSTov. 25, 1848, 
and a republican form of government was 
estabhshed at Eome, Feb. 8, 1849. The pope 
returned to Eome, the city being occupied 
by French troops, April 12, 1850. The papal 
army, commanded by Lamoriciere, sur- 
rendered prisoners of war at Ancona, Sept. 
29, 1860. 

Paper. — The Egyptian government held 
a monopoly for the growth and sale of this 
article, which was manufactured from the 
Cyperus ■papyrus, probably as early as B.C. 
2000, and appears to have become of con- 
siderable commercial importance B.C. 330. 
A fine quahty made at Eome was called 
August, after the emperor. A tumult arose 
owing to its scarcity, in the reign of Tibe- 
rius (a.d. 14 — 37). The demand for paper 
throughout the world had increased to such 
an extent, that Firmus declared he had 
seized as much in Egypt as would support 
his whole army, a.d. 273. The export duty 
was abohshed by Theodoric (493 — .526). 
Paper from cotton, called by the Greeks 
charta hombycina, is known to have been 
made as early as 1050. Meerman fixes 
the date of the invention of hnen paper 
between the years 1270 and 1300. The 
Chinese discovered the art of manufactur- 
ing it from fibrous matter a.d. 95. At 
Hertford, a person named Tate had a paper- 
mill early in the 16th century. A German, 
named Spiehnan, who was knighted by 
Queen Ehzabeth, had one at Dartford, in 
Kent, in 1588, and Thomas Watson elfected 
important improvements in 1713. Fine 
paper was made by Whatman at Maidstone, 
in 1770. The art seems to have come into 
France from Spain about 1260, and to have 
been practised in Germany in 1312. A pa- 
tent was granted to Jerome Lanyer in 
London, for a method of making " velvet- 
paper," May 1, 1634 ; and a similar article 
would appear to have been produced by a 
Frenchman at Eouen in 1620 or 1630. 
Paper-mills were at work in the United 
States in 1730; France erected its first 
paper-machine in 1815, and Berlin in 1818. 
The duty was abolished in England by 
24Tict. c. 20 (June 12, 1861).- 

Paper Mojtet. — Banking establishments 
for the issue of notes, or paper money, have 
existed in England since the end of the 17th 
century. The Bank of England, founded by 
William Patterson, and incorporated by 
royal charter July 27, 1694, has long been 
the greatest circulator of paper money in 
the world. £5 notes were first issued in 
1795. An act was passed for the issue of 
notes under £5, March 3, 1797 ; and £1 and 
£2 notes were issued March 10. During 
the great monetary panic of 1825, the issue 
of £1 notes proved of immense service. 

PAPHLAGoifiA (Asia Miuor) is mentioned 
by Homer, B.C. 962 j was incorporated in 
640 



PAR 

his empire by Croesus, B.C. 560 — 550; and in 
that of Persia by Cyrus, B.C. 54€. IS^ominally 
independent for some time afterwards, it 
fell to the share of Eumenes, B.C. 323.JfJIt 
was united to Pontus by Mithridates, B.C. 
290 ; formed a part of the province of Ga- 
latia, under the Eomans, B.C. 47; and 
was made a separate province in the 4th 
century. 

PAPiA]!f Law, proposed and carried B.C. 
65 by C. Papius, one of the tribunes. It 
required all foreigners to depart from Eome. 

Papies Mache. — The date of the origin 
of the manufacture of articles for use or 
ornament from paper, ascribed by some 
writers to the French, and by others to 
the Enghsh, is uncertain. Many of the fine 
old ceihngs, in deep rehef, in the time of 
Elizabeth (1558 — 16U3),are of papier-mache. 
John Baskerville, a printer at Birmingham, 
manufactured it in 1745, and from that time 
its use has gradually spread throughout the 
country. 

Paptja, or ]S"ew GnwEA (Pacific Ocean), 
was discovered by the Portuguese a.d. 1512 
— 1526 ; and Saavedra, a Spaniard sent from 
Mexico by Cortes, visited it in 1528 and 1.529. 
Vniabos "changed its name from Papua to 
New Guinea in 1543. Dampier sailed along 
the northern coast in 1699. Captain Cook 
ascertained it to be an island in 1700; Mac 
Cluer gave his name to that bay in 1792 ; 
and Flinders surveyed the coast in Torres 
Strait in 1802. In consequence of a survey 
made of the south-west coast by Kloflf, the 
Dutch founded a colony, and erected Fort 
Dubus m Triton's Bay a.d. 1828. 

Papyrus, the name given to the paper 
made by the Egyptians from the papyrus 
plant, was used for writing about B.C. 2000. 
The rolls of that material were made known 
in Europe through the French expedition, 
A.D. 1798 ; specimens of which were printed 
by M. Cadet in 1805. Of the funereal papyri 
in the Turin museum a fac -simile was pub- 
Hshed by Dr. Lepsius in 1842. The books 
of jSTuma Pompihus, containing the earhest 
Eoman laws, probably consisted of this sub- 
stance. Philostratus mentions it as a staple 
manufacture of Alexandria, a.d. 244. It 
continued to be used in Italy till about the 
12th century. In the ruins of Herculaneum 
1,756 roUs were found about a.d. 1753. 

Para (Brazil) was foimded by Francis 
Caldeyra, a.d. 1615. It was attacked in 
1834 and 1835 by the Indians, who took it 
and kept possession for six months in 18.36. 

Parable.— Under this figurative form of 
speech, S'athan reproved David, B.C. 1035 
(2 Sam. xii.) ; and our Saviour taught the 
Jews about a.d. 30 (Matt. ix. 36, &c.y. 

Parachute. — A machine of this kind 
was used in Siam about a.d. 1650. The 
first experiment in Europe was made by 
N'ormand at Paris, a.d. 1783. Gamerin, 
a Frenchman, descended in London from a 
height of 8,000 feet, narrowly escaping with 
his life, Sept. 2, 1802; and his daughter 
twice performed the feat in 1816. Mr. 
Cocking was killed in making a descent 



PAE 

in a parachute from a balloon at Lee, near 
Blackheatli, July 24, 1837. 

Paradise Lost. — This epic poem was 
commenced by Milton about a.d. 1658, and 
completed in 1665. It was pubhshed by 
Simmons in 1667, the terms being an imme- 
diate payment of £5, another instalment to 
the same amount when 1,300 copies had been 
sold ; a thu'd payment of £5 when the same 
nvuntjer of the second edition was disposed 
of; and £5 after the sale of the third. After 
the poet's death, his widow cancelled her 
claims on the publisher for £8, and the 
third edition was issued a.d. 1678. 

PAEAFFiif was discovered by Keichen- 
baeh in coal, wood, and tar, a.d. 1830; 
and Mr. Young patented his process for 
procuring it ixom bituminous coal in 
1850. 

Pakagitat (South America). — A large 
colony of Spaniards founded the city of 
Assumption a.d. 1535. The Jesuits esta- 
bhshed numerous missions here in the 16th 
century, and received a mandate from the 
Spanish court, prohibiting others from 
entering without permission a.d. 1690. The 
Jesuits were expelled, a.d. 1767. EebeHing 
against the Spaniards in 1810, the country 
formed itself into a republic in 1811, of 
which Dr. Francia was made dictator in 
1814, an office he held tiU his death 
in 1840. Its present repubhcan constitu- 
tion was adopted in 1844. A commercial 
treaty with the Argentine Eepublic was 
signed in 1852 ; vrith the United States, 
France, and Sardinia, in 1853 ; and with 
Great Britain, March 4, 1853. New Bor- 
deaux, a French colony on the banks of the 
Paraguay, estabhshed in 1855, was soon 
after abandoned. 

Paeasols were used by the ancient 
Greeks, and the Eomans employed them 
as a protection against the sun at the 
theatre. During the Middle Ages they 
were borne by horsemen in Italy. The 
modem parasol was first used in France 
about 1680. 

Pabchmestt. — The term is derived from 
the Latin word pergamena, said to be taken 
from Pergamus, to whose king, Eumenes 
(B.C. 197 — 159), the invention has been attri- 
buted. It was, however, in use among the 
Persians long before that period ; and among 
the lonians, as mentioned by Herodotus, b.c. 
450. Parchment superseded papyrus for 
pubhc documents in Europe about the end 
of the 7th century. 

Paedok, a branch of the royal prerogative 
in England, and said by the Saxons to be 
derived a lege suce dignitatis, was declared 
to belong solely to the king, " united and 
knit to the imperial crown of this realm," 
by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1536). By the Act 
of Settlement (12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2, 1701), 
no pardon under the great seal of England 
is pleadable to an impeachment by the House 
of Commons. 

Pae&a (Turkey) maintained its municipal 
independence after the fall of the Eastern 
empire, under the protection of Venice, 
641 



PAR 



till that state was broken up Oct. 17, 1797, 
when it fell into the possession of France. 
AJi Pasha endeavoured to capture it after 
the treaty between Eussia and the Porte, 
signed in March, 1800, when a Turkish bey 
was sent, who held it until a Eussian gar- 
rison arrived in 1806. They gave way to a 
French force, by the terms of the treaty of 
Tilsit, July 7, 1807. The fortress was taken 
by the English March 22, 1814. It was 
handed over to the Porte, by agreement. 
May 28, 1817 ; and the entire population of 
800 fam i lies, having received from Turkey 
£150,000, the value of their immovable 
property, emigrated to Paxo and Corfu in 
May, 1819. 

Pakian Marbles. — This name is given 
to the collection of antiquities more ge- 
nerally knovra as the Arundehan or Oxford 
marbles (q.v.), because they were discovered 
in the island of Paros early in the 17th 
century, 

Paeis (France), the Eoman Lutetia, was 
the capital of the Farisii. Julius Csesar 
summoned the Gauls to assemble here b.c. 
53, and the city was taken by his heutenant 
Labienus B.C. 52. Coimcils were held at 
Paris in 360, 551, 557 ; Sept. 11, 573 ; in 
577 ; Oct. 18, 615 ; in November, 825 : 
June 6, 829; Feb. 14, 846; in 849, 85a 
1024 ; Oct. 17, 1050 ; Dec. 2, 1104 ; m 1147 ' 
January, 1185 ; in 1196, 1201 ; October 
1210 ; in 1212 ; August, 1215 ; July 6, 1223 
May 15, 1225 ; Jan. 28, 1226 ; in 1229, 1248 
Nov. 12, 1253 ; July 13, 1255 ; in February; 
1256 ; April 10, 1261 ; Nov. 18, 1263 ; 
Aug. 26, 1264 ; in December, 1281 ; April la 
1302 ; March 12, 1303 ; Oct. 11 to 26, 1310 \ 
May 7, 1314; March 3, 1324; March 9 to 14 
1347 ; Feb. 4, 1395 ; May 22, 1398 ; Oct. 2l' 
1404 ; in 1406 ; Aug. 11 to Nov. 5, 1408 
March 1 to April 23, 1429 ; and Feb. 3 to 
Oct. 9, 1528. 



1160. 
1169. 
1182. 



1222. 
1223. 
1253. 



St. Denis introduces Christianity. 

Julian visits Lutetia, where he remains five 

years. 
The city is presei-ved from the Huns by St. 

Genevieve. 
Clovis I. occupies Paris. 
He makes it his capital city. 
Childebert I. founds the cathedral of Notre 

Dame. 
Paris is ravaged by the Northmen. 
It sustains a siege of thii-teen months from 

the Northmeu, who are repelled by Count 

Eudes and Bishop Goslin. 
A horrible famine carries off numbers of the 

inhabitants. 
Hugh Capet, count of Paris, becomes king of 

France. 
The church of St. Germain I'Auxerrois is 

founded. 
Notre Dame is rebuilt. 
The university is founded about this year. 
The first portion of the cathedral of Notre 

Dame is consecrated. 
Paris is surrounded by walls by Philip 

Augustus. 
The Temple is built. 

The western front of Notre Darae is built. 
Robert Surbon founds the school of La Sor- 



1302. The parliament of Paris is organized 
2 T 



PAR 



1306. The inhabitants rebel, and besiege Philip IV. 

in the palace of the Temple. 
1313. Philip divides Paris into three districts, and 

rebuilds the Palais de Justice. 
1357. The first H:6tei de 'Ville is rounded. 
1382. The insurrection of the MailloHns breaks out 

in Paris, in consequence of an impopular 

tax. 
1396. The arsenal is founded. 
1418. The English enter Paris at the invitation of 

John the Fearless. 
1422. Henry VI. is crowned king of England and 

France at Paris. 
1436. The English are expelled. 
1469. The Ecole de Medecin is founded. 
1528. Francis I. builds the Louvi-e. 

1532. The chui-ch of St. Eustache is founded. 

1533. Toe present H9tel de Ville is founded. 

1544. Charles V. marches on Paris, the north-east 
and south quarters of which the duke of 
Guise surrounds with a rampart. 

1551. The Fontaine des Innocents is erected. 

1564. The palace of the Tuileries is commenced. 

1572. Aug. 24. The massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

1578. Henry III. founds the Pont Neuf. 

1583. The original Palais de Luxembourg is com- 
pleted. 

1612. The Place Royale is completed. 

1616. Thw (Jhamps Elysfies are laid out. 

1622. Paris is erected into an archbishopric. 

1635. The Jardiu des Piautes is established. 

1645. The church of the Val-de-Grdce is founded. 

1664. The Pout Neuf is completed. 

1670. The boulevards are opened. 

1672. The Porte St. Denis is erected, and the 
Observatoiy is completed. 

1674 The Porte St. Martin is built. 

1684. The Pont Eoyal is buUt. 

1685. The Place des Victoires is formed. 
1706. The Hatel des Invalides is comi>leted. 

1718. The czar Peter visits Paris, and the palace of 
the Elyb6e is founded. 

1722. The Palais Eouibon, or Chamber of Deputies, 
is founded. 

1752. Louis XV. founds the Ecole Militaire- 

1761. The southern boulevards are completed. 

1764. Feb. The Pantheon, or chui-ch of St. Gene- 
vieve, is founded. 

1779. The Odgon is built. 

1781. The Theatre de la Porte St. Martin is 
built. 

1786. The Palais de la Legion d'Honneur is built. 

1787. The Theatre FrauQais is founded. 

1790. The Pont de la Concorde, or Pont de Louis 

XIV., is completed. 

1791. The Pantheon, or church of St. Genevidve, is 

completed. 

1798. The fh-st National Exposition is held at 

Paris. 

1799. The Od6on is destroyed by fire. 

1800. The cemetery of P6re la Chaise is formed. 
1802. The PiUe Rivoli is commenced. 

1806. The Pont de Jena, the Ai-c de VEtoUe, 

and Arc de Triomphe du Can-ousel are 
founded. 

1807. The Od6on is rebuilt. 

1808. Napoleon I. founds the Bourse, or exchange. 

1810. Aug. 15. The column in the Place Vend8me 

Is completed. 

1811. The Chateau d'Eau is erected. 

1814. March 30. Paris sm-renders to the allies. 

1815. The English encamp in the Bois de Boulogne 

1816. The Ecole des Beaux Arts is founded. 

1819. Gas illumination is introduced. 

1820. The Theatre du Gymnase Dramatique is 

erected. 
1827. The Theatre du VaudeviUe and the Cirque 

Olympique are built. 
1829. The Pont des Invalides is completed. 

1831. July 28. Louis Philippe founds the column of 

July. 

1832. March 28. The cholera appears in Paris. 
1840. The fortifications of Paris are commenced. 

July 28. The column of July is inaugu- 
rated. 



PAR 



1842. The church of the Madeleine is consecrated. 
184.5. The Jardin d'Hiver is opened. 

1847. April. The Theatre Lyrique is opened. 

1848. Feb. 22. A revolution oreaks out at Paris. {See 

France.) 
1852. July. The New Louvre is commenced. 
1855. May 15. The Industrial Exhibition is 

opened. 

1859. Feb. 9. An imperial decree orders important 

extensions of the Parisian boundaries. 

1860. The Fontaine St. Michel is erected. The 

population of Paris this year is returned at 
1,500,129. 

Paeis (Treaties). — The following are the 
most important treaties of Paris : — 



1229. April 12. Between Louis IX. and the count of 

Toulouse, who ceded Languedoc to the 

French crown. This treaty put an end to 

the war of the Albigenses. 
1303. May 20. Between Edward III. of England 

and Philip IV. Aquitaiue is ceded to 

England. 
1635. Feb. 8. France and the Dutch States-General 

form an alliance against Spain. 
1763. Feb. 10. Between France and Spain, and 

Great Britain and Portugal. France cedes 

Nova Scotia and Canada to England, and 

Spain, Florida. This treaty concludes the 

Thirty Years' war. 
1796. May 15. Between France and Sardinia. Savoy 

is ceded to the French republic. 
1802. May 24. Between France and Prussia and 

Bavaria, respecting the house of Orange. 
1810. Jan. 6. Between Fi-ance and Sweden. Sweden 

receives Rngen and Pomerania, and agrees 

to exclude English commerce. 

1814. April 11. Between the allies and Bonaparte, 

who renounces the rulership of France. 
This is also called the treaty of Fontaine- 
bleau. May 30. Between France and the 
allied powers. France is confined within 
the limits of 1792. 

1815. Aug. 2. Convention between Great Britain 

and Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Napo- 
leon I. is committed to the custody of the 
English. Nov. 20. Between France and 
the. allied powers, to fettle the French 
boundaries, &c. France promises to pay an 
indemnity of 700,000.000 francs, and allow 
certain fortresses to be garrisoned by the 
allies for three years. 
1817. June 10. Between Austria and Spain, con- 
firming the congress of Vienna. 

1856. March 30. Between Russia and Turkey, Great 

Britain, France, and Sardinia. This treaty 
terminated the Russo-Turkish war. 

1857. March 4. Peace between England and Persia. 

May 26. Between England, France, Austria, 
Prussia, Russia, and the Swiss Confedera- 
tion, respecting Neuchatel. 

1860. Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between France 

and England. 

1861. Feb. 2. Between France and the prince of 

Monaco, for the cession of Mentone and 
Roquebrune to France. 

Paeish. — The name was sometimes applied 
to a bishop's see among the early Christians. 
Alexandria is said to have been the first city 
divided into parishes. According to Cam- 
den's account, England was divided into 
parishes by Honorius, about a.d. 630. Lay 
parishes existed, according to Bede, about 
700, and the division is to be found in the 
laws of Edgar in 970. The creation of 
parishes was probably not fully effected till 
the time of the N"orman conquest, 1066. 

Paeis Indusxeial Exhibition. — The 



PAR 

" Palais de 1' Industrie" was opened at Parii' 
by Napoleon III., May 15, 1855, when Prince 
Napoleon, president of the commission, read 
a report giving an account of its rise and 
progress. It was visited by Queen Vic- 
toria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855. The 
price of admission was half a franc, and on 
Sunday, for the working classes, two sous. It 
was finally closed Nov. 15, 1855. 

Park was originally a portion of the forest 
appropriated by the lord of the soil for the 
use of animals of the chase. The first park 
was that of Woodstock, made by Henry I. in 
1 123. St. James' s Park is the oldest in Lon- 
don, having been formed by Henry VIII. (1509 
— 1547). It was re-arranged and planted 
in the reign of Charles II. by the celebrated 
French architect Le Notre, and was entirely 

remodelled in the time of George IV. 

The Green Park originally formed part of 

St. James's Park. Hyde Park was a 

fashionable place for drives and promenades 
as early as the reign of Charles II. In 1550 
the French ambassador hunted with the king 
in Hyde Park, which was then well stocked 
with game. Kensington Gardens formed 
part of Hyde Park before George II. 's time, 
when Queen Caroline inclosed them and 

formed the Serpentine. Ke^nt's Park 

was laid out in 1812 and named after 

George IV., then prince regent. Victoria 

Park was commenced in 1842. Battersea 

Park was opened in 1858. 

Parliament. — Parry (Parliaments and 
Councils of England, Introd. x.) remarks : — 
*' At the close of the reign of Henry III. the 
Curia Regis was called the King's Parlia- 
ment, a term then employed to express any 
assembly met for pui-poses of conference." 
It did not then denote a legislative assembly, 
though it began to be used in that sense at 
the commencement of the reign of Edward 
II. The two branches of the legislature 
assembled in the same room as late as 1342. 
Their joint assent became necessary before 
any act covlA. become law in the reign of 
Edward IV. 



120.5. The first writ on record is issued by John. 

1244. The prelates and barons deliberate sepa- 
rately. 

12o4. A representative parUament, composed of two 
knights from every shire, is convened to 
grant an aid. 



PAR 



1258. The barons assemble at Oxford. This meeting 
is the first called a parliament. 

1265. The earliest writ extant is is-sued. 

1295. Borough representation is regarded as com- 
mencing this year. 

1311. Annual parliaments are ordered. 

1322. Wales is represented in parliament. 

1327. Jan. 7. King Edward II. is deposed by both 
houses of parliament. 

1362. English is made the language of the law. 

1399. Sept. 30. King Kichard If. is deposed by 
parliament, and the House of Commons 
begins to assert its control over pecuniary 
grants. 

1404. Oct. 6. The Unlearned Parliament, so called 
because lawyers were prohibited from at- 
tendiijg, meets at Coventry. 

1407. Nov. 9. The Lords and Commons are per- 
mitted to assemble and iransact busiuess 
in the sovereign's absence. 

1413. May 25. Members of parliament are ordered 
to reside in the cities and boroughs they 
represent. 

1430. Feb. 23. The Commons adopt the 40s. qualifi- 
cation for county electors. 

1483. The statutes are first printed. 

1542. Members of parliament are exempted from, 
arrest. (See Ferbar's Arrest.) 

1549. The eldest sons of peers ai-e permitted to sit 
in parliament. 

1640. Nov. 3. The Long Parliament assembles. 

1649. Feb. 6. The House of Lords is abolished. 

1653. April 20. Cromwell dissolves the Long Par- 
liament. 

1660. April 25. The House of Lords is restored, but 

only consists of jjeers temporal. 

1661. Nov. 20. The bishops are permitted to resume 

their seats in the House of Lords. 
1667. An attempt is made to unite the English and 

Scotch parliaments. 
1677. Roman Catholics are excluded from sitting 

in either house, by 30 Charles II. st. 2. 
1694. Triennial parliaments are ordered by 6 Will. 

&Maiy, c 2. 
1707. May 1. The parliaments of England and 

Scotland are united by 5 Anne, c. 8. 

Oct. 23. The first parliament of Great 

Britain assembles. 
1715. Septennial parliaments are ordered by 1 

Geo. I. St. 2, c. 38. 

1800. July 2. The Irish parliament is incorporated 

with that of Great Britain by 39 & 40 Geo. 
III. c. 67. 

1801. Jan. 22. The united parliament of Great 

Britain and Ireland holds its first mefting. 

1829. April 13. The Roman Catholic Emancipation 
Act (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) permits Roman Ca- 
tholics to sit and vote in either house tit 
parliament on swearing fidelity to the king 
and coustitution. 

1832. June 7. Passing of the Reform Bill (q. v.). 

1858. July 23. Jews are admitted to sit in both 
houses by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 49. 

{See House of Commons, House of Lords, 
and Houses of Parliament.) 



list of parliaments since, the union. 



Assembled. 


Dissolved. 


Duration. 


a.d. 

r 1st. — Sept. 27, 1796 
1 2nd.— Aug. 31, 1802 
Pt,„„„^ ttt J 3rd.— Nov. 25, 1806 
George IILj 4^1,. -Nov. 27^1807 
! 5th. -Nov. 24, 1812 
L 6th. -Aug. 4, 1818 

rn-n^r,. TV / 7th.-At)ril 23, 1820 
George IV. | gth.-Nov. 14, 1826 


June 29, 1802 
Oct. 24, 1806 
May 27, 1807 
Sept. 29, 1812 
June 10, 1818 
Feb. 29, 1820 

June 2, 1826 
July 24, 1830 


Yrs. IVIs. Ds. 
6 9 3 
4 1 25 

6 2 

4 10 2 

5 6 16 

1 6 25 

6 19 
3 8 10 



643 



2 T 2 



PAE 



PAK 



LIST OF PABLiAMEK-TS SINCE THE v-mios— (continued) . 


Assembled. 


Dissolved. 


Duration. 


AD. 

r 9th. —Oct. 26, 1830 
WTr,T.,r w J 10th. -June 14, 1831 
William IV. ^ i^th.- Jan. 29, 1833 

Ll2th.-Feh. 19, 1835 

ri3th.— ]S"ov. 15, 1837 
14th. -Aug. 19, 1841 
Jl5th.-Kov. 18, 1847 
^l^^-^-l 16th. -Nov. 4,1852 
1 17th.— Apx-il 30, 1857 
L18th.-May 31, 1859 


A.D. 

AprU 22, 1831 
Dec. 3, 1832 
Dec. 30, 1834 
July 17, 1837 

June 23, 1841 
July 23, 1847 
July 1, 1852 
March 21, 1857 
AprU 23, 1859 


Yrs. Ms. Ds. 

5 26 

1 5 19 

1 11 1 

2 5 10 

3 7 9 

5 11 4 

4 7 12 
4 4 17 
1 11 23 



Pabiiameu-t (rxencli).— The ancient 
Prencli parliament, wliich existed as early as 
the accession of the Capetian dynasty, a.d. 
987, was a moveable court, composed of the 
great seigneurs and prelates of the realm, 
■who assembled under the presidency of the 
king, and accompanied him in his removes 
from place to place. In 1190, Philip Augustus 
instituted the parhament of Paris, which 
assembled three times a year ; and, in 1302, 
Philip the Pair divided it into three cham- 
bers,— the Grande Chamhre, or Chamhre des 
Flaids, for the decision of causes relating to 
the crown and matters of pubHc importance ; 
the Chambre des Enquetes, which regulated 
appeals; and the Chamhre des Eequctes, for 
the transaction of ordinary pai'liamentary 
business. The first pubUc ministry was 
formed in 1312, when avoeats and procureurs 
generaux were appointed. In 1453, Charles 
VII. iovmedi.t\ie Enquetes into two chambers, 
and created a new chamber, entitled the 
Tournelle Criminelle, as a final court of 
appeal. In 159S a Chambre de I'Edit was 
erected, for deciding cases refei-ring to Pro- 
testants, — it became extinct in 1669 ; and in 
1667 the Tournelle Civile was instituted, to 
relieve the Grande Chambre of some of its 
business. In 1753, Louis XV. tried unsuc- 
cessfully to substitute a Chambre Boyale for 
the parhament, but in 1771 it became ob- 
noxious on account of its unwise proceedings, 
and was suppressed. It was restored by 
Louis XVI. Nov. 12, 1774, but was again 
abolished Nov. 7, 1790. 

Paeliament (Ireland). — The Irish par- 
liament was modelled on that of England, 
and exhibited much the same progressive 
developments. In 1494 Sir Edward Poyning, 
one of the lord deputies, obtained the^assing 
of the act which bears his name. It ren- 
dered the assent of the Enghsh parhament 
essential to aU laws made in Ireland, and 
ordered all former Enghsh statutes to be 
deemed binding in Ireland. This act was 
repealed in April, 1782. The Irish parha- 
ment was united to that of Great Britain by 
the third article of the Act of Union, 39 & 
40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 1800) . It was 
prorogued for the last time, Aug. 2, 1800, 
and met at London as an integral portion of 
the parhament of Great Britain, Jan. 22, 
1801. 

Q4A 



Parliament (Scotland). — The ancient 
forms of government in Scotland seem to 
have been nearly analogous ^vith those 
adopted in this countiy, the legislature 
being conducted by the sovereign mth the 
advice of his council. The first assembly 
properly called a parliament was convoked 
at Scone by John BaUiol, Feb. 9, 1292. 
Burgesses were admitted by Eobert Bruce, 
July 15, 1326, when a grant of the tenth 
penny of aU rents was made to the king by 
the earls, barons, burgesses, and free tenants 
in fuU parhament assembled. The Scotch 
parhament differed from that of England 
in having only one house, but a commit- 
tee, known as the Lords of Articles, an- 
swered to some extent the purpose of a 
house of peers. The parhaments of England 
and Scotland were united by 5 Anne, c. 8 
(1707). 

Pakma (Italy), in the ancient Gallia Cis- 
padana, was colonized by the Komans after 
the subjugation of the Bon, B.C. 183. It 
received a colony of Goths by order of Gra- 
tian, A.D. 377 ; was included in Lombardy in 
572 ; and was transferred by Charlemagne 
to the papal see about 773. The govern- 
ment was usurped by the Correggio family 
in 1334. "When Napoleon Bonaparte in- 
vaded Italy, he compelled the duke to 
furnish supplies for his army, May, 1796; 
but peace was agreed to Nov. 6, 1796. It 
was decided by the congress of Vienna to 
make it the appanage of Maria Louisa of 
Austria, Napoleon's wife, and at her death 
it reverted to the duke of Lucca, June 9, 
1815. An insurrection took place, and the 
Austrian garrison was expelled, March 19, 
1843 ; and the duke resigned in favour of 
his son, March 14, 1849. An insurrection 
occurred at Parma April 30, 1859, when the 
duchess left the capital, to which she re- 
turned May 4. Another revolution oc- 
curred soon after, and Parma was annexed 
to the new kingdom of Italy. Colonel 
Anviti was seized at Parma and put to death 
with great cruelty, Oct. 6, 1859. Near the 
capital, which bears the same name as the 
duchy, the Austrians were defeated by the 
Sardinians, June 29, 1734. The cathedral, 
with a fine fresco by Correggio, was conse- 
crated A.D. 1106. 
Paeos, or Paeus (.^gean Sea).— Thia 



PAE 

island, one of the Cyclades, is said to have 
been originally inhabited by Cretans and 
Arcadians. The lonians colonized it at an 
early period. The Arundelian, or Oxford 
marbles, were found here. 

Pareet (Battle).— Osric, the ealdorman, 
and Ealstan, bishop of Sherborne, led an 
army against the Danes, and defeated 
them at the mouth of the river Parret, 
A.D. 845. 

Parricide. — The Athenians had no law 
against parricides, as they professed to be- 
lieve that nobody could be so wicked as to 
kill a parent. This was also the case with 
the Komans until L. Ostius killed his father, 
about B.C. 172. A law was then enacted 
which ordained that the criminal, after he 
had been first scourged until the blood came, 
should be sevni up in a leathern sack with a 
dog, an ape, a cock, and a viper, and so 
thrown into the Tiber. This punishment 
was changed by the Lex Pompeia into that 
of the sword, or burning, or throwing to 
wild beasts. 

Parsdorf (Armistice). — A truce, con- 
eluded at Alessandria between France and 
Austria, June 16, 1800, was extended to 
Germany, under the name of the armistice 
of Parsdorf, July 15. Hostilities ceased 
at all points, and could not be resujned 
without twelve days' notice. It led to 
51 negotiation, which resulted in the pre- 
liminaries of peace, on the basis of the 
treaty of Campio Formio, being signed at 
Paris July 28, 1800. 

Parsees. — Owing to the persecutions of 
the Mohammedan conquerors of Persia, the 
Guebres, descendants of the ancient fire- 
worshippers, sought refuge in the north- 
western parts of Hindostan, chiefly Bombay 
and Gujerat, about a.d. 800, when they 
were called Parsees, or Persians. 

PAETHENOif, the temple of Minerva, pro- 
tectress of Athens, was built in that city in 
the time of Pericles, — CaUierates and Ictinus 
being the architects, and Phidias the chiel 
sculptor, — about B.C. 4A8. It suffered from 
the explosion of a powder-magazine during 
a siege by the Venetians a.d. 1687. 

PAETHENOPEiAif Eepublic was esta- 
bHshed in the kingdom of Naples by the 
French, after the completion of its conquest, 
Jan. 23, 1799. Cardinal Euffo took the field 
against it, at the head of 17,000 Calabrians, 
and Macdonald received orders from the 
Directoi-;^ to abandon Naples, May, 1799, 
and it was soon afterwards dissolved. 

Parthia (Asia), subject at an early pe- 
riod to Media, to Persia, and subsequently 
to Alexander and his successors, threw off 
the Syro-Macedonian rule, when the dynasty 
of the Arsacidse was established, b.c. 256. 
The empire extended from the Euphrates to 
the Indus, and from the Oxus to the Persian 
Gulf, at the death of Mithridates, B.C. 130. 
It was invested by the Eomans, under 
the triimivir Crassus, B.C. 55, who was de- 
feated and slain B.C. 53. On the death of 
Artabanes, the last king, Artaxerxes usurped 
the supreme power, and founded the new 



PAS 

Persian dynasty called the Sassanides. a.d. 
226. 

PAETiTioif Treaties.— A treaty, regu- 
lating the succession of the Spanish monar- 
chy, and its partition, was made between 
England and Holland Aug. 18, 1698. Ano- 
ther treaty for the same purpose, between 
England, France, and Holland, was signed 
in London, Feb. 21, 1700, and at the Hague 
by the French envoy and the plenipotentia- 
ries of the States-General, March 25. The 
first treaty for the partition of Poland, be- 
tween Austria, Prussia, and Eussia, was 
made in February, 1772. A second treaty 
was signed at St. Petersburg Aug. 5, 177Z, 
and the third, for the final partition of the 
kingdom, was concluded Oct. 24, 1795. 

PASAE&ADiE (Persia) . — The name of this 
town is sometimes written Passargadse and 
Pasargada. It is said to have been built by 
Cyrus B.C. 559, after his defeat of Astyages 
near this spot. The kings of Persia were 
consecrated here by the magi. 

Paschal Cycle, formed by the multi- 
plication of the sun's cycle, 28 years, with 
that of the moon, 19 years, to ascertain 
when Easter occurs, was adopted by the 
general council of Nicsea a.d. 325. It was 
discontinued in England by act of parlia- 
ment, Sept. 2, 1752. 

Pasquin^ade. — This name, given to a 
short satirical poem, is derived from Pas- 
quino, a tailor of Eome, who, towards the 
close of the 16th century, wrote lampoons, 
and hung them on a mutilated statue during 
the night. 

Passaeo, Cape (Sea-fight). — Admiral 
Byng, created Viscount Torrington in 1721, 
defeated the Spanish fleet off' this cape on 
the coast of Sicily, July 31, 1718. The 
EngHsh captured five ships of the line and 
eight frigates. 

Passarowitz (Peace). — This treaty of 
peace between Charles VI., emperor of 
Germany, the Venetians and the Turks, was 
concluded July 21, 1718. The sultan ceded 
Belgrade and Temeswar to the emperor. 

Passau (Bavaria). — The bishopric, of 
which it is the capital, originally an indepen- 
dent state, was secularized a.d. 1803, and 
united to Bavaria in 1809, A treaty, securing 
religious freedom to the Protestants, was 
signed in the building now used for the post- 
oliice, on behalf of Charles V., July 31, 1552. 
The colossal bronze statue to Maximilian 
Joseph was erected in 1828. 

Passengers in public vehicles are pro- 
tected by 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 22 (Sept. 22, 
1831) ; 1 & 2 Vict. c. 79 (Aug. 10, 1838), and 
by 16 & 17 Vict. (June 28, 1853). The laws 
relating to passengers by sea were amended 
and consolidated by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 44 (June 
30, 1852). 

Passovee, or Feast of Unleavened Bread, 
commemorating deUverance from the de- 
stroying angel when the first-born of Egypt 
were smitten, was ordained by God to be 
observed by the Jews for ever, B.C. 1491 
(Exod. xii.). 

Passpoets are of ancient date. A 
645 



PAS 

passport granted by Julius Caesar to a 
pliilosoplier ran thus : — " If there be any 
one, on land or sea, hardy enough to molest 
Potamon, let him consider whether he be 
strong enough to wage war with Caesar." 
The system became very oppressive in 
Europe at the end of the 18th century. 
Passports were aboHshed in France, as far 
as regards British subjects, Dec. 16, 1860. 

Pastoueeaus, or Shepherds, followers 
of an impostor in Flanders, called the Master 
of Hungary, arose a.d. 1251. Tbey spread 
into France, entering the city of Orleans on 
St. Barnabas day, Jan. 13, and committed 
dreadful outrages on the inhabitants. At 
Bourges the leader was slain, and his fol- 
lowers massacred the same year. A simdar 
rising in France was distinguished by a ge- 
neral massacre of the Jews a.d. 1321. 

Patagonia (South America), so named 
by Magalhaens, who discovered it a.d. 1520. 
Sir Francis Drake sailed along the coast in 
1578, and Captain Cook explored it in 1774. 
A settlement, formed by the Chilians at 
Port Famine iu 1843, was removed to Sandy 
Point in 1850. An expedition to discover a 
suitable site for a new colony was de- 
spatched in 1854. 

Patat (France). — Lord Talbot was de- 
feated and taken prisoner b_v the French 
under Joan of Arc, at this town, June 18, 
1439. 

Patents for titles of nobihty were first 
made in the reign of Edward III. (1327 to 
1377). Patents for new inventions are 
founded upon a statute passed in 1623, which 
grants the privilege " of the sole working or 
making of netv manufactures within the 
realm to the true and first inventor and in- 
ventors of such manufactures." An act for 
improving the patent laws was passed, 
under the auspices of Lord Brougham (5 & 6 
AVill. IV. c. 83), Sept. 10, 1835. Commission- 
ers of patent laws were appointed July 1, 
1852. 

Pate BINES, holding Gnostic opinions, 
headed by a certain Gerard, made their ap- 
pearance at Monteforte, and were, many of 
them, bui-ned at Milan by Archbishop Heri- 
hert about a.d. 1026. The term Patei-ini, or 
Paterines, was also apphed to the Pauhcians, 
the Manichseans, and other sects. 

Pateeson (j^orth America). — This town, 
in New Jersey, was founded a.d. 1791 for 
the manufacture of cotton. 

Patna (Hindostan), in Sanscrit, Patali- 
putra, the Palimbothra of the Greeks and 
Eomans, was visited by Megasthenes, as 
ambassador from SeleucusKicator to Sandra- 
eottus, B.C. 305. It was incorporated with 
the empire of Delhi a.d. 1194. Major Carnac 
defeated Shah Alum here in January, 1761 ; 
Mr. EUis captm-ed it Jime 25, 1763 ; but the 
troops having been made prisoners while 
engaged in plunder, it was retaken ITov. 6 
of the same year. An action, in which Mir 
Casim was defeated, secured the town to 
the British, Oct. 23, 1764. A column marks 
the grave of 200 English prisoners murdered 
in cold blood by Mir Casim a.d. 1763. Dr. 



PAT 

Lyell was murdered by the mutineers in the 
streets here, July 3, 1857. 

Patochin (Battle). — Louis of Baden de- 
feated the Turks in this battle, fought Aug. 
30, 1689. 

Pate.s;, or Pateas (Greece), one of the 
twelve Achaean gities, was founded by the 
lonians, took the Athenian side in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, B.C. 431; and, through the 
persuasion of Alcibiades, connected itself by 
a wall with the port of Athens, B.C. 419. 
Cassauder, one of Alexander's generals, hav- 
ing taken it, was driven out by Aristodemus 
B.C. 314. The inhabitants expelled the Ma- 
cedonians and renewed the Achaean League 
with the three to\Mis Dvme, Pharae, and 
Tritaea, b.c. 280. After the battle of Phar- 
salia it was taken by Cato, B.C. 48; Antony 
and Cleopatra chose it for a ■winter resi- 
dence B.C. 32-31. It was restored, and 
colonized with Eoman soldiers b}' Augustus, 
about B.C. 20. The town sent an archbishop 
to the council of Sardica a.d. 347, and it 
was destroyed by an earthquake in the 6th 
century. It was restored, and purchased 
of the Venetians in 1408 ; was captured 
by the Turks in 1446 ; and recovered by the 
Venetians in 1533. Having again been 
taken by the Turks, it was held tiU the 
revolution in 1828, when it capitulated to the 
Greeks. 

Pateiaech. — The appellation was given 
to the early ancestors of the Jews ; also to 
certain governors among the Jews after the 
destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. The 
order became extinct in the end of the 4th 
'century. It was first applied to bishops, by 
authority of the Church, in the council of 
Chalcedon, a.d. 451, although Socrates in his 
history says it began to be used as the title 
of eminent bishops after the general council 
of Constantinople, a.d. 381. The patriarch 
of Constantinople was distinguished as oecu- 
menical or universal pctriarch, and the 
bishop of Eone as prince of the patriarchs. 

Patbicians, or Patbes, an appellation 
given to the Eoman populace by Eomulus. 
It belonged to every Eoman citizen till the 
creation of the patres minorum gentium by 
Tarquiu, and formed the exclusive source of 
the senate, consuls, and pontifices, till B.C. 
365. Headed by L. Tarquinius, they con- 
spired against king Servius and murdered 
him, B.C. 534. The dignity ceased to be 
hereditary in the reign of Constantine I., 
A.D. 323—337. 

Pateick's (St.) Cathedeal (Dubhn) 
was founded by Archbishop Comyn, a.d. 
1190, destroyed by fire about 1300, and, 
I having been rebuilt, was dissolved at the 
j Eeformation, and used for courts of justice 
I about 1539. Mary restored it to its original 
1 use. 

j Pateick, St. (Order), consisting of the 
sovereign, a grand master, and twenty-two 
knights, was founded in Ireland by George 
III., Feb. 5, 1783. 

Pateiotic Funds. — After Admiral 
Jer\-is's victory over the Spanish fleet, a 
subscription was made at Lloyd's for the 



PAT 

relief of the widows and orphans of those 
who had fallen in the engagement, March 3, 
1797. At a meeting of merchants, under- 
WTiters, and other subscribers to Lloyd's, 
July 20, 1803, it was resolved to raise a fund 
on an extended scale for the widows and 
orphans of those killed in defence of their 
country, and upwards of £100,000 was sub- 
scribed by the end of the month. The com- 
mittee voted, as a tribute of their considera- 
tion, swords, pieces of plate, and sums of 
money, to the officers and men engaged in 
the gallant defence of Dominica, May 1, 
1805. In the House of Commons Lord 
Howick characterized it as " that mis- 
chievous system of rewards," tending to 
bring the government into contempt, Dec. 
19, 1806. In Cobbett's "Political Eegister" 
it was represented as a " grand means of 
making a formidable opposition to govern- 
ment," its funds amounting to more than 
a quarter of a million of money, Jan. 24, 
1807. A commission was issued June 13, 
1854, by Queen Victoria, presided over by 
Prince Albert, to raise and distribute a fund 
for those engaged iu the Eussian war, 
which, before the end of the year, reached 
upwards of aonillion. Out of the fund, which 
eventually amounted to £1,458,000, an insti- 
tution for the education of 300 daughters 
of soldiers, sailors, and marines, was esta- 
blished, the foundation-stone being laid by 
the Queen, on Wandsworth Common, July 
11, 1857. Another patriotic fund, for the 
relief of the sufi'erers by the Indian mutiny, 
originated at a pubUc meeting held in 
London Aug. 25, 1857. The sum collected 
amounted to £434,729 in November, 1858. 

Patripassians, the followers of Praxeas, 
a confessor at Eome, who maintained that 
the Father was born of the Virgin, died 
upon the cross, and was buried, arose 
towards the end of the 2nd century. They 
were also called Monarchians. TertuHian 
wrote against Praxeas. The term was also 
applied to the followers of ISToetus, a native 
of Smyrna, who early in the 3rd century 
maintained that G-od was united with the 
man Christ, and in him was born and 
suffered. 

Pattlians, PAUiiKriANS, or Paulianists. 
— The followers of Paul of Samosata, bishop 
of Antioch a.d. 260—270, who held some 
peculiar notions respecting the Godhead. 
Bingham asserts that he denied the divinity 
of Christ, and introduced a new form of 
baptism. Paul of Samosata was accused of 
heresy in 264, condemned by a council in 
269, and was expelled in 270. The council 
of Nicsea (June 19 — Aug. 25, 325) ordered 
the Paulians to be re-baptized previous to 
admission into the Church. 

Paulicians, or Disciples of St. Paul, 
holding Gnostic or Manichsean principles, 
originated with one Constantine, living near 
Samosata, a.d. 660. He fell a martyr to 
his principles a.d. 687. Subjected to un- 
ceasing persecution at the hands of the rulers 
of the Western empire, it is said that not 
fewer than 100,000 were extirpated by the 



PAU 

sword, the gibbet, or the flames, in the 
reign of Theodoi-a, a.d. 842—857. Carbeas, 
commander of the guards, followed by 5,000 
of the sect, renounced the allegiance of 
Eome, leagued with the Mohammedans, 
founded and fortified the city of Tephrice, 
and defeated the emperor Michael under 
the walls of Samosata, 845 — 861. Led by 
Chrysocheir, successor of Carbeas, they pil- 
laged Mcsea, Nicomedia, Ancra, and Ephe- 
sus, turning the cathedral of the latter 
city into a stable for mules and horses, 
to manifest their abhorrence of images 
and relics, in 868. They were attacked 
by the forces of the emperor BasU I., their 
leader slain, and Tephrice, their strong- 
hold, taken, in 871. Constantine V. (Co- 
pronymus) , having discovered a great num- 
ber of them in Mehtene and Theodosiopohs, 
transplanted them to Constantinople and 
Thrace, and so introduced their doctrine into 
Europe, about 850. The emperor John I. 
(Zimisces) removed a powerful colony of 
the sect from the Calybian hills to Philip- 
pohs in Thrace, in 970. Having spread 
through Italy into the southern provinces 
of France, a persecution was raised against 
them, and they were extirpated with fire and 
sword in 1200. 

Paul's (St.) Cathedeal (London). 
— Sir Christopher Wren denies Camden's 
theory that St. Paul's cathedral occupies 
the site of a Eoman temple to Diana, 
and asserts that " there is authentic tes- 
timony of a Christian church planted 
here by the apostles themselves, and, in 
particular, very probably by St. Paul." It 
is, however, doubtful whether any such 
building existed in London till the reign of 
Lucius, A.D. 185, when Faganus and Damia- 
nus visited England to consecrate buildings 
formerly devoted to the service of pagan, 
divinities, to the worship of the true God. 
The church they founded or consecrated was 
destroyed during the Diocletian persecution 
in 303, and another erected on its site was 
burnt by the Saxons in the 5th or 6th century. 
Ethelbert, king of Kent, and his nephew Se- 
bert founded a new church in 610, which was 
severely injured by a fire in 962, and totally 
burnt in 1087, after which, Maurice, bishop 
of London, commenced the erection of 
Old St, Paul's. This cathedral was much 
damaged by fire in 1137. In 1221 a new 
steeple was erected. The choir was completed 
in 1240, and in 1256 Fulco Basset, bishop of 
London, added the subterranean church of 
St. Faith. The spire was struck by hghtning 
Feb. 1, 1444, and again June 4, 1561, when 
a fire w^as kindled which rendered the re- 
moval of the roof and steeple a matter of 
necessity. Various attempts were made to 
effect a complete restoration, but no active 
measures were taken tiU 1633, when Inigo 
Jones erected a fine, but incongruous classic 
portico. St. Paul's cathedral was totally 
destroyed by the great fire of 1666. The 
ground was cleared for a new building May 
1, 1674, and the warrant to begin the 
works was granted May 1, 1675. The first 
647 



PAU 



PAV 

and dwellings for about fifty-two families, of 
from six to eight persons each. Their ope- 
rations were begun in September, 1818 ; by 
the 10th of i^ovember the houses were 
ready ; and the communes sent some poor 
families. The expense of each family, in 
EngUsh money, was as follows : — 

£. s. d. 

"Building each house 41 13 4 

Furniture and implements 8 6 8 

Clothing 12 10 

Two cows, or one cow and ten sheep 12 10 

Cultivation and seed, first year 33 6 8 

Advances in provisions 4 3 4 

Advances of other kinds 4 3 4 

Flax and wool to be spun 16 13 4 

Seven acres uncultivated land net 8 6 8 

Total establishment £141 13 4 



stone was laid June 21, and divine ser- 
vice was celebrated for the first time in 
the uncompleted edifice on the occasion 
of the public rejoicings for the peace of 
Eyswick, Dec. 2, 1697. The last stone 
was set up in 1710, the whole building 
having been completed by Sir Christopher 
Wren, and by the same master -mason, and 
during the presidency of one bishop of Lon- 
don. The expense was defrayed by a tax on 
the coal consumed in London, and amounted 
to £747,954.. 2s. 9d. The iron raihng cost 
£11,202. Os. 6d. The anniversary musical 
festivals for the benefit of the orphans and 
widows of the clergy have been solemnized 
in the cathedral since 1697. The organ was 
built by Bernard Schmydt in 1694, and the 
bell was recast by Eichard Phelps in 1716. 
Gas was first employed in the cathedral 
May 6, 1822, and it was first opened for 
evening service Sunday, Nov. 28, 1858. The 
principal dimensions of St. Paul's are as 
follows : — length from east to west, 510 ft. ; 
breadth from north to south porticos, 282 ft. ; 
breadth of west entrance, 100 ft. ; circuit, 
2,292 ft. The extreme height is 404 ft. ; that 
of the campanile towers, 222 ft., and of the 
west pediment, 120 ft. The dome is 420 ft. 
in circumference, and the ball 6 ft. in di- 
ameter. 

Paul's (St.) Cross (London). — This 
ancient pulpit cross of timber stood at the 
north side of St. Paul's cathedral. The date 
of its erection is not known, but it was in 
existence A.D. 1259, as Henry III. summoned 
a general assembly to meet here in that year. 
In 1382 it was struck by lightning, and 
was restored by Thomas Kempe, bishop of 
London from 1448 to 1489. It was finally 
taken down by order of parliament in 1643. 

Paul's (St.) School (London). — This 
institution was endowed a.d. 1512 by John 
Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 poor men's 
children. The present building was erected 
in 1823, by Mr. George Smith. 

Pauper Colonies. — Estabhshments with 
this name originated in Holland, a.d. 1818. 
General Van den Bosch, on his return from 
Java, laid before the king of Holland a plan 
for a pauper colony ; a meeting was held at 
the Hague, and a regular society formed. 
A writer in the British Almanack for 1829 
says : — " Having received the sanction of the 
king, the society was recommended to all 
the local authoritieis, and soon found itself 
in possession of £5,380, obtained from 
more than 20,000 members. With these 
funds, having been enabled to make the 
necessary arrangements, the society pur- 
chased the estate of Westerbech Sloot, on 
the east side of the Zuyder Zee, and not 
far from the town of Steenvpyk. This 
estate cost them £4,660, and it contained 
from 1,200 to 1,300 acres, about 200 of which 
were under a sort of culture, or covered with 
bad wood, and the rest a mere heath. They 
let the cultivated land, about one-tenth of 
the whole; deepened the Aa (which rvms 
through the estate), so that it is navigable 
for boats, and bvult storehouseSj a school, 
64S 



The writer goes into various details and 
then gives the result of the experiment. 
" In the course of seven years from its first 
establishment, the colony of Fredericks 
Oord contained a population of 6,778, in- 
eluding that of Omme Schanze, which is 
under a more rigid control. Among the 
number were 2,174 orphans and foundlings. 
The total number forming all the colonies in 
Holland, were stated to Mr. Jacob at 20,000; 
but he thinks it exaggerated : there were, 
however, 8,000 in North HoUand." 

Paupers might be put in the stocks if 
not provided with a testimonial from a 
justice of the peace, by 12 Eich. II. c. 7 
(1388) ; were prohibited from begging, except 
in the hundred where they last dwelt, by 
11 and 19 Hen. VII. (1495 and 1504) ; and 
if able-bodied, were to be whipped, by 
22 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1531). Compulsory 
payment was first instituted in support of 
the poor by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 (1536). 
The compulsory system was brought into 
fuU operation by 14 Ehz. c. 5 (1572), form- 
ing the basis of a subsequent act, stUl in 
operation (43 Eliz. c. 2), passed in 1601. 

Pavement. — The Carthaginians are said 
to have been the first who paved their towns 
with stones, and the practice was introduced 
into Europe by the Eomans. London was 
first paved about a.d. 1533. McAdam's 
system of paving was introduced into 
London in 1823. 

Pavia (Italy), the ancient Ticinum, is 
first mentioned in history as the place where 
Augustus met the funeral procession of 
Drusus, A.D. 20. A sedition among the 
troops of Vitellius broke out here in 69 ; and 
while commanding its garrison, Claudius 
was saluted with the imperial title in 268. 
It was taken by Attila in 452, and by Alboin, 
after a siege of more than three years, in 
570, when it became the residence of the 
Lombard kings and the capital of Italy, 
under the name of Pavia. It surrendered 
to Chai'lemagne, at the close of a fifteen 
months' blockade, in 774. It was, with its 
forty-three churches, reduced to ashes by 
the savage Magyars in 924. Victor IV. was 
elected pope by a council held here Feb. 5, 
1160, and the emperor Frederick I. held his 



PAW 

stirrup and kissed his :feet. The army of 
Charles V., under the viceroy Lannoy, came 
to its relief when besieged by Francis I., 
and in the battle (see MALEGKrAiro) which 
ensued, Francis I. was defeated and taken 
prisoner, Feb. 23, 1525. It was occupied by 
the French and Sardinian army Oct. 29, 
1733 ; and again by the united troops of 
France, Spain, Naples, and Genoa, in July, 
1745. The populace rose against the French 
occupants, and took the castle. May 26, 
1796. The university, supposed to have 
been founded by Charlemagne in 774, was 
restored in 1361 by Galeazzo Visconte, who 
was st3^1ed count of Pavia. The church of 
St. Michael, perhaps the oldest in Italy, 
dates from the beginning of the 7th century; 
the church Del Carmine, which contains 
valuable paintings, was built in the 14th 
century ; the citadel, completed in 1469, was 
partly destroyed in 1527, and suffered from 
the French in 1796. Councils were held here 
in 1128, and Feb. 1160. 

PiWifBROKEKS. — The emperor Augustus 
estabhshed a fund at Rome for lending money 
to those who could leave a sufficient pledge, 
B.C. 31 ; Tiberius lent money on lands, a.d. 
14 ; and Alexander Severus advanced money 
to the poor without interest in 222. By 
the papal court a fund was collected from 
which the poor received loans free of charge, 
and lending-houses were permitted to exact 
interest under the name of pro indemnttate, 
the pope declaring the holy mountains of 
piety, " sacri monti di pieta," to be legal, 
the first being estabhshed at Perugia, by 
Barnabas Interamnensis, about a.d. 1464. 
Another at Savona was confirmed by Sixtus 
IV. in 1479. A mont de piete was established 
at Assisi by Bernardinus Tomitano, of the 
order of Minorites, in 1485, at Mantua in 
1436, at Parma in 1488, and at many other 
towns up to the close of the loth century. 
A constant hostility being kept up by some 
of the ecclesiastical bodies to these institu- 
tions, which were, they said, not monies pie- 
tatis, but impietatis. Pope Leo X. issued 
a bull, declaring them legal and useful. A 
mont deplete was founded at Eome by Gio- 
vanni Calvo, a Franciscan, in 1539; one 
at Naples in 1539 or 1540. Maximilian I. 
permitted the citizens of Nuremberg to 
drive out the Jews and establish an exchange 
bank, where those requiring money might 
leave their effects in pledge, in 1498. In the 
Netherlands, France, and England, such 
houses were known under the name of Lom- 
bards, and to evade the prohibition of the 
Church against interest, exacted it before- 
hand, as a present. The lombard, or lend- 
ing-house, at Brussels was established in 
1619, at Antwerp in 1620, at Ghent in 1622. 
The mont de piete of France was instituted 
by royal command in 1777. The present 
system in England was established by De 
Northburgh, bishop of London, the prac- 
tice being for the preacher at St. Paul's 
Cross, in his sermon, to declare, at the end 
of a year, that the article pledged would be 
forfeited if not redeemed in fourteen days. 



PEA 

The rate of interest is fixed by 39 & 40 
Geo. III. c. 99 (July 28, 1800). 

Pawtucket (North America) .—The first 
cloth factory in America moved by water 
was estabhshed at this town, situated partly 
in Rhode Island and partly in Massachu- 
setts, A.D. 1790. 

Pax. — This instrument, used in the Roman 
Cathohc church, and sometimes called the 
tabula pacis, or the osculatorium, was intro- 
duced in the 12th or 13th century. The 
custom of giving the kiss of peace (q. v.) 
before the communion prevailed until the 
pax was introduced. The priest kissed the 
instrument first, then it was kissed by the 
clerk, and finally by the laity, and this pro- 
cess was substituted for the former general 
exchange of salutations. A pax appears 
amongst the regular ecclesiastical instru- 
ments ordered in the parish churches of 
Yorkshire in 1250. 

Paz de Atactjcho (South America). — 
This town in Boh via was founded by the 
Spaniards a.d. 1548, under the name of 
Nuestra Senora de la Paz. It was made the 
seat of a bishop in 1605, and its name was 
changed, in 1825, to Paz de Ayacucho, in 
honour of the victory of Ayacucho. 

Pazzi CoifSPiBACT, formed by Francesco 
Pazzi, and sanctioned by Pope Sixtus IV., 
to murder the Medici, Lorenzo and Julian, 
at Florence, was attempted during the 
celebration of high mass in the cathedral. 
The work of assassination was undertaken 
by two priests, and the elevation of the host 
was the signal agreed upon for the onset, 
April 26, 1478. Julian fell beneath their 
daggers, but Lorenzo escaped with a shght 
wound. The populace took up arms, 70 of 
the Pazzi party, including the two assassins, 
were killed, and altogether more than 200 
persons were put to death. 

Peace. {See Con-seevatoes and Justices 
OP THE Peace.) 

Peace Society, for the promotion of 
permanent and universal peace, was esta- 
blished A.D. 1816 ; held a meeting at Paris, 
Aug. 22, 1849 ; in Exeter Hall, Oct. 30, 1849; 
af Frankfort, Aug. 22, 1850; at Birming- 
ham, Nov. 28, 1850 ; at Manchester, Jan. 27, 
1853 ; and at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1853. A 
deputation from the society had an inter- 
view with Nicholas, emperor of Russia, at 
St. Petersburg, Feb. 10, 1854. 

Peaels are mentioned by Job (xxviii. 
18) as possessing considerable value, B.C. 
2130. Clodius, the tribune, gave a pearl, dis- 
solved in vinegar, to each of his guests, B.C. 
61. Cleopatra made a wager with Antony 
to serve up her pearl eardrops, worth 
£76,000, at a repast, a.d. 32. Ceylon was 
famed for its fisheries in the time of Phny 
in 72 ; Seville imported upwards of 697 lb. 
weight in 1587. A pearl was obtained from 
Margarita, by Phihp II., worth £31,875, in 
1574. Joint stock companies were formed 
to prosecute the Columbia fishery in 1825, 
but were abandoned in 1826 ; and an Eughsh 
company undertook the same enterprise at 
Algiers in 1826. The total value imported 
6H> 



PEA 

into the United Kingdom in 1856 was 
£56,162. Linnaeus announced the discovery 
of a method of producing them artificially in 
1761, and an imitation was devised by a Pari- 
sian bead-maker, called Jaquin, about 1656. 

Peasant Wak.— A struggle, called the 
Bundsckuh, broke out a.d. 1502, and another, 
the League of poor Conrad, at Wiirtemberg, 
in 1514. The peasants of the small towns 
rebelled in Swabia, and those of the Thurgau 
rose inarms in Jime, 1524,whenmany outrages 
were committed. The insurgents were de- 
feated by the army of the archduke Ferdi- 
nand, May 2, again at Konigshofen June 2, 
and were 'finally put down after 100,000 per- 
sons had perished, in June, 1525. 

Pecquignt, orPicQui&jrr (Peace).— The 
treaty of Amiens (q.v.), of Aug. 29, 1475, 
was ratified at Pecquigny, near Amiens, on 
which account it sometimes passes by that 
name. It was renewed for the lives of 
Louis XI. and Edward IV. in 1477. 

Pedlaes. (See Hawkees.) 

Peel Administeations.— The first was 
formed on the resignation of the first Mel- 
bourne administration (q. v.), iS'ov. 14, 1834. 
William TV. apphed, ]S'ov. 15, to the duke 
of Wellington, who advised that Sir Eobert 
Peel, Bart., at that time travelling in Italy, 
should be summoned to form an administra- 
tion. The duke of Wellington became prime 
minister, provisional arrangements were 
made, and Sir Eobert Peel obeyed the call, 
and reached London Dec. 9. He immedi- 
ately assumed the responsibilities of office, 
and his cabinet, formed at the end of the 
month, was thus constituted — 

First Lord of the Treasury ■) 

and Chancellor of the VSir Robert Peel, Bart. 

Exchequer ; 

Lord Chancellor lord Lyndhurst. 

President of the Council. .Earl of B-osslyn. 

Privy Seal Lord WharncUffe. 

Home Secretary Mr. Hem y Goulbum. 

Foreign Secretary Duke of Wellington. 

Colonial Secretary Earl of Aberdeen. 

Admiralty Earl de Grey. 

Board of Control Lord Ellenborough. 

Secretaiy at War Mr. Herries. 

Chief Secretary for Ire- ■)„. „ „ ^■ 

land jS"^ Henry Hardmge. 

Master of the Mint, and ■) 

Pi-esident of the Board VMr. A. Bartug. 

of Trade ) 

Paymaster of the Forces . . Sir E. Knatehbull, Bart. 
''or^;ncr.^^'..?f..*.'!!}s-<5-^geMurr-ay. 

Parhament was dissolved Dec. 30, 1834, and 
a new parliament was summoned to meet 
Eeb. 19, 1835. A coalition having been 
formed between the AVhigs and the Eadicals, 
an amendment to the address was proposed 
in the House of Commons, and carried Feb. 
26, by 309 to 302. Three adverse divisions 
having taken place respecting the appropria- 
tion of the revenues of the Irish church, 
namely, first, a resolution proposed by Lord 
John EusseU, carried April 2 by 322 to 289 ; 
secondly, the resolution cariied in commit- 
tee April 6, by 262 to 237, and thirdly, a 
further resolution in favour of the appro- 
priation principle carried against ministers, 
650 



PEE 

April 7, by 285 to 258, Sir Eobert Peel 
announced the resignation of the ministry 
April 8. (See Melboueij-e Admi:xistea- 
TiONS.) The second Peel administration 
was formed on the resignation of the second 
Melbourne administration (q.v.), Aug. 30, 
1841. The cabinet formed by Sept. 8 was 
thus constituted — 

Treasury Sir Eobert Peel, Bart. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhui-st 

President of the Council. .Lord Whai-ncl'flFe. 

Pri^-y Seal Duke of Buckingham. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Mr. Goulbum. 

Home Secretary Sii' James Graham, Bart. 

Foreign Secretary Earl of Aberdeen. 

Colonial Secretary. Lord Stanley. 

Admiralty .. ..^ Earl of Haddington. 

f Lord Ellenborough. ore- 
Board of Control < ated Earl of Ellen- 

( boro\igh Oct. 14, 1844. 

Secretary at War Sir H. Hardinge. 

Board of Trade Earl of Kipon. 

Treasurer of the Navy ) 

and Payma-ster of the >Sir E. Knatchbull, Bai-t. 

Forces ) 

Chief Secretary for IreOj^j.^ j.^^^ 

land J 

Without office Duke of Wellington. 

Lord Ellenborough accepted the governor- 
generalship of India, and was succeeded 
at the Board of Control by Lord Fitzgerald 
and Yesci, Oct. 23, 1841. The duke of Buck- 
ingham resigned the privy seal Jan. 31, 1842, 
and it was intrusted to the duke of Buc- 
cleuch and Queensberry Feb. 2. The duke 
of Wellington was made commander-in-chief 
Aug. 15, 1842. The earl of Eipon succeeded 
Lord Fitzgerald and Yesci (who died May 
11, 1843) at the Board of Control, May 17, 
1843 ; and Mr. Gladstone was made presi- 
dent of the Board of Trade and master of 
the mint, June 10, 1843. Sir Henry Har- 
dinge was succeeded. May 17, 1844, as secre- 
tary at war by Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bart., 
who, having been appointed chief secretary 
for Ireland, was replaced by Mr. Sidney 
Herbert, Feb. 4, 1845. Lord Somerset, 
made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 
Sept. 3, 1841, and the earl of Lincoln, made 
first commissioner of woods and forests Sept. 
16, 1841, were both admitted to seats in the 
caijinet in 1845. A division ensued in the 
cabinet respecting the expediency of an 
immediate repeal of the corn laws in the 
autumn of 1845, and ministers resigned 
ISTov. 25. Lord John EusseU failed in his 
attempts to form an administration, Dec. 
20, and the Peel administration, with the 
exception of Lord Stanley, returned to 
of&ce. He had been summoned to the 
House of Peers as Baron Stanley, in 1844. 
He resigned the colonial secretaryship, 
and was succeeded by Mr. Gladstone, Dec. 
20, 1845. The earl of Lincoln succeeded 
Sir Thomas Fremantle, Bart., as chief 
secretary for Ireland, Feb. 14, 1846. Sir 
Eobert Peel carried the repeal of the corn 
laws ; but this change in his policy produced a 
division amongst his followers, the two parties 
being afterwards called Peehtes (q.v.) and 
Protectionists (q.v.). The latter avaihng 
themselves of the opportunity afforded by 



PEE 

the second reading of the Irish Coercion Bill, 
voted against ministers, who were defeated 
by 292 to 219. The division took place early 
in the morning, June 26, 1846, the day on 
which the bill for the repeal of the corn laws 
passed the House of Lords. The resignation 
of the Peel administration was announced in 
both houses of parhament June 29. (See 

EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIOIf.) 

Peelites. — This name was given to that 
section of the Conservative party which, 
after the rupture caused by the repeal of 
the corn laws (q.v.) in 1846, adhered to Sir 
Eobert Peel. They were thus designated as 
opponents to the Protectionists {q. v.). 

Peep-o'day-Bots. — This Irish faction ori- 
ginated at Market-hill, in Armagh, July 4, 
1784. {See Deeenders.) 

Peers and Peerage. — The nobility of 
the realm, consisting of barons, dukes, earls, 
marquises, and viscounts (q.v.), are called 
peers, or equals, because they enjoy an 
equality of right in all public proceed- 
ings. They are created either by tenure, 
by writ, or by patent. Peerage by tenure 
originated at the Norman conquest, when 
the land was divided between the followers 
of the Conqueror. The earKest peerage 
by writ is of a.d. 1265, when a writ of 
summons to parhament was issued by 
Henry III. The first peer created by 
patent was John de Beauchamp, who was 
made baron of Kidderminster by Richard II. 
Oct. 10, 1387. Peers are exempt from 
arrest in civil, but not in criminal cases. 
In cases of treason and felony, they can 
only be tried by their fellow peers ; but in 
misdemeanours they are tried by an ordi- 
nary jury. Peeresses are tried by the 
same tribunals as peers, by 20 Hen. "VI. c. 9 
(1442). By 4 & 5 Vict. c. 22 (June 21, 
1841), peers convicted of crimes were ren- 
dered liable to the same penalties as com- 
moners. The elevation of Sir James Parke 
to the peerage for the terna of his natural 
life, by the title of Lord Wensleydale, 
Jan. 16, 1856, led to the appointment of a 
committee by the House of Lords to inquire 
into the legality of hfe-peerages. A report, 
deciding that such peerages could not entitle 
their holders to sit or vote in parliament, 
was presented Feb. 25, in consequence of 
which Lord Wensleydale received a patent 
with the usual remainder to " the heirs male 
of his body lawfully begotten," the following 
July. The peers of Scotland are re- 
garded as forming part of the nobility of 
Great Britain. By the 23rd article of the 
Act of Union, 5 Anne, c. 8 (1706), sixteen of 
their number are permitted to sit in the 
House of Lords as representatives of the 
rest. As this act limits the right of election 
of these representatives to the Scotch peers 
then existing, it follows that no new Scotch 
peerages can be created. The Irish peers 
also form part of the nobility of the realm ; 
and bv the 4th article of the Irish Act of 
Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 (July 2, 
1800) , four of the Irish bishops and twenty- 
eight temporal peers are permitted to sit 



PEL 

in the House of Lords. The same act per- 
mits the sovereign to create one new Irish 
peerage whenever three of those existing 
become extinct ; and when the number is 
reduced to 100 noblemen, every vacancy 
may Ue immediately supphed. Sir Wilham 
Dugdale's " Baronage of England," which 
was pubhshed in 1675-6, is the earliest work 
on the English peerage. The first edition of 
Collins's " Peerage " was published in 1709. 

Peg-t: (Asia), capital of a province of the 
same name, was besieged by the Burmese, 
and capitulated a.d. 1757. The British 
obtained possession of Pegu in 1824, and, 
having restored it at the conclusion of the 
war with Burmah, it was again taken and 
retained Nov. 21, 1852. The whole province 
was annexed, and the close of the war 
officially proclaimed, June 30, 1853. 

Peiho (China). — An attempt to force a 
passage up the mouth of this river by 
Admiral Hope, June 24, 1859, was resisted 
by the Chinese forts, and resulted in a 
disastrous repulse. The English lost twenty- 
five men killed and ninety-three wounded on 
board the gunboats, and sixty-four kil led 
and 252 wounded in the attempt to effect a 
landing. The Taku forts at the mouth of 
the Peiho were captured by the alhed 
French and English squadron Aug. 21, 
1860. 

Pekin (China) was besieged and taken 
by Zenghis Khan and his Mongols, when the 
inhabitants, for want of ammunition, are 
said to have discharged ingots of gold and 
silver upon their assailants, a.d. 1214. Kub- 
lai Khan rebuilt it, and made it his capital 
in 1260. A British embassy, intrusted to 
Lord Macartney, arrived Sept. 14, 1793. 
The city was entered by the allied armies of 
France and England, Oct. 12, 1860. A con- 
vention was signed Oct. 24, and they eva- 
cuated Pekin Nov. 5, 1860. 

Pelagian-ism, so named from Pelagius, 
its founder, who began to disseminate his 
heresy at Eome a.d. 404 ; was examined 
by a council at Jerusalem, and another at 
Diospolis, in both of which the tenets 
passed without condemnation, in 415. It 
was condemned by a council at Carthage, 
eighteen bishops in Italy were deposed for 
their adherence to it, and Pelagius himself 
was banished from Italy by the emperor 
Honorius in 418. Having extended into 
Britain, two Galhc bishops were called over to 
suppress the doctrine in 442. A conference 
was held at Verulam between its supporters 
and the orthodox party in 446, and the 
Pelugians were banished from Britain in 452. 
The council of Orange decreed the doctrine of 
Augustus, in opposition to Pelagianism and 
Semi-pelagianism, to be estabUshed, July 3, 
529. Their decree was confirmed by the coun- 
cil of Valentia, and by Pope Boniface II. in 
530. 

Pelagonia (Macedonia) ,— The name at 
first apphed to a district, was afterwards 
conferred upon the chief town of the Pela- 

fones, and the capital of the Fourth Mace- 
onia. 

651 



PEL 

Pelasgi, an ancient race spread oyer 
Greece, and the islands of the JSgean Sea, 
are first mentioned by Homer as furnishing 
a contingent under Achilles at the siege of 
Troy, B.C. 962. JSTiebuhr considers them to 
have been the original inhabitants both of 
Greece and Italy. 

Pelekanon (Battle) .— Orchan I. defeated 
Andronicus III., who was wounded in the 
encounter, a.d. 1329. 

Pelew IsLAifDS (Pacific Ocean) were first 
brought mto notice (although long previously 
known to the Spaniards) through the wreck 
of the Antelope, East-Indiaman, a.d. 1783. 
Prince Lee Boo, son of king Abba Thulle, 
who had been intrusted by his father to 
Captain Wilson, was brought to England, 
where he only survived five months, in 
1784. The East-India Company sent infor- 
mation of the event to the islands in 1790, 
together with a present of five stock and 
culinary vegetables, which were found to 
have flourished weU when the place was 
re-visited by an English vessel in 1798. 

Pelham Administeation. — The death of 
the earl of Wilmington rendered fresh minis- 
terial arrangements necessary, and Mr. Pel- 
ham, brother of the duke of'jSTewcastle, was 
made first lord of the treasury and chancel- 
lor of the exchequer, Aug. 25, 1743. His col- 
leagues in the cabinet were : — 

Lord Chancellor Lord Hardwicke. 

Presideut of the Covmcil . . Earl of Harringtou. 
Pri\'y Seal Earl Gower. 

^^<^^^'^^'^^^^^'-'^ ■■■■&e'':^^lt.stle. 

^d-^alty {'^^oUinlZ^'''''' ^"' 

Ordnance Diike of Montage. 

Paymaster of the Forces . .Sii- T. Wimiington, Bart. 

Earl Gower was succeeded by the earl 
of Cholmondeley, as lord privy seal, in 
December, 1743. Lord Carteret, who had 
succeeded to the title of Earl GranviUe, re- 
signed :No\. 24, 1744, and the Pelham 
Administration was reconstructed. The 
chiefs of several parties coalesced ; from 
which circumstance the new ministry was 
called the Broad Bottom Administration 
(q.v.). 

Peli&ni, a people of central Italy, and, 
according to Ovid, of Sabine descent, are 
first mentioned in Roman history as having 
been attacked by the Latins, B.C. 343. They 
entered into a treaty of peace with the Ro- 
mans B.C. 304 ; afforded them material aid 
against the Samnites at the battle of Sen- 
tiima, B.C. 295 ; and raised volunteers for 
Scipio B.C. 205. At the outbreak of the 
Social war, B.C. 90, they joined the Marsi, 
making their chief city, Corfinivmi, the ca- 
pital of the confederate states. They sub- 
niitted to the Romans B.C. 88, and were 
soon after admitted to the franchise. In 
the civil war between Csesar and Pompey, 
their chief town, Corfinium, was garrisoned 
to oppose Csesar, B.C. 49; and they espous- 
ed the side of Vespasian against Vitelhus, 
which was their last appearance in history, 
A.D. 69. 
652 



PEN^ 



Pell A (Macedonia). — Philip II. made 
this a royal residence, and Alexander the 
Great was born here in July, B.C. 356. ^mi- 
hus Paulus took it B.C. 168, and it became a 
Roman colony. 

Pella (Palestine), also called Batis, is 
said to have been colonized by Macedonians. 
Antiochus III. (the Great) took it B.C. 198, 
and it was destroyed by Alexander Jan- 
nseus, king of the Jews. Pompey restored 
it, and the Jews took refuge here when Je- 
rusalem wag threatened. 

Peloponnesian War, between Athens 
and Sparta at the head of a confederacy, 
commenced with the siege of Potidaea by 
the Athenians, B.C. 431. The contest con- 
tinued twent3'-seven years, and was termi- 
nated by the defeat of the Athenians at 
jEgospotami, when Lysander sailed to 
Athens, compelled it to surrender, and demo- 
hshed the walls, b.c. 405. 

Pelusium (Egypt). — The modem Tineh, 
called Sin by the Hebrews (Ezekiel xxx. 15), 
and by the" Copts Peromi. The Assyrians, 
under Sennacherib, encamped under its 
walls, when the field-mice gnawed asunder 
their bow-strings and shield-straps, about 
B.C. 715. Cambyses took it when he in- 
vaded Egypt, B.C. 525, and it fell before the 
Persian arms B.C. 456. Alexander the 
Great entered it B.C. 333. It was cap- 
tured by the Persians B.C. 309, and by An- 
tiochus Epiphanes B.C. 173. When Amrou 
subdued the country, a.d. 618, it surren- 
dered, and afterwards fell into decay. 

Pelworji.— This island, belonging to Den- 
mark, was detached from the larger island of 
Nordstrand by a flood in 1634. 

Pemaneon (Battle). — John Ducas Va- 
taces, emperor of Nicsea, defeated the Latin, 
emperor, Robert of Courtenay, in this 
battle, fought a.d. 1224. 

Pembroke (Wales).— The shire of which 
this town is the capital was a county pala- 
tine until A.D. 1536. The castle, a Korman 
structure, came into the hands of Gilbert 
Strongbow, who received the title of earl of 
Pembroke from Henry I. in 1107. It was 
captured in 1648, after a six weeks' siege, 
by Cromwell. Henry VII. was born in the 
fortress in 1456. In the suburbs are the 
ruins of a priory founded in 1098. The 
royal dockyard was removed from Milford 
to this place in 1814. 

Pembroke College (Oxford), built on 
the site of Broadgate HaU, and sometimes 
called Segrim, or Segreve Hall, was esta- 
bhshed by letters patent, June 22, 1624. 
The chapel was consecrated in 1732. 

Pembroke Hall (Cambridge) was founded 
under the name of Valence-Mary, by Mary 
de St. Paul, widow of Aymer de Valence, 
earl of Pembroke, a.d. 1347. The chapel, 
built by Matthew Wren, bishop of Ely, from 
the designs of his nephew, Sir Christopher 
Wren, was consecrated in 1665. 

Penal Servitude. — An act substituting 
penal servitude for transportation (16 & 17 
Vict. c. 99) was passed Aug. 20, 1853. It 
took effect from Sept. 1, 1853, and was 



amended by 20 & 21 Vict. e. 3, June 26, ' 

1857. 

Pewance. — The practice of performing 
penance as expiation for sin was introduced 
into the Eoman Catholic church about the 
middle of the 2nd century. The laws on the 
subject subsequently became so numerous, 
that they were compiled into a separate code 
by John Jejunator, patriarch of Constanti- 
nople, about the year 595. Bingham states 
that the perforrnance of penance always ne- 
cessitated the penitent to assume sackcloth 
and ashes, and either to shave the head, or 
wear the hair dishevelled. It is one of the 
seven sacraments of the Eoman Catholic 
church. 

Penang, or Peince of Wales' Island 
(Strait of Malacca), was bestowed by the 
king of Keddah as a marriage portion on 
Captain Francis Light, an Enghshman who 
had married his daughter, a.d. 1785. He 
transferred it to the East-India Company, 
and was made governor July 7, 1786. It was 
made an independent presidency in 1805 ; 
and, with other settlements in the strait, was 
again brought under the government of Ben- 
gal in 1830. It was placed under thp general 
government of India in 1851. 

Peninsular War. — Apphcation for aid 
against the French invaders having been 
made by Spain, Sir Arthur "Wellesley sailed 
from Cork with 10,000 men, July 12, 1808, 
landing at Figueira, in Portugal, Aug. 1. 
He defeated the French at Vimeira Aug. 
21. A convention called the convention of 
Cintra, by which Junot agreed to evacuate 
Portugal, was signed Aug. 30. The British 
army entered Lisbon, and Wellesley obtained 
leave to return home in September. The 
command of 20,000 men having devolved upon 
Sir John Moore, he commenced his retreat 
before Soult, and reached Corunna Jan. 13, 
1809. A battle was fought, in which Moore 
lost his life, Jan. 16 ; and the embarkation 
of the troops was completed Jan. 18. Sir 
Arthur Wellesley again received the com- 
mand, and arrived at Lisbon April 22, 1809. 
After several successful campaigns, the 
French were finally driven out of the coun- 
try April 5, 1814. 

Peniscola (Spain) capitulated to the 
French marshal Suchet, with seventy-four 
pieces of cannon and 1,000 men, in February, 
1812. It was strengthened and garrisoned 
June, 1813, and was invested by the Spaniards 
in March, ISllj ; but held out tiU after peace 
had been concluded in April, 1814. 

Penitence. — The order of Penitence of 
St. Magdalen was founded by Bernard, a 
native of Marseilles, for the reformation of 
fallen women, a.d. 1272, and was constituted 
by Pope Nicholas III. under the rule of St. 
Augustine. 

Pennsylvania (North America) was first 
settled by the Swedes and Finns, a.d. 1627. 
They were reduced by the Dutch in 1655 ; 
and the whole territory passed under British 
rule in 1664. It was granted by letters 
patent to WUham Penn, in consideration of 
a debt due by government, March 4, 1681. 



PEN 

He founded Philadelphia in 1682, where the 
delegates of the colonies assembled to resist 
taxation by the mother country in 1774. 
The constitution was adopted Dec. 13, 1787. 

Penny. — This coin, originally of silver, is 
first mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of 
Wessex, a.d. 688. It was reduced by Ed- 
ward III. from twenty-two and a half to 
twenty grains in weight, in 1346. The first 
legal copper coin was introduced in the reign 
of James I. about 1609. 

Penny Post.— The metropolitan penny 
post was set up a.d. 1681, by Murray, an 
upholsterer, who assigned his interest to 
William Dowckra, a London merchant, in 
1683. It was decided in 1697 that its reve- 
nues formed part of the general post, and 
Dowckra was appointed comptroller. A pen- 
sion of £500 per annum for ten years was 
awarded to him in 1702. An additional penny 
was authorized by law to be laid on letters 
for the villages round London in 1727 ; and 
the metropolitan rate was raised from a 
penny to twopence in 1801 . A uniform rate 
of a penny on inland letters, to take effect 
from Oct. 5, 1840, was estabhshed by 2 & 3 
Vict. c. 52 (Aug. 17, 1839). A treasury 
minute was accordingly issued Nov. 12, 1839, 
fixing the rate of postage at fourpence per 
half-ounce, to take effect on and after Dec. 5. 
The uniform rate of one penny for the United 
Kingdom came into operation Jan. 10, 1840. 

Penon de Velez (Morocco) was founded 
by Pedro of Navarre, a.d. 1508. The Moors 
seized it in 1522, and the Spaniards regained 
possession in 1664. 

Pen, Peonna, or Pethekton (Battle). — 
Cenwalch, king of Wessex, defeated the 
Britons in this battle, fought a.d. 658. 

Peneitddock's Kebellion, in favour of 
monarchy, was suppressed in Devonshire, 
whither the royalists had retreated. Colonel 
John Penruddock being taken, amongst 
others, and executed. May 16, 1655. 

Pensacola (North America). — This town 
in Florida was captured by the Spaniards 
May 10, 1781. 

Pensionary Paeliament. — This name 
was given to the second parliament sum- 
moned by Charles II., from the number of 
pensions conferred during the session. It 
met May 8, 1661, and consisted of sixteen 
sessions, the last of which terminated 
Dee. 30, 1678. It was dissolved Jan. 24, 
1679, and has also been called the Long 
Parhament. 

Pension List. — To prevent the crown 
from burdening the revenue with improvi- 
dent grants, a law (1 Anne, c. 7) was passed, 
regulating all those made after March 
25, 1702; and a civil fist was settled on 
George III. in heu of the larger branches 
of the hereditary revenue in 1760. The 
pension list was examined by a committee 
of the House of Commons in 1837. 

Pentatettch, or the five books of Moses, 
were written by the Hebrew lawgiver about 
B.C. 1452. 

Pentecost, or Feast of Weeks, ob- 
served seven weeks after the Passover, was 
653 



established by Moses, at the command of 
God, B.C. 1496 (Lev xxiii. 15). The Holy 
Ghost descended upon the apostles at 
Jerusalem, according to the promise of our 
Saviour, on the day of Pentecost, May 26, 
A.D.30 (Aetsii. 1—6). 

PEifTLAjsTD Hills (Scotland). — An insur- 
rection having broken out in Scotland, on 
account of the feelings of hatred entertained 
towards Archbishop Sharp, the iasurgents 
were defeated here Nov. 28, 1666. 

PEifZAifCE (Cornwall) received a charter 
for a market and fair a.d. 1332 ; was incor- 
porated in 1615 ; was burnt by the Spaniards 
in July, 1595 ; and was taken by Fairfax, 
the parliamentary commander, in 1646. Sir 
Humphry Davy was born here Dec. 17, 
1778. 

Peppee is first noticed by Hippocrates, 
B.C. 460 — 357. It was a favoiirite ingre- 
dient in Eoman cookery. Alaric demanded 
3,000 lb. weight of pepper as a portion of 
the ransom of Rome, a.d. 409. 

Pee A. — The residence of the EngHsh 
ambassador is situated in this suburb of 
Constantinople, which suffered severely from 
a fire a.d. 1831, when the ambassador's 
residence was destroyed. Per a has since 
suffered severely from conflagrations. {See 
Galata.) 

Peeceval ADMiifisTEATioN-. — On the 
death of the duke of Portland, Oct. 30, 
1809, Mr. S. Perceval became first lord of 
the treasury. The cabinet was thus con- 
stituted : — 

First Lord of the Treasury, 'j 

ChanceUor of the Ex- „, a„„„„„, r.^- i 
chequer, and of the i^' Spencer PercevaL 
Duchy of Lancaster . . ) 

Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. 

President of the Council. .Earl Carndf-n. 

Privy Seal Earl of Westmorland. 

Home Secretary Mr. Richard Kyder. 

Foreign Secretary Marquis of "ft ellesley. 

Colonial Secretary ... .Earl of Liverpool. 

Admiialty Lord Mulgrave. 

Ordnance Earl of Chatham. 

Board of Trade Earl Bathui-st. 

Lord Mulgrave became master-general of 
the ordnance May 1, 1810, and was replaced 
at the Admiralty by Mr. Charles Yorke, 
June 23. Viscount Melville succeeded Mr. 
Charles Yorke at the Admiralty in March, 
1812. Yiscount Castlereagh became foreign 
minister, in place of the marquis of Wel- 
lesley, who resigned ; and Yiscount Sidney 
became president of the council in April, 
1812. As the prime minister, Mr. Perceval' 
was entering the lobby of the House of 
Commons, May 11, 1812, he was shot by a 
man named BeUingham. Death was almost 
instantaneous. (See Liveepool Adiiinis- 

TEATIOIf.) 

Peecussiou- Gum-s.— The substitution of 
detonating powder for flint and steel in 
discharging firearms was the invention of 
the Eev. A. J. Forsyth, of Balhelwie, Aber- 
deenshire, whose patent was dated April 11, 
1807. Percussion-cap guns were introduced 
into the French army in 1830. 
654 



PEE 

Peeed (Battle). — The allied Eussian and 
Austrian army defeated the Hungarians, 
commanded by Georgey, in this battle, 
fought June 20, 1849. 

Peeekop (Eussia) . — The Tartar lines, ex- 
tending across the Isthmus of Perekop, from 
the Sea of Azof to the Black Sea, were 
forced by the Eussian marshal Miinnich, 
May 27, 1736. The fortress of Perekop, 
situated on the isthmus, was assailed by 
Marshal Lacy, and capitulated at the end 
of two days, July 10, 1738. It was carried 
by assault, against a defending army of 
50,000 Tartars and 7,000 Turks, the Eus- 
sian assailants being commanded by Prince 
Dolgorucki, in 1771. 

Pebe-la-Chaise (Paris).— This most im- 
portant cemetery of the French metropohs 
is named after Pere-la-Chaise, the confessor 
of Louis XIY., who occupied a house on 
its site. The ground had for about a hun- 
dred and fifty years been the property of 
a convent of Jesuits, who were com- 
pelled to sell it to pay their debts, a.d, 1763, 
In 1800 it was purchased by the munici- 
pahty of Paris, who employed M. Brongniart 
to convert it into the French Jfational Ce- 
metery. It was consecrated in the early part 
of 1804, and was first used for interments in 
May, 1821. On the approach of the allied 
armies to Paris in 1814, Pere-la-Chaise was 
strongly fortified by the pupils of the schools 
of Alfort, who were, however, driven from 
their position by the Eussians, March 30. 

Peefumeey. — The use of perfumes is of 
the highest antiquity, as they were em- 
ployed by the Egyptians in the embalming 
of the dead, and by the Jews in the service 
of the temple. Babylon was celebrated by 
the ancients for the excellence of its per- 
fumes. The Greeks and Eomans used them 
extensively, and regarded them as an oflTer- 
ing acceptable to the gods, and their poets 
always accompany the description of the 
appearance of any of their divinities by a 
notice of the ambrosial odour which they 
diffused. The taste for perfumes reached its 
height in this country in the reign of Ehza- 
betli, whose sense of smeU was remarkably 
acute, and pomander balls and pounce-boxes 
figure largely in the writings of her time. 
Perfumery was taxed, and dealers were com- 
pelled to take out a licence by 26 Geo. III. 
0.49(1786). 

Peegamus, or PEEGAMtTM (Asia Minor), — 
This city is said to have been founded by a 
colony of Arcadians, and to have been named- 
after Pergamus, a son of Pyrrhus, The city, 
with the surrounding districts, was formed 
into a kingdom by a Paphlagonian eunuch, 
named Philetserus, B.C. 283. Lysimachus, 
one of Alexander's generals, had selected 
this place for the reception of his treasures, 
amotmting to nine thousand talents, and he 
committed its government to Philetaerus, 
who revolted. Attains, one of his succes- 
sors, who assumed the title of king, and 
whose name became proverbial for wealth, 
died B.C. 197. Eumenes II., his son, who 
rendered it a large and powerful kingdom. 



PEE 

and collected a library only inferior to that 
of Alexandria, died B.C. 159. It was be- 
queathed to the Komaus by Attains III. B.C. 
133, and, having revolted, was subdued and 
made a Roman province under the name of 
Asia, B.C. 130. It contained one„of the seven 
churches of Asia, mentioned Rev. ii. 12 (a.d, 
96). A council was held here in 152. 

SOVEEEiaNS OP PEEGAMUS. 

A.D. A.D. 

Philetaerus 283 1 Eumenes II. 197 

Eumenes 1 263 Attalus II 159 

Attalus 1 241 I Attalus III 138 

Peega, or Peege (Pamphylia). — At this 
city, renovnied for the worship of Artemis, 
Paul and Barnabas preached with great suc- 
cess (Acts xiii. 13 and xiv. 25), a.d. 45. 

Peeigueux (France).— This town, in the 
old province of Perigord, stands near the 
site of the Roman Vesunna, the capital of the 
Petrocorii. Louis IX. ceded it to the Eng- 
lish, from whom it was finally wrested by 
Charles V. It was a stronghold of the Hu- 
guenots, and was annexed to the French 
crown in 1653. 

Peeim, or Mehttk (Strait of Bab-el-man- 
deb). — This island, commanding the entrance 
of the Red Sea, was occupied by the Eng- 
lish A.D. 1799, on account of the French 
invasion of Egypt. The English withdrew 
in 1801. Another English expedition landed 
here Feb. 1, 1857, and took formal possession 
Feb. 14. 

Peeinthus (Thrace), originally a Samian 
colony, was founded, according to Syncel- 
lus, B.C. 599, butPanofka places its origin as 
early as b.c. 1000. It was taken by the Per- 
sians B.C. 506, besieged b.c. 340 by Philip II. 
of Macedon, who was compelled to abandon 
the enterprise B.C. 339. The Romans were 
totally defeated by Phyrrus in the plain near 
this tovm, B.C. 280. An alliance with Rome 
was formed B.C. 278. It assumed the name 
of Heracleia in the 4th century of the 
Christian aera, and its old imperial palace 
and aqueducts were restored by the em- 
peror Justinian, a.d. 527—565. 

Peeipatetic Philosophy. — This school 
of philosophy was founded by Aristotle the 
Stagirite, who became a pupil of Plato B.C. 
367. He was appointed tutor to Alexander 
of Macedon, at that time thirteen years old, 
B.C. 342, and was assigned the Lyceium at 
Athens as a school wherein to teach his 
disciples, b.c 333. Having been charged 
with impiety and condemned to death, he fled 
to Chalcis, where he died, b.c. 322. From his 
habit of giving lessons while walking in the 
groves of the Lyceium at Athens, his system 
has received the title of the Peripatetic 
school. 

Peeisaboe (Assyria). — This city, also 
called Anbar, was destroyed by Juhan 
during his invasion of Assyria, a.d. 363. 

Perjuet. — The Levitical law punished the 
crime of wilful perjury with deaith (Lev. v. 1) . 
The Greeks had severe laws against it ; but 
it was, notwithstanding, so common amongst 



PER 

them that Grceca fides hecsbvae a proverbial 
expression for false witness. Other ancient 
nations punished it with death or fines ; but 
most frequently it was regarded as an offence 
of so serious a nature that the criminal was 
left to the justice of the gods. The early 
Christians had various laws on the subject ; 
by some of which it was atoned by severe 
penances, while others rendered the perjurer 
excommunicate for hfe. The Anglo-Saxons 
inflicted whipping, and sometimes death, on 
perjurers. By 11 Hen. VII. c. 25 (1494) , per- 
jury committed by unlawful maintenance, 
imbracing, or corruption of officers, or in the 
chancery, or before the king's council, shall 
be punished by the discretion of the lord- 
chancellor, treasurer, both the chief justices, 
and the clerk of the rolls ; and if the com- 
plainant prove not, or pursue not his bill, he 
shall yield to the party wronged his costs and 
damages. By 5 Eliz. c. 9 (1562) perjurers 
were rendered hable to six months' imprison- 
ment, with a fine of £40, and in default of 
payment, to have both ears nailed to the 
piUory. By 8 Geo. I. c. 6 (1722), a quaker 
making a false affirmation incurred the 
penalties of a wilful perjurer. By 2 Geo. 
II. c. 25, s. 2 (1729) , the judges were em- 
powered to sentence persons convicted of 
this crime to transportation or imprisonment 
for seven years ; and the modes of indictment 
and prosecution were regulated by 23 Geo. II. 
c. 11, ss. 1 & 2 (1749). The last-mentioned 
act was amended by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 100, s. 19 
(Aug. 7, 1851) . The Abohtion of Oaths biU, 
5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 62 (Sept. 9, 1835), declares 
the making of a false declaration to be a 
misdemeanour. 

Peexambuco (Brazil). — This city, pro- 
perly composed of the distinct towns of 
Recife and Olinda, was founded by Duarte 
Coelho, A.D. 1530, and was seized and occu- 
pied for thirty days by the English in 1594. 
It was taken by the Dutch Feb. 16, 1630, and 
was the scene of an insurrection in 1661, 
when the governor was arrested by the popu- 
lace, and sent home to Portugal. In 1676 it 
was erected into a bishop's see. An insur- 
rection resulted in the flight of the governor, 
Nov. 7, 1710. Insurrections occurred here 
in March, 1817, in 1821, and 1829. 

Peeitau (Russia) .— Charles XII. of Swe- 
den landed here Oct. 17, 1700, in his campaign 
against the Russians. 

Peeonne (France). — Charles the Simple 
died a captive in its castle a.d. 927. Charles, 
duke of Burgundy, held Louis XI. prisoner 
here in 1468, extorting from him (Oct. 14) 
a treaty by which he abandoned the sove- 
reignty of Burgundy, and consented to aid 
in the suppression of the revolt which he 
himself had excited in Liege. The assembly 
of notables that met at Tours in November, 
1470, declared the treaty null and void, and 
pronounced the duke of Burgundy guilty of 
high treason. Peronne was unsuccessfully 
besieged by the troops of Charles V. in 
1536 ; and here the Roman Catholic league 
was organized by the duke of Guise in 1576. 
Never having been captured, it was formerly 
655 



PER 

styled La Fucelle (the maiden), a designa- 
tion rendered no longer appropriate, as 
Wellington carried it by assault June 26, 
1815. 

Peepetttal Edicts. — One was compiled 
under the directions of the emperor Hadrian, 
by Salvius Julianus, a.d. 132; another, 
stipulating terms of peace between Spain 
and the IS^etherlands, was signed at Marche- 
en-Famine Feb. 12, and at Brussels Feb. 17, 
1577. The brothers John and Cornelius De 
Witt induced the States of Holland to pass 
a perpetual edict abohshing the office of 
stadtholder, a.d. 1667 ; but the aggression 
of Louis XrV. caused it to be repealed 
July 3, 1672. 

PEKPiGifAif (France), said to have been 
founded a.d. 1068, was taken by Louis XI. 
in 1474. It was restored to Spain, but re- 
taken by France in 1642 ; and ceded to that 
country with the province of Eoussillon, by 
the treaty of the Pyrenees, Kov. 7, 1659. 
The university was founded by King Pedro 
in 1349, and a council was held here in 1408. 
Its defences were thoroughly repaired in 1823. 

Peesabme^'ia. — The nobles of Armenia 
rebelled against Artasires about a.d. 440, and 
reduced his kingdom to a province of Persia, 
under the name of Persarmenia. 

Peesectttions. — The most important are 
the ten general persecutions to which the 
early Christians were subjected by the Koman 
emperors. They are as follows :" — 



64. The rhristians are first persecuted by Nero, 
on a charge of having set fire to Rome. 
Tacitus enumerates cnicifixion, burning 
alive, and baiting by dogs and wild beasts, 
among their tortures. 
95. The second pei-secution, under Domitian, 
commences with the banishment of his 
niece DomitOla, and the execution of the 
consul Clemens. 

104. Trajan persecutes. 

16.5. Marcus Aurelius oppresses the Christians. 

198. Septimius Se-vems publishes his edict against 
the Christians. 

235. The favourites of Alexander Severus are bar- 
barously massacred by Maximin. From 
the circumstance of there being many 
Christians among them, the event is styied 
a persecution. 

249. The emperor Dtcius exceeds all his predeces- 
sors in the severity of his persecutions. 

257. Valerian adopts severe measui-es against the 
Chrihtiau". 

27.3. Auvelian publishes edicts against Christianity. 

303. Feb. 24. Diocletian publishes his tir-st edict 
against the Christians, ordering the demo- 
lition of their churches and the execution 
of all who refused to renounce their wor- 
ship. The persecution thus commenced 
was continued with great barbarity for ten 
years. 

Peesepolis (Persia), supposed to have 
been from the earliest times the capital of 
Persia, contained the magnificent royal pa- 
lace which, together with a large portion of 
the town, was bm-nt by Alexander the Great 
in his drunken frenzy, B.C. 331. 

Peesia. — According to the national tra- 
ditions of this country, its first king was 
Mah-a-bad, who taught the inhabitants 
agriculture and the manufacture of metals, 
656 



PER 

and introduced other arts of civilization ; l)ut 
the most general opinion is that the mon- 
archy was founded by Kaiomurs. Councils 
were held in Persia, a.d. 499, in 544, and 553. 



2160. Kaiumarath, or Kaiomurs, founds the Pisch- 
dadian dynasty. 

2010. Persia is tributai-y to Syria. 

1740. Parhang, king of Turan, invading Persia 
with an army of 400,000 men, defeats 
Nodar, and establishrs his own son Afra- 
siab on the Persian throne. 

1730 (about). Afra.=;iab retires to his own country, 
and is succeeded in Pei-sia by Zu or Zoab. 

1661. Afr.isiab invades Persia, and finaUy subverts 
the Pischdadian dynasty. 

642. Kai-Kobad, or Cyaxares, expels the Turani 
from Pei-sia, and establishes the Kaianite 
dynasty. 

640 (about). Persia is invaded and made tributary 
to the Scythians. 

612. Kai-Kobad expels the Scythians. 

606. He takes Nineveh. 

598. Kai-Kaus, king of Pei-sia, is defeated and 
made prisoner by the king of Turan, from 
whom he is rescued by Rustem. 

596. Egj-pt, Syi-ia, Arabia, and Asia Minor, are 
subjected by the Pei-sians. 

559. Cyrus, or Kai-Khosru, becomes king of Per- 
sia, and defeats the Assyrians and Baby- 
lonians. 

551. On the death of Cyaxares II. of Media, that 
country is annexed to Persia by Cyrus. 

548. Cyrus defeats the Egyptians at the battle of 
Thymbra. 

546. Cyrus seizes Sardis and takes Croesus, king of 
Lydia, prisoner. 

543. Cyrus annexes Lydia and Asia Minor to his 
empire. 

538. Cyrus conrjuers Babylon. 

536. Phoenicia is annexed to Persia. The religion 
of Zoroaster is established about this date. 

525. Cambyses conquers Egypt and reduces it into 
a Persian province. 

522. Cam)>yses is slain by accident, and the sove- 
reignty isusui-ped by Smerdis the Magian. 

521. Assassination of Smerdis by seven coi^spira- 
tors, the chief of whom, Darius Hystaspes, 
ascends the throne. 

517. Darius X. takes and destroys Babylon. 

508. Darius I. makes Macedon, Thrace, and the 
countries north of the Indus, tributary 
to his puwer. 

501. The Persians are defeated in the Naxian 
war. 

499. Tlie Athenians assist the Ionian rebels against 
Persia. 

497. War is commenced between the Persians and. 
Greeks. 

494. The Greeks are defeated in the naval battle 
of Lade. 

492. Mardouius invades Greece and is defeated 
both by sea and )and. 

490. Datis and Artaphernes Invade Greece with- 
out success. (See Marathoh.) 

486. The Egyptians revolt. 

484. Xerxes I. suppresses the Egyptian insurrec- 
tion. 

480. Xerxes T. invades Greece. (See ARTEansiCTi, 
Sal^mis, and Thermop-\x^e.) 

479. The Pei-sians, after the defeats of Mycale and 
Platasa {q. v.), retreat from Greece, and lose 
their supremacy in Maced»n and Thrace. 

466. The Persians are defeated at the Eurymedon 
(<?. V ). Ionia resatns her independence. 

465. Assitssination of Xerxes I. by Aitabanus and 
the eunuch Spamitres. 

458. Ai-taxeiTces I. uiaiiles tbe Jewess Esther. 

4-55. An Egj ptian revolt is suppressed. 

449. The (ireeks defeat the Persians at Salamis, in 
Cyprus. 

447. Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, rebels, and com- 
pels Axtaxerxes I. to concede his demands. 

413. The Egyptians shake off the Persian yoke. 



PEE 



401. The Spartans send an army into Pei-sia to 
assist the rebel Cyrus, who is defeated 
and slain at the battle of Cunaxa (q. v.), 
and his Greek allies, under Xenophon, com- 
mence the memorable retreat of the Ten 
Thousand (q.v.). 

396. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, invades Persia, and 
gains many important victories. 

394. The Spartans are defeated by the Persians 
and Athenians at the naval battle of the 
Cnidus (q. v.). 

387. Clazomenae and the Greek colonies of Asia 
Minor are restored to Persia by the peace 
of Antalcidas (q. v.). 

383. The Bithynians render themselves indepen- 
dent of Persia. 

359. Artaxerxes III., or Ochus, disgraces his acces- 
sion by murdering all his relations and 
many of the nobility. 

354. The Thebans assist Artabazus in his revolt 
against Artaxerxes Oclius. 

351. The Sidonians revolt, but being on the point 
of defeat by Ochus, they burn their city 
and perish in the flames. 

350. Ochus invades and subjugates Egypt. 

338. Ochus, with all his family, is poisoned by 
Bagoas. 

334. Persia is invaded by Alexander the Great. 
(See Macedon.) 

331. Oct. 1. Alexander makes himself master of 
Persia by his victoi-y at Arbela {q. vJ. 

330. Darius Coiiomauus is assassinated by Bessus, 
and Persia is added to the Macedonian 
dominions. 

323. On the deaih of Alexander, Persia is seized by 
Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria. 

250. Pei-sia passes under the Parthian dynasty of 
the Arsacidse. 

A.D. 

226. Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, founds the dynasty 
of the Sassanides. 

240. Ardshir abdicates in favour of his son Shah- 
poor or Sapor I. 

258. Shahpoor I. annexes Mesopotamia. 

260. Shahpoor I. takes the Eoman emperor Vale- 
rian prisoner. 

283. The E,oman emperor Carus invades Persia 
and subdues Mesopotamia and Ctesiphon. 

297. The emperor Galerius invades Persia and 

sustains a severe defeat from Narses. 

298. Galerius defeats Narses, and compels him to 

surrender Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and 
other provinces to the Romans. 

326. Christianity is prohibited in Persia, 

337. War is renewed with Rome. • 

348. The Romans under Constantius II. sustain a 
humiliating defeat at Siugara. 

363. April 7. The emperor Julian invades Persia. 
June 26. He is killed while pursuing the 
fugitive Persians on the banks of the 
Tigris. 

366. Iberia is added to Persia. 

412. Yezdijird I. reconquers Armenia. 

420. The death of Yezdijird 1. is followed by a war 

of succession, which terminates iu favour 
of Vahranes or Baharam V. 

421. Arabia Felix is made tributary to Persia. 

422. Another Roman war is commenced. 

428. Armenia is permanently united to Persia. 

430. The Huns invade Persia. 

488. Firoze and most of his sons fall in battle 

against the Huns. 
502. Anastasius I. refuses to pay tribute to Kobad, 

king of Persia, who declares war against 

the Eastern empire. 
540. Chosroes I., or Nushtrvan, invades Syria and 

sacks Antioch. 
573. Dara is taken by the Pei-sians. 
675. Justinian defeats Chosroes I. at the battle of 

Mitylene. 
586. Philippicus gains a great victory over the 

Persians at Solaion. 
590. Baharam heads a general insiarrection against 

Hoormuz, or Hormisdas, who is deposed 

and put to death. 
657 



PER 



590. Baharam is defeated by the Greeks and 
Persian loyalists at the battle of Bala- 
rath. 

611. Chosroes II. overruns Syria. 

614. He completes the conquest of Palestine. 

616. He conquers Egypt and Asia Minor. 

622. Heraclius invades Persia and deleats the Per- 
sians at Beder and Ohud. 

628. Chosroes II. is murdered by his son Siroes, 

and peace is concluded with the Eastern 
empire. 

629. Ardshir, the last male descendant of the 

Sassanides, is murdered. 
636. The Arabs invade Persia and gain the great 

battle of Oade-ia, or Kudseah. 
651. Yezdijird is betrayed to the Arabs, and the 
whole of Persia passes under the Saracen 
yoke. 
813. Taher revolts from the caliph, and establishes 

the Taherite dynasty. 
872. Yakoubben-Seis establishes the Soflfaride 

dynasty. 
874. Ismael Samanee establishes the Saminide 

djrnasty. 
932. The Bowides {q. v.) establish their authority 

in some parts of Persia. 
957. Alp Teain founds the independent principality 
of Ghizni. 
1026. The Peisian poet Ferdusi flourishes. 
1038. The Seljukiau Turks take Persia, and establish 

their dynasty. 
1068. The armies of Alp Arslan conquer Georgia 

and Ai-menia. 
11.57. Persia is convulsed with civil war. 
1194. Defeat and death of Togrel, the last Seljukian 

sultan of Persia. 
1223. Persia is subdued by the Mongols under Zen- 

ghis Khan. 
1258. Holagou Khan, grandson of ZenghiSjConquew 

and governs Persia. 
1299. A terrible famine and pestilence ravage 

Persia. 
1345, Bagdad is made the capital. 
1380. Timour invades Persia. 
1393. Timour completes the conquest of Persia. 
1437. Jehan Shah conquers Georgia and great part 

of Persia. 
1488. Death of the sultan Hyder in battle with the 

king of Shirwan at Gulistau. 
1502. Ismail Shah SooE expels the Turks of the 
White Sheep, and establishes the Soofite 
dynasty. 
1514 Aug. 17. The Turkish sultan Selim gains a 
great victory over the Persians a/fc Kalde- 
roon, or Shaldiran. 
1519. Ismael reconquers (Georgia. 
1534. The Persians defeat the Turks at the battle 

of Sultamah. 
1571. Persia is again desolated by plague and 

famine. 
1574. Casbin, or Kasvin, is made the capital. 
1584. Shah Abbas takes Casbin. 
1590. Peace is purchased from the Turks by the 
cession of Georgia, Erivan, and Tabreez. 
Ispahan is made the capital. 
1598. The district of Lar is annexed to Persia. 
1606. Shah Abbas annexes Lariatan and Kandahar 

to Persia. 
1618. The Turks are defeated at the battle of 
Shib.'ai, and are compelled to surrt-nder 
Sei"via, Erivan, and Tabreez. 
1634. The Turks again take Eiivau and Tabreez. 
1638. They take Bagdad and stain the victory by 

the massacre of 30,00(1 Persians. 
1722. The Affglians defeat the Persians at the battle 
of Goolnabad and take Ispahan. The 
throne is usurped by the Aifghan chieftain 
Meer Mahmoud. 
1724. June 23. A treaty for the partition of Persia 
is signed between Russia and Turkey at 
Constantinople. 
1731. Nadir Khouli expels the Affghans. 
1734. Nov. 28. The Turks are defeated by Nadir 
Khouli, with the loss of 20,000 men, at 
Bagdad. 



2 u 



PER 



A.D. 

1739. 

1747. 



Nadir Shah invades India and sacVs Delhi. 
Assassination of Nadir S^ha.ll, and establisli- 

ment of the Affghan kingdom of Persia. 
1757. Jlazanderan is annexed to Persia. 
1760. The seat of government is transferred to 

Shiraz. 
1783. Georgia revolts to Eussia. 
1796. Aga Mohammed establishes the Kijar or Tur- 
coman dynasty, and makes Teheran his 

capital city 
1800. An alUance is concluded with Great Britain. 
1809. Nov. 9. A British naval expedition carries on 

war against the pirates in the Persian 

Gulf. 
1821. The cholera rages in Persia. 
1826. Sept. 28. AVar is declared by Eussia. 
1829. Peace with Russia is restored by the surrender 

of Erzeroum. 
1847. Salar revolts against the shah in Khorassan. 
18-51. Aug. 1.5. The shah's life is attempted. 
1853. Jan. 6, The shah signs a convention agreeing 

not to send troops to Herat (g.ji.i, unless 

that territory is invaded by a foreign 

power. 
18.54. April. A treaty is concluded with Eussia. 

1856. Oct. 26 The Persians seize Herat, in conse- 

quence of which the British gnvt-mmeiit 
immediat'-ly declares war. Dec. 7. A Bri- 
tish force disembarks near Bushiie. 

1857. Jan. 27. A strong detachment, under General 

Outram. lands at Bushire. Feb. 8. The 
Persians sustain a severe defeat near Khoo- 
shab. March 4. A treaty of peace between 
England and Persia is signed at Paris. 
March 23. The Pei-sians are driven from 
their intrenchments at Mohammerah. 

1858. June 29. Mohammed Khasim Khan, heredi- 

tiiy prince of Pereia, dies at Teheran, aged 
12 years. Sapt. 9. Important 'Administra- 
tive reforms take place. 



ANCIEIfT SOTEEEIGNS OF PERSIA. 



Cyrus 559 

Cambyses 529 

Smerdis 522 

Darius Hystaspes . . 521 

Xerxes 1 485 

Artabauus 465 

Artaxerxes Longi- 
luanus 465 



B.C. 

Xerxes II 425 

Sogdianus 425 

Darius Nothns 424 

Artaxerxes Mnemon 405 
Artaxerxes uchus . . 359 

Arses 338 

Darius Codomanus.. 336 
Alexander the Great 331 



SHAHS OF PEESIA. 



A.D. 
Ismail, or Ishmael 1502 
Tamasp, or Tha- 

mas 1 1523 

Ismail Meerza .... 1576 
Mohammed Meer?a 1577 
Abbas I., the Great 1582 

Shah Soofe 1627 

Abbas II 1641 

Soliman 1(567 

Hussein 1694 

Mahmoud 1722 

Ashraff 1725 

Tamasp, or Tha- 

masll 1729 

AbnasIII 1732 

Nadir Shah 1736 

AdnShah 1747 



A.D. 

ShahEokh 1748 

Interregnum 1750 

Kureeni Khan 1753 

Abool-Fatteh-Khan 1779 

Interreifuum 1780 

Ali-Moorad-Khan 1781 

Jaffier Khan 1785 

Interreemum 1788 

Looft-Ali-Khan .. 1789 
Asa-Mohammed- 

Khan 1794 

Fatteh-Ali-Khan.. 1796 
Mohammed Shah.. 1834 
Nasr-ul-Din, or 
Nausser-ood-d een, 
or Nasser - ud - 
deen-Shah 1848 



Peeth (Scotland), tie ancient capital of 
the kingdom, enjoyed the privileges of a 
burgh A.D. 1106 ; was fortified by Edward I. 
in 1298, and besieged and taken by Eobert 
Bruce in 1311. James I. of Scotland was 
murdered in the Black Friars' monastery, 
Peb. 20, 1437. The Gowrie conspiracy 
occurred here in 1600, and Oliver Cromwell 



PER 

took possession of the city and erected a 
fortress in 1651. An attack upon churches 
and monasteries followed the preaching of 
a sermon by John Knox, May 11, 15.59, and 
led to the introduction of a French gan-ison, 
who held the town for Queen Mary. They 
capitulated to the reformers June 26, 1559. 
Here Prince Charles Edward proclaimed his 
father king, Sept. 4, 1745. (See Aeticlks 
OF Perth.) 

Peru (South America). — The national 
traditions of Peru only date from the 12th 
century of our sera, when monarchical 
government was introduced by the first 
Inca, Manco Capac, who is supposed by the 
natives to have acted by special divine 
appointment. Vasco Nunez de Balboa was 
first informed of its existence by a son of the 
cacique of Comogra in 1512, but was unable 
to eifect any discovery. Part of the coast 
was explored by Pascual de Andagoya in 
1522, and in Kov. 1524, Francisco Pizarro 
sailed from Panama on the first of those 
memorable voyages which resulted in the 
conquest of the country. The term Peru 
is said to be a corruption of Birvi, the name of 
a native chieftain, with whom the Spaniards 
had deahngs during their discoveries. 



Pizarro reaches the coast of Peru, and returns 
to Panama. 

Dec. 28. Pizarro sails from Panama to con- 
quer Peru. 

May. The first Spanish colony in Peru ia 
established at St. Michael's. Nov. 16. 
Pizarro takes the inca Atahuallpa prisoner. 

Aug. 29. Atahuallpa is executed at Caxa- 
niilea. 

Jan. 6. Pizan-o founds Lima.. 

June 26. Pizan-o is assassinated at Lima. 

March. A new system of laws, introduced by 
Vela, occasions civil war in Peru. 

Oct. 20. Tne new laws are revoked. 

Sept. 12. Antonio de Mendoza commences his 
beneficent viceroyalty of Peru. 

Tlie province of Quito is detached from Peru, 
and added t'> New Grenada. 

The provinces of Eio de la Plata, Potosi, 
Charcas, Chiquitos, and others, are sepa- 
rated from Peru, and erected into a dis- 
tinct government. 

Tapac Amaru heads a formidable but fruitless 
insurrection against the Spaniards. 

July 28. Sal) Mai tin proclaims Peru free and 
independent. Aug. 3. San Martinis made 
protector. Sept. 22. He seizes Callao. 
Sept 26. He orders the English squ.adron, 
under Lord Cochrane, to quit the Peruvian 



1535. 
1541. 
1544. 

1545. 
1551. 

1718. 

1778. 



1780. 
1821. 



1834. 
1835. 



May 24. The royalists are defeated at Pin- 
chacha. Sept. 20. The Peru-\-ian congress is 
f irmally installed, and San Martin resigns 
the protectorship. 

Sept. 1. Bolivar is invested with the chief 
authority at Lima. 

Dec. 9. The battle of Ayacucho (g. v.) secures 
the liberties of Peru. 

Jan. 23. Callao, the last Spanish stronghold in 
Peru, surrender^ to the patriotic party. 

Feb. 27. The Peruvians sustain a heavy defeat 
from the Columbians at Tarqui, in Quito, 
in consequence of which a treaty is con- 
cluded between the two republics the 
following day. 

An insurrection under General GamaiTa ia 
suppressed by General Miller. 

Feb. 25. General Salavery seizes Callao, and 
proclaims himself head of the rejjublic. 



PEE 



1835. Aug. 13. His army is totally defeated at 

Yauacocha. 

1836. Feb. 7. Salavery sustains another severe 

defeat, and is made prisoner, in the pass 
of Tingo. Feb. 18. He is executed. 

1837. May 17. War is declared against Chili. 

Nov. 17. Peace is restored. 
1851. April 21. Kiots break out at Arequipa, in 
consequence of the election of General 
Echenique to the presidency. 

1857. Aug. 11. The British chargS d'affaires is 

assassinated. 

1858. Feb. 21. General Vivanco rebels, and bom- 

bards and takes Arica. March 8. The 
insurrection is suppressed by General 
Eamon Castilla. Oct. 26. The ports of 
Ecuador are declared in a state of siege. 

1859. Oct. 9. Castilla announces that he shall 

occupy Ecuador, unless a settled govern- 
ment ia adopted. 

Peetjgia, or Peeitsia (Italy), is first 
noticed in history B.C. 310, when the Peru- 
gians shared in the great defeat of the 
Etruscans by the Eomans at the Vadimo- 
nian lake. They allied themselves with the 
people of Clusium, and renewed the war 
against Eome B.C. 295 ; but, having suffered 
two defeats, were obliged to sue for peace, 
and by the payment of a large sum of money 
obtained a truce for forty years. Perugia 
afterwards became a dependency of Eome, 
and took a prominent part in the civil war 
between Octavian and L. Antonius B.C. 41. 
It was taken by Octavian, pillaged, and burnt, 
B.C. 40, and was restored by Axigustus. The 
bishopric was founded a.d. 57, St. Hercu- 
lanus, a follower of St. Peter, being the first 
bishop. The town was taken and occupied 
by Belisarius in 537 ; was besieged by Totila in 
547, but held out for two years, and only 
surrendered after Behsarius had quitted 
Italy. It was recovered by ISTarses in 552. 
The university was founded in 1320. In 1416 
Perugia came into the hands of Braccio da 
Montone. It was twice visited by the plague, 
viz., in 1348, when 100,000 persons perished, 
and again in 1524, when the celebrated 
painter Perugino died. In 1512 it was 
united to the Papal States by Pope Julius II., 
and in 1540 the citadel was erected by Pope 
Paul III. The bronze statue of Juhus III. 
was erected in 1555 in gratitude for his re- 
storation of many of their privileges. The 
necropolis of Perugia was discovered in 
1840. 

Pebttvian Bakk, {See Baek.) 

Pes AEG (Italy), the ancient Pisaurum, 
of which town nothing is known previous 
to B.C. 184, when a Eoman colony formed 
a settlement. It was one of the first places 
occupied by Caesar after his passage of the 
Eubicon b.c. 49. An earthquake destroyed 
the greater part of the town soon after the 
battle of Actium, b.c. 31- It was restored 
by Augustus. The manufacture of pottery, 
which existed at Pesaro from the time of 
the Eoman emperors, was revived a.d. 1300 by 
Pope Boniface VIII., and attained great 
perfection under the dukes of Urbino in the 
middle of the 17th century. . 

Peschieea (Italy). — This town of Mantua 
was captiired by the Sardinians, May 30, 
659 



PET 

1848, and recovered by the Austrian army 
under Eadetzky in March, 1849. 

Peshawae (Hindostan), the capital of 
a province in the Punjaub, was founded by 
the Mongol emperor Akbar. Eunjeet 
Singh captured the place in 1818. The 
sepoy garrison mutinied Oct. 23, 1848, and 
expelled the resident. Major Lawrence. 

Pestalozzian Schools of education, es- 
tabhshed by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, 
who was born at Zurich, in Switzerland, 
Jan. 12, 1746. He turned his farna into a 
school in 1775, and was compelled to give it 
up in 1780 from want of funds. At the 
request of the Swiss directory, he opened a 
second school in 1798 at Stanz, in Unter- 
walden, but was compelled to retire on 
account of iU health and the interference 
caused by the war. In 1800 he founded an 
educational institution at the castle of Burg- 
dorf. It was broken up in 1825. Pestalozzi 
died Feb. 17, 1827. 

Pesth (Hungary) was built by Arpad 
about A.D. 889, and walled in the 13th 
century. It was for nearly 160 years in 
possession of the Turks, who were finally 
expelled in 1686. An inundation of the 
Danube destroyed 1,200 houses in March, 
1838. The Hungarian revolution broke out 
here Sept. 11, 1848, and Count Lamberg, 
the imperial commissioner, was murdered 
on the Buda-Pesth bridge, Sept. 28. Pesth, 
taken by the imperial forces Jan. 5, 1849, 
was evacuated by them April 21, and bom- 
barded May 4. Near the city is the field of 
Eakos, where the national assembly of the 
Magyars met in the open air from 1268 to 
1525. The Neugebaude, now used as bar- 
racks, was erected by Joseph II. in 1786. 
He also transferred the university from 
Ofen to this city in 1784. The Ludovicium, 
a military school, was built ia 1837, and the 
town-hall in 1844. 

Pestilewce. {See Plague.) 

Petalism. — This form of banishment, in- 
stituted by the Syracusans, was borrowed 
from the Athenian ostracism, the difference 
being that the names were written upon 
olive-leaves instead of shells, and the sen- 
tence lasted only five years. Petalism was 
abolished b.c. 452. 

Petaed. — This implement of war, for 
forcing open the gates of tovras, was first 
used by the French Huguenots at the siege 
of Cahors in 1579, and was soon afterwards 
introduced into England. 

Petchewegans, a Slavonic tribe, famous 
in Byzantine, Eussian, and Hungarian an- 
nals from the 10th to the 12th century. 
After a vain attempt to enter Eussia, they 
occupied the country between the Eussian 
and Greek empires, and concluded a treaty 
of peace with Igor I. a.d. 920. They 
invaded Eussia, for the first time, in 968, 
and laid siege to Kief. It was on the point 
of surrendering from famine, when it was 
reheved by the Eussians, and the siege was 
raised. They defeated Vladimir I. at Vas- 
silef, on the Stugna, in 996, and in the 
following year they laid siege to Bielgorod, 
2 XT 2 



PET 

but were compelled to retreat. The em- 
peror John II. drove them out of Thrace in 
1122, and from that time they ceased to be 
formidable. 

Petelia, or Petilia (Battle). — Spartacus 
was defeated and slain by Crassus near this 
town, in Lueania, B.C. 71. It terminated 
the Servile war. 

Petelia (G-reece), the modern Strongoli, 
was an ancient city of Bruttium, founded, 
according to Greek tradition, by Phiioctetes, 
soon after the Trojan war. It supported 
the Eoman cause during the second Punic 
war, B.C. 216 ; was besieged by the Bruttians 
and Carthaginians, under Hamilco, and, 
having been abandoned by the Romans, was, 
after several months' resistance, compelled 
to sm-render. 

PETEEBOKor&H (Bishopric) was established 
by order of Henry VIII., a.d. 1541. 

Peteeboeotjgh (Northamptonshire). — 
Penda, king of Mercia, having embraced the 
Christian religion, founded a monastery at 
this place, anciently called Medeshamstede, 
about A.D. 655. It was dedicated to St. 
Peter ; and from this monastery the town 
was caDed Petriburgus, — hence its present 
name. Having been plundered and burnt 
by the Danes in the 9th century, it was 
restored in 970. The monastery was burnt 
Aug. 3, 1116. Here King Stephen sum- 
moned a council in 1138, and held his court 
in 1144. King John, in the tenth year of his 
reign, being displeased with the citizens of 
London, removed his exchequer to Peter- 
borough. Edward I. held his parliament 
here in 1317. The cathedral was desecrated 
by the parhamentary forces in 1643. Peter- 
borough has received numerous charters, 
which were aU confirmed in 1796, when a 
new one was obtained. 

Peteehead (Scotland) was founded by 
George Earl Marischal, a.d. 1593. James 
Prancis Edward, the Pretender, landed here 
in 1715 ; and in the same year the estates of 
the Marischal family were forfeited, in con- 
sequence of their adherence to the house of 
Stuart. The town-house was built in 174S. 
The south breakwater was constructed in 
1773, and the north breakwater, commenced 
from designs by Thomas Telford in 1818, 
was, while in an unfinished state, nearly 
destroyed by a storm in 1819. It was, 
however, completed in 1822. 

Peter le Poet, or St. Petee Poet 
(Guernsey).— Edward I. gave orders for a 
pier to be built here, a.d. 1274, for the 
benefit of the commerce of the island ; but 
many delays took place, and the project was 
not executed until 1570. The church was 
built in 1312. Elizabeth granted a charter 
to the islanders, for the collection of petty 
customs, Aug. 28, 1580. It was confirmed 
by James I. June 15, 1605, and renewed by 
Charles II. Feb. 11, 1663. The town hos- 
pital was erected in 1742, and greatly en- 
larged in 1810. Port George was built after 
the commencement of the American war, in 
1775. Queen Victoria landed at Peter le 
Port Aug. 12, 1859. 



PET 

Peteeloo Eiot took place in St. Peter's 
Fields, near Manchester, Aug. 16, 1819. 
IS'early 100,000 persons, belonging chiefly to 
the labouring classes, had assembled in St. 
Peter's Fields, under the leadership of 
Henry Hunt, to petition for reform. The 
mihtary were ordered to disperse them, 
when about six persons were killed and 
thirty or forty wounded. 

Peteesbukg (America). — This town, in 
Virginia, was destroyed by a conflagration in 
July, 1815. The first cotton-mill was erected 
here in 1828. 

Peteesbtjeg-, St. (Eussia), was founded 
by Peter the Great, from whom it takes its 
name, in May, 1703. The Swedes, under 
Charles XII., attacked it June 25, 1705, but 
failed ; and in 1714 a triumphal procession 
took place in consequence of a naval victory 
gained over the Swedes. It was threatened 
by Gustavus III. of Sweden in June, 1788. 
The Hermitage j^alace, commenced iu 
1765, was finally completed in 1804. St. Pe- 
tersburg was inundated by the river Neva, 
Nov. 19, 1824, when many lives were lost, 
and much property was destroyed. The im- 
perial palace was totally destroyed by fire, 
Dec. 29, 1837. 

Peteesbtjeg, St. (Treaties). — The fol- 
lowing are the most important : — 



1715. Oct. 30. An alliance between Eussia and 
Prussia. 

1744 Feb. 4. An alliance between Russia and 
Poland. 

1755. Sept. 30. An alliance between Great Britain 
and Russia. 

17G2. Ma5' 5. Peiice is concluded between Russia 
and Pi-u--sia. 

176G. June Si'. A commercial treaty is concluded 
between Russia and Great Britain. 

1772. Aug. 5. A convention for the partition of 
Poland is entered into by Russia, Austria, 
and Prussia. 

1787. Jan. 11. A commercial treaty is signed be- 
tween France aud Russia. 

1795. Sept. 28. A triple alliance is concluded be- 
tween Great Britain. Russia, aud Austria. 

1805. April 11. A treaty agaiust Bonaparte is con- 
cluded between Great Britain and Russ'ia. 

1812. April 5. An alliance against France is con- 
cluded by Russia and Sweden, the former 
country agreeing to unite Norway to the 
latter. 

Peter's Pes^ce, or Petee-Peitce. — Ina, 
king of Wessex, is said to have imposed a 
tax of one penny upon every house in Eng- 
land, in order to found a school at Rome, 
about A.D. 720. It was called Eom-feoh, or 
Eome-scot. Offa, king of Mercia, levied a 
tax of one penny upon each house in his 
dominions possessed of thirty pence a year, 
for the support of the English school at 
Rome, in 790, and this being afterwards 
extended to all England, and claimed as a 
right instead of a gift, received the name of 
Peter's pence, or Peter-pence. The tax 
occasioned frequent disputes, and was finally 
abolished by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 21 (1534). 

Peter's (St.) College, or Peter-house 
(Cambridge). — This most ancient college of 
Cambridge university was founded by Hugh 
de Balshlm, bishop of Ely, for a master 



PET 

and fourteen fellows, a.d. 1257. Its char- 
ter was dated 1284. Andrew Perne founded 
two 'additional fellowships in 1589, Lady 
Eamsay two in 1601, and Thomas Parke 
four in 1637. Originally seyen of the fel- 
lows of this college were obliged to be 
from the northern counties of England, and 
seven from the southern ; but these restric- 
tions were removed by letters patent, which 
took effect in June, 1839. 

Peterswalbe (Battle). — Napoleon I. de- 
feated a large body of Eussian cavalry, under 
the command of Colonel Blucher, son of 
Marshal Blucher, at this place, in Silesia, 
Sept. 17, 1813. 

Petekswalde (Convention), consisting 
of fourteen articles, was signed between 
England and Eussia, at Peterswalde, in Si- 
lesia, July 6, 1813. It provided for the 
subsidies to be paid by England to Eussia, 
for the maiutenance of the German legion in 
the service of the Czar, and led to the last 
coalition of the aUies against Napoleon I. 

Peterwaedein, or Peteewaradin 
(Austria), is said to have derived its name 
irom Peter the Hermit, who assembld^d an 
army here for the first crusade, a.d. 1096. 
The Turks took the town Jvily 15, and the 
citadel July 27, 1526, and Prince Eugene 
defeated the Turks with great slaughter here, 
Aug. 5, 1716. The Turkish commander and 
30,000 of his troops were slain, and 250 pieces 
of heavy artillery captured. The Hungarians 
having seized it, the Austrians established a 
blockade, and it surrendered Aug. 17, 1849. 

Petitioners. {See Abhoreers.) 

Petition of Eight. {See Bill oe 
Ri&hts.) 

Petitions. — By 13 Charles II. stat.l, c. 5 
(1661), no petition to the crown or parUa- 
ment for the alteration of any matter of 
church or state established by law, was per- 
mitted to bear more than twenty signatures, 
unless it had previously been approved by 
certain stated legal authorities. The subject 
possesses a right to petition the crown, and 
by 1 WiU. & Mary, sess. 2, c. 2 (1689), aU 
prosecutions and commitments on account 
of exercising this right are* invalid. The 
manner of proceeding upon electioneering 
petitions is prescribed by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 98 
(Sept. 4, 1848). 

Petea (Arabia) . — This city, the capital of 
Arabia Petraea, and the modern Wady 
Musa, is mentioned by Pliny as a great 
resort for travellers. It was subdued by 
Trajan's lieutenant, A. Cornehus Pahna, and 
remained for many years under the domi- 
nion of the Eoman emperors. Its neigh- 
bourhood abounds in ruins of the temples 
and mausoleums erected during the Eoman 
occupation. Petra was an ancient episcopal 
see ; Asterius, who occupied this diocese 
A.D. 347, being its first bishop. 

Petra (Colchis). — This town of the Lazi, 
in Asia Minor, was founded by Joannes 
Tzibus, one of Justinian's generals. It was 
taken by Chosroes I., king df Persia, a.d. 
541, and, after a protracted siege, was 
recovered by the Eomans in 551, when it 



PHA 

was finally destroyed. Its ruins are known 
by the name of Oudjenar. 

Petrobussians.— The followers of Peter 
de Brueys, who preached in the south of 
France early in the 12th century, and after 
doing so for about twenty years, was burned 
at the stake at St. GiUes, in Languedoc, a.d. 
1130. According to Peter the Venerable, 
who wrote a work to refute his errors in 
1146, Peter de Brueys denied, " 1. Infant 
baptism; 2. Eespect for churches; 3. the 
Worship of the cross. The cross on which 
the Redeemer was so cruelly tortured ought 
rather to be an object of horror than of ve- 
neration. 4. Transubstantiation and the real 
presence. It is asserted, but not proved, 
that he rejected the Eucharist altogether : 
he probably retained it as a memorial rite. 
5. Prayers, alms, and oblations for the dead. 
To these errors was added an aversion to 
the chanting and psalmody of the Church ; 
he would perhaps replace it by a more sim- 
ple and passionate hymnology." 

Peteopaulovski (Asiatic Eussia), or, 
" the Harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul," the 
principal military station in the province of 
Kamtschatka, was bombarded Aug. 31, 1854, 
by the Enghsh and French squadrons. The 
attack was renewed Sept. 4, and a landing 
eifeeted ; but the expedition proved unsuc- 
cessful, and was abandoned Sept. 7. An 
English squadron was sent again in May, 
1855, when the town and fort were found 
to be deserted, the Eussians having carried 
off" all their guns and munitions of war. 

Pevewset (Sussex) was ravaged by the 
earl of Godwin a.d. 1049. William, duke 
of Normandy, landed here Sept. 28, 1066. 
King John granted it a charter April 27, 
1208, and in the time of Henry III., 1220, it 
was a considerable port. The castle was 
besieged, but without success, by Simon 
Montford in 1265. James I. of Scotland, 
taken prisoner by Henry IV. in 1406, was 
confined in Pevensey Castle for 18 years. 

Pews in churches were not known tiU 
after the Eeformation. The first reading- 
pew is mentioned in Bishop Parkhtirst's 
" Visitation of Norwich," a.d. 1596, and the 
first authority for setting up reading-desks 
is the canon of 1603. The earliest pew 
for the use of the congregation is one in 
the north aisle of Geddington St. Mary, 
in Northamptonshire, bearmg date 1602. 
Another in the same church dates from 1604. 
Women's pews are mentioned in the parish 
accounts of Leverton, in Lancashire, for 
1639, showing that the sexes ware separated 
in church at that time. 

Pfaffendorp (Battle). — The Austrians, 
under General Landohn, were defeated Aug. 
15, 1760, at this place, in Silesia, with the loss 
of 10,000 men, by Frederick of Prussia. 

Phalanx. — The celebrated Greek pha- 
lanx was brought to a state of perfection by 
Phihp II., king of Macedon, in his lUyriau 
wars, B.C. 359. 

Phanakiots.— Greek nobles of Constan- 
tinople, who sorung into existence soon after 
the capture of" that city by Mahommed II., 
^ 661 



PHA 

May 29, 1453. They received tliis name 
because tliey resided in' the Phanar, the 
quarter of Constantinople which surround- 
ed the residence of the Greek patriarch. 

Phakisees. — A Hebrew sect, whose name 
was derived from " Pharash," a Hebrew 
word signifying separated, because they 
made pretensions to superior strictness in 
religious observances. (Luke xviii. 9.) Their 
origin is involved in obscurity, though Jose- 
phus, himself a Pharisee, says they were a 
considerable sect in B.C. 110. He speaks of 
three sects as having been in existence 
B.C. 150,— the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and 
the Essenes. 

Phaemact. — The Egyptians, in the time 
of Osiris, were celebrated for their phar- 
macy, and the art was, at a very early date, 
in high estimation among the Chinese, who 
studied plants, boiled them in water, and 
prepared extracts. The first Pharmacopoeia 
was pubhshed in 1618. The Pharmaceutical 
Society of London was instituted June 1, 
1841, and obtained a charter Feb. 18, 184.3. 
The constitution and management of this 
society, and the quaUfications of pharma- 
ceutical chemists, are regulated by 15 «& 16 
Vict. c. 56 (June 30, 1852). 

Phakos (Egypt).— The name is said to 
have been derived from the pilot of Mene- 
laus, who died here from the bite of a ser- 
pent, on his return from the Trojan war. 
Alexander the Great converted the island 
into a breakwater, B.C. 332, for his pro- 
jected capital of Alexandria, and connected 
it with the mainland by an embankment 
a mile in length. The celebrated light- 
house, or tower of Pharos, commenced by 
Sostratus of Cnidus, B.C. 298, was completed 
in the reign of Ptolemy PhUadelphus, B.C. 
283. 

Phaksalia (Battle). {See Phabsalus.) 

Phaesalits (Greece) , considered by Leake 
to have been one of the strongest cities in 
Greece, is first mentioned after the Persian 
wars. It was besieged by the Athenian 
commander Myronides, B.C. 455, without 
success. Medius, tyrant of Larissa, took 
Pharsalus by force about B.C. 395. It was 
for some time in the possession of the Syrian 
monarch Antiochus, but surrendered to the 
Eoman consul Acilius, B.C. 191. Phar- 
salus is chiefly memorable for the great 
battle fought on a plain in the vicinity, 
between Jiilius Caesar and Pompey, B.C. 48. 
The latter was completely defeated, and 
the victory made Julius Caesar master of 
the Eoman world. 

Phek^ (Thessaly), celebrated in my- 
thology as the residence of Ametus and his 
son Eumelus, the latter of whom took 
eleven ships to the Trojan war. About the 
end of the Peloponnesian war, Lycophron 
estabhshed a tyranny at Pherse, and sought 
to gain the dominion of aU Thessaly. This 
was achieved about B.C. 374 by his son 
Jason, who was assassinated B.C. 370. 
Pherae, with the rest of Thessaly, became 
subject to Macedonia B.C. 352; it surrendered 
to Antiochus, king of Syria, B.C. 191, and it 



PHI 

soon after fell into the hands of the Eoman 
consul Acilius. 

Philadelpheia (Asia), the modem 
AUahsher, founded by Attains Philadelphus 
of Pei'gamus, is mentioned in the Apocalj'pse 
(i. 11) as one of the seven churches of Asia, 
A.D. 96. Strabo says it was subject to fre- 
quent earthquakes, and during the reign of 
Tiberius it was destroyed by one. The Turks 
assailed it frequently, and it was at last 
taken by them under Bajazet I. in 1390. 

Philadelphia (North America). — The 
Swedes penetrated into the country bor- 
dering on Delaware Bay as early as a.d. 1627, 
and this city was laid out in 1682. Accor- 
ding to the design of William Penu, its 
founder, it was to have rivalled Babylon in 
extent aud splendour, but was restricted to 
its present boundaries by the charter of 
1701. The old state-house was erected in 
1735. Here the first congress assembled, 
Sept. 5, 1774, and adopted the Declaration 
of Eights, and here also was promulgated, 
July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. In the autumn of the same year the 
congress retired to Baltimore, and the city 
fell, Sept. 26, 1777, into the hands of the 
British, under Lord CornwaUis, who held it 
tin June 18, 1778. The American Philoso- 
phical College was founded in 1740, and the 
Pennsylvania Hospital in 1750. A conven- 
tion niet here May 17, 1787, and agreed on 
a constitution for the United States, Sept. 17. 
In 1793 and 1798 the yellow fever ravaged 
the city. Philadelphia continued to be the 
capital of the United States till 1800, when 
it was superseded by Washington. The 
university of Pennsylvania was founded in 
1791 by the imion of two previous insti- 
tutions, the first of which was erected in 
1755. The first United States bank, now 
the Girard Bank, built of marble, in the 
Corinthian style, was erected in 1797. The 
Athenasum was founded in 1815 ; the 
Academy of Natural Sciences in 1817, and 
the Jefferson Medical College in 1824. 

Philiphaugh (Battle). — The Eoyalists, 
under the duke of Montrose, were defeated 
with great slaughter by the Covenanters 
under David Leslie, at this village, in Selkirk- 
shire, Sept. 13, 1645. The prisoners were 
butchered in cold blood, and some women 
captured after the battle were drowned by 
order of the preachers. 

Philippeville (Algeria). — This town, in 
the province of Constantia, buUt from the 
ruins of the ancient Eusicade, was founded 
in October, 1838. 

Philippi (Macedonia) derives its name 
from Philip, the father of Alexander, having 
been originally called Crenides, was under 
the dominion of the Thasians B.C. 360. In 
the plain of PhUippi the celebrated battle 
was fought, B.C. 42, when Brutus and 
Cassius were defeated by Antonius and 
Octavius Caesar. This city was visited by 
the apostle Paul, accompanied by Silas, a.d. 
48 (Acts xvi. 12—40), and again on his 
departure from Greece in 56 (Acts xx. 6) . 
The gospel for the first time gained a home 



PHI 

in Europe at Philippi in 62. The ruins of 
the city were visited by D wight and Schaufller 
in 1834. 

Philippics, a name given to the orations 
of Demosthenes against Philip, and after- 
wards appUed to those of Cicero against 
Marc Antony. Demosthenes dehvered his 
first Phihppic B.C. 352, and the second B.C. 
34i. Cicero delivered fourteen Philippics 
against M. Antony, commencing September, 
B.C. 44. 

Philippine Company.— This commercial 
company was formed in Spain a.d. 1785, with 
a capital of £1,200,000. Though many 
valuable privileges were granted to it by the 
crown, and a charter for twenty -five years, 
the speculation proved a failure. 

Philippines (Indian Archipelago). — This 
group, consisting of about 1,200 islands, 
was discovered a.d. 1521, by Fernando Ma- 
galhaens, who gave it the name of the 
Archipelago of St. Lazarus. The Spaniards 
sent a fleet from Mexico in 1564, and made 
a settlement in the island of Zebu, naming 
the islands the Phihppines, after Philip II. 
Another fleet, despatched to Luzon in 1570, 
effected a landing in the Bay of Manilla, 
and took possession of the town of Manilla. 
The Spaniards having made an attack on the 
Sooloo pirates in 1590, were defeated with 
great slaughter. The English took Manilla 
Oct. 6, 1762, but restored it in 1763. 
Another expedition against the Sooloo 
pirates, who had committed many outrages, 
achieved a complete success in 1851. 

Philippolis (Turkey). — This town of 
Thrace was founded by Phihp of Macedon 
on the site of a town called Eumolpias or Po- 
neropolis. The Thracians obtained posses- 
sion, and it remained in their hands until 
they were subdued by the Komans. Philip- 
polis was taken by the Goths a.d. 250, after 
a long siege, during which 100,000 persons 
are said to have perished. The Turks under 
Amurath I. captured and annexed it to the 
Ottoman empire in 1363. It was almost 
destroyed by an earthquake in 1818, and 
suffered from an extensive conflagration in 
1846. 

Philippsburg (Germany), named after 
Phihp von Sotern, archbishop of Spires, 
who founded it after the Thirty Years' war. 
'ihe French took it July 21, 1734, and 
Marshal Berwick was killed under its waUs. 
By an additional article to the treaty of 
Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797, the Austrians 
agreed to evacuate Philippsburg. It was be- 
sieged by the French under Bernadotte in 

1799, the siege being raised April 7. It was 
again invested in August, tlae siege being 
raised Sept. 20. The French returned in 

1800, and it was ceded to them by the con- 
vention of Hohenlinden, Sept. 28. It was 
afterwards restored to Prussia. 

Philistines.— This ancient people, de- 
scended from Ham, the son of Noah, emi- 
grated at a very early date from Egypt 
into Syria, where they gave the name to the 
country since called Palestine (g.u.). They 
reduced the Israelites to subjection B.C. 



PHI 

1156 (Judges xiii. 1), but were compelled to set 
them at hberty by Samson, who destroyed 
their chief nobihty by pulling down the tem- 
ple where they were assembled, B.C. 1117 
(Jud. xvi. 30). In the time of Eli, B.C. 1116 
(1 Sam. iy. 11), they seized the ark of the 
Lord, which they were compelled to restore 
by the miraculous plagues it brought upon 
them, and they sustained a severe defeat 
from Samuel at Mizpeh, b.c. 1096 (1 Sam. vii, 
2—13). Throughout the reign of Saul they 
infested the Israelites (1 Sam. xiv. 52), and 
the death of that monarch occurred while 
fighting against them in Mount Gilboa, b.c. 
1055 (1 Sam. xxxi. 4). David gained several 
victories over the Philistines, and Jehosha- 
phat made them tributary to him, b.c. 912 • 
(2 Chron. xvii. 11); but in the reign of Jeho- 
ram they invaded Judah, and carried away 
the king's wives and sons into captivity, b.c. 
888 (2 Chron. xxi. 17). They again invaded 
Judah, and took Bethshemesh and Ajalon, 
B.C. 740 (2 Chron. xxviii. 18), and subse- 
quently were themselves invaded by the 
Assyrians and Egyptians, who took their 
strong city of Ashdod (q.v.). Pompey 
incorporated Philistria in the Roman pro- 
vince of Syria b.c 62. 

Philosophy. — The term philosophy, or 
the love of wisdom, was first employed by 
Pythagoras, who flourished b.c. 529 ; but phi- 
losophy itself is of much more ancient origin. 
It appears to have flourished in India and 
China in the most remote ages ; and the 
earliest authentic histories we possess of the 
Egyptians and Assyrians represent, their 
priesthood as highly versed m natural and 
speculative science, which they used to 
strengthen their power over the super- 
stitious and the ignorant. Greek philo- 
sophy comprises the following schools : — 
the Academic, Alexandrian, Aristotelian, 
Cynic, Cyrenaic, Eclectic, Eleatic, Epi- 
curean, Ionic, Megarian, Peripatetic, Pla- 
tonic, Pythagorean, Socratic, and Stoic. 
The philosophy of the Romans was de- 
rived from that of the Greeks, but never 
attained equal celebrity. Domitian expelled 
all the philosophers from Rome a.d. 90. 
Mediaeval philosophy commences with Bo- 
ethius, who was born about the year 475. 
The Scholastic school originated in the 9th 
century, and for many years was the only 
system of orthodox philosophy. During the 
10th century the influence of Arabian learn- 
ing was felt throughout the civihzed world, 
and Cordova became the intellectual capital 
of Europe. The Speculative school com- 
menced about 1520, and the inductive method 
of Lord Bacon was published ui the treatise 
on the " Advancement of Learning," in 
1605. The most important modern systems 
of philosophy are the Cartesian, the Coper- 
nican, and the Newtonian, 

Philtek, or Philtka, a potion given by 
the Greeks and Romans to excite love. 
Lucretius is said to have died from drinking 
one, B.C. 52 ; and the madness of Cahgula 
(a.d. 37 — 41) is attributed by some to a 
potion of this sort. 

663 



PHI 

Phintias (Sicily) was founded about B.C. 
280, by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, at 
the mouth of the river Hymera. He peopled 
it with the inhabitants of Gela {q. v.), which 
town he utterly destroyed. It afforded 
shelter to the Koman fleet when attacked 
by that of the Carthaginians in the first 
Punic war, B.C. 249. Cicero mentions it as 
a seaport, carrying on a large trade in corn ; 
but in Strabo's time it had fallen into 
decay. 

Phocis (Greece). — This country, cele- 
brated for the oracle at Delphi, which 
originally belonged to the Phocians, is said 
to have derived its name from Phocus, a 
son of Ornytion. The Phocians, having 
invaded Doris, B.C. 457, were compelled to 
retire by the Lacedsemonians, under Nico- 
medes. The Delphic oracle, which had 
been taken from them by the Delphians, 
was, through the assistance of the Athe- 
nians, restored B.C. 450. In the Peloponne- 
sian war they were zealous allies of the 
Athenians, but, by the treaty of Nicias, 
B.C. 421, the temple was once more given 
into the hands of the Delphians. After the 
battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, the Phocians 
became subject to the Thebans ; but, having 
deserted the alliance, the Thebans, in re- 
venge, induced the Araphictyonic council to 
condemn the Phocians to pay a fine, on 
the plea that they had cultivated the Cir- 
rhaean plain, B.C. 357. This they refused 
to do ; the Amphictyonic council consecrated 
the Phocian territory to Apollo, upon which 
the Phocinns seized the temple at Delphi, 
which* led to the Sacred, or Phocian war. 
Their leader, Philomelus, was killed in a battle 
near the to-mi of !N'eon, and was succeeded, 
B.C. 353, by his brother Onomarchus,who was 
killed B.C. 352, when his brother Phayllns 
assumed the leadership. They were at length 
conquered by Phihp II. of Macedon, their 
towns given up, and themselves expelled from 
the Amphictyonic council, B.C. 344. 

Phcenicia (Syria).— This maritime king- 
dom, one of the most ancient in the world, 
was originally peopled by the sons of Anak 
more than 28 centuries B.C. Some authori- 
ties state that Agenor was the first Idng of 
Phoenicia, .B.C. 1497; but all agree that the 
country itself was the seat of a great nation, 
and renowned for its naval enterprise at a 
much earher period. A colony of Phoenicians, 
led by EUssa or Dido, settled in Africa b.c 
878, and founded Carthage (q. v.). Phcenicia 
was invaded by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 
B.C. 721 ; by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby- 
lon, B.C. 587 ; and by Cyrus, king of Persia, 
B.C. 636. The Phcenicians subsequently 
assisted the Persians in their wars with the 
Greeks, and sustained a total defeat from 
Cimon, at the naval battle of the Eurymedon, 
B.C. 466. Theyrevolted from Persia B.C. 352, 
and were conquered by Alexander B.C. 331. 
After his death, B.C. 323, Phoenicia was an- 
nexed to the dominions of Ptolemy Soter, 
king of Egypt. It was seized by Antigonus 
of Phrygia, B.C. 315, and passed under the 
protectorate of Tigranes, kiug of Armenia, 



PHE 

B.C. 83. It formed part of the Eoman pro- 
vince of Svria B.C. 62, and was finally deprived 
of all its liberties by Augustus, B.C. 20. The 
Turks annexed it to their empire a.d. 1516. 

Phcenix Clubs. — A combination consist- 
ing principally of young tradesmen of Cork 
and Kerry, pledged to rise in rebellion at a 
moment's notice, was discovered in Ireland 
in December, 1858. Daniel Sullivan, in- 
dicted March 30, 1859, for being a member 
of a Phcenix club, was, after three days' trial, 
found guilty and sentenced to ten years' penal 
servitude. 

Phonography. — The Phonetic Society for 
[ the promotion of this science was founded in 
' March, 1843, under the name of the Phono- 
'• gi'aphic Corresponding Society. The P^o>?c^ic 
1 News, a weekly newspaper, commenced Jan. 
6, 1849, but did not enjoy a long existence. 

Phosphoeus was discovered a.d. 1668, by 
an alchemist named Brandt, at Hamburg. 
Nearly all the phosphorus is now manufac- 
tured from calcined bones, called bone-earth. 

Photo-galvakography. — This art, for 
producing engravings from photographs by 
i the galvano-plastic process, was invented by 
' Paul Pretsch of Vienna, and patented in 
England Oct. 29, 1852. 

Photoglyphic Engraving. — This new art 
of engraving by the action of light was 
patented by Mr. Fox-Talbot April 21, 1858. 

Photography. — Thomas Wedgwood was 
the first who tried this process, which he did 
in 1802. Leebeck, in 1810, made some 
striking discoveries, as also did Berard in 
1812. Nicephorus Niepce, in 1814, dis- 
covered what he termed hehography, or 
sun-drawing, — the art of fixing the photo- 
graph. Daguerre made his discoveries 
known in 1839, and the French government 
gave him a pension of 6,000 francs per 
annum. Fox-Talbot communicated his dis- 
covery of paper for photogenic drawing 
Jan. 31, 1839. 

Photolithography. — This art, by which 
a photograph is impressed on a lithographic 
stone, and copies are taken in the ordinary 
way, was invented by Mr. Macpherson, of 
Eome. Mr. Ligar, the surveyor-general of 
Victoria, Australia, applied it to the printing 
of plans in May, 1860. 

Photometer. — This principle originated 
with Bouguer a.d. 1760. Professor Ritchie, 
in 1825, communicated to the Royal Society 
the description of a new photometer. Leslie 
and others have eifected various improve- 
ments in this instrument. 

Photozincography, a name given, in 
March, 1860, by Colonel James, R.E., di- 
rector of the ordnance survey, to a process 
for copying ancient documents and plans. 
The reduced print is transferred to stone or 
zinc, from which any number of copies may 
be taken. 

Phrenology was reduced to a system by 
Dr. Gall, who first propounded his doctrine 
at Vienna a.d. 179fi. Dr. Spurzheim assisted 
him in his investigations in 1800 ; and in 
1807 they removed to Paris, where they 
published their work on the " Anatomy and 



PHR 

Physiology of the Nervous System in general, 
and of the Brain in particular," in 1810 and 
1812. Little was known of phrenology in 
England till 1815, when a severe criticism on 
its promulgators, pubhshed in the Edinburgh 
Meview, directed attention to the subject. 
George Combe was led to a consideration of 
its truth or falsity in 1816 ; and in 1819 he 
published his " Essays on Phrenology," 
which is the chief EngHsh authority on the 
subject. 

Phrtgia (Asia Minor). — The traditions 
respecting the origin of the Phrygians are 
of the most conflicting character. It 
appears that they had their cradle in the 
mountains of Armenia, and that they were 
among the most ancient of the inhabitants 
of Asia Minor. In the "Diad" they are 
mentioned as the aUies of the Trojans. 
They attained the supremacy of the sea 
about B.C. 891, but were excelled by the 
Cyprians b.c. 865. Phrygia was invaded by 
Agesilaus, king of Sparta, in his expedition 
against Persia, B.C. 395; and the district 
known as Great Phrygia was assigned by 
Alexander to Antigonus, b.c. 333. Anti- 
gonus conquered Lesser Phrygia B.C. 319, 
and united the two under one sceptre ; 
but they were again divided on his death, 
B.C. 301, Seleucus annexed both to the 
Syrian dominions B.C. 282 ; but after the 
defeat of Antiochus by Eumenes II. of 
Pergamus, at the battle of Magnesia, b.c. 
190, he was compelled to cede the two 
provinces to that monarch. After the death 
of Attains III. of Pergamus, B.C. 133, 
Phrygia, with the rest of his territories, 
became subject to Eome. It was declared 
free B.C. 120, but gradually relapsed under 
the Roman sway. 

Phylacteet, derived from the Greek, 
and signifying a preservative, consisted of 
four scrips or scrolls of parchment, or the 
dressed skins of a clean animal, inscribed 
with four paragraphs of the law, taken from 
Exod. xiii. 1—10; xiii. 11—16; Deut. vi. 
4 — ^9 ; and xi. 13 — 21, and other passages, 
was worn by the Jews on the forehead and 
arms. The custom, which is derived from 
their interpretation of Exod. xiii. 9 and 16, 
was prevalent during our Saviour's sojourn 
upon earth. 

Phyle (Greece), a strong fortress stiU 
called Fill, commanding the narrow pass 
across Mount Parnes, through which runs 
the road, from Thebes to Athens, is memo- 
rable as the place seized by Thrasybulus and 
the Athenian exiles, B.C. 404, whence they 
commenced their operations against the 
thirty tyrants. 

Physic. — Hippocrates, called the father 
of medicine, born at Cos B.C. 460, usually 
carried his physic about with him. Galen, 
who was born at Pergamus a.d. 131, was the 
first who compounded and sold physic at 
Rome. The College of Physicians in 1696 
established a dispensary for the sale of pure 

Ehysic, and in 1724 obtained an act for the 
etter viewing of drugs. A dispensary was 
established in London in 1732 for supplying 



PIA 

the nobihty and gentry with advice and physic 
at the cost of 2s. a head per quarter. 

Physicians.— By 3 Hen. VIII. c. 11 (1511), 
no one was permitted to practise within Lon- 
don, or seven miles thereof, as a physician or 
surgeon, unless he had been previously ex- 
amined and licensed by the bishop of Lon- 
don or the dean of St. Paul's. The necessity 
for the ecclesiastical warrant was removed by 
the charter of incorporation granted to the 
London physicians by Hen. VIII., Sept. 23, 
1518, which was confirmed by the act for es- 
tabhshing the Royal College of Physicians, 
14 & 15 Hen. VIII. c. 5 (1522-3) . Physicians 
were allowed to practise surgery, and were 
released from holding parish offices, by 32 
Hen. VIII. c. 40 (1540). A stamp duty of 
£15 on physicians' licences to practise was 
imposed by 55 Geo. III. c. 184 (July 11, 1815), 
which was repealed by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 36, 
s. 2 (Aug. 13, 1859). 

Physiognomy. — The first author who at- 
tempted to reduce the study of human cha- 
racter from the outward manifestations of 
countenance and gesture to a regular science, 
was Jean Gaspard Lavater, who pubhshed 
his treatise " Von der Physiognomonik " 
A.D. 1772. 

Physiology. — ^This science treats of the 
phenomena of living bodies in a healthy 
state, and is dependent upon a knowledge of 
anatomy {q.v.). The science of vegetable 
physiology was founded by Grew, whose at- 
tention was directed to the subject in 1664, 
and Malpighi, whose first work appeared in 
1671. They investigated the resemblance 
between the functions of animal and vegetable 
hfe. 

PiACENZA (Italy), the ancient Placentia, 
was colonized by the Romans B.C. 221, and 
plundered by the Goths b.c. 200. It was one of 
the first places that revived after the invasion 
of the northern barbarians, and in the 10th 
century became one of the principal marts of 
the Peninsula. The church of St. Antonio, 
at one period the cathedral, where St. Barna- 
bas is said to have preached to the people, 
founded a.d. 324, was rebuilt in 903, and re- 
stored in 1104 and again in 1562. The cathe- 
dral of Piacenza was consecrated by Pope In- 
nocent II. in 1132, and the ducal palace was 
erected in 1281. Piacenza revolted from the 
Milanese in 1447, and placed itself under the 
protection of Venice ; but was retaken by 
Francesco Sforza in Dec. 1447, and given up 
to pillage. The French, under Louis XII., 
took it ; and it was recaptured by Pope 
Julius II., and remained in the hands of the 
popes till 1545, when Paul III. gave it to his 
son Peter Farnese. It formed part of the 
duchy of Parma until aimexed to the Itahan 
kingdom. 

PiALiA, or PiA, festivals in honour of 
Hadrian at PuteoH, appointed a.d. 142 to be 
held in the second year of each Olympiad. 

PiANOFOETE. — The Itafiaus and Germans 
dispute the honour of this invention. Coimt 
Carli says it was invented a.d. 1718 by Bar- 
tolommeo Cristofori of Padua, during his 
stay in Florence. The Germans ascribe its 
665 



PIC 

invention to C. A. Sehrceter, a German 
organist, in 1717. It has since received 
various improvements. 

PiCAKDS.— This sect of Adamites (q.v.) 
was so called from Picard, a Fleming, who 
raised a rebellion in Germany a. d. 1415. He 
represented himself as the son of God, and 
having penetrated into Bohemia, was defeated 
in battle and slain in 1420. 

PiCAEDT (France). — The name of this 
province does not date earher than a.d. 
1200, when the students from the fi-ontier of 
France and Flanders were called Ficards at 
the Paris university, on account of their quar- 
relsome disposition. In 1435 it was ceded to 
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy ; and in 
1463 it was finally annexed to the French 
crown. 

PiCEifTiifES. — This Sabine tribe, according 
to Strabo, consisted of the inhabitants of 
Picenum transported by the Eomans from 
that town shortly afterits conquest, B.C. 268. 
In the second Punic war they arrayed them- 
selves on the side of Hannibal, for which they 
were afterwards punished by being kept 
from military service, and employed only 
as messengers and couriers. The Eomans 
founded the colony of Salernum in their 
territory B.C. 194, that they might the more 
efi'ectuaUy hold them in check. They 
joined in the Social war against Kome, B.C. 
90, and were subduedB.c. 89. 

PiCHEGEu's CoNSPiEACT, SO Called from 
Pichegru, its chief, a general in the French 
republican army, who devised this plot for 
the restoration of royalty in Fi-ance. He 
was arrested in Paris Feb. 15, 1804, having 
just arrived from London, and was found 
strangled in prison April 5. 

PicQTiET, or Piquet. — This game at cards 
is supposed by Pere Daniel to have been 
invented in France in the reign of Charles 
VII. about A.D. 1430. The earliest French 
piquet cards that have been discovered are 
those formerly belonging to Henin, and 
are assigned to the year 1425. This, how- 
ever, is doubtful. 

PicTS. — The Piets are regarded as a 
Scythian tribe which landed in Ireland 
about the time of the first peophng of these 
islands, and being expelled thence, settled 
in the northern parts of Britain. Claudius 
CaBsar subdued them a.d. 47 ; but they 
subsequently threw ofi'aU control, and proved 
a continual source of alarm to the inhabitants 
of the northern provinces. Several walls 
were erected to prevent their incursions. 
After the departure of the Eomans, their 
inroads became insupportable, and led 
to the invitation of Vortigern to Hengist and 
Horsa to assist him in subduing them in 449, 
and thus to the ultimate estabhshment of 
the Saxons in England. The Picts waged fierce 
wars with their Scottish neighbours for many 
years, and reached their highest point of 
national glory dui'ing the reign of their king 
Ungus the Great, about the year 730. In 
767 the Scotch invaded the Pietish domains, 
and penetrated to their capital, where a 
great battle was fought with doubtful 



PIL 

success. In 839 the Danes invaded their 
territory, and so weakened them that 
Kenneth II. of Scotland asserted his claini 
to the Pietish crown, and in 842 united 
all Scotland tmder one sovereign. {See 
Beitain and Scotland.) 

PiCTUEES. {See Iconoclasts, Images, 
and Painting.) 

Piedmont (North Italy). — This country, 
which forms a considerable portion of the 
Sardinian states, receives its name from its 
situation at the foot of the Alps, and is com- 
posed of the eastern portions of Transpa- 
dane Gaul and the northern part of ancient 
Liguria. It was annexed to the dominions 
of the counts of Savoy a.d. 1220, and on the 
death of Thomas II. in 1233 was erected 
into a separate county under his son Thomas. 
It was again united to Savoy in 1418. During 
the ISth century its territory was increased 
by the annexation of the folio-wing pro- 
vinces : — Alessandria, Valencia, Lomellina, 
and Valsesia, in 1703; Tortona in 1735; 
Novara in 1736 ; and Vigevano, Anghiera, 
Voghera, and Bobbio, in 1745. In 1746 it 
was occupied by the French, and in 1814 
was restored to Sardinia. {See Saedinia 
and Savoy.) 

Pie-poudee, or Pie-powdee Couet, 
held at fairs and markets, was estabUshed 
to decide upon the spot, in all cases of dispute 
between buyer and seller. The name is, 
according to some authorities, derived from 
the French pie poadre, because justice was 
done to an injured person before the dust 
of the fair was off' his feet ; and according 
to others, from pied poiddreux, a pedlar. 
By 17 Edw. IV. c. 2 (1477), the owner of the 
fair or market, or his steward, was for- 
bidden to entertain any action that did not 
originate in the same fair or market. The 
book kept by the Pie-powder court at Bar- 
tholomew fair from 1790 is preserved in the 
City Library at Guildhall. The last entry is — 
" Sept. 2, 1854. The Lord Mayor not having 
proclaimed Bartholomew fair, the court of 
Pie-powder consequently was not held." 

Pieeee, St. (West Indies) . — This town, ia 
the island of Martinico, was founded by a 
French planter from St. Christopher's, a.d. 
1635. It was captured, vrith the rest of the 
island, by the Enghsh in 1762, and again in 
1794 and 1809. The town suffered severely 
from an earthquake in 1839. 

Pietists. — This German sect consisted of 
the followers of Phihp James Spener, who, 
A.D. 1689, attempted to revive, at Leipsic, 
what he called vital religion. With this 
object he formed societies, called Colleges of 
Piety, and this led to violent commotions 
and long and bitter controversies. 

PiGNEEOL (Piedmont). — The French took 
Pignerol a.d. 1630, obtained possession 
by purchase in 1631, and were confirmed 
in their possession by the treaty of West- 
phaha in 1648. Pignerol was restored to 
the duke of Savoy by the treaty of Turin, 
in 1696. The French were driven out of 
Pignerol by the aUies in 1799. 

PiLGEiMAGE OF Geace. — An insurrection. 



PIL 

caused by the suppression of the smaller 
monasteries, broke out in Lincolnshire in 
Sept. 1536, and was suppressed in October. 
The people of York rebelled, for the same 
cause, in December, and termed their revolt 
the Pilgrimage of Grace. They bore ban- 
ners on which the five wounds of Christ were 
displayed, and they demanded the suppres- 
sion of heresy and the restitution of the 
property of the Church. Robert Aske was 
their leader, and they were joined by Lords 
Darcey, Latimer, Scroop, the archbishop 
of York; and others. They seized Htill and 
York, and the duke of Norfolk, who was sent 
against them, induced them to disperse 
about Christmas. Several of the ringleaders 
were executed in 1537. 

Pilgrimages. — One was performed by 
Helena, mother of Constantinel., to Jerusa- 
lem, when she founded the church of the 
Holy Sepulchre, a.d. 326. They became com- 
mon throughout the Christian world about 
500, and continued, notwithstanding the dis- 
approval of many of the "fathers," tUl they 
reached their height about 1000. The prin- 
cipal point of pilgrimage for the Mohamme- 
dans is Mecca, the birthplace of their prophet. 
This pilgrimage is enjoined by the Koran. The 
celebration of the centenary jubHee, by which 
pilgrims to St. Peter's at Eome were pro- 
mised plenary indulgence, was established 
by Boniface VIII. in 1300. It was reduced 
by Clement VI. to a period of fifty years in 
1350. The Hindoos, who perform a journey 
to the temple of Juggernath twice a year, in 
the months of March and July, were in 1806 
subjected to whatwas called the pilgrims' tax, 
which was abolished by the British govern- 
ment in 1839. The three Child-pilgrimages 
of the Middle Ages were among the most 
singular of the phenomena connected with 
religious fanaticism. The first and most 
extraordinary was the Boy-crusade of 1212, 
which was undertaken under the auspices of 
a French shepherd-boy, named Stephen, 
who appeared at Vendome, and announced 
himself divinely commissioned to conduct a 
crusading army of boys to the Holy Land. 
His preaching gathered more than 30,000 chil- 
dren to his standard, and the whole number 
embarked in seven large ships at Marseilles, 
under the false protection of two merchants, 
named Hugh Ferreus and William Porcus. 
A severe storm, which arose two days after 
they sailed, sank two of the vessels with 
all their passengers, of whom not one was 
saved, and the remainder, on reaching the 
Holy Land, were sold as slaves to the Sara- 
cens by their two infamous protectors. Of 
the whole 30,000 who left France, not one 
ever returned. The second Child-pilgrimage 
was confined to the city of Erfurt, and com- 
menced July 15, 1237, when more than 1,000 
children assembled apparently without any 
previous arrangement, and proceeded to 
Armstadt, leaping and dancing, and exhi- 
biting aU the symptoms of the, extraordinary 
dancing mania which at times disturbed 
Europe during the Middle Ages. This agi- 
tation was immediately suppressed by the 



PIO 

parents of the children. The third Child- 
pilgrimage was of still less importance. It 
was made by more than 100 children, who 
set out from HaRe, to Mount St. Michael, 
in Normandy, in 1458, and appears to have 
been successfully performed. 

PiLGEiM Fathees.— The Mayflower, with 
about 100 English puritans on board, sailed 
from Delft haven July 22, 1620, and arrived 
in the northern part of Virginia in Novem- 
ber. An exploring party reached Massachu- 
setts Bay Dec. 11, and the spot was afterwards 
called Plymouth. 

PiLLOKT was in use among the Greeks and 
Eomans. The Gauls also employed it as an 
instrument of punishment, under the name 
of the Boia ; and for centuries it was used in 
most countries of Europe. It was abolished 
in France in 1832, and in England by 1 Vict, 
c. 23 (June 30, 1837). 

PiLNiTz (Germany). — An interview 
took place Aug. 27,1791, between the emperor 
of Austria and the king of Prussia at the 
palace of Pilnitz, the summer residence of the 
kings of Saxony, situated at a village of the 
same name, near Pirna, in Saxony, when they 
agreed to take up arms in behalf of monarchi- 
cal government in France, and recommended 
the sovereigns of Europe to do the like. 

Pilotage. — The estabUshment of pilots at 
particular ports is confirmed either by an- 
cient charters of incorporation, such as those 
possessed by the corporations of Deptford 
Strond {see Deptford) and the Trinity House 
{q. v.), or by special statutes. The laws re- 
lating to pilotage were consolidated by 48 
Geo. III. c. 104 (June 25, 180S), which was 
amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 125 (July 5, 1825). 
Further regulations were made by 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 129 (Aug. 20, 1853), which unites the 
Cinque Ports with the Trinity House pilots, 
and all the regulations on the subject were 
embodied in part V. of the Merchant Ship- 
ping Act, 17 & 18 Vict. c. 104 (Aug. 10, 1854). 

Pine-trees. — The stone pine was intro- 
duced into England from the south of Europe 
before a.d. 1548. The Norway spruce was 
also brought here before 1548 ; the cluster 
pine before 1596 ; the cedar of Lebanon from 
the Levant, before 1683 ; and Sir Joseph 
Banks' pine from Chili, in 1796. 

Pinkie, (Battle,) fought at this place, near 
Musselburgh, between the Enghsh and the 
Scotch, Sept. 10, 1547, to enforce the marriage 
treaty of July 1, 1543, between Edward VI. 
of England and Mary queen of Scots, 
when the latter were defeated with a loss 
of 10,000 men. 

PiNKZow (Poland). — The anti-Trinitarians 
separated from the Protestant churches at a 
synod held here a.d. 1563. 

Pins made of metal were introduced into 
this country from France before a.d. 1643. 
A law enacting how those offered for sale 
were to be manufactured, entitled "An acte 
for the true making of pins," was passed 
(35 Hen. VIII. c. 6) in 1543. 

PiOMBiNO (Italy), at one time the capital 
of a principahty, which included the island 
of Elba, was captured by the Genoese a.d. 
667 



PIE 

1125. The principality was ceded to France 
by the treaty of Florence, March 28, 1801, 
and was bestowed by Napoleon I. on his sis- 
ter Elise, June 23, 1805. Prince Baeciocchi, 
Napoleon's brother-in-law, held possession 
of it from 1805 to 1815. 

Piracy was the national profession, so to 
speak, of the Danish invaders who infested 
Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries. The 
first execution by hangino:, drawing, and quar- 
tering, was that of the pirate William Marsh, 
A.D. 1242. The offence was afterwards re- 
garded with considerable leniency, the only 
rule imposed by 31 Hen. VI. c. 4 (1452), is, 
that pirates robbing passengers with safe- 
conduct, should be compelled to make res- 
titution. By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1535), it 
was made punishable with death without 
benefit of clergr, and further provisions 
were enacted by 28 Hen. VIII. e. 15 (1536). 
The crime was defined, and a distinction 
made between principals and accessories, by 
11 & 12 WiU. III. c. 7 (1700), and further 
provisions on the same points were made 
by 8 Geo. I. c. 24 (1722). A bounty was 
awarded for kilhng or capturing pirates 
by 6 Geo. IV. c. 49 (June 22, 182.5), which 
was repealed by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 26 (June 25, 
1850). The penalty for pii-acy was made 
death when the crime is aggravated by 
attempted murder, and transportation in 
other cases, by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 88 
(July 17, 1837). 

PiRjiASENS (Battle).— The French, under 
General Moreau, were defeated by the 
Prussians, commanded by the dulce of 
Brxmswick, at this town oi Bavaria, vrith a j 
loss of twenty-two pieces of artillery and 
4,000 men, Sept. 14, 1793. I 

PiKNA (Germany) was taken by the 
Swedes a.d. 1639. The united Austrians 
and Saxons were defeated here by the king j 
of Prussia in 1745, and the king of Poland 
blockaded the Saxon camp in Sept. 1756. 
The suburbs were fired by the Prussians, 
and 260 fine houses destroyed, Nov. 10, 
1758. The intrenched camp, at Pirna, 
strengthened by Napoleon I. in 1813, was 
taken by the allies the same year. 

Pisa (Italy). — Nothing certain is known 
of the origin of this town. Livy mentions 
that a Latin colony was sent to Pisa, at the 
request of the inhabitants, about b . c . 179. It 
became subject to Eome in the middle of 
the 5th century, and passed successively 
into the hands of the Goths, the Longo- 
bardi, and the CaroUngians. Under the 
last it became an independant community, 
with a nominal allegiance to the emperors. 
The Saracen pirates were defeated near the 
town by the Pisans, a.d. 874. Hugo of 
Provence came to Pisa in 926, and received 
the homage of the great feudatories as king 
of Italy. The Saracens made an attack on 
the town in 1005, and again invested it in 
1012. The Pisans, in conjunction with the 
Genoese, wrested the island of Sardinia 
from the Moors in 1022. At this time Pisa 
was a republic, and, during the centuiy, main- 
tained the maritime supremacy of the Medi- 



PIT 

terranean. A war commenced between Pisa 
and Genoa in 1070, which lasted, at inter- 
vals, for more than two centuries, and 
ended in the ruin of Pisa. In a naval battle 
in 1284, the Pisans lost the greater part of 
their fleet, and above 16,000 men in killed 
and prisoners. The Genoese attacked and 
destroyed the Porto Pisano, and blocked up 
the entrance with sunken ships filled with 
stones in 1290. In 1405 the citadel and 
other strongholds were sold to the Floren- 
tines by Marshal Boucicault, but the citizens 
soon retook the citadel. The Florentines 
then blockaded Pisa, and took possession of 
the to^vn Nov. 8, 1406. When Charles 
VIII. of France visited Italy, in 1494, and 
showed hostility to Florence, the Pisans 
drove out the Florentines and restored the 
republic under the protection of France. 
Pisa was besieged by the Florentines, with- 
out success, in 1499, again in 1504; and 
they took the town by blockade June 8, 
1509. Pisa was then united to Florence. It 
was taken by the French in 1799, and deli- 
vered up by "them to the allies, Feb. 20, 1814. 
It was annexed to Sardinia by a vote of the 
people taken March 11 and 12, 1860. The 
cathedral, a magnificent Gothic building, 
was commenced in the 11th century. Coun- 
cils were held at Pisa, May 30, 1134; 
March 25 to Aug. 7, 1409 ; and Sept. 1, 1511. 

PiSTOJA (Italy). — This town, anciently 
called Pistorium, was of no importance in the 
time of the Eomans. It was inclosed within 
walls by Desiderius, the last of the Lom- 
bard kings, who reined from a.d. 756 to 
774. It became an independent municipa- 
lity, and was subjugated by Florence about 
1150. A citadel was built in 12.52. The feuds 
between two branches of a Pistojan family, 
named Cancellieri, at the close of the 13th 
century, originated the factions of the 
Bianchi and Neri, which spread to Florence, 
and caused much nusery to both cities. 
The Florentine Neri blockaded Pistoja, 
which surrendered April 14, 1306, on con- 
dition of safety to life and property. The 
victors, however, committed cruel barbari- 
ties, and razed the waUs to the ground. It 
then became subject to Florence. The ca- 
thedral was built early in the 12th centur;^. 
The palace del Commune, or degli Anziani, 
dates from the 13fh century, and the epis- 
copal palace from the 18th century. 

Pistol. — Grose states that this fire-arm 
derives its name from having been invented 
at Pistoja, in Tuscany. The Mheel-lock 
pistol was common in Germany as early as 
A.D- 1512, and became the characteristic 
weapon of the Eeiters, or Pistoliers, who 
were enrolled soon after. Pistols were used 
in France in 1544. Double-barrelled pistols, 
and pistols capable of discharging two or 
three balls from a single barrel without re- 
loading, were invented about the middle of 
the 16th century, and the flint-lock is first 
mentioned in connection with pistols in 1588. 

Pitcairn's Island (Pacific Ocean) was 
discovered by a young officer named Pit- 
cairn, belonging to the ship Carteret, a.d. 



PIT 

1768, and was visited by Capt. Cook in 1777. 
The mutineers of the JBounty established a 
colony on this island in 1790, consisting of 
9 British sailors, 6 native Tahitian men, and 
12 women. Through dissensions and mas- 
sacres, there remained, in 1800, only one 
Englishman, Adams, the Tahitian females, 
and 19 children. Captain Beechy found an 
interesting colony of 66 persons here in 
1825. A scarcity of water caused the colony 
to be transferred to Tahiti in 1831 ; but after 
remaining five months', they returned to Pit- 
cairn's Island in 1832. 

Pitt Administbatiox. — The first Pitt 
administration was formed soon after the 
dismissal of the Coalition ministry (q.v.), 
which took place Dec. 18, 1783. WUham 
Pitt, at that time not quite twenty-five 
years of age, was made first lord of the 
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 
Dec. 19. Lord Stanhope remarks that it 
consisted of seven cabinet ministers, of 
whom only one, the prime minister, was a 
member of the House of Commons. It was 
thus constituted : — 

Mrst Lord of the Trea- ) 

siuy and Chancellor of > William Pitt. 

the Exchequer ) 

Lord Chancellor Lord Thurlow. 

President of the Councn{X.^^^^V,'^:^7^''' 
Privy Seal Buke of Rutland. 

( Lord Sydney, made Vis- 
Foreign Secretary < count Sydney June 9, 

( 1789. 

( Marquis of Caeinnarthen, 
Home Secretary .< afterwards duke of 

( Leeds. 
A^™^-„i+^ /Lord Howe, created Earl 

Admiralty | Howe in July, 1788. 

The ministry held its first meeting Dec. 23, 
1783. After an interval of a few weeks, the 
duke of Richmond, as master-general of the 
ordnance, was admitted to a seat in the 
cabinet. The marquis of Caermarthen was 
succeeded in the home office, June 5, 1789, 
by Mr. William Wyndham Grenville, after- 
wards Lord Grenviile, who took the foreign 
office in May, 1791, and was succeeded at 
the home office by Mr. Henry Drmdas, 
afterwards Lord MelviUe. He became colo- 
nial secretary July 11, 1794, and was re- 
placed at the home office by the duke of 
Portland. Viscount Sydney resigned the 
secretaryship for foreign affairs in May, 
1791, and was succeeded by Lord G-renviUe. 
The third secretaryship of state for war and 
colonies, suppressed at the peace of 1782, 
was re-established in 1794, when Mr. Henry 
Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, received 
the appointment. Mr. Windham, as secre- 
tary at war, obtained a seat in the cabinet 
in 1794. The privy seal was placed in com- 
mission March 8, 1784, Earl Grower, after- 
wards marquis of Stafibrd, receiving the 
appointment Nov. 24; it passed to Earl 
Spencer July 11, 1794; to the earl of Chat- 
ham Dec. 17, 1794; and to theearl of West- 
moreland Feb. 14, 1798. Lord, afterwards 
Earl Camden, replaced the marquis of Staf- 
ford as president of the council, Dec. 1, 1784. 



PLA 

He was succeeded, July 11, 1794, by Earl 
FitzwiUiam, who gave place to the earl of 
Mansfield, Dec. 17, 1794. The earl of Chat- 
ham was made lord president Sept. 21, 1796. 
The earl of Chatham succeeded Earl Howe 
at the admu-alty in July, 1788, and was re- 
placed by Earl Spencer March 4, 1795. Lord 
Thurlow resigned the lord chancellorship 
June 12, 1792, the great seal being placed in 
commission until January, 1793, when Lord 
Loughborough became lord chancellor. 
Difficulties respecting Roman Catholic eman- 
cipation led to the resignation of Mr. Pitt 
early in 1801. The acceptance of office as 
prime minister was communicated to the 
House of Commons by Mr. Abingdon, 
Feb. 10, and his name appeared in the Ga- 
zette as chief of a new administration. (See 

Addington Administkation-. ) Pitt's 

second administration was formed on the 
dissolution of the Addington administration 
(q.v.). May 10, 1804, and Mr. Pitt's ap- 
pointment was gazetted May 12. The ca- 
binet was thus constituted : — 

First Lord of the Trea-) 

suiy and Chancellor of VMr. Pitt. 

the Exchequer ) 

Lord Chancellor Lord Bldon. 

Pi-esident of the Council. .Duke of Portland. 

Pi-ivy Seal Earl of Westiuoreland. 

Foreign Secretary Lord HaiTowby. 

Home Secretary ( '^'°''^ Hawkesbury, after- 

■^ I wards earl of Liverpool. 

Colonial Secretary Earl Camden. 

Admiralty Viscount Melville. 

Sir Charles Middleton, afterwards Lord 
Barham, succeeded Viscount Melville at the 
admiralty April 30, 1805. The duke of Port- 
land was succeeded, Jan. 14, 1805, as privy 
seal by Mr. Addington, created Viscount 
Sidmouth Jan. 12, who was followed by 
Earl Camden, July 10, 1805. Lord Mul- 
grave succeeded Lord Harrowby as foreign 
secretary, Jan. 11, 1805, and Viscount Cas- 
tlereagh became colonial secretary when 
Earl Camden took the privy seal, July 10, 
1805. This administration was dissolved by 
the death of Mr. Pitt, Jan. 23, 1806. (See 
All the Talents Administkatiok.) 

Pittsbtjeg (North America) . — This town of 
Pennsylvania was the scene of the defeat of 
the Enghsh army under General Braddock 
by the Americans, July 9, 1755. 

PiTJBA, or San Migxjel (Peru). — This city, 
founded by Pizarro, a.d. 1531, was the first 
Spanish settlement in Peru. 

Placentia. (See Piacenza.) 

Plague and Pestilence. — " The terms 
pest, pestilence, and plague," says a writer 
in the new edition of the " Encyclopaedia 
Britannica," " were long employed in Great 
Britain, as were the corresponding terms in 
other languages, both in ancient and in 
modern times, to denote rightly a disease 
attacking a great number of persons siniul- 
taneously and in succession, and destroying 
a large proportion of those whom it attacked ; 
in short, a widely -diffused and mahgnant 
epidemic." The following table exhibits a 
List of the most terrible visitations of this 



PLA 



PLA 



kind. Provisions for the relief of plague- 
stricken persons were made by 2 James I. 
e. 31 (1604), which was repealed by 7 
Win. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 91, s. 4 (July 
17, 1837). (/See Lazaeetto and Quaeaii- 

TINE.) 
BC. 

1491. The Egyptians are visited by a terrible pes- 
tilence on the occasion of the Israelitish 
exodus. 
1471. The mntinotis companions of Korah, Dathan, 
and Abiran, to the number of 14,700 per- 
sons, perish by pestUen^ e. 
1017. A pestilence in Palestine destroys 70,000 per- 
sons in three days. 

790. A terrible plague occurs in Italy. 

710. The army of Sennacherib perishes before 
Jerusalem. 

594 A third pai-t of the inhabitants of Jerusalem 
is destroyed by plague. 

480. The Persian aiTQy in Greece loses 150,000 
men from pestilence. 

452. Nearly half the population of Rome perishes 
from plague. 

435. A pestilence breaks out in Athens. 

427. A pestileiice commences in Egypt, and extends 
almost throughout the known world. 

366. The plague rages tearfully at Rome, wliere, at 
its height, it is said to have destroyed 10,000 
citizens daily. 

201. The destruction of vast swarms of locusts 
occasions a plague in Italy, and it continues 
for many years. 

126. Africa is devastated by a plague occasioned 

by putrid swarms of locusts, and 800,000 

persons die in Numidia, and 200,000 in 

Carthage. 

89. The Roman army loses 10,000 men from a 

plague. 
30. A pestilence rages throughout the known 
world for five years. 

A.D. 

40. Babylon and all the countries between Italy 

and India suffer from plague. 
80. At Rome 10,000 persons perish daily. 
88. Rome loses 30,000 of its inhabitants from 

pestilence. 
92. A plague in Scotland destroys about 160,000 
persons. 

114 A pestilence breaks out in Wales, where 
45,000 persons die. 

195. The whole of Italy is ravaged by the plague. 

218. Scotland loses 100,000 of its populace from a 
pestilence. 

250. Plague rages throughout the world. 

262. The mortality in Rome from plague is said to 
number 5,000 persons daily. 

325. Britain is visited by a deadly pestilence. 

450. Pestilence breaks out at Rome, and i-ages for 
seventeen years. 

502. Scotland is visited by a fatal epidemic. 

.5S5. The whole of Europe is ravaged by pestilence 
which continues several years. 

590. A fatal plague desolates Rome. One of its 
symptoms was a violent tendency to 
sneeze, inconsequence of which it hecame 
usiial to address a person sneezing with the 
v/ords Dominus tecum, "God blessyou," or 
similar expressions. 

717. Constantinople loses 30,000 of its population 
this year. 

749. Another plague breaks out at Constan- 
tinople and rages with such malignity 
that the survivors are too few to buiy the 
dead. 

762. England and "Wales are visited by pestilence 
which is said to have carried off 34,000 per- 
sons in Chichester alone. 

874 A destructive epidemic, caused by the putrid 
bodies of immense swarms of h ousts, deso- 
lates the northern parts of Gaul. 

940. The northern countries of Europe are ravaged 
by aterrible mortality among human beings 
and cattle, 40,000 persons dying in Scotland 
alone. 
670 



1096, 
1120. 

1172. 
1221, 
1235. 

1316. 
1334 

1337 

1346, 



1365. 
1374 

1394 
1401. 

1445. 

1485. 



1504, 
1517. 



152.4 
1525, 



1541, 
15.51, 
1.557, 

1563, 
1565, 



The true plague appears in various parts of 
the globe, and cai-ries off more than half 
its inhabitants. 

A great pestilence rages in England and Con- 
stantinople. 

England, Holland, and Palestine are deso- 
lated by a pestilence. 

A pestilential period of 272 years commences 
at this date. England suffers from erj'- 
sipelas, and loses one-thii-d of its inhabi- 
tants in five years. 

Dysentery ravages England with pestUeutial 
fatality. 

The whole of Europe is visited by famine 
and plague. 

England suffei-s from famine and leprous 
diseases, 20,000 persous dying in Lundon 
alone. 

Fever and dysentery prevail in E'igland with 
the fatal viiTdeuce of the tnie plague. 

China is visited by a pestilence which destroys 
500,000 of the inbabitauts of the city of 
Tche. 

A famine occasions a pe'itilent epidemic in 
China, which carries off 4,000,000 persons 
in the neighbourhood of Kiaug. 

A plague commences in China, ravages 
the whole of Asia, and depopul.ates the 
entire extent of Em-ope. The mortality 
in Florence is differently estimated at from 
60,000 to 100.000 persons. In London 
50,000 died in one week. Venice lo^es 
100,000 of its inhabitants, Liibeck 90,000, 
and 200,000 perish in Spain. This dread- 
ful epidemic continued until the follow- 
ing year. 

Another plague destroys 900,000 people 
in China, 14 000 at B^sel, 16,000 at 
Erfurt, 50,000 at Paris, 50,000 at Norwich, 
56,"00 at Marseilles in one month, 62,000 at 
Avignon, and 100,000 in London. Spain 
loses two-thirds of its inhabitants, and 
Ireland is nearly depopulated. 

Cologne and its neighbourhood lose 20,000 of 
its inhabitants. 

St. "Vitus's Dance rages with epidemic violence 
at Aix-la-Chape)le, and extends to nearly 
all the cities of Belgium. 

Spain is visited by a plague which destroys 
10,000 persons in the city of Valnncia. 

London loses 30,000 persons from epidemic 
disorders, and 14,000 die of dysentery at 
Bordeaux. 

Asia, Italy, Germany, Fi-ance, and Spain 
suffer from pestilences for some years 
about this time. 

The " sudor Anglicus," or sweating sickness, 
breaks out with great violence in the 
army of the earl of Richmond, afterw.ards 
Henry VII. 

The venereal disease appears at Rome, where 
it rages as a pestilential fever. 

A great plague breaks out in England. Loudon 
loses 30,000 of its inhabitants, and the 
king and court retire to Calais. 

China is visited by a pestilence. 

The sweating sickness aga'n rages in England, 
and carries off its victims within three 
hours after their fii-st attack. 

MUan loses 50,000 of its inhabitants. 

The sweating sickness extends its ravages to 
Germany, Holland, Norway, Denmark, and 
France. 

A fatal plague rages furiously in Constan- 
tinople. 

The sweating sickness rages for the last time 
in London. 

Spain is nearly depopulated by a new pes- 
tilence, which originates among the Spanish 
Arabs. 

Famine and pestilence destroy 20,000 people 
in London. 

A very fatal epidemic prev.ails in Fi-auce, and 
.. destroys many lives at Constantinople, 
Alextndria, Vienna, Cologne, Dantzic, 
Leyden, and London. 



PLA 



A.D. 

1577. July 6. The gaol fever breaks out at Oxford, 
owing to the filthy state in which the pri- 
souei s were brought to trial, and carries off 
610 persons in a few days. The assizes 
are known in consequence as the " Black 



1579. 



1610. 
1618. 



1635. 
1646. 



1662. 
1664 



1675. 
1710. 



1717. 
1720. 

1736, 
1751. 

1763. 
1769. 



1772. 
1781. 

1792. 
1799. 



A pestilential catarrh dpstroys 8,000 persons 
in Liibeck, 4,000 in Rome, and 3,000 in 
Hamburg. A plague also breaks out at 
Grand Cairo, where 500,000 people die in 
eight months. 
Russia suffers from a famine and plague, 
of which 500,000 die, and 30,000 perisa 
in Livouia. 
A frightful plague ravages England, and 
destroys 36,000 persons in London. Paris 
also suffers from a similar epidemic. 
Spain suffers from frt,tal epidemics, and 
200,000 people die of plague at Constan- 
tinople. 

A plague rages in North America, and reduces 
the Massachusetts tribe of Indians from 
3,0ii0 pei'sons to 300. 

The whole ot England is visited by the plague, 
which carries off 30,000 persons in London 
alone. 

Pestilence destroys 60,000 persons at Lyons. 

An extraordinary pestilential fever destroys 
many lives in Fi'ance. It was attended by 
mortification of the extremities, which 
frequently dropped off spontaneously. 

Leyden loses 20,000 of its inhabitants from 
an epidemic pestilence. 

The yellow fever rages with great violence 
in the West Indies, 12,000 persons dying at 
Barbadoes and St. Christopher's. 

Epidemic disorders carry off SOO.'OOO persons 
in the southern provinces of Spain. 

A pestilence rages in many parts of Europe, 
and destroys 200,000 lives in Moscow, 13,200 
at Amsterdam, 13,000 at Leyden, and 9,000 
at Riga. 

The Neapolitan territories are desolated by 
the plague, which carries off 400,000 of the 
inhabitants. 

Venice loses 60,000 of its inhabitants from a 
pestilence. 

Nov. 2. The Great Plague commences in Lon- 
don and destroys 68,596 persons. It ex- 
tended to all parts of the city and subxurbs, 
and ceased in May, 1666. 

The plague destroys 11,300 persons at Malta. 

The sweating sickness carries off 30,000 per- 
sons in Stockholm, and 25,000 in Copen- 
hagen. 

The true plague destroys 80,000 lives at 
Aleppo 

Marseilles and its neighbourhood suffer from 
a visitation of the plague. One district 
loses 87,659 persons out of a population 
of 247,899. 

A pestilence rages at Grand Cairo in February 
and March, and destroys 100,000 people. 

A contagious fever carries off 150,000 persons 
at Constautinople, and 30,000 people die of 
famine and plague in Cyprus. 

Naples loses 20,00J of its inhabitants from a 
malignant fever. 

A famine, attended with pestilence, carries 
off more than 3,000,000 people in Ben- 
gal. 

Famine and pestilence destroy 168,000 persons 
in Bohemia, 20,000 persons in Russia and 
Poland, and occasion a weekly mortality of 
1,000 persons at Constantinople. 

The plague carries off 133,299 persons at 
Moscow, and 80,000 persona at Bassorah. 

The Asiatic cholera breaks out in Hin- 
dostan, aud destroys 20,000 lives. (See 
Cholera.) 

Egypt loses 800,000 of its population from the 
plague. 

A severe pestilence destroys 247,000 persons 
in Fez, and occasions an average mortality 
of 3,000 daily throughout the Barbary 
states. 



PLA 



1810. A pestilence of the yellow fever type breaks 
out at Gibraltar, where only twenty-eijrht 
men out of a garrison of 14,000 escape its 
attacks. 

1812. The plague carries off 160,000 persons in 

Constantinople. 

1813. The plague at Malta destroys 4.483 live'<. 
1825. Gi-and Cau-o loses 30,000 persons from a 

pestilence. 
1834. The plague rages with great fatality in 

Egvpt. 
1847. In Glasgow about 15,000 persons die of an 

epidemic remittent fever. 

Planets. — Mercury, Venus, Mars, 
Jupiter, and Saturn, were known to the 
ancients. The four satellites of Jupiter 
were discovered by Galileo A. D. 1610. Saturn 
has eight satellites. Titan was discovered by 
Huygens in 14.55 ; Japhet in 1671, Ehea in 
1672, Tethys and Dione in 1684,— these were 
all discovered by Cassini; Mimas and En- 
celadus by Sir WiUiam Herschel in 1789 ; 
Hyperion by Lassell and Bond in 1848 ; and 
Chiron by Goldschmidt in 1861. The planet 
Uranus, Herschel, or Georgium Sidus, was 
discovered at Bath by Sir W. Herschel, March 
13, 1781. In 1787 he discovered its satellites, 
Oberon and Titania, and subsequently four 
others, which have never been observed 
since. Two more within the orbits of those 
previously noticed, were discovered by 
Lassell and Otto Struve in 1847. The planet 
Neptune was discovered independently by 
Messrs. Adams and Le Verrier, Sept. 23, 
1846, and its satellite by LasseU in 1847. 

The following list exhibits the date of 

discovery of the asteroids. They are usually 
characterized by the number expressing the 
order of their discovery, which is inclosed in 
a small circle. 



Date. 


Name of Planet. 


Discovered by 


A.D. 

1801. Jan. 


1 


Ceres (1) 


Piazzi. 


1802. Mar. 


2^ 


Pallas (2) 


Olbers. 


1804. Sept. 


1 


Juno (3) 


Harding. 


1807. Mar. 


2Ji 


Vesta (4) 


Olbers. 


1845. Dec. 


f^ 


Astrjea (5) 


Hencke. 


1847. July 


i 


Hebe (6) 


Ditto. 


1847. Aug. 


13 


Iris (7) 


Hind. 


1847. Oot. 


IH 


Flora (8) 


Ditto. 


1848. April 26 


Metes (9) 


Graham. 


1849. April 12 


Hygeia (10) .... 


De Gasparis. 


1850. May 


11 


Parthenope (11) 


Ditto. 


1850. Sept. 


18 


Victoria (12) .... 


Hind. 


1850. Nov. 


2 


Egeriail3) 


De Gasparis. 


1851. May 


19 


]reije(14) 


Hind. 


1831. July 


29 


Eunomia (15) 


De Gasparis. 


1852. Mar. 


17 


Psyche (16) 


Ditto. 


1852. April 


17 


Thetis (17) 


Luther. 


1852. June 


24 


Melpomene (18) 


Hind. 


1852. Aug. 


22 


Fortuna (19) 


Ditto 


1852. Sept. 


19 


Massilia(20) .... 


De Gasparia. 


1852. Nov. 


15 


Lutetia(21) .... 


Goldschmidt. 


1852. Nov 


16 


Calliope (22) .... 


Hind. 


1852. Dec. 


15 


Thalia (23) 


Ditto. 


1853. April 


5 


Themis (24) .... 


De Gasparis. 


1853. April 


7 


Phocea (25) 


Chacoruac. 


1853. May 


5 


Proserpine (26) . . 


Luther. 


1853. Nov. 


8 


Euterpe (271 .... 


Hind. 


1854. Mar. 


1 


Bellona(28) .... 


Luther. 


1854. Mar. 


1 


Amphitrite (29) 


Marth. 


18-34. July 


22 


XJrauia (30) 


Hind. 


1854. Sept. 


1 


Euphrosyne (31) 


Ferguson. 



PLA 



PLA 



A.D. 

1854. Oct. 

1854. Oct. 

1855. April 
1855. ApiTl 19 
1855. Oct. 

1855. Oct. 

1856. Jau. 
1856. Feb. 
1856. Mar. 
18.-6. May 22 

1856. May 23 

1857. AprU 15 
1857. May 27 
1857. June 
1857. Aug. 16 
1857. Sept. 15 
1857. Sept. 19 
1857. Sept. 19 

1857. Oct. 4 

1858. Jan. 
1858. Feb. 6 
1858. AprU 4 
1858. Sept. 10 
1858. Sept. 10 



1859. 

1860. 



1881. 
1861. 
1861. 
1861. 
1861. 
1861. 
1861. 
1861. 



Sept. 22 
Mar. 
Sept. 12 
Sept. 14 
Sept. 19 
Oct. 

Feb. 10 
Mar. 4 
Mar. 9 
April 10 
Api-U 17 
April 29 
April 29 
May 5 
Aug. 13 



Name of Planet. Discovered by 



Pomona (32) ... 
Polyhymnia (33) 

Circe (34) 

Leucothea (35) . 

Fides (36) 

Atalanta (37) ... 

Leda (X8) 

Laititia (39) . . . . 
Hannonia (40) . , 
Daphne (41) ... 

Isis (42) 

Aiiadne (43) . . . , 

Nysa (44) 

Eugenia (45) 

Hestia (46) 

Aglaia(47) 

Doris (48) 

Pales (49) 

Virginia (50) . . . . 

Nemausa (51) 

Europa (52) 

Calypso (53) 

Alexandra (54) . . 

Pandora (55) 

(56)» .... 

(57) 

Concordia (58) . . 
Olympia (59) . . . . 
Titauia (60) . . . . 

Echo (61) t 

Erato (62) 

Ausonia (63) 

Angelina (64) 

Maximiliana (65) 

Maia (66) 

Asia (67) 

Leto (68) 

Hesperia (69) . . . . 

Panopea (70) 

Niobe (71) 

(72): 



Goldschmidt. 
Chacomac. 

Ditto. 
Luther. 

Ditto. 

Goldschmidt. 
Chacumac. 

Ditto. 
Goldschmidt. 

Ditto. 



Ditto. 
Goldschmidt. 

Ditto. 
Pofrson. 
Luther. 
Goldschmidt. 

Ditto. 
Ferguson. 
Laurent. 
Goldschmidt. 
Luther. 
Goldschmidt. 
Searle. 
Goldschmidt and 

Sihubert. 
Luther. 

Ditto. 
Chacornac. 
Ferguson. 
Goldschmidt. 
Lesser audForster 



Tempel. 
Ditto. 
Tuttle. 
Pogson. 
Luther. 
Schiaparelli. 
Goldschmidt. 
Luther. 



Plantageh-et, derived from planta 
genista, the broom plant, a sprig of which 
Geoifrey, the founder of the house, wore in 
his cap, is the name of a hne of fourteen kings 
who reigned in England from a. d . 1154 to 1485. 
The first monarch of the house, Henry II., 
ascended the EngKsh throne Dec. 19, 1154. 
The second, Richard I., during whose reign 
and that of his predecessor a complete fusion 
of the Saxon and Norman elements of the 



* M. Goldschmidt was searching for the planet 
Daphne, Sept. 9, 1857, when he came across an 
object, whifh he took to be that planet, and observed 
it as such. In No. 1,160 of the Astronomische 
MacMrehter, M. Schubert, of Berlin, showed that 
the planet observed by M. Gold-chmidt was not 
Daphne, but a new planet. The new planet was in 
vain sought for on many occnsions, till at last it was 
re-d'igcovered by M. Goldschmidt, Aug. 27, 1861. It 
received the name of Melete, though previously to 
its optical re-difcovery, it had been known by the 
name of Pseudo-Daphne. 

t On its discovery, this planet received the name 
of D<tnae ; but as that name ratber closely resembles 
Daphne, to prevent confusion, the name Echo has 
been substituted. 

X A new planet, observed by mistake for Maia (66), 
by Dr. Peters, of Hamilton College, America, in May, 
1861. In a recent number of the AstronoTnische 
JfachircJiter, Mi: Saffoni shows the planet observed 
bv Dr. Peters on that occasion to be a new one. 
This planet is remarkable for having the least mean 
distance of any of those yet discovered. 
' 672 > 



country took place, succeeded July 6, 1189. 
The family was divided into the two branches 
of Lancaster and York on the death of Eichard 
II., who was succeeded by Henry IV. Sept. 29, 
1399. The line closed with Eichard III., 
Aug. 22, 1485. 

Plantations. — This name was originally 
apphed to colonies {q.v.). {See Boaed of 
Tbade.) 

Plasset, (Battle,) was fought at Plassey, 
a village of Bengal, June 23, 1757. The 
English force, under the command of Colonel 
CHve, consisted of about 1,000 Europeans and 
2,100 Sepoys, while the army of the soubah- 
dar of Bengal amounted to 50,000 foot, 18,000 
horse, with 50 pieces of cannon. Clive gained 
a complete victory, which gave Bengal into 
the hands of the Enghsh, and laid the foun- 
dations of our empire in India. 

Plastee of Pasis. — The method of taking 
casts from the human face in this material 
was invented by the Florentine artist Andrea 
Yerocchio, who was born a.d. 1432, and died 
in 1488. Plaster of Paris was first employed 
as a manure in France in 1776. It derives 
its name from the abundance in which it is 
found near Paris, especially at Montmartre. 

Plata, La (SouthAmerica), was visited by 
the Spaniard Juan Diaz de Solis, who landed 
at the mouth of the river, and took formal 
possession in the name of the long of Spain, 
a.d. 1515. The first settlement was made by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1530 ; and Don Pedro de 
Mendoza founded Buenos Ayres in 1535. 
The Jesuits commenced missionary work in 
the 17th century ; but they were suppressed 
in 1768. The country was, excepting some 
trifling commercial privileges allowed in 1602, 
and renewed in 1618 and 1622, kept dependent 
on Peru tiU 1777. A royal " audiencia" was 
estal)lished at Buenos Ayres in 1665 ; the 
last fleet which had monopoUzed the trade 
between Europe and Spanish America, which 
had dvdndleddownto an insignificant amount, 
sailed from Cadiz in 1748; and free trade 
with several of the American ports was per- 
mitted in 1774. The Portuguese settlement 
in Brazil extended to the shores of the river 
in 1553 ; and a definite boundary was esta- 
bhshed between the colony and the Indians 
to the south in 1740. The various provinces 
were erected into a vice-royalty in 1778. 
Repudiating the sovereignty of Joseph Bona- 
parte, the country organized an independent 
government in the name of Ferdinand VII., 
May 25, 1810. A sovereign constituent 
assembly was convened at Buenos Ayres in 
January, 1813, which continued in power till 
dissolved in April, 1816 ; andageneralcongress 
declared the independence of the provinces 
July 9, 1816. General Puyerredon remained 
supreme director tiU 1820. After various 
attempts to recover their authority, the 
Spaniards were finally defeated by the troops 
of the repubhc in July, 1821. Great Britain 
recognized its independence in 1824 ; and a 
blockade of the port of Buenos Ayres by a 
Brazilian fleet, instituted January, 1826, was 
raised through British intervention, in Octo- 
ber, 1828. The Argentine Confederation 



PLA 

(q.v.) was formed in January, 1834, General 
Rosas attained absolute power in 1835. At 
the request of Brazil, England and France 
sent out a combined fleet, which forced the 
chains Eosas had drawn across the mouth of 
the river, and destroyed the batteries he had 
erected at Point Obhgado, Feb. 19, 1845. 
The states opposed to the despotic rule of 
Eosas entered into a treaty to depose him ; 
and Greneral Urquiza, at the head of their 
troops, totally defeated the army of the 
dictator on the plains of Moron, Feb. 2, 1851. 
A federal constitution was published at 
Santa Fe, May 1, 1853. The country con- 
tinued divided into two parties and distinct 
governments, and treaties of commerce, con- 
cluded between them in December, 1854, 
and January, 1855, were annulled March 18, 
1856. 

Plate. — The exportation of gold or silver 
plate without a Mcence was prohibited by 
9Edw. in. St. 2, c. 1 (1335). By 8 Will. III. 
c. 8 (1696), provision was made for convert- 
ing wrought plate into coin; and tax- 
coUectors were authorized to receive the 
land-tax in plate instead of money. The 
sale of plate that has not been stamped at 
the assay office renders the seller liable to a 
fine of £50 by 24 Geo. III. c. 53 (1784), and 
the counterfeiting of the assayer's stamps 
was made a capital offence by 52 Geo. IH. 
c. 143, s. 8 (July 23, 1812). The penalty was 
commuted to transportation or imprisonment 
by 1 Will. IV. c. 66 (July 23, 1830). The 
laws relating to the assay of gold and silver 
plate were amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 
(Aug. 10, 1854). 

Plat^a (Greece) is mentioned by Homer 
B.C. 962. It resisted the supremacy of 
Thebes ; formed an alliance with Athens, 
B.C. 519; and furnished a thousand men to 
the battle of Marathon, Sept. 28, b.c. 490. 
The people fought at Artemisium, b.c. 480 ; 
and the city was burnt to the ground by 
the Persians. The Persian general Mar- 
donius was defeated with a loss of up- 
wards of 200,000 men, by the Greeks 
under Pausanias, at Plataea, B.C. 479. A 
small party of Thebans failed in an attempt 
to take the city b.c. 431. It was besieged 
by the Peloponnesian army, when the 
Platseans sent off their old men, women 
and children to Athens, B.C. 429. The 
besiegers having failed in an attempt to 
take it by assault, raised a circumvallation 
of two parallel walls, with a ditch on either 
side of the city, over which one half of the 
besieged made their escape to Athens, 
B.C. 428. Owing to want of provisions, the 
remainder surrendered, and were put to 
death b.c 427. The survivors received 
from Athens the town of Scione B.C. 420; 
and having been restored to their native 
city, it was surprised by the Thebans and de- 
stroyed B.C. 372. They were again reinstated 
by Philip II., b.c. 338. The city is mentioned 
by Hierocles in the 6th century, and its 
walls were restored by Justinian I., a.b. 527 
—565. 

PiiATiKra,— The art is of great antiquity. 
673 



PLO 

By 5 Hen. IV. c. 4 (1403), all work of thia 
kind upon copper or latten was prohi- 
bited except in ornaments for the church, 
of which some part was to be left uncovered 
to show the copper or brass. The modern 
method of plating with silver on copper wjs 
invented by Thomas Bolsover, an ingenious 
mechanic of SheflReld, in 1742. 

Platinum, or Platina.— This important 
metal was not known before the middle of 
the 18th century. Mr. Wood met with the 
ore in Jamaica a.d. 1741, and introduced 
it into Europe. He published a paper de- 
scribing it in 1750. 

Platometek. — This apparatus for mea- 
suring areas of regular and irregular plane 
figures was invented by Mr. John Lang, of 
Kirkcaldy, Dec. 24, 1851. 

Plattsbukg (North America) . — The gov- 
ernor-general of Canada, Sir G. Prevost, 
having planned an expedition against this 
town, a flotilla from Lake Champlain, and 
thelandbatteries, opened fire simultaneously; 
but several assaults having failed, the enter- 
prise was abandoned Sept. 11, 1814. 

Plat-grounds. — In 1858 an attempt was 
made to form a society to provide play- 
grounds for the recreation of children of 
the humble class, and an act was passed 
April 19, 1859 (22 Vict. c. 27), to facilitate 
grants of land near populous places for the 
use of regulated recreation for adults and 
as play-grounds for children. 

Plebeians. — The people, as opposed to 
the patricians or nobles of Rome, revolted and 
obtained a decree of the senate to have two 
of their order elected annually as tribunes, 
B.C. 490. Three plebeians were created de- 
cemvirs about B.C. 450. Military tribunes 
were chosen from the plebeians about B.C. 
400 ; and two plebeians were raised to the con- 
sulate about B.C. 365. A plebeian was chosen 
one of the censors B.C. 351, and two ple- 
beians were appointed B.C. 131. 

Plessis les Tours (France). — This castle 
was sui'rounded with a triple fortification by 
Louis XI., who retired here a.d. 1482, and 
died Aug. 30, 1483. An assembly of the 
states was held in the grand apartment of 
the castle, at which the deputy from Paris 
bestowed upon Louis XII. the title of 
"Father of his People," in May, 1506. 

Plots, Rebellions, &c. — The following 
are the most important conspiracies and 
insurrections connected with English his- 
tory : — 



1051. Godwin, earl of Kent, rebels against Edward 
the Coufessov. 

1071. Hereward de Walle rebels against William I. 

1074. Earl Waltheof and other Norman barons 
rebel. 

1088. Eobert, duke of Normandy, assisted by his 
uncle Odo, bishop of Bayeux, conspires 
against William II. 

1095. Robert Mowbray heads a conspiracy for de- 
thi-uniug William II., and conterring the 
crown on his cuusin, the earl of Albemarle. 

1102. Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, opposes ihe 
accession of Henry I. 

1137. Several nobles conspire in favour of the em- 
press Matilda, and begin the civil wars of 
Stephen's reign. 

2 X 



PLO 



IITS. Queen Eleanor and her sons conspire against 
Henry II. 

1213. The barons take arms against King John 

1222. ConstHntine Fitz-Arnulph heads an insur- 
rection for making Louis, son of Philip of 
France, king of England. 

1233. Eichaid, earl of Pembroke, forms a confe- 
deracy against Henry ITL and his minister 
the bishop of Winchester. 

1264 Simon de Montfort commences the Barons' 
war {q.v.). 

1270. A rebellion of the Irish is suppressed. 

1312. The barons league aiiainst Gaveston. 

1322. The earl of Lancaster conspires with the 
Scotch against Edward II. 

1326. Queen Isabella and the barons commence the 
conspiracy which results in the dethrone- 
ment of the king. 

1329. An insurrection in the south of Ireland. 

1381. "Wat Tyli^r's insurrection {q. v.). 

1388. A conspiracy by the duke of Gloucester 
against his nephew Richard II., is alleged 
to have been formed this year. 

1393. The Ii'i-h rebel. 

1399. Hemy Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster, con- 
syires against and riethrones Richard II. 

1401. The Welsh revolt under Owen 61en<iower. 

1402. The Percies conspire agniust Hemy IV. 
1408. The eai-1 of Northumbeiland and Owen Glen- 
dower rebel. 

lfi.5. The earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir 
Thomas Grey, form a plot for making the 
earl of March king. 

14.50. Cade's itrsurrection {q. v.). 

14-52. The Yorkist insurrection against Henry VI. 

14d9. Sir John Conyers and others rebel against 
Edward IV. 

1470. The earl of Warwick and the duke of Clarence 

cause Edwaid IV. to be detlironed. 

1471. Edward IV. rebels against Henry VI. and 

recovers the crown. 

1483. Richard, duke of Gloucester, conspires against 
his nephew Edward V., and obtains the 
crown. The duke of Buckingham and 
the bishop of Ely form a plot lor the de- 
thronement of Richard III. 

1486. Lambert Suunel's insurrection. 

1493. Perkiu Warbeck's insurrection. 

1497. Flammock's rebellion iq. v.). 

1-505. The duke of Suffolk conspires against 
Henry VIT. 

1534. June 11. Fitzgerald, earl of Kildare, rebels 
in I) eland against Henry VIII. 

1536. Dr. Mackerel, under the assumed name of 
Captain Cobler, heads an insun'ection of 
the Roman Catholics of Lancashire. The 
Yorkshire insurrection, known as the Pil- 
grimage of Grace, breaks out {q. v.). 

1549. June 9. The inhabitants of Devon and Corn- 
wall rebel under Arundel. Ket, the 
tanner, heads an insurrection in Norfolk. 

1553. The duke of Northumberland conspires in 

favour of Lady Jane Grey. 

1554. Feb. 7. Sir Thomas Wyat rebels against 

Queen Mary, in conspquence of her 
intended marriage with Philip of Spain. 

15.56. Clover's rebellion is suppressed in Norfolk. 

1557. Sir Thomas Stafford heads a rebellion in 
Yorkshire. 

1559. Dr. Story plots against Queen Elizabeth. 

1564. The sons of Cardinal Pole conspire against 
the queen. 

1569. The earls of Northumberland and Westmore- 
land rebel. 

1579. The Irish rebellion under Fitz-Maurice is 
suppressed. 

1.581. The Jesuit Campion conspires against the 
queen. 

1584. Throgmorton's conspiracy is defeated. 

1586. Babynton's conspii-acy {q. v.). 

1594. The plot of Roderigo Lopez is detected. 

1597. The earl of Tyrone rebels in Ireland. 

1601. The Essex conspiracy {q. v.). 

1603. Sii- Walter Raleigh and others conspire against 
James I. and in favour of Arabella Stuart. 
(See Byb and Main Pixmb.) 
674 



PLU 



1603- Nov. 4. The Gimpowder Plot (g-v.). 

1007. Captain Pouch's insurrection in Warwickshire 

and Northaiupt >u is suppressed. 
1608. Sir Cahir O'Doherty's insurrection breaks 

out. 

1641. Oct. 23. Phetim O'NeU's Ulster rebellion (g. v.). 

1642. The Great Rebellion commences. 

1643. Edmund Waller, the poet, conspires agaUist 

the parliament. 

1654. Gerrard, nicknamed " the Generous," con- 

spires against Cromwell. 

1655. The insurrections of Pemuddock and Synder- 

comb are suppressed. 
1658. Sexby conspire.-, to assassinate Cromwell. 

1660. The insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men 

against Charles II. is suppressed. 

1661. Veuner's insuiTection is suppressed. 
1665. The plot of Colonel Dauvers is frustrated. 
1670. Dec. 6. Colonel Blix)d's conspiracy commences 

with the seizure of the duke of Ormoud. 

1678. Aug. 12. Oates's Popish plot is disclosed. 

1679. The Meal-tub plot [q.v.). 

1683. June 12. Discovery of the Rye-house plot 

(q.v.). 
1685. June 20. The duke of Monmouth rebels at 

Taunton. 
1689. Claverhouse, Lortl Dundee, rebels In Scotland 

against William and Mary. 
1696. Feb. 14. The Assassination plot is discovered. 
1703. Simon Frazer'a plot for placing the son of 

James II. on the throne is frustrated. 
1711. GuiscarU conspires against the ministers. 
1715. Sept. 6. The earl of Mar's rebellion in favour 

of the Pretender breaks out iu Scotland. 
1718. J.aines Shei>pard, a maduxan, conspires agauist 

the life of Ge'>J:ge I. 
1722. Failure of Lnyer's conspiracy {g. v.). 
1740. A Jacobite confederacy in favour of the Pre- 
tender is formefi in Scotland. 
174.5. Aug. 19. The Scotch rebellion in favour- of the 

Pretender commences. 

1761. The Whiteboy insurrectiun in Irelamd. 

1762. The Levellers rise in Ireland. 

1769. The bteelboy insurrection breaks out in 

Ireland. 
1775. The American rebellion commences, 
1784. The Iiish Peep-o'-Day boys rise. 
1786. The Right-boys rebel in Ireland. 
1794. Home Tooke and othei-s are tried on a charge 

of implication in the conspii-acies of the 

Con-espondiug Society {q. v.). 
1798. A rebellion, under Lord Eaward Fitzgerald, 

breaks out in Ireland {g. v.). 
1803. July 23. Emmett's in-ureection in Ireland. 
1815. A rebellion breaks out in Tipperary. 
1817. The Greer.-bag inquiry {q.v.). 
1820. Failure of the Cato-stieet conspiracy {q. v.). 
1837. Papineau's "Sons of Liberty" rebellion is 

suppressed in Canada. 
1848. Smith O'Brien's insurrection is suppressed 

in Ireland. 

1857. The native troops rebel in India {q.v.). 

1858. The supposed conspiracy of the Phoenix 

Society is frustrated in Ireland. 

Plowcze (Battle).— The Teutonic knights 
were defeated by the Poles and Lithuanians 
at this place, in Poland, a.d. 1331. Accor- 
ding to Polish historians, 20,000 of the van- 
quished were left dead on the field, while 
they themselves only lost 500 men. 

Plum-tree. — It is behaved that some 
varieties of the plum are indigenous to 
England. Pliny states that it was brought 
from Syria to Greece, and that it was after- 
wards imported into Italy and France. Lord 
Cromwell imported several varieties from 
Italy during the reign of Henry VIII. The 
date-plum was introduced from Barbary 
before 1596, and the Pishamin plum from 
North America before 1629. The green-gage 
was introduced into Prance by Claude, 



POE 

founded in 1572 ; the Red-boys' school was 
established by will dated 1632 ; a school and 
asylum for orphans was founded in 1625 ; 
Charles's almshouses were built in 1679; the 
Grrey school was founded in 1713 ; and the 
Athenaeum was opened Feb. 4, 1819. A 



PLTT 

queen of Francis I. ; the American red-gage 
was first raised in 1790 ; and the Washington 
plum was imported from America in 1821. 

PlueaI/Ities. — The holdiog of more than 
one benefice with cure of souls was strictly 
prohibited by the council of Lateran, a.d. 

1215, except in the case of men specially j mechanics' institute was established in De^ 
eminent for learning, who were sometimes | cember, 1827. 

permitted to enjoy more than one benefice, Plymouth (North America). — At this 
provided they were not more than thirty place, in Massachussetts, the Pilgrim Fathers 
mUes distant from each other, and he landed a.d. 1620. An annual festival is 
agreed to reside iu each of them for some i held Dec. 22, in what is termed the Pil- 
reasonable time every year. The holding ' grims' HaU, built in 1824, to commemorate 
of plurahties in the Anglican church was i the event. 

restrained by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529), | Pltmoxtth Beethben. — This section of 
which was amended by 57 G-eo. III. c. 99 1 the Christian church derives its name from 
(July 10, 1817). Both these statutes were having originated at Plymouth about a.d. 
repealed by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 14, 1830. The chief doctrinal peculiarities of the 
1838), which prohibited more than two pre- 
ferments, or one preferment and one bene- 
fice, to be held together, and reduced the 
distance permitted between two benefices 
enjoyed at the same time to ten miles. The 
laws relating to pluralities were amended 
by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 98 (Aug. 14, 1850) ; and 
provisions for the union of contiguous bene- 
fices were made by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 127 

(Aug. 14, 1855). 

Plymouth (Devonshire) is supposed to 
have been the Tameorwerth of the Saxons. 
At the time of the Conquest (a.d. 1066) it 
was known as Sutton, or South Town ; 

acquired the name of Sutton Prior and 

Sutton Valletort in the reign of Edward I. ; 

and was incorporated by the name of Fly- 
mouth in 1439. Here Edward the Black 

Prince embarked on his expedition to France 

in 1355, and landed on his return with his 

royal captives. In the reigns of Edward III. 

and Henry IV., the French landed and 

attempted to burn the tovra, but were 

driven back to their ships. The plague 

committed great ravages in 1579 and 

1581. A body of Spaniards made a descent 

on the coast in July, 1595 ; but their 

progress was soon checked, and twenty-two 

chests, full of papal buUs, dispensations, and 

pardons, were seized and burnt in the 

market-place of Plymouth. Charles I. and 

his court, with 120 ships and 6,000 troops 

from Portsmouth, remained here for ten 

days in 1625. The royahsts besieged the 

town from September, 1643, to the end of 

the year. It was afterwards blockaded for 

nearly a year and a half, but the parhament- 

arians kept possession of the town. After 

the Restoration the present citadel was 

built, and the fortifications improved. A 

fire occurred in the dockyard, and destroyed 

500 tons of cordage, 700 sails, and 1,050 tons 

of hemp, on the night of July 3, 1761. 

Another fire broke out in the dockyard in 

five different places simultaneously, and con- 
sumed stores and buildings to the value of 

£149,880, on July 27, 1770. The last fire 

occurred on Sept. 27, 1840, when several 

ships and a large quantity of timber were 

destroyed. The celebrated breakwater at 

Plymouth, commenced Aug. 12, 1812, was 

completed in 1841. The grammar-school waa 
675 



brethren are their professed adherence to the 
Christianity of the New Testament, and their 
condemnation both of estabhshed and non- 
conformist churches, the former of which 
they consider too latitudinarian, in desiring 
to embrace within their pale the whole popu- 
lation of a country, and the latter too secta- 
rian, because they exclude all but the mem- 
bers of their own party = They hold that 
the presence of the Holy Ghost constitutes 
a church, and that doctrine, and not ordina- 
tion, is the test of a divinely-appointed 
minister. 

PoDESTA, termed by HaUam (Middle Ages, 
chap. iii. p. 1) " a new and singular species 
of magistracy," was introduced into the 
Lombard cities about the end of the 12th 
century. Frederick I. appointed podestas, 
instead of the elective consuls a.d. 1158, and 
this office was abolished in 1159. "When 
revived by the citizens themselves, after the 
peace of Constance in 1183, the podesta 
was made the criminal judge, and preserver 
of the peace. 

PoDOLiA (Russia). — This PoHsh province 
was ceded to the Turks a.d. 1672, andhaving^ 
been recovered by the Poles, was conquered 
and annexed to Russia in 1772. 

PoET-LAUEEATE. — Disracli remarks (Cu- 
riosities of Literature), "The custom of 
crowning poets is as ancient as poetry 
itself." Petrarch received the laurel crown 
at Rome on Easter-day, a.d. 1341. Maxi- 
milian I. founded a poetical college at 
Vienna in 1504. In England the king's 
versifier existed as early as 1251. Chau- 
cer assumed the title of poet-laureate about 
1369. The title of king's poet-laureate first 
occurs in the reign of Edward IV. (1461 — 
1483), when one John Kay held the office. 
The first patent was granted in 1630. 

POETS-LAUEEATE. 

Andrew Bernard, in the reigns of Henry VII. and 

Hemy Vlil. 
Jolin Skelton, torn about the middle of the 15th 

centuiy ; died June 25, 1529. 
Edmund Spenser, born, about 1553 ; died Jan. IS, 

1599. 
Samuel Daniel, born in 1562 ; died Oct. 13, 1619. 
Ben Jouson, born in 1573 ; died Aug. 6, 1637. 
Sir WUliam Davenant, bom in Februaay,1605 ; died 

April 7, 1688. 

2x2 



POE 

John Dryden, bom in 1630 ; deposed from the office 

in 1688 ; and died May 1, 1700. 
Thomas ShadweU, bom in li>40 ; died in November, 

1692. 
Nahum Tate, bom in 1652 ; died in 1715. 
Nicholas Kowe, bom in 1673 ; died Dec. 6, 1718. 
Eev. Laurence Euoden, bom (date uncertain) ; died 

Sept. 27, 1730. 
CoUey Gibber, bom Nov. 6, 1671 ; died Dec. 2, 

1757. 
WiUiam Whitehead, bom in 1716 ; died April 14, 

1785. 
Thomas Wharton, bom in 1728; died May 21, 

1790. 
Henry James Pye, bom July 10, 1745 ; died Aug. 

10, 1813. 
Robert Southey, bom Aug. 12, 1774 ; died 

March 21, 1843. 
William Wordsworth, born in 1771 ; died April 21, 

1850. 
Alfred Tennyson, bom in 1809. 

POETET has in all ages and in every nation 
been the original form of literary composi- 
tion. "It is the first step by which our 
nature raises itself above the physical im- 
pulses to which we are subject in common 
with the lower order of creation, the first 
attempt to embody thought in a connected 
and permanent form." (Mure, Language 
and Literature of Greece, i. 146.) The song 
of thanksgiving uttered by Moses and the 
Israehtes after their dehverance from 
Pharaoh, b.c. 1491 (Exod. xv. 1—19), is 
usually regarded as the most ancient 
poetical composition extant. Among the 
Greeks poetry was coeval with their national 
existence. They referred its origin to 
Oi^jheus, who is reputed to have lived B.C. 
1397 ; but the poetic period of the Greeks 
did not commence till the time of Homer, 
B.C. 907, and continued till b.c. 560. The 
early history of Eome was preserved in the 
rude Saturnian ballads of the reigns of 
TuUus Hostilius and Tarquinius Priscus, 
but the chief Roman poets did not flourish 
till a much later period, Virgil being born 
B.C. 70, andHoraceB.c. 65. Modern poetry 
may perhaps be regarded as commencing 
with the rude songs of the Germans, one of 
which, composed about a.d. 883, in honour 
of a victory over the ISTormans, possesses 
great merit, fhe Proven9al bards of France 
also contributed greatly to introduce modern 
poetry. Their productions date from 
about 1096. Lawrence Minot, whose 
poems on the wars of Edward III. were 
composed in 1352, is the earliest original 
Enghsh poet, and John Barbour, who com- 
pleted his great work " The Bruce " in 1373, 
produced the first Scotch poem. Geofirey 
Chaucer, the father of English poetry, died 
in 1400. The earl of Surrey, who was 
executed Jan, 21, 1547, was the first English 
author who wrote blank verse. 

Poisoning. — This crime prevailed to a 
great extent among the ancient Greeks and 
Romans. A vegetable poison for destroying 
life easUy and without pain was much used 
in Rome about b.c. 200. By 22 Hen. VIII. 
c. 9 (1531), poisouers were ordered to be 
boiled to death. {See Boiling to Death.) 
A confederacy of poisoners was discovered 
at Eome in 1659. Margaret d'Aubray, the 



POL 

wife of the marquis of BrinviHiers, pursued 
her fatal career of poisoning in 1670, and 
the crime had beconae so prevalent in France 
at this period, that a special court was 
established to deal with the evil. The most 
notorious of modern poisoners in England 
was William Palmer, who poisoned his 
friend Cook IS^ov. 21, 1855. His wife and 
brother, it is supposed, previously suffered 
the same fate. He was executed at Stafford 
June 14, 1856. 

PoiTiEKS (France) , known to the Romans 
as Limonum, afterwards took the name of 
its inhabitants, the Pictavi or Pictones, who 
submitted to Jxilius Caesar. It was pillaged 
by the Vandals a.d. 410. A great battle 
between the Franks under Clovis I. and the 
Visigoths under Alaric, was fought in the 
neighbourhood in 507. The latter were 
defeated, and their king was slain by the 
hand of his rival. The Saracens were 
defeated here by Charles Martel in 732, and 
the English under the Black Prince gained 
a complete victory over the French under 
John II., who was taken prisoner, Sept. 19, 
1356. Poitiers was surrendered to the 
English in 1360, but reverted to France in 
1372. Durinfr the religious wars of the 
16th century it was taken from the Hugue- 
nots by the Roman Catholics, who committed 
great cruelties. An unsuccessful attempt 
was made to retake it in 1569 by Coligny. 
The church of Montierneuf, which belonged 
to a Benedictine abbey, was finished in 1096, 
and the cathedral of St. Pierre, which was 
commenced by Henry II. of England in 
1152, was not finished till 1379. Councils 
were held here in 590; Jan. 13, 1000; in 
1023, 1073 ; Jan. 13, 1074 ; Jan. 15, 1078 ; 
Nov. 18, 1100 ; and June 25, 1106. 

PoiTOU (France). — This ancient province 
formed part of Aquitania Secunda, and was 
held successively by the Vandals, the Visi- 
goths, and the Franks, and came into tho 
possession of England by the marriage of 
Henry Plantagenet to Eleanor of Guienne, 
A.D. 1153. It was taken from them in 1294 
by Philip II. ; was overrun by the Enghsh, 
under Edward the Black Prince, in 1356, and 
was ceded to England in 1360. It finally 
reverted to the crown of France in 1372. 

PoLA (Sea-fight). — The Venetian captain- 
general Vettore Pisani sustained a serious 
defeat off this town of Hlyria, from the 
Genoese fleet of Luciano Doria, May 7, 1379. 
The loss on both sides was heavy, the Genoese 
admiral being among the slain. 

Poland. — The Poles regard Duke Lech 
or Lesko I., who began to reign a.d. 550, as the 
founder of their nation. His successors held 
the country for about 300 years; but the 
history of their dynasty is so involved in 
myths as to be regarded as entirely fabulous. 
The authentic history of Poland commenced 
with the estabUshment of the Piast dynasty 
in 842. 



842. The peasant Piastus is elevated to the throne, 

and founds tlie dynasty of the Pipsts. 
965. Miecislaus L is convertea to Ohxisuaaiity. 



I 



POL 



POL 



A.D. 

9t)8. He defeats the Saxons at Cidin. 

986. He is compelled to submit to the emperor 

Otho II. The grand-duke Uladimir the 

Great invades Poland. 
989. Miecislaus I. invades Bohemia. 
1001. Poland is erected into a kingdom. 
1034. The death of King Miecislaus II., whose eldest 

son is an infant, plunges the kingdom into 

civil anarchy. 
1043. Casimir I. subdues the rebel Masos at the 

battle of Plocsko. 
1079. Boleslaus II. murders St. Stanislaus, bishop 

of Cracow. 
1081. He is expelled from Poland in consequence, 

and commits suicide. 
1096. Sbigniew rebels against his father. 
1109. Henry V. of Germany is compelled by the 

Poles to raise the siege of Glogaw. 
1116. Sbigniew is assassinated by order of his 

brother Boleslaus IIL 
1177. Miecislaus III. ^a deposed. 
1227. Assassination of Lesko the White. 
1233. The Teutonic knights sett'e in Poland. 
1241. Poland is ravaged by the Tartars. 
1264 Boleslaus V. snbaues the JadvingL 
1289. The death of Lesko the Black is followed by 

frightful anarchy. 
1296. King f remislaus is assassinated by his cousin, 

the mararave of Anhalt. 
1322. Silesia is seized by the king of Bohemia. 
1335. Casimir IIL cedes Pomerania to the Teutonic 

knights. 
1347. A code of laws is prepared at Wisliza. 
1370. At the death of Casimir IIL the Piast dynasty 

becomes extinct, and the crown is conferred 

upon Louis of Hungary. 
1387. Ladislaus V. compels the Lithuanians to 

embrace Chribtiamty. 
1439. John Corvinus, king of Hungary, bequeaths 

his throne to Ladislaus VL of Poland. 
1498. The Wallachians invade Poland, and carry 

into captivity 100,000 of the inhabitants. 
1569. Lithuania is finally united to Polaud. 
1577. The Poles subdue the Cossacks of the Ukraine. 
1582. Russia cedes Livonia to ■ Poland at the peace 

of Zapolia. 
1586. Stephen organizes a militia composed of the 

barbarous Cossacks. 
1620. Poland is invaded by the Turks. 
1635. The Cossacks revolt 

1654. The Russians invade Poland. 

1655. Charles Gustavus of Sweden subjugates Po- 

laud. 
1660. The Poles recover their independence. 
1668. John. 11. abdicates the throne. 

1673. Nov. 11. John Sobieski defeats an. immense 

army of Turkish invaders at Kotzim. 

1674. John Sobieski is elected king. 

1683. Sept. 12. John Sobieski deUvers Vienna 
fi-om the Turks. 

1690. The Polish army mutinies. 

1699. Jan. 26. The peace of Carlowitz restores Ka- 
minieck to Poland. 

1704. Charles XIL of Sweden deposes Frederick 
Augustus. 

1724 A severe conflict between the Jesuits and 
Lutherans takes place in the streets of 
Thorn. 

1733. On the death of Frederick Augustus, the 
succession to the crown is disputed by 
Stanislaus Lesczinska, who is supported by 
the French, and Frederick Augustus, sou 
of the late king, whose cause is espoused by 
Russia, Prussia, and Germany, 

1768. A confederation of patriots against the en- 

croachments of RussiA, is formed at Bar. 
1772. Aug. 5. The first treaty for the partition of 
Polaud is signed at St. Petersburg by 
Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 

1769. The Poles declare themselves independent of 

the Russian yoke. 

1790. March 29. An alliance is concluded with 

Prussia. 

1791. May 3. A new constitution is granted. 

1792. Wai- is declared by Russia. 

17S3L The second pai-tition treaty is signed. 



1794. March 24. Kosciusko expels the Russians 

from Cracow. May 15. He seeks aid from 
the French. June 15. Ciacow sunenders 
to the Prussians. Nov. 4 Suwarrow de- 
feats Kosciusko at Praga, where 12,000 
Poles are slain. Nov. 9. He enters War- 
saw. 

1795. The third treaty of partition is signed, by 

which the kingdom of Poland becomes 
extinct. Nov. 25. Stanislaus abdicates at 
Grodno. 

1796. Nov. Kosciusko is set at liberty by the 

emperor Paul. 
1798. Feb. 11. Death of the ex-king Stanislaus at 

St. Petersburg. 
1804 Nbv. 27. Napoleon I. fixes his head-quarters at 



1813. 
1815. 

1818. 
1819. 
1820. 



Dec. 18. Napoleon I. enters Warsaw. 

Jan. 14 A supreme legislative commission is 
opened at Warsaw. July 9. The treaty of 
Tilsit {q. V.) is concluded. 

The Poles assist the French in the wars of 
this year. April 15. The Austrian army, 
under the archduke Ferdinand, enters Po- 
land. April 19. The Austriaus defeat 
Poniatowski at the battle of Raszyn, and 
occupy Wai-saw. May 14. Dombrowskl 
defeats the Austrians at the battle of 
Thorn. June 1. The archduke Ferdinand 
evacuates Warsaw. 

June 28. The general diet at Warsaw pro- 
claims the re- establishment of the kingdom 
of Poland. 

Aug. and Sept. Owing to an inundation, the 
country suffers from a teixible famine. 

May 3. Cracow is made a free republic. 
June 20. The Czar Alexand^r. is solemnly 
proclaimed king of Poland at Warsaw. 
Dec. 21. A new constitution is completed. 

Personal slaver}' is abolished in Courland, 
and the first Polish diet is summoned. 

July 31. Liberty of the press is abolished in 
Poland. 

Sept. 13. The Polish diet is opened at Warsaw. 

Nov. 29. An insurrection breaks out at 
Warsaw. Dec. 20. General Chlopicki is 
made dictator. 

Jan. 25. The diet declares Poland inde- 
pendent, and proclaims that the throne 
is vacant. Jan. 30. Prince Adam Czar- 
toryski is elected president of the national 
government. Feb. 6. The Russian army 
enters Poland. Fe o. 19 & 20. The Poles main- 
tain their position against the Russians 
at the battle of Grochow. March 31. 
Generals Rybinl^ki and Kicki defeat the 
Russians under General Giesmar at the 
battle of Wurz. April 3. The czar pub- 
lishes a ukase against the insurgents ia 
Wilna. April 5. The Russians are com- 
pelled to evacuate Wilna, and Courland is 
declared in a state of war. April 6. The 
Russians are defeated with a loss of 12,000 
men at the battle of Zelichow. April 10. 
The Poles are victorious at Iganie, and fix 
their head-quarters at Seidlitz. April 17. 
The Poles under Sierawski are defeated at 
Wronow. May 18. The Poles seize Ostro- 
lenkn. May 26. The Poles ai-e defeated at 
the battle of Ostrolenka. May 29. General 
Gielgud beats the Russians under General 
Sackeu at Raygrod. June 10. General Die- 
bitsch, commander in chief of the Russian 
forces, dies of cholera at Pultusk. Jime 19. 
The Russians defeat the Poles under Gene- 
ral Gieigud at WUna. July 8. The Russians 
are victorious at the battle of Schwawl. 
July 12. The Polish general Gielgud is 
shot by one of his own officers. July 14 
The Poles under Chrzanowski are defeated 
by General Rudiger at Minsk. Aug. 15. 
Disturbances break out at Warsaw. Sept. 7. 
The Russians attack Warsaw, which sur- 
renders the following day. This event 
strikes the death-blow of Polish inde- 
pendence. 

677 



POL 



POL 



1831. Oct. 20. The czar announces the termina- 

tion of the Polish war. 

1832. Feb. 26. An imperial ukase is published, con- 

stituting Poland an integral part of the 
Russian empire. 

1834 Feb. 10. A treaty for the surrender of Polish 
refugees is signed by Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia. 

1836. Feb. 16. An insun'ection in Cracow is sup- 
pressed by the Austrians. 

1841. The incorporation of Poland with the Rus- 
sian empire is rendered complete. Russian 
laws, taxes, and language, are iutroduced. 

1845. A conspirticy for the restoration of Polish 

independence is discovered and suppressed. 

1846. Feb. 22. A general insurrection against Rus- 

sia breaks out io Poland. The Austrians 
under General Collin are expelled from 
Cracow. Feb. 26. Collin defeats the 
insui^ents at Gdow. Feb. 27. They take 
refuge in Cracow. Nov. 6. The republic of 
Cracow is disfranchised, and is annexed to 
Austria. 

1847. May. Poland is made a Russian province. 

1848. April 26. A revolt breaks out at Cracow. 

May 11. The insurgent leader Mieroslaw- 
ski is taken prisoner. 
1851. Jan. 13. The customs barrier between Russia 
and Poland is abolished. 

1856. May 27. The emperor Alexander II. grants 

an amnesty in favour of Polish refugees. 
June 6. It is rejected by the central com- 
mittee "f the Pol sh Democratic Society. 

1857. Sept. 7. The emperor visits Warsaw. Dec. 2. 

Decrees are issued for the amelioration of 
the position of the rural population of 
Poland. 

1860. Oct. 22 to 26. The emperors of Russia and 

Austria, and the prince-regent of Prussia, 
have an interview at Warsaw. 

1861. Feb. 25. Disturbances break out at Warsaw. 

Feb. 28. An address is delivered to the 
emperor, praying for the restoration of 
Polish nationality. March 9. The emperor 
refuses, but agrees to redress certain 
grievances. April 8. Warsaw is kept in 
order by a military force. May 30. Death 
of Prince Gortchakoff, lieutenant-general 
of Poland. 

ETJLEES OP POLAND. 



842 



Piastus 

Ziemovitus 

Lesko, or Lesciis IV. 892 
Ziemomislaus .... 913 

Miecislaus 1 964 

Boleslaus 1 992 

Miecislaus II 1025 

Richense, or Richsa 1034 

Interregnum 1037 

Casimir 1 1041 

Boleslaus II 1058 

LadislausL 1081 

Boleslaus IH 1102 

Ladislaus II 1138 

Boleslaus IV. 1146 

Miecislaus III 1173 

Casimir II 1177 

Lesko V 1194 

Miecislaus IV. 1200 

Ladislaus III. .... 1203 
Lesko V. (again) . . 1206 

Boleslaus V 1227 

Lesko VI 1279 

Interregnum 1289 

Premdslaus 1295 

Ladislaus IV 1296 

Wenceslaus 1300 

Ladislaus IV. (again) 1304 
Casimir III. (the 



Louis of Hungary.. 1370 

Interregnum 1382 

Hedwige and La- 
dislaus V 1385 

678 



A.D. 

Ladislaus V. (alone) 1399 

Ladislaus VI 1434 

Interregnum 1445 

CasunirlV 1445 

John (Albert) 1 1492 

Alexander 1501 

Sigismundl 1.506 

Sigismundll 1548 

Interregnum 1573 

Henry of Valois .... 1574 
Stephen Batthori.. 1575 

Interregnum 158') 

Sigi?mund III ]587 

Ladislaus VII le32 

John II., or Casi- 
mir V 1648 

Interregnum 1668 

Michael- Koributh- 

Wiesnowlski 1669 

John III. (Sobieski) 1674 

Interregnum 1697 

Frederick - Augus- 
tus 1 

Stanislaus I. (Lezin' 

ski) 

F' ederick ■ Augus- 
tus I. (again) .... 
Frederick - Augus- 
tus II 

Interregnum ... . 
Stanislaus II. (Augus- 
tus Poniatowski) 1764 
Extinction of the 
kingdom 1795 



1697 
1704 



1709 



1734 
1763 



PoiiAB Eegions. {See Aectic Cieclb, 
Fean-klik's Expeditions, Noeth-West 
Passage, &c.) 

PoLAE Stae, the name given to a star of 
the second magnitude, in the constellation 
called the Little Bear. It is the nearest 
visible star to the North Pole. Its discovery 
is ascribed by the Chinese to the emperor 
Tong-Cheng, who reigned in the year B.C. 
1970. 

Police. — The celebrated writer Fielding 
introduced, a.d. 1753, a system of paid police, 
who were placed under the orders of the 
acting magistrate at Bow Street. The Thames 
poUce was estabhshed in 1798. The new police 
force for the metropolis was established by 
10 Geo. IV. c. 44 (June 19, 1829), and was to 
extend to twelve mUes from Charing Cross. 
By 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47 (Aug. 17, 1839), this dis- 
tance was extended to fifteen miles from 
Charing Cross; and the force was placed 
under the control of two commissioners. 
The city police, though similar in organiza- 
tion, remains under the control of the cor- 
poration. By 19 Vict. c. 2 (Feb. 28, 1856), 
the metropoHtan poHce was placed under 
the management of one commissioner. 
The police for counties and boroughs is 
regulated by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 69 (July 
21, 1856), and the poUce for Scotland is 
regulated by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 72 (Aug. 25, 
1857). 

Political Economt. — This science, which 
teaches the principles which govern the pro- 
duction and accumulation of wealth, and its 
distribution and consumption, was httle 
understood by the Greeks and Romans. It 
may be said to owe its origin practically to 
the free towns that rose in Europe in the 
Middle Ages, though the system was not ex- 
pounded untU a later period. The EngUsh 
claim to be the first who established the just 
principles of commercial intercourse, though 
some continental writers award the honour to 
the Itahans and the French. Sir Dudley 
xV^orth's " Discourses on Trade," published in 
1691 ; Hume's "PoHtical Essays," published 
in 1752; Harris's "Essay on Money and 
Coins," and Adam Smith's "Wealth of Na- 
tions," published in 1766; and Mill's " Poli- 
tical Economy,'' in 1821, are the principal 
English works on this science. 

Politicians. — This term, at first applied 
during the religious wars in France, to both 
Huguenots andEoman Cathohcs of moderate 
opinions, was in 1574 given to the faction 
headed by the duke d'Alen^on and the sons 
of Montmorency. The duke was arrested, 
and the sons of Montmorency were sent to 
the Bastille, and several of their subordinates 
were executed. 

Polka. — The lavolta described by Sir John 
Davies in "The Orchestra" (1596), is sup- 
posed by a writer in "Notes and Queries" 
(xii. 152) to have resembled the modern 
polka, introduced into this country about 
A.D. 1842. 

Poll Act, putting a price upon the heads 
of many Irishmen ot distinction, was passed 
in Ireland a.d. 1465. This tyrannical law 



POL 

was first put in force by the earl of Des- 
mond. 

PoLLALORE (Battle). — Sir Eyre Coote 
defeated Hyder Ali at this place, in Hindos- 
tan, Aug. 27, 1781. The battle lasted from 
nine in the morning till simset, and was very 
hotly contested. 

PoLi/ENTiA (Battle). — A great victory 
was gained by the Koman general Stilicho 
over the Goths, under Alaric, at this place, 
in Italy, Easter-day (March 29), a.d. 403. 
Magnificent spoils, and the release of many 
thousand prisoners, were among the results 
of this triumph. 

Poll, or Capitation" Tax, was levied in 
the Eoman empire. It was first imposed in 
England by the parhament held at Northamp- 
ton, Not. 5, 1380. The severity employed by 
the tax-gatherers in its collection led to the 
rebellion of Wat the tyler, in 1381. The 
Kentish rebels assembled at Blackheath June 
12, and entered London June 13. They plun- 
dered the city and seized on the Tower June 
14. Thev destroyed the palace of the Savoy, 
the archbishop of Canterbury's palace, and 
the priory of St. John's, ClerkenweU. Wat 
Tyler was kiUed by Walworth, lord mayor 
of London, June 15, at the conference with 
Kichard II. in Smithfield. This put an end 
to the insurrection. In 1667 every subject 
was assessed by head according to his rank. 
The tax was abohshed by WHHam III. in 
1690. 

PoLOTZK (Eussia). — This town was in ex- 
istence as early as the time of Euric, the 
founder of the Eussian power, who reigned 
from A.D. 847 to 879. It contains a ruiued 
castle and a handsome church and coUege, 
which formerly belonged to the Jesuits. 
The French seized the town in July, 1812, 
and it was retaken by the Eussians Oct. 20. 

Poltava, or Pultava (Eussia), was be- 
sieged by Charles XII. in May, 1709, with 
an army of about 18,000 men. Peter the 
Great came to its rehef with a force of 
between 50,000 and 60,000 men, and, on the 
15th June, the celebrated battle of Poltava 
was fought, in which the Swedish monarch 
was defeated vrith great slaughter and com- 
pelled to take refuge in Turkey. 

PoLTGAMT was aUowed among the Jews ; 
has prevailed in Asia from time immemo- 
rial ; and IS still permitted among the Mo- 
hammedans. Polygamy was made felony in 
England by an act passed in 1604. 

Polyglot. — A name given to Bibles with 
the text printed in many languages. The 
idea appears to have originated with Origen, 
who arranged the Old Testament in several 
languages in the 3rd century. The princi- 
pal Polyglots are, — 1. the Complutensian 
Polyglot, in four languages, brought out 
under the superintendeuce of Cardinal Xi- 
menes in 1514 and 1515; 2. the Antwerp 
Polyglot, in 8 vols. foHo, edited by Monta- 
nus, and brought out in 1569-72; 3. the 
Parisian Polyglot, in 10 vols, foho, edited 
by Le Jay, and brought out in 1628-45; 
4. the London Polyglot, ia 6 vols, folio, 
edited by Brian Walton, and brought out 



POM 

in 1654-7 (it consisted occasionally of nine 
languages) ; and 5. Bagster's Polyglot, in 1 
vol. folio, pubhshed in London in 1831, the 
Old Testament being in eight, and the New 
in nine languages. 

Polynesia. — This term, signifying •' many 
islands," is apphed to the numerous islands 
scattered over a great part of the Pacific 
Ocean. The work of discovery in this region 
was commenced by Magelhaens, who reached 
the Ladrone Islands March 6, 1520. He was 
followed at the close of the same century by 
Mendana and other Spanish navigators. The 
Dutch made further discoveries in the 17th 
century, and these were considerably ex- 
tended by the English navigators, the most 
celebrated of whom. Captain Cook, was 
killed in a collision with the natives of Owhy- 
hee, Feb. 14, 1779. 

PoLYPLECTEOir. — This musical instrument 
was invented by Dietz about a.d. 1828. 

Polytechnic Institution (London), 
for scientific studies and amusements, was 
first opened to the pubhc Aug. 6, 1839. 
A serious accident occurred here, by 
the fall of a staircase, Jan. 3, 1859, when 
one person was killed and nearly forty 
injured. 

Polytheism appears to have originated 
from a superstitious feehng regarding the 
heavenly bodies, and the great powers of 
nature. The Egjrptians in the time of Moses 
(B.C. 1570) were polytheists. The Greeks 
and Eomans, though acknowledging a su- 
preme god, worshipped the lesser gods, and 
were essentially polytheists. In many parts 
of the world polytheism still prevails to a 
great extent. 

Pomegranate. — This tree, a native of 
most parts of the south of Europe, and of 
China, was cultivated in England by Gerard, 
A.D. 1596. 

PoMERANiA (Prussia) . — This province de- 
rives its name from the Wends, who settled 
here about the beginning of the 6th century, 
and called it Fo More (beside the sea). 
Mestibock, who flourished about a.d. 960, 
was the first prince of Pomerania. On the 
death of Sambor, in 1107, the eoiJntry was 
divided into two parts. The eastern part 
came into the possession of the Teutonic 
knights in 1296, and rather more than a 
century afterwards was annexed to the 
PoHsh crown. The princes of the other 
part of Pomerania were recognized as 
princes of the German empire and dukes of 
Pomerania in 1182. This dukedom was se- 
parated into two in 1295; was reunited in 
1478 ; and the ducal fine became extinct on 
the death of Boleslaus XIII. in 1637. The 
country was divided between Prussia and 
Sweden. The latter gave up part of the 
territory in 1720, and the remainder in 1814, 
when the whole was incorporated in the 
Prussian kingdom. 

PoMEROY (North America).— This town 
of the state of Ohio was foimded a.d. 
1841. 

Pomona, or Mainland (Orkney Islands), 
the largest of the group, is supposed to have 
679 



POM 

been colonized by the Picts. It was eon- 
qiiered by the H'ormans about a.d. 876, and 
remained subject to the kings of Norway 
and Denmark till the year 1468, when 
it was annexed to the Scottish crown by 
treaty. 

Pompeii (Italy).— The date of the founda- 
tion of this city is unknov.'n. It is said to 
have been conquered by the Samnites about 
B.C. MO, from whom it was taken by the 
Eomans about eighty years after. In the 
Social war, which began B.C. 91, Pompeii, 
with the other towns of Campania, reTolted 
and joined the Marcian confederacy ; but it 
escaped the punishment which was inflicted 
on some of the other cities. A quarrel be- 
tween its inhabitants and those of ]S"uceria, 
in which the latter were defeated, took place 
A.D. 59; and in 63 Pompeii was almost de- 
stroyed by an earthquake. Other shocks 
followed at intervals. The first recorded 
eruption of Vesuvius occurred Aug. 2.3, 79, 
and overwhelmed the town. It remained 
buried till 1755, when excavations were com- 
menced, and the whole city was at length 
recovered. 

PoMPTiNE or PoTTTiif E Makshes (Italy) . 
— The marshes in the south of Latium received 
this name from their proximity to the town 
of Suessa Pometia. They were first drained 
by the censor A. Claudius Csecus, B.C. 312. 
Trajan commenced a road through them 
A.D. 107, and it was opened in 110. Theo- 
doric drained them in 500. 

POiN'DiCHEEBY (Hindostan), the capital of 
the French possessions, was purchased by 
them from the rajah of Bejapore a.d. 1672, 
though they did not form a settlement tiU 
1674. It was taken by the Dutch in 1693, 
but restored in 1697. Pondicherry, unsuc- 
cessfully attacked by the English in 1748, 
was taken by them in 1761, 1778, 1793, and 
1803. It was restored to the French in 
1815. 

Pont-a-Chijt, or TotrEifAY, (Battle,) was 
fought near Tournay, in Belgium, between 
the French, nearly 100,000 strong, under 
Piehegru» and the allies. May 23, 1794. 
After a desperate struggle, which lasted 
from five in the morning till nine at night, 
the allies made a gallant charge which 
drove the enemy from the field. It is 
sometimes erroneously called the battle of 
Espierres. 

PoNTEFEACT, or PoMEEET (Yorkshire). — 
In the time of the Saxons this town was 
called Kirkby. Its present name is derived 
fi'om the Latin pons fractus, from the 
breaking of a bridge over the Aire. Pom- 
fret Castle, the remains of which still exist, 
was built A.D. 1080. During the civil war, 
the castle was garrisoned for Charles I. It 
was attacked by the parHamentarians in 
1644, and taken by them in 1645 ; retaken 
by the royahsts in 1648, and finally sur- 
rendered to Lambert, March 25, 1649, 
when it was destroyed by order of par- 
liament. 

PoNTiANAK (Borneo), the chief of the 
Dutch settlements in the island, was founded 



POO 

A.D. 1823. They founded a factory here as 
early as 1776. 

PoNTiEEX Maximus.— The office of chief 
pontiff among the Romans is said to have 
been instituted by Noma Pompilius. The 
emperor Augustus was made Pontifex Maxi- 
mus A.D, 12, and the ofl5ce was held by 
the emperors after his time until discon- 
tinued by Gratian in 375. Maximilian I., of 
Germany, assumed the title in 1511, and it la 
borne by the popes. 

PoimaifT (France). — To the hospitable 
care of the abbot of this monastery, some 
miles from Sens, the sovereign pontiff com- 
mended Thomas Becket, when he was 
exiled from England, a.d. 1164. Henry II. 
caused the fugitive to be driven from hia 
retreat in 1165. 

PoNTUs (Asia Minor) originally formed 
part of Cappadocia, and was a satrapy of 
the Persian empire. This satrapy, after- 
wards called Pontus by the Macedonians, 
was bestowed on one of the royal family of 
Persia, named Artabazes (b.c. 480). In the 
time of Mithridates the Great, Pontus in- 
cluded the whole of Paphlagonia and part 
of Bithynia. Mithridates assisted the Greeks 
against the Scythians B.C. 112 — 110, and 
after conquering many petty Scythian 
princes in Europe, formed connections with 
the Germanic nations as far as the Danube, 
B.C. 108 — 105. His first war with Rome, 
B.C. 89 — 85, arose through the attacks of 
his neighbour Nicomedes, at the instigation 
of the Romans. He lost Bithynia, Cappa- 
docia, and Paphlagonia. A second war 
with Rome took place B.C. 84 — 81, and a 
third war occurred B.C. 75 — 64, which ended 
in the destruction of Mithridates, and the 
reduction of Pontus to a Roman province. 

KINGS OF PONTUS. 



B.C. 

AriobaizanesT 

1 1 Date 

Mithridates f nnknown 

I J 

Ariobarzanes II 363 

Mitlu-idates n 337 

Mithridates III 302 

Ariobarzaues III. . . 266 



B.C. 

Mithridates IV. 240 

Phamaces 1 190 

Mithridates V. .... 156 

Mithridates -VI 120 

Phamaces II 63 

Made a Ft.oman pro- 

vtnce 47 



Ponza (Mediterranean Sea). — This island, 
the ancient Pontia, was attacked by the 
British Feb. 26, 1813, and after a short 
conflict the governor capitiilated, and the 
garrison of the fortress surrendered as 
prisoners of war. 

PooNAH (Hindostan), chief town of the 
eoUectorate of the same name, was included 
in the estate of Shahjee, who built the palace 
for his own residence in the 17th century. 
The power of the minister was made supreme 
by Balajee, and that of the rajah merely 
nominal, a.d. 1740. The minister Bajee 
Rao allied himself with Scindia against Hol- 
kar ; but having been defeated in an engage- 
ment, he sought the aid of the British in 
1802. Colonel Wellesley, after marching at 
the head of his horse a distance of upwards 
of sixty milea in thirty -two hours, took poa- 



POO 

session of the city in time to save it from 
being burnt by the enemy, April 19, 1803. 
Having leagued with the native powers 
against the British in 1817, a treaty was 
formed with him, by which the Mahratta 
confederacy was dissolved, his claims limited 
to his own possessions, and Ahmednuggur 
and other places were ceded to the Enghsh, 
June 13, 1817. In the progress of the war 
he was compelled to flee, and ultimately re- 
signed his office, and retired to Benares on a 
pension, June 3, 1818. An earthquake oc- 
curred June 10, 1819. Water -works were 
completed, chiefly at the expense of Sir 
Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, in 1850. The govern- 
ment school is now \inited with the Sanscrit 
college, established a.d. 1821. 

Poor Knights of Windsoe. {See Cha- 
pel, Knights op the.) 

Poor-laws.— By 23 Edw. III. c.7 (1349), 
it was declared illegal to give anything to a 
beggar who was able to work. Poor people 
were ordered to abide in the place of their 
birth by 12 Eich II. c. 7 (1388). Appro- 
priators of benefices were ordered to distri- 
bute an annual sum to their poor parishion- 
ers by 15 Rich. II. c. 6 (1391). The first act 
enjoining the systematic maintenance of the 
aged and impotent poor was 27 Hen. VIII. 
c. 25 (1535). The present system of poor- 
laws was commenced by 43 Ehz. c. 2 (1601), 
which appointed overseers of the poor, au- 
thorized the erection of poor-houses, and 
taxed the householders in order to raise a 
poor-rate. This was followed by nume- 
rous statutes, which were consolidated and 
amended by the Poor-Law Amendment Act, 
4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 76 (Aug. 14, 1834). This 
act instituted the " Poor-Law Commis- 
sioners," whose period of office was ex- 
tended by subsequent acts to 1847, when 
they were superseded by the "Commis- 
sioners for administering the Laws for the 
Eelief of the Poor in England," who were 
appointed by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 109 (July 23, 
1847) . Their name was changed to that of 
the "Poor-Law Board" by 12 & 13 Viet. 
c. 103 (Aug. 1, 1849). The removal of the 
poor is regulated by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 66 
(Aug. 26, 1846), and 11 & 12 Vict. c. 110 

(Sept. 4, 1843). The first poor-law act 

for Ireland was 1 & 2 Vict. c. 56 (July 
31, 1838). The Scotch poor are regu- 
lated by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 4, 1845), 
which has been amended by subsequent 
acts. 

PooRTTNDAH (Hindostan). — A treaty of 
peace was concluded here with the Mah- 
rattas, England acquiring the island of 
Salsette and other territory, June 3, 
1776. 

PoPATAN (New Granada) was founded by 
Benalcazar, a.d. 1537. 

Pope. — From the Greek TruTrag, or 
iraira, signifying a father, was the common 
name of aU bishops in the early church. 
Gregory VII., at a council held at Eome in 
1076, ordered the title to be restricted to 
the bishops of Eome. In the following list, 



POP 



taken from IS'ico 
tory," the name= 
those whose right 
Italics. 

BISH 
Peter,St 


las's 
oft 
is di 

OPS c 

A.D. 

42 
66 

78 

91 
100 
109 
119 
128 
139 
142 
157 
168 
177 
192 
202 
218 
223 
230 
23.5 
236 
2.51 
2.52 
253 
2.57 
259 
259 

27.5 

296 
304 
308 
310 

311 
314 
336 
337 
352 
355 
366 
384 
385 
399 
402 
417 
418 
418 
422 
432 
440 
461 
468 
483 
492 
496 

498 
514 
523 
526 
530 

632 
535 
536 
538 
555 
559 
573 
578 

590 
604 
606 
607 
614 
617 
626 


'Chronology o 
[le anti-popes, . 
sputed, are prin 

F ROME. 

Severinus 

John IV 

Theodoras I 

Martini 

Eugeuius L 

Vitalian 

Adeodatus 

Domnus I 

Ao-alho .... 


f His- 
mdof 
ted in 

A.D. 

.. 640 


Linus 


.. 640 


Clement I 

Anacletus 

Alexander L 


.. 649 
. . 655 
.. 658 
. . 672 


Tilesphorus 

Hyginus 

Pius I 


.. 676 
.. 679 


Leo II 




Anicetus . . ... 


Benedict II 

John V 


.. 684 


Soter 

Eleutherus 

Victor L 


.. 685 


Conon 

Sergius I 

Paschal 

John VI 

John VII 


'.. 687 


Zephirinus 

Calixtus I 


.. 687 
.. 701 






Pontianus 

Anterus 

Fabian 

Cornelius 

Lucius 

Stephen I 

Sixtusit 

Denis 




Constantine .... 

Gregory II 

Gregory IIL .... 

Zachnry .-. 

Stephen II 

Stephen in 

Paul I 

Constantine 

Theophilactus .. 
Stephen IV. .... 
Adrian T 


.. 708 
.. 715 
.. 731 
.. 741 
.. 752 
.. 752 
.. 757 


Dionysius 

Feltx I 


.. 767 

.. 767 


Eutychian 

Caius 


.. 768 
• • 772 


Marcel Itnus 

Interregnum 

MaicellusI 

Eusebius 

Miltiades, or Mel- 

chiades...., 

Sylvester I 

Mark . 




Stephen V 


.. 816 


Paschal I 

Eugenius II 


.. 817 
.. 824 


Valentine 

Gregory IV 

Sergius n 

LeoIV 

Benedict III 

Anastasius 

Nicolas I 

Adiianll 

John VIII 


.. 827 
.. 828 

.. 844 


Julius I 

Liberius 


.. 847 
.. 855 
.. 8-55 


Damasus I 

Siricus 

Sericius 

Anastasius T 

Innocent I 

Zdsimus 


.. 858 
.. 867 


Marin, or Martin n. 882 
Adrian III . . - - Rtw 


Stephen VI 

Foi-mosus .. 


.. 885 
.. 891 


Boniface I 

CoelestineL 

SixtusIII 

Leo L, the Great .. 

Hilary 

Simplicius 

Felix IL or m. .. 

GelasiusI 

Anastasius II. 

Lawrence 

Symmachus 

Hormisdas 

John I 

Felix IIL or IV. .. 

Boniface n 

Dioscorus 

John IT 


.. 891 


Boniface VI 

Stephen VU 

Romanus 


.. 896 
.. 896 
.. 897 
.. 893 


Theodoras II. . . 
Benedict TV. .... 
Christopher .... 
Leo V 


.. 898 
.. 900 
.. 903 
.. 903 


Sergius III 

Anastasius m. .. 

Lando 

JohnX 


.. 905 
.. 911 
.. 913 


Leo VT 


928 


Stephen Vm. .. 

John XI 

LeoVU. ........ 

Stephen IX 

Mai-tin III 


.. 929 
.. 931 
.. 936 


Agapetus I 

SUverius 

Vigilius . . 


. 943 


Agaprtus II 

John XII 

Leo VIII 

Benedict V. .... 

John XIII 

Benedict VI 

Boniface VII. .. 

Domnus II 

Benedict vn. .. 

John XIV 

JohnXV 

Gregory V 

JohnXri. 

681 


.. 946 


PelagiusI 

John III 


. . 956 
.. 963 


Benedict I 

PelagiusIL 

Gregory I., the 


.. 964 
.. 965 
.. 972 
.. 973 


Sabinian 


.. 974 


Boniface ILL 

Boniface IV. 

Deodatus I 

Boniface V 

Uonorius I. 


.. 975 
.. 984 
.. 986 
.. 996 
.. 997 



POP 



POP 



BISHOPS OF EOME. 

A.D. 

Sylvestern Aprils, 999 

John XVII June 13, 1003 

John XVIII Dec. 26, 1003 

Sergius IV. 1009 

Benedict VIII July 6, 1012 

John XIX Aug. 1024 

Benedict IX 1033 

Gregory VI May, 1044 

Sylvester III 1044 

Clement II Dec. 2.5, 1046 

Benedict IX. restored Nov. 8, 1047 

Dama^ns II July 17, 1048 

Leo IX 1048 

Interregnwm, April 19, 1054 

Victor II March, 1055 

Stephen IX Aug. 2, 10.57 

Benedict X March 30, 10.58 

Nicolas II Dec. 28, 1058 

Alexander II Sept. 30, 1061 

Gregory VII . . April 22, 1073 

Clement III. 1080 

Interregnum, 1085 

Victor III May 24. 1086 

Urban IL March 12, 1088 

Pascal II Aug. 13, 1099 

Gelasius II Jan. 25, 1118 

Calixtus II Feb. 1, 1119 

Honorius II Dec. 21, 1124 

Innocent II Feb. 15, 1130 

Anacletus Feb. 15, 1130 

Victor ir. 1138 

Coelestine TI Sept. 26, 1143 

Lucius II March 12, 1144 

Eugenius III Feb. 27, 1145 

Anastasius IV July 9, 1153 

Adrian IV Dec. 3, 1154 

Alexander III Sept. 7, 1159 

Victor IV. Jigg 

Paschal HI April 22, 1164 

Calistus III. 11(58 

Innocent III. 1178 

Lucius ni Sept, 1, 1181 

Urban III Nov. 25, 1185 

Gregory VIII Oct. 20, 1187 

Element III Dec. 19, 1187 

Cffilestine III March 30, 1191 

Innocent III jan. 1198 

Honorius III July 18, 1216 

Gregory IX March 19, 1227 

Coelestine IV Oct. 1241 

Interregnutn 1242 

Innocent IV .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' ." .' June, 1243 

Alexander IV Dec. 12, 1254 

Urban IV. Aug. 29, 1261 

Clement IV Feb. 5, 1265 

Interregnum 1269-1270 

Gregory X Sept. 1, 1271 

Innocent V. Feb. 21, 1276 

AdrianV. .. July 11, 1276 

John XX. or XXI Sept. 13, 1976 

Nicolas III jfov. 25, 1277 

Martin IV Feb. 22, 1281 

HononusIV. April 2, 1285 

Nicolas IV. Feb. 15, 1288 

Interregnum 1293 

Coelestine V ■.■.'.■.■.■.■ July 5, 1294 

Boniface VIII jje,, 24 1294 

Benedict X. or XI ■.■.■.'.■.■.■. Oct. ii, 1303 

Clement v.... June 15, 1305 

InterregntMn \Z\5 

John XXL or XXII \\ Aug.' 7, 1316 

Benedict XI. or XII Dec. 20, 1334 

Clement VI May 7, 1342 

Innocent VI Dec. 18, 13.52 

Urban V. Sept. 1362 

Gregory XI Dec. 30, 1370 

Urban VI April 9, 1378 

Clement VII. Sept. 21, 1378 

Boniface IX Nov 2 1389 

Be^isdict XIII. Sept. 28,' 1394 

Innocent VII Oct. 17 1404 

Gregory XII Nov. 30, 1406 

Alexander V June, 1409 

John XXn May 17, 1410 



Interregnum, 1416 

Martin V Nov. 11, 1417 

Eugenius IV March, 1433 

I^elix V. Nov. 17, 14::J9 

Nicolas V March 6, 1447 

Calixtus III April 8, 1455 

Pins II Aue. 1458 

Paul II Aug. 31. 1464 

SixtusIV Aug. 9, 1471 

Innocent VIH Aug. 29, 1484 

Alexander VI Aug. 11, 1492 

Pius III Sept. 22, 1503 

Julius II Nov. 1, 1503 

LeoX Marchll, 1513 

Adrian VI Jan. 2, 1522 

Clement VII Nov. 19, 1523 

Paul III Oct. 13. 1534 

Julius III Feb 8, 1550 

MarceUus II April 9, 1555 

Paul IV May 23, 1.5.55 

PiusIV Dec. 1559 

Pius V Jan. 7, 1566 

Gregory XIII May 13, 1572 

Sixtus V April 24, 1585 

Urban VII Sept. 15, 1.590 

Gregory XIV Dec. 5, 1590 

Innocent IX Oct 29, 1591 

Clement VIII Jan. 30. 1592 

Leo XI April 1, 1605 

Paul V May 16, 1605 

Gregory XV Feb. 2, 1621 

Urban VIII Aug. 6, 1623 

Innocent X Sept. 15, 1644 

Alexander VII April 7, 1655 

Clement IX. June 20. 1667 

Clement X April 29, 1670 

Innocent XI Sept. 21, 1676 

Alexander VIII Oct. 6. 1689 

Innocent XII July 12, 1691 

Clement XI Nov. 23, 1700 

InnocentXIII May 8, 1721 

Benedict XIII May 29, 1724 

Clement XII July 12, 1730 

Benedict XIV Aug. 17, 1740 

Clement XIII July 6, 1758 

Clement XIV May 19, 1769 

Pius VI Feb. 15, 1775 

Pius Vri March 13, 1800 

Leo XII Sept. 28, 1823 

Pins VIII MarchSl, 1829 

Gregory XVI Feb. 2, 1831 

Pius IX June 16, 1846 

Pope Joan. — Some chroniclers assert that 
in the 9th century a female named Joan 
assumed male attire, became a monk, and 
was elected pope on the death of Leo IV., 
A.D. 855. This story, with many variations, 
was believed until the Eeformation, and 
Joan's female statue long occupied a place 
among the popes in the cathedral of Sienna. 

Pope Joan. — This game of cards is of 
great antiquity, having been played in this 
country before the reign of Elizabeth, when 
it was known as Pope Julio. 

Popish Plots. — Titus Oates, who had 
been chaplain of a man-of-war, and dismissed 
the service for immoral conduct, invented a 
plot against the Roman Catholics, asserting 
that they had conspired to assassinate 
Charles II., and extirpate the Protestant 
religion. The particulars were laid before 
the lord-treasurer Danby, Aug. 12, 1678, 
and several Roman Catholics were, in con- 
sequence, accused, and upon false testimony 
convicted and executed; among them was 
the venerable Viscount Stafford, beheaded 
Dec. 29, 1680. Oates, who had caused the 
death of so many innocent men, was con- 



POP 

victed of perjury, May 8, 1685, and was fined, 
put in the pillory, and publicly whipped, 
William III. pardoned him June 6, 1689, 
and granted him a pension. The gunpowder 
plot and other conspiracies are known as 
popish plots. 

PopLAR-TKEE. — In ancient times the pub- 
lic places of Rome were adorned with rows of 
this tree ; hence it came to be called populi, 
as being a tree appropriated to the people. 
The grey poplar is indigenous to England ; 
the Lombardy poplar was brought from 
Italy about a.d. 1758. 

Pop IT L AT ION. — The population of the 
world is estimated as follows : — 



POPULATION OP THE GiOBE. 



Europe... 

Asia 

Africa ... 
America . 
Oceanica . 



227,700,000 
390,0110,000 
60,000,000 
39,000,000 
20,000,000 



736,700,000 



Weimar 
Almanack. 



221,906,000 
461,196,000 
107,til5,000. 
42,164,000 
2,695,000 



835,576,000 



"Wyld'3 
Atlas. 



240,724,113 
413,844,300 
100,000,000 
46,492,000 
22,000,000 



823,060,413 



POP 



POPULATION OP EUBOPEAN STATES. 
Pop. 

Austria 35,019,0.58 

Baden 1,308,116 

Belgium 4,671,187 

Brunswick 269,209 

Denmark 2,605,024 

France 36,039,364 

Great Britain and Ireland 29,334,788 

Greece 1,067,216 

Hanover 1,820,480 

Hesse (Grand Duchy) 836,424 

Hesse (Electorate) 736,392 

Holsteiti and Ijauenberg 573.003 

Italy 24,853,197 

Luxemburg and Liraburg 402,969 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin 541,091 

Nassau 428,237 

Netherlands 3,397,851 

Norway 1,490,047 

Oldenburg 265,479 

Portugal 3,578,677 

Pi-ussia 17,739,913 

Eussia (in Europe) 66,891,493 

Russia (in Asia) 8,203,197 

Saxe-Weimar 263,755 

Saxony 2,039,176 

Spain 14,957,575 

Sweden 3,734.240 

Switzerland 2,534,240 

Turkey (in Europe) 15,500,000 

Turkey (in Asia) 16,050,000 

Turkey (in Africa) 5,050,000 

Wurtemberg 1,669,374 



POPULATION OP ENGLISH COUNTIES. 



Bedford 

Berks 

Buckingham 

Cambridge 

Chester 

Cornwall 

Cumberland 

Derby 

Devon 

Dorset 

Durham 

Essex 

Gloucester 

Hereford 

Hertford 

Huntingdon 

Kent 

Lancaster 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Middlesex 

Monmouth 

Morfolk 

Northampton 

Northumberland . . . 

Nottingham 

Oxford 

Kutland 

Salop 

Somerset 

Southampton 

Stafford 

Suffolk 

SuiTey 

Sussex 

"Warwick 

Westmorland 

Wilts 

Worcester 

York (East Riding) . 
York (North Riding) 
York (West Riding) . 



110,480 
108,132 
89,346 
192,305 
192,281 
117,230 
161567 



37,568 
308,667 
673,488 
130,082 
208.625 



273,479 
131,525 
168.078 
140,350 
111,977 
16,300 



214,404 
268,233 
159,471 
206.798 
40,805 
183,820 
146,441 
111,192 
158,927 
572.168 



84,052 
132,639 
135,133 
122,387 
270,098 
261,045 
15tj,124 
213,651 
438,417 
144,930 
193,511 
289,424 
336,190 
102,669 
129,731 

48,946 

427,224 

1,052,948 

174,571 

283,058 

1,145,0.17 

75,801 
344,368 
163,097 
212,589 
186,873 
138,224 

18,487 
198, oil 
355,789 
282,897 
345,972 
271,541 
399,417 
233,328 
274,482 

51,:i59 
219,574 
194,074 
154,643 
188,178 



107,936 
161,759 
166,439 
164,459 
395,660 
342,159 
178,038 
272.202 
532,9.')9 
175,054 
307,963 
344 979 
431,495 
113,272 
156,660 
58,549 
549,353 

1,667,054 
215,867 
362,602 

1,576.636 
134,368 
412,664 
199,228 
266,020 
249,910 
163,127 
21,302 
225,820 
435,599 
354,682 
509.472 
315,073 
584,036 
300,075 
401,703 
56,454 
2.56,280 
248.460 
194,936 
204,701 

1,163,580 



124,478 
170,065 
163,723 
185,405 
455,725 
355,558 
195,492 



184,207 
390,997 
369,318 
458,805 
115,489 
167,298 
64,183 
615,766 

2,031,236 
230,308 
407,222 

1,886,576 
157,418 
442,714 
212,380 
303,568 
270,427 
170,439 
22,983 
229,341 
443,916 
405,370 
608,716 
337,215 
683,082 
336,844 
475,013 
58,287 
254 221 
276,926 
220,983 
215,214 

1,325,495 



135,265 
176,103 



175 950 
505,153 



684,531 
188,651 
509,018 
404,644 
485,502 
123,659 
173,294 

64,297 
733,675 
2,428,744 
237,402 
411,997 
2,206,771 
174,670 
436,422 
227,727 
343,028 
293,784 
172,266 

21,8.59 
240,876 
444,725 
481,495 
746,584 
336,271 
830,685 
363,648 
561,728 

60,809 
249,455 
307,601 



244,804 
1,507,611 



POP 



POP 



POPULATION OF lEISH COTJNTIES. 



Antrim 

Armagh . . . 

Carlow 

Cavan 

Clare 

Cork 

Donegal 

Down 

DubUn 

Fermanaghi . 

Galway 

Kerry 

Kildare 

Kilkeimy . . . 

King's 

Leitrim 

Limerick . . . 
Londonderry 
Longford . . . 

Louth 

Mayo 

Meath 

Monaghan... 

Queen's 

Koscommon . 

Sligo 

Tipperary . . . 

Tyrone 

Waterford . 
Westmeath . 
Wexford . . . 
Wicklow ..., 



217,683 
197,427 
78,952 
195.076 
208,089 
629,786 
248,270 
325,410 
150,011 



216,185 
99,065 
158,716 
131,088 
124,785 
218,432 
193,869 
107,570 
101,01Jl 
293,112 
159,183 
174,697 
134,275 
208,729 
146,229 
346,896 
261.865 
127,842 
128,819 
170,806 
110,767 



220,134 

227^933 
258,322 
703,716 
289,149 
352,012 
176,012 
149,763 
381,564 
263,126 
108,424 
169,945 
144,225 
141,524 
248,801 
222,012 
112,558 
107.481 
366,328 
176,826 
195,536 
145,851 
249,613 
171,765 
402,563 
304,468 
148,233 
136,872 
182,713 
121,557 



276,188 
232,393 
86,228 
243,158 
286.394 
773,398 
296,448 
361,446 
140,047 
156,481 



293,880 
114,488 
183,349 
146,857 
155,297 



222,174 
115,491 
111,979 



253,591 
180,886 
435,553 
312,956 
172,971 
141,300 
202.033 
126,143 



251,381 
196,085 
68,059 
174,071 
212,428 
563,326 
255,160 
320,817 
146,731 
116.007 
298,136 
238,239 

138,773 
112,080 
111,841 
208,688 
191,868 
82,350 
90,812 
274,612 
140,750 
141,813 
111,623 
173,417 
128,510 
331,487 
255,734 
138,754 
111,409 



POPTTLATIOlf OF SCOTCH COUNTIES. 



Aberdeen 

Argyll 

A3T.- 

Banff 

Berwick 

Bute 

Caithness 

Clackmannan 

Dumbarton 

Dumfries 

Edinburgh 

Elgin, or Moray 

Fife 

Forfar 

Haddington 

Inverness 

Kincardine 

Kinross 

Kirkcudbright (Stewarti-y) 

Lanark 

Linlithgow 

Nairn 

Orkney and Shetland 

Peebles 

Perth 

Renfrew 

Ross and Cromarty 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk 

Stirling 

Sutherland 

Wigtown 



121,065 
81,277 
84,207 
37,216 
30,206 
11,791 
22,609 
10,858 
20,710 
54,597 

122,597 
27,760 
93,743 
99,053 
29,986 
72,672 
26,349 
6,725 
29,211 

147,692 
17,844 
8,322 
46,824 
8,735 

125,583 
78,501 
56,318 
33,721 
5,388 
50,825 
23,117 
22.918 



155,049 
97,316 

127,299 
43,663 
33,385 
13,797 
29.181 
13,263 
27,317 
70,878 

191,514 
31,398 

114,556 

113,355 
35,127 



244,3 



53,124 
10,046 



112,175 
68,762 
40,892 



192,387 
97,371 

164,356 
49,679 
34,438 
15,740 
36,343 
19.155 
44,296 
72,830 

223,454 
35,012 

140,140 

170,453 
35,886 
97,799 
33,075 
8,763 
41,119 

426,972 
26,872 
9,217 
61,065 
10,499 

137,457 

155.072 
78.685 
46,025 
7,990 
82.057 
24,782 
39,195 



POP 



POP 



POPULATION OF WELSH COtTlHIIES. 



Anglesey . . . 

Brecon 

Cardigan ... 
Ca-rmavthen 
Caeruarvon . 
Denbigh . . . 

Flint 

Glamorgan . 
Merioneth . 
Montgomery 
Pembroke . . . 
Radnor 



32,3-25 
42,956 
67,317 
41,5'a 



70,879 
29.506 
48,184 

19^135 



45,063 

57784 
90,239 
58,099 
7rt,428 
53,893 
102,073 
34,382 
60,243 
73,788 
22,533 



55,603 
68,766 

106,326 
81,093 
88,478 
66.919 

171,188 



88,044 
25,458 



57,327 
61,474 
70,796 

110.632 
87.870 
92,583 
68.156 

231,849 
38 843 
67,335 
94,140 
24,716 



54,546 
61,«27 
72,255 
111,757 
95,668 



67,075 
96,093 
25,403 



THE POPITLATION OP THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AKD TOWNS OF ENGLAND, PEOM 
MC CTJLLOCH'S "STATISTICAL ACCOITNT OF THE BEITISH EMPIRE." 



Ashton-under-Lyme 

Bath 

Birkenhead 

Birmingham 

Blackburn 

Bolton , 

Bradford 

Brighton 

Bristol 

Burnley 

Bury 

Cambridge 

Carlisle 

Chatham 

Cheltenham 

Chester 

Coventry 

Derby , 

Dover . , 

Dudley 

Exeter 

Gateshead 

Halifax , 



Hull..., 

Ipswich 



5,727 
33,196 
110 
70,670 
11,980 
17,966 
13,264 

7,440 
61,153 

3,918 

9,152 
10,087 

9,415 
12,940 

3,076 
15,052 
16,034 
10,832 

7,084 
10,107 
17,412 

8,597 
12,010 

7,268 
29,580 
11,277 



Leicester 1 17,005 

Liverpool ! 82,295 

London i 958,863 

Macclesfield i 13,255 

Maidstone 8,027 

Manchester and Salford 94,876 

Merthyi- Ty dvil 10,127 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne 33 ,048 

Northampton 7,020 

Norwich 

Nottingham 

Oldham 21,( 

Oxford 11,( 

Plymouth and Devonport 

Portsmouth 

Preston 

Beading ^ 

Kochdale 



South Shields . . . , 

Stalybridge 

Stockport 

Stoke -upon -Trent 

Sunderland 

Swansea 



7.037 
38,408 
105 
82.753 
15.083 
24,799 
16,012 
12,205 
71,433 

5,405 
11,302 
11,108 
11,476 
15,787 

8,325 
16,140 
17,923 
13 043 

9,074 
13,925 

8782 
12,766 

9 671 
37,005 
13,670 
62,534 
23.453 
104,104 
1,138,815 
17,143 

9,443 
115,874 
14,945 
32,573 

8,427 
36.748 
34,253 
29,479 
12,931 
50,886 
41,587 
17,360 
10.788 
10,392 
53.231 

9,617 
15,165 

17,545 
31,557 
25,821 
11,963 



9,222 

46,700 

200 

101,722 
21,940 
32,045 
26,307 
24,741 
85,108 
8,242 
13,480 
14.142 
14.416 
19,177 
13,396 
19,949 
21,448 
17,423 
10,327 
18,211 
23,479 
11,767 
17,056 
13,284 
44,520 
17,186 
83 796 
31,038 

138,354 

1,378,947 

23,154 

12.508 

163.635 
20,959 
41,794 
10,793 
49,705 
40,415 
38,201 
16.364 
55,169 
46,743 
24,859 
12,867 
12.998 
65,275 
13,353 
16,503 

21,726 
40,237 



12,441 
50,800 
2,569 

143,986 
27,091 
42,243 
43,527 
41,994 

104,408 
10,026 
19,140 
20,917 
18,865 
21,124 
22,942 
21,344 
27,298 
23,627 
11,922 
23,430 
28 242 
15,177 
21,552 
19,035 
43,510 
20,201 

123,393 
40,639 

201,751 

1,654,994 

30,911 

15,790 

237,832 
27.281 
53,613 
15,351 
60,505 
50,680 
50,513 
20,649 



33,871 
15,595 
18,351 
91,692 
19.324 
18,756 



4o'735 
19,672 



22,678 
53,198 
8,223 

182,922 
36,629 
51,029 
66,715 
49 174 

125,146 
14,224 
24,846 
24,453 
21,550 
24,269 
31,411 
23,866 
31,032 
32,741 
17,795 
31,232 
37,231 
20,123 
27.520 
25,068 
67,308 
25,384 

152,074 
50,806 

286,487 

1,948,417 

32,629 

18,086 

311,009 
43,031 
70,337 
21,242 
61,846 
53,091 
60,451 
24,258 
70,340 
53,032 
50,887 
18,937 
24,272 

111 091 
27,744 
23,072 

50,154 
68,444 
53,335 
24,604 



29,791 
54.240 
24,285 

232,841 
46,536 
61,171 

103,778 
69,673 

137,328 
20,828 
31,262 
27,815 
26,310 
28,424 
3.5,051 
27,666 
36,812 
40,609 
24,244 
37,962 
40,688 
25,568 
33,582 
30,880 
84,690 
32 914 

172.270 
60,584 

375,955 

2,362 236 

39,048 

20,801 

401,321 
63,080 
87,784 
26,657 
68,195 
57,407 
72,357 
27,943 
90,401 
72,093 
69,542 
21,456 
29,195 

135,310 
35,305 
28,974 
20,760 
53,835 
84,027 
67,394 
31,461 



34,894 



63,125 
70,396 

1116,218 
77,693 

154,093 

37,564 
26,351 
29,436 
36,177 
39,590 
31,101 
40,937 
43,091 
24,970 
44,975 
33,737 

37^015 
34,874 



207,153 
68,052 

443,874 

2,803.034 

36,095 

22,984 

440,760 
83 ..844 

109 291 
32 813 
74,414 
74.531 
72,334 
27,561 

113 327 
94,546 
82,961 
24,965 
38,164 

185,157 
46,970 



54,681 
101,-302 
80,324 
42,581 



POP 



POE 



POPULATIOK OF PEINCIPAL 


CITIES AND TOWNS OF EN&LAND— ( 


continuet 


). 




1801. 


1811. 


1821. 


1831. 


1841. 


1851. 


1861. 




13,171 
10,581 
10,399 
11,321 
10,989 
30,584 
11,460 
16,573 
16,846 


17,548 
11,393 
11,189 
12,68-2 
14.060 
43,190 
13,814 
20.448 
19,099 


23,173 
14,164 
11,914 

17;716 
53,011 
17,023 
21,007 
21,711 


23.206 
15,932 
15,066 
18,184 
20,774 
67,514 
18,610 
24,5:i5 
26,260 


25,416 
18,842 
19,857 
21,116 
25,517 
93,245 
27,004 
27,865 
28,842 


29,170 
22,057 
25,680 
23.361 
31.941 
119;748 
27,528 
30,879 
36,303 


33,991 

23,181 

25^953 
37,657 
60,858 
31.123 
34.803 
40,377 








Wigan: 













POPTJX.ATION OF THE PBINCIPAI, CITIES 
AND TOWNS OF THE WOELD. 



Pop. 

AlDerdeen 73,794 

Aleppo 100,000 

Amsterdam 243,755 

Antwerp 108,975 

Baltimore 214,037 

Barcelona 252,000 

Belfast 119,242 

Berlin 445,240 

Birmingham .. 295,955 

78,001) 
149,928 
177,902 



122,000 
84,000 
71,914 

413,182 



Bordeaux 
Boston .. 

Bradford 106,218 

Breslau 129,747 

Brooklyn 273.425 

Bristol 154,093 

Brussels 169,640 

Buenos- Ayres , 

Bufialo 

Cadiz , 

Calcutta ..... 

Cairo 250.000 

Canton ( esti- 
mated) 1.000.000 

Chicago 109,420 

Cincinnati 160,060 

Cologne 114,721 

Constantinople 800,000 

Copenhagen .. 150,000 

Cork 78,892 

Damascus 150 000 

Delhi 152.424 

Dresden 117,750 

Dublin 249,733 

Dundee 90,425 

Edinburgh .... 168,098 

Florence 115,675 

Genoa 119,610 

Ghent 114,901 

Glasgow 394,857 

Granada Iu0,678 



Hamburg. 

HuU 

Ispahan . . . 

Jeddo 

Konigsberg . 



161, 3J 



120 000 

1,200,000 

81.794 

207,1.53 

Iieipsic 74,209 

I/emberg 70,384 

lille 78,641 

Li6ge 94,657 

Lisbon 275,285 

Liverpool 443,874 

London 2,803 .034 

LouisviUe 75,196 

Lucknow 3^10,000 

Lyons 378,803 

Madeira 102,837 



Madras 

Madrid 

Malaga 

Malta 

Manchester 

Marseilles 

Melbourne 

Merthyr Tydvil 



Mexico 

Milan 

Montreal 

Moscow 

Munich 

Nankin (esti- 
mated) 

Nantes 

Naples , 

Newcastle 

New Orleans . . 

New York 

Norwich 

Nottingham . , 

essa 

Oldham 

Palermo 

Paris 

Prkin 

Pesth 

Petersburg, St. 
Philadelphia . 
Portsmouth... 

Prague 

Puebla 

Riga 

Rio Janeiro . . . 



Rotterdam 

Rouen 

St. Etienne 
St. Louis . . 
Salford . . . . 



Seville 
Shangha 



Smyrna . . . 
Stockholm . 
Strasburg . 
Sunderland. 

Toulon 

Toulouse . . . 

Trieste 

Turin 

Valencia . . . 

Venice 

Vienna 



Pop. 

300,000 
475,785 
113,050 
131,401 
338,346 
250.000 

83,844 
94,13:< 
170.000 
180,000 
75,000 
386,370 
137,112 

400,000 

108,519 

419,850 

109,291 

170,766 

814,277 

74,414 

74,531 

104,169 

72,334 

186,170 

1,525,535 

2,000 000 

131,705 

520,131 

568,034 

94,546 

142,588 

71,631 

72,136 

205,906 

179,950 

105,984 

103,223 

, 94.432 

162,179 

102,414 

! 152,000 

, 135,000 

, 185,157 
150,(100 

. 116.972 

. 77,656 

, 80,324 

. 82,705 

. 103,144 

. 104,707 

. 179,635 

. 145,512 

. 118,120 

. 476,222 

. 158,120 



PoECELAiN.— The finer parts of the pot- 
ter's art were brought to great perfection 



in China at a very early date {v. China- 
waee). Thence the manufacture of por- 
celain was carried to the Corea about B.C. 
203, and thence again into Japan, where it 
was cultivated with great success. Orien- 
tal porcelain was introduced into London 
by the Portuguese, a.d. 1518, but isolated 
specimens had been imported through the 
Barbary states before that year. Soft porce- 
lain of inferior quality was made at St. Cloud 
in 1695, and at Chelsea before 1698, but no 
advance was made towards the manufacture 
of hard porcelain until 1706, when it was 
attempted in Saxony. In 1712 the Jesuit 
father Francois Xavier d'EntrecoUes sent 
a complete description of its details from 
China to France, and its production was 
prosecuted with success at Sevres in 1769. 
The principal English manufactures of por- 
celain, with the dates of their establishment, 
are as follows : — Derby 1750, Worcester 1751, 
Caughly (Shropshire) 1756, EocMngham 
1757, Plymouth 1760, Bristol 1772, Nant- 
garrow (Glamorganshire) 1813, and Swansea 
1814. The celebrated porcelain tower of 
Nankin was originally built by King A-you, 
about B.C. 833. It was rebuilt by Kien-wen- 
ti, about A.D. 373, and after being again de- 
stroyed, was a second time rebuilt by Hoang- 
. h-tai in 1431. (See China-waee, Ceockeet- 
WAEE, Deesden China, and Eaethen- 

WAEE.) 

PoECiAN Laws. — Three Eoman laws, 
brought forward by three different members 
of the Porcian fanuly, enacted that no ma- 
gistrate should pimish with death, or scourge 
■with rods, a Eoman citizen when condemned, 
but allow him the alternative of exile. The 
period when these laws were passed cannot 
be ascertained with accuracy. 

Poet Egmont (Falkland Islands) was 
discovered by Commodore Byron, a.d. 1765, 
and a small settlement made by the English, 
who were expelled by the Spaniards, in 1770. 
This nearly led to a war, but Spain surren- 
dered the sovereignty of the islands to Eng- 
land Jan. 22, 1771. 

Poetee. — The generally received account 
of the origin of this beverage is, that a 
London brewer, named Harwood, succeeded, 
A.D. 1722, in brewing malt liquor which 
combined the flavours of ale and beer, or 
ale, beer, and twopenny, and called it " en- 
tire," or " entire butt," to show that it was 



POK 

dra^vn from one cock. It acquired the 
name of porter from its consumption by 
porters and labourers. Mr. Henry T. Kiley, 
in a communication to Notes and Queries 
(x. 123) , quotes a passage from liicliolas Am- 
herst's " Terrse Filius" for May 22, 1721, in 
which porter is mentioned. 

PoETEEAGE AcT for regulating the rates 
of porterage on smaU parcels in London, 
Westminster, and Southwark, was passed 
June 21, 1799. 

Poet Glasgow, or New Poet Glasgow 
(Scotland) . — This town was founded by the 
magistrates of Glasgow, a.d. 1668, as the 
seaport of that city. It received a munici- 
pal constitution in 1775. A graving dock 
was constructed in 1762 ; a chapel of ease 
was founded in 1774 ; and the parish church 
was buUt in 1823. 

PoBTici (Italy). — This town, at the foot 
of Mount Vesuvius, stands near the site of 
the ancient city of Herculaneum, destroyed 
by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, 79 a.b. 

Poet Jacksoit (Australia) , discovered by 
Captain Cook a.d. 1770, was colonized prin- 
cipally by convicts m 1788. Sydney, the 
capital of New South Wales, is situated on 
the southern shore of Port Jackson. 

POETLAND (Dorsetshire). — This island 
derives its name, according to some writers, 
from Port, a Saxon freebooter, who settled 
here about a.d. 501. A paries' of Danish 
robbers landed and slew the governor in 
787, and it was plundered by Earl Godwin 
in 1052. The Prench invaded it and did 
great damage in May, 1416. Portland Cas- 
tle, the residence of the governor, was built 
by Henry VIII. about 1520. The stone for 
which this island is celebrated was first 
brought into repute in the reign of James I. 
The sea is perpetually encroaching on the 
land, and great falls of the cliff took place 
in 1665, 1734, and 1792. A breakwater is in 
course of construction here, the first stone 
of which was laid by Prince Albert July 18, 
1849. 

PoETLAND (Sea-fight). — ^A Dutch fleet of 
seventy-three ships of war, commanded by 
Van Tromp, vrith a convoy of three hundred 
merchantmen returning from the Isle of Rhe, 
was encountered off" Portland by an English 
fleet of seventy sail, under Blake, Feb. 18, 
1653, and a contest ensued which continued 
till dusk. The Dutch attempted to escape, 
but were pursued and overtaken off the Isle 
of Wight, Feb. 19, when the engagement 
was renewed. A running fight was con- 
tinued till the fleets were withm a few miles 
of Calais, when the enemy effected their 
escape, Feb. 20, having lost eleven ships of 
war, sixty merchantmen, 1,500 in killed and 
wounded, and 700 prisoners. 

PoETLAND Administeatiok, was formed 
on the dissolution of All the Talents adminis- 
tration {q.v.), March 25, 1807. The cabinet 
consisted of 

Treas\uy Drike of Portland. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Eldon. 

President of the Council . .Lord Camden. 

Privy Seal Earl of Westmoreland. 



POR 

Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. Spencer Perceval. 
Home Secretary | ^"^'^^ Hawlcesbury, after- 

(. wards earl of Liverpool. 

Foreign Secretary Mr. Canning. 

Colonial Secretary Viscount Ctstlereagh. 

Admiralty Lord Mul^ave. 

Board of Control Mr. Dun das. 

Board of Trade Earl Bathurst. 

Lord Harrowby (created Earl Harrowby 
July 18) was made president of the Board 
of Trade July 11, 1809. Dissensions broke 
out in the cabinet. Viscount Castlereagh and 
Mr. Canning fought a duel, Sept. 22, having 
previously resigned their offices. Earl 
Bathurst becanie secretary of state for 
foreign affaks Oct. 11, 1809. The duke of 
Portland died Oct. 30, 1809, and after vari- 
ous negotiations, Mr. Spencer Perceval 
was appointed prime minister in November, 
1809. {See Peeceval Administeation.) 

PoETLAND Vase, formerly known as the 
Barberini Vase, one of the choicest specimens 
of ancient art, was discovered at Monte del 
Grano, near Eome, about the middle of the 
16th century, in a marble sarcophagus sup- 
posed to have been that of Alexander Seve- 
rus (a.d. 222 — 235) and his mother Julia 
Mamsea. It was placed in the Barberini 
palace at Rome, where it remained till 1770, 
when it was purchased by Sir W. Hamilton, 
and afterwards came into the possession of 
the duchess of Portland. The duke presented 
it to the British Museum in 1810, and it was 
broken to pieces by a man named Lloyd, 
Feb. 7, 1845. The fragments were skillfully 
put together, and the vase was restored. 

Poet Louis (Mauritius), the capital of 
the island, owes its origin to M. de la Bour- 
donnaye, the French governor, who fortified 
it and made it the seat of government a.d. 
1734. It was taken by the English in 1810, 
and ceded to England in 1815. Port Louis 
was ravaged by fire in 1816, and by the 
cholera in 1819. 

PoetoBello (South America), discovered 
by Columbus a.d. 1502, was taken from the 
Spaniards by the British, under Admiral 
Vernon, Nov. 20, 1739. At this time the 
town was the great mart for the commerce 
of ChUi and Peru ; but in 1740 the galleons 
ceased to resort here, and it rapidly declined 
in importance. 

Poet d'Anzo (Sea-fight). — The Venetian 
admiral Vettore Pisani defeated the Genoese 
fleet, under Luigi de Fieschi, near the 
promontory of Antium, or Porto d'Anzo, in 
Italy, May 30, 1378. The engagement is 
remarkable as having taken place during a 
violent gale. 

PoETO Feeeajo (Elba), the capital of 
the island, was built and partly fortified by 
Cosmo I., duke of Florence, a.d. 1548. The 
fortifications were completed on a magnifi- 
cent scale by Cosmo II. in 1628. Porto 
Ferrajo is celebrated as having been the resi- 
dence of Napoleon I. from May 4, 1814, to 
Feb. 26, 1815, when he made his escape to 
France. 

PoBTOLONGO (Sea-fight). — The Venetian 
fleet, under the captain-general Pisani, was 
687 



POR 

attacked by the Genoese squadron of Paga- 
nino Doria, off this place, to the south of the 
Morea, and completely routed, 'So\. 4, 1354. 

PoETO Novo (Battle). — Sir Eyre Coote 
defeated Hyder Ali near this sea-port town, 
in the presidency of Madras, July 1, 1781. 
The English force amounted to 9,500 men, 
with 55 Eght field-pieces, and Hyder Ali had 
under his command 80,000 men, with 47 pieces 
of heavy artillery. The former lost 587 men 
in MUed and wounded, and the latter 10,000 
men. 

PoETO Eico (West Indies). — This island 
was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1493. Sir 
Francis Drate and Sir John Hawkins at- 
tempted to take it in 1595, but were repulsed. 
It was captured by the English towards the 
end of the 17th century, and abandoned in 
consequence of the prevalence of dysentery. 
It was unsuccessfully attacked by a British 
force under General Abercromby, in 1797. 
A revolt, that broke out against the Spanish 
government in 1820, was suppressed in 
1823. 

Poet Philiip (IS'ew South "Wales) .—The 
harbour of Port Phillip was discovered by 
Lieutenant John Murray in the beginning of 
the year 1802, and was named after the first 
governor of the colony. Colonel CoUins, 
with a party of convicts, landed here in 1804, 
to found a settlement, but afterwards re- 
moved to Van Diem en's Land. Another 
settlement was formed in 1835. Melbourne, 
the capital of the colony of Victoria, called 
Port Phillip until 1839, is situated near this 
harbour. 

Poet Eepublicain (Hayti), formerly 
called Port-au-Prince, the capital of the re- 
public of Hayti, was founded a.d. 1749, and 
was nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 
1770. The negroes who had revolted com- 
mitted great devastation in 1791, and it was 
taken by the English in 1794. A disastrous 
earthquake occurred May 7, 1842, and nearly 
one-third of the town was destroyed by fire 
Jan. 9, 1843. 

Poet Eotal (Jamaica) , formerly the com- 
mercial capital of the island, was nearly de- 
stroyed by an earthquake a.d. 1602. A new 
town was built, and it was destroyed by an 
earthquake June 7, 1692 ; and having been 
rebuilt, was again destroyed by a hurricane 
Aug. 28. 1722. The pubhc ofiiees were then 
removed to Kingston, and the town sank into 
insignificance. 

Poet Royalists.— This order of nuns was 
founded by Matilda de Garlande and Eudes 
de SuUy, who built the celebrated nunnery 
of Port Royal, near Chevreuse, in France, 
A.D. 1204. In 1609 its rules were reformed 
by the abbess Angelica, and in 1626 the 
community remoTed to Paris. The nuns 
added the title of Filles du St. Sacrament to 
their other names in 1647 ; and, in conse- 
quence of their increased numbers, re-esta- 
blished their old house at Chevreuse, to 
which they gave the name of Port Eoyal des 
Champs. The newly-constituted house em- 
braced the Jansenist heresy, and was, in con- 
sequence, separated from the Paris house. 



FOE 

established by royal letters patent in July, 
1665. It continued a ceaseless source of 
trouble, till it was finally suppressed by a 
bull of Pope Clement XL, Oct. 29, 1709. 
The building was pulled down by Louis XIV. 
in 1710. The Paris establishment continued 
until the suppression of aU the religious 
houses in 1790. On the restoration of the 
Bourbons in 1814, they inhabited a house in 
the Rue St. Antoine ; and in the early part 
of 1841 they formed two divisions, one of 
which settled at Lyons, and the other at 
Besan^on. {See Jaitsenists.) 

PoETSMOUTH (Hampshire) derives its 
name, according to some authorities, from 
its situation at the mouth of a capacious 
harbour on the southern coast. Other 
writers say that it was thus named from 
Port, who, with his sons Bieda and Msegia, 
landed here a.d. 501, and are supposed to 
have founded the ancient town of Por- 
chester, which stood about three miles to 
the north-west. On the retiring of the sea 
from this place, the inhabitants removed, 
and erected the present town. Alfred the 
Great fitted out a fleet here, and defeated 
the Danes in 893. It was a place of im- 
portance in the time of Henry I., and re- 
ceived its first charter from Eichard I. in 
1193. A naval station was established here in 
the reign of John. The French attacked and 
burnt a considerable part of the town, and 
were afterwards repiflsed, with great loss, iu 
1377. It was strongly fortified by Edward IV. 
A powerful French fleet, vrith a large mihtary 
force for the invasion of England, having 
anchored off St. Helen's, a British army 
assembled at Portsmouth ; and the British 
fleet, after a desperate engagement, repulsed 
the enemy, with great loss, in 1544. The 
fortifications were greatly strengthened in 
the reign of Ehzabeth. The duke of Buck- 
ingham was assassinated here by Felton, 
Aug. 28, 1628. Felton was hanged at 
Tyburn 'Sox. 19, 1628, and afterwards gib- 
beted on Southsea Common. During the 
civil war the town fell into the hands of the 
parhamentarians. Charles II. was married 
here to Catherine of Portugal, May 21, 16^.2. 
Disastrous fires occurred in the'dockvard 
July 3, 1761, and July 27, 1770. Another 
(the work of an incendiary named James 
Aitken, alias John the Painter) took place 
Dec. 7, 1776. It broke out in the day, 
several hours before the incendiary had 
purposed, and the damage was confined to 
the rope-house and a few adjoining store- 
houses. Painter confessed the crime, and waa 
hanged at Portsmouth d9ck-gate March 10, 
1777. The fortifications were strengthened 
and extended in the time of Wilham III. 
The Royal George sank here Aug. 30, 1782, 
when Admiral Kempenfelt, with 400 men and 
as many women and children, perished. A 
bin was passed by Mr. Pitt in 1786 for the 
fortification of Portsmouth and Plymouth, 
which required an outlay of several hundred 
thousand pounds. Lord Palmerston, in his 
cabinet minute on the defences of the 
country, in 1846, said that 10,000 men were 



POE 

required for the garrisons of Portsmouth, 
Plymouth, and Chatham ; and the duke of 
Wellington considered that, in the event of a 
declaration of war, Portsmouth ought to 
have a garrison of 10,000 men. The parish 
church of St. Thomas, founded about 1220, 
was rebuilt in 1693. The church of St. 
Paul's, Southsea, was built in 1822, and All 
Saints', Newtown, in 1827. A mechanics' 
institution was founded in 1825. 

PoRTSMOirTH (ISTorth America). — This 
town, in New Hampshire, was founded a.d. 
1623, and received a charter of incorporation 
in 1633. A fire, which destroyed 102 build- 
ings, occurred in December, 1802 ; and a 
stSl more destructive one, destroying 397 
buildings, took place in December, 1813. 

Portugal. — This kingdom, the ancient 
Lusitania, anciently underwent the same 
political changes as Spain, and was governed 
successively by the Vandals, Visigoths, and 
Moors. (See Spaist.) It became a distinct 
principaUty in 1095, and was erected into a 
kingdom in 1139. 



Alfonso VI., king of Leon, confers the 
earldom of Portugal on Count Henrique, 
who makes Guimaraes his capital. 

July 25. Alfonso is proclaimed king of Por- 
tugal at the battle of Ourique q. v.). 

Oct. 25. Alfonso I. takes Lisbon from the 
Moors. 

He takes Alcazar do Sal, and extends his rule 
beyond the Tagus. 

AJfonso L annexes the district of Limia to 
Port\igal. 

He is made prisoner by the king of Leon, at 
Badajos, and is coujpelled to resign his 
conquests in Galicia as his ransom. 

Alfonso II. defeats the Moors in the battle 
of Alcazar do Sal. 

The Moorish territory of Algarve is annexed 
to Portugal. 

Sancho II. is deposed by the council of Lyons, 
and compelled to take refuge in Castile. 

Alfonso III. marries Beatrice de Guzman, 
daughter of the king of Castile, during the 
lifetime of his former queen Matilda. 

Death of Queen MatUda. 

Bon Alfonso rebels against his father, Denis. 

An alliance is contracted with the king of 
Aragon. 

The king of Castile marries Maria, infanta 
of Portugal. 

Jan. 7. Inez de Castro, wife of the infant 
Don Pedro, is murdered at Coimbra (q. v.). 

Pedro I. causes the corpse of his murdered 
wife Inez to be solemnly crowned. 

On the death of Ferdinand I., the succession 
to the crown is disputed by the queen of 
Castile and Don Joam, natural son of 
Pedro I. 

Aug. 14. Joam, or John I., totally defeats 
the Castilians at the battle of Aljubarota 



1147. 
1158. 
1167. 
1168. 

1217. 
1223. 
1245. 
1254. 



1355. 
1361. 
1383. 



1387. 
1403. 
1415. 



John I. marries Philippa of Lancaster. 

Peace is established with Castile. 

John I. besieges Ceuta, and forms various set- 
tlements in Africa. 

The maritime celebrity of the Portuguese 
commences about this year by the disco- 
very of Madeii-a (q v.). 

Duarte sustains a disastrous defeat at Tan- 
gitrs from the Moors, who retain the 
infant, Don Ferdinand, as hostage. 

Duarte dies of the plague, and the crown is 
left to his infant son Alfonso, under the 
regency of his mother, Leonora. 

Don Pedro, duke of Coimbra, obtains the 
regency. 



POE 



1446. Alfonso attains his majority. 

1449. Civil war breaks out between the king and 
the late regent, and the latter is defeated 
and slain. 

1483. The duke of Braganga, detected in treason- 
able practices, is executed. 

1491. July 33. The infant, Don Alfonso, is killed 
by a fall from his horse. 

1495. Accession of Emanuel, founder of the Viseo 
line of Portuguese sovereigns. 

1497. Nov. 19. Vasco de Gama, in the service of 
Portugal, doubles the Cape of Good Hope 
(q.V.). 

1500. Cabral discovers Brazil (q. v.). 

1609. Albuquerque founds the Portuguese empire 
in India. 

1521. Portugal attains its highest point of national 
greatness about this year. 

1526. The Inquisition is introduced into Portugal. 

1578. Aug. 4. King Sebastian, with the whole of 
his airmy, is defeated and slain by the 
Moors, at the battle of Alcazar, or Aicazar- 
quiver. 

1580. On the death of Henry, the succession 
to the Portuguese throne is disputed by 
Antonio, prior of Crato, the duke of Bra- 
gan^a and Savoy, the prince of Parma, the 
pope, Elizabeth of Eugland, and Philip II. 
of Spain, and is secured for the last men- 
tioned by the duke of Alva. 

1585. An impostor asserts himself to be King 
Sebastian who was slain at Alcazar. (See 
Sebastiamsts. ) 

1640. Dec. 1. The Portuguese under the duke of 

Braganga expel the Spanish, and place on 
the throne John rV., duke of Braganga, 
and founder of the Braganga family of 
Portuguese mouarchs. 

1641. The archbishop of Braga conspires to restore 

the Spaniards. 
1644 The Spaniards are defeated at the battle of 

Monti jo. 
1661. The Spaniards invade Portugal and seize 

Evora and other places. 
1665. The Portuguese under General Schomberg 

totally defeat the Spaniards at the battle 

of Viliaviosa, or Montes Claros. which 

secures the sovereignty of Portugal to the 

house of Braganga. 

1667. Alfonso VI. becomes odious from intem- 

perance, and is deposed by his brother Don 
Pedro, who assumes the regency. 

1668. Feb. 13. Peace with Spain is restored by the 

treaty of Lisbon. 
1697. The Cortes assemble for the last time. 
1703. May 16. Portugal joins the grand alliance 

against Prance. 
1736. "War is renewed with Spain. 
1748. John V. assumes the title of " Most Faithful 

Majesty." 
1755. Nov. 1. The great earthquake overwhelms 

Lisbon. (See Earthquakes. ) 
1758. The duke of Aveiro conspires against the king, 

and is detected and executed. The Jesuits 

are expelled the kingdom on a charge of 

implication in the conspiracy. 
1760. Don Pedro, prince of Brazil, marries his 

niece, the infanta Maria. 

1762. The Spaniards invade Portugal, and seize Bra- 

ganga, Miranda, Almeida, and other places. 

1763. Feb. 10. Peace is res cored by the treaty of 

Paris. 

1777. Fall of the minister Pombal. 

1778. March 31. A treaty of friendship and com- 

merce is concluded with Spain, at Pardo. 
1792. Queen Maria Francesca becomes insane, and 

her son John, prince of Brazil, is declared 

regent. 
1801. March 3. Spain declares war, and invades 

i-ortugal. June 6. Peace is restored by the 

treaty of Badajos. 
1807. Oct. 22. An alliance with Great Britain its 

concluded at Loudon. 

2 y 



POE 



1807. Oct. 27. A treaty for the partition of Portugal 

Is concluded between France and Spain at 
Fontarnebleau. Nov. 27. A French army 
under Junot enters Lisbon. Nov. 29. In 
consequence of the approach of the French, 
The court sails for Brazil. 

1808. June 19. The Portu^es-e revolt against the 

French. June 21. They are defeated by 
Loison at Castro d'Airo. July 4. Also 
at Alpedrinham. July 2.5. An English 
force under Sir Arthui- "WeUesley arrives 
at Oporto. Aug. 17. "WeUesley defeats 
Laborde at the battle of EoliQa. Aug. 21. 
He gains the battle of Vimeii-a {q.v.). 
Aug. 30. The French agree to evacuate 
Portugal by the convention of Cintra 
{q.v.). 

1809. March 29. The French under Marshal Soult 

take Oporto. 

1810. Aug. 27. Massena takes Almeida. Sept. 27. 

Wellington defeats Massena at Busaco 
(9- ^■). 
1812. April 10. Sir Stapleton Cotton defeats Soult 
at the battle of Villa Franca. The English 
parliament grants £100 000 for the relief 
of the Portuguese sufferers by war this 
year-. 

1820. Aug. 24. The garrison at Oporto revolts and 

foi-ms a provisional government. Sept. 1.5. 
The revolution reaches Lisbon. Oct. 1. 
The revolutionists of Oporto enter Lisbon 
and establish a constitutional junta. 

1821. July 4. The court returns to Portugal, and is 

established at Lisbon. Aug. 21. Kiots take 
place at Lisbon. 

1822. Jan. 25. The independence of Chili is acknow- 

ledged. Oct. 1. The king swears fidelity to 
the constitution. Oct. 12. Brazil shakes 
off its dependence onPortugaL (See Brazil.) 

1823. May 27. The troops declare against the 

constitution. June 5. The king revokes 
the constitution. 

1824. April 20. Prince Miguel publishes a manifest 

against Freemasons. May 9. Miguel is 
deprived of the commanderahip-in chief. 
May 13. He flees into France. 

1825. May 13. Portugal recognizes the independence 

of Bi-azil. Aug. 29. A treaty is concluded 
with Brazil. 

1826. Feb. 18. Death of John VT. Don Pedro, at 

the time absent in Brazil, is proclaimed 
king, and the infanta Isabella regent. 
April 26. Pedro confirms the regency. 
May 2. Pedro resigns the Portuguese crown 
to his daiTehter. Maria II., and retains the 
empire of Brazil. July 9. Popular insur- 
rections break out at Braganija and other 
places. Oct. 4. Don Miguel swears at 
Vienna to respect the Portuguese consti- 
tution. Oct. 6. The marquis of Chaves 
rebels at Lisbon. Oct. 29. Maria II. is be- 
trothed to Don Miguel. Dec. 3. The assist- 
ance of the British is soUeited. Dec. 10. 
The rebels are defeated by Villa Flor. 
Dec. 25. The English auxiliary force lands 
at Lisbon. 

1827. Jan. 9. The rebels are defeated at the battle 

of Coiuches. Feb. 4. VUla Flor defeats 
them at Barca. April 29. The troops gar- 
risoned at Eivas mutiny. Dec. 7. The Bank 
of Lisbnn suspends payments. Dec. 19. 
The infant Don Miguel is proclaimed regent. 
Dec. 30. He arrives in London. 

1828. Feb. 22. Don Miguel arrives at Lisbon. 

March 3. Pedro T., emperor of Brazil, for- 
mally renounces all claim to the Portu- 
guese crown. April 28. The British auxi- 
liary force quits Portugal. May 3. Miguel 
convokes the three estates of the realm. 
June 30. Miguel assumes the title of king. 
July 4. Queen Maria II. sails from Rio Ja- 
neiro to Lisbon. July 15. Miguel dissolves 
the three estates. Aug. 24. He seizes the 
Madeira islaurls. Sept. 2. Mai-ia II., queen 
of Portugal, arrives at Gibraltar. Oct. 6. 
She arrives in London. 



POE 



A.D. 

1828. Nov. 9. Miguel is thrown from his carriage, 

and seriously hurt. Dec. 22. The exiled 
queen is received by (Jeorge IV. at 
Windsor. 

1829. Aug. 11. Don Miguel is defeated in an attempt 

to take the island of Terceira, one of the 



. July 3. Miguel is appointed regent. Dec. 15. 

His life is attempted. 
, Aug. 21. An insurrection at Lisbon, in favour 
of Queen Maria II. , is instantly suppressed 
by Miguel. 
, Feb. 10. Don Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil 
{g. v.), sails from BeUe-Isle. March 3. He 
arrives at Terceira, and assumes the re- 
gency on behalf of his daughter Maria II. 
June 28. He sails from St. Michael for 
Portiigal. July 8. He disembarks near 
Oporto, and occupies tnat city the fol- 
lowing day. Sept. 9. Don Miguel's troops 
are defeated in an attempt to seize Oporto. 
Sept. 29. They again fail to take the 
city. 
, April 9. The Miguelites take Monte Cavello. 
June 8. Admiral Napier assumes the com- 
mand of Don Pedro's fleet. July 5. Napier 
captures Miguel's fleet at St. Vincent. 
July 23. The Miguelist general, the duke of 
Cadaval, evacuates Lisbon. July 28. Don 
Pedro enters Lisbon. Aug. 15. He summons 
a meeting of the cortes. Sept. 22. The 
queen enters Lisbon. 

April 21. Don Pedro concludes an alliance 
with Great Britain, France, and Spain. 
May 26. The IMiguelists capitulate at Eva- 
ramonte. M-^y 29. Ittiguel signs an agree- 
ment to abstain from interference in the 
affairs of Portugal. June 1. He quits Por- 
tugal and retires to Genoa. Aug. 18. The 
cortes meets. Sept. 20. Queen Maria U., 
having attained her majority, swears 
fidelity to the constitution. Sept. 24. 
Death of Don Pedi-o. Dec. 1. The queen 
marries Augustus, duke of Leuchtenberg. 

Mai-ch 28. Death of the prince consort 
Augustus. 

Jan. 1. The queen marries Ferdinand Au- 
gustus of Saxe-Coburg Gotha. Sept 10. 
The constitution of 1822 is proclaimed at 
Lisbon. Nov. 3. An outbreak in favour of 
Don Pedro's charter and the constitution 
of 1822 occurs at Lisbon. Nov. 18. An 
amnesty is decreed in favour of the insur- 
gents who took part in the late disturb- 
ance. 

Aug. 18. The duke of Terceira fails in an 
attempt to restore Don Pedro's charter. 
Sept. 20. He and his friends seek refuge in 
England, 

March 13. An insurrection breaks out in 
Lisbon. March 21. The cortes adopt a new 
constitution. April 4. The queen swears 
fidelity to the new constitution. April 7. 
The Oporto wine company is re-esta- 
blished. 

Nov. A misunderstanding takes place with 
Spain, respecting the navigation of the 
Douro. 

April 14. An insurrection breaks out in the 
northern districts of Guimaraes, Pi-ado, 
and Penella. May 16. A revolution breaks 
out at Coimbra, where a, junta and national 
guard are organized. May 21. Riots in Lis- 
bon are suppressed by force. June 16. Don 
Miguel is proclaimed king at Borey. June 
24. Don Miguel publishes a letter asserting 
that he will never renounce his claim to 
the Portuguese throne on any condition 
whatever. Oct. 6 The Palmella ministry 
resigns. Oct. 7. The national guard is sup- 
pressed. Oct. 9. The duke of Terceira lands 
at Oporto, and is arrested. Oct. 12. A 
provisionary government isestfiblished at 
Oporto under the Count das Artas, who 
states to the queen that his object is to 
prevent civil war. 



POR 



1846. Oct. 27. The queen publishes a proclamation 

stating that she will exercise absolute 
sovereignty until the restoration of order. 
Oct. 28. General Schwalbach defeats the 
rebels near Viana. Oct. 31. The royalists 
are victorious at Evora, and an English 
fleet, under Admiral Parker, anchors in 
the Tagus for the assistance of the queen. 
Nov. 26. Palmella is banished. Dec. 22. 
Marshal Saldanha gains a great victory 
over the rebel forces under the count of 
• Bomfln at Torres Vedras. 

1847. Jan. 7. The insurgents, under Count das 

Artas, enter Oporto. Jan. 30. The rebels 
are defeated at Villaponca by General 
Cazal. April 28. The queen consents to 
grant a general amnesty and to concede 
some of the demands of the malcontents. 
May 21. England, France, Spain, and Por- 
tugal, hold a conference at London, at 
■which the three former powers agree to 
assist the queen of Portugal to restore 
order in her kingdom. June 9. The queen 
publishes a conciliatory proclamation. 
June 15. The insurgent general Sa-da- 
Bandeira, with a large number of his 
oflBcers, submit to the queen. June 30. The 
junta of Oporto capitulate, and the town is 
entered by the Spaniards. 

1850. June 22. An American squadron enters the 

Tagus to enforce the claims of the United 
States. 

1851. April 8. The duke of Saldanha heads an in- 

surrection of the Soldiery. April 13. He 
enters Coimbra. April 24. Oporto declares 
■in his favour. May 3. The revolt extends 
to Lisbon. May 4. Saldanha is made head 
of the administration. May 7. The king 
resigns the commandership-in-chief of the 
army. May 2-i. The queen dissolves the 
chamber of deputies. July 28. The elec- 
toral law is altered. Sept. 24. Don Miguel 
marries the princess Adelaide of Lowen- 



1854, 
1855 



July 8. The hereditary prince of Portugal 
swears to respect the constitutiun. July 9. 
An important additional act of the consti- 
tution is publisfied, by which capital pun- 
ishment for political offences is abolished, 
and other reforms are introduced. Dec. 18. 
The interest on the public debt is converted 
from five to three per cent, by order of the 
queen. 

Nov. 15. Death of Queen Maria II., who 
is succeeded by her son Pedro V. , under the 
regency of his father. Dec. 19. The king 
regent takes the constitutional oaths. 

June 3. The young king visits London. Sept. 3. 
He visits France. Dec. 30. All the slaves 
of the Portuguese crown are declared free. 

Sept. 16. Pedro V. assumes the government 
in person. 

June 6. The Saldanha ministry resigns, and is 
succeeded by that of the marquis of Louie. 
The cholera rages in Lisbon this year. 

April 29. The marriage of the king with the 
Princess Stgphanie of HohenzoUern-Slg- 
maringen is celebrated by proxy at Berlin. 
Nov. 27. The French slaver Charles et 
Georges is seized by a Portuguese cruiser 
and taken to Mozambique. The Fi-ench 
government maintains that the negroes 
found on board were free labourers. 

May 27. The king receives the investiture of 
the Garter. Aug. 13. The Charles et 
Georges arrives at Lisbon. Oc^. 13. The 
French government demands the restora- 
tion of the vessel. Oct. 25. It is surren- 
dered by the Portuguese government. 

March 16. A new ministry is formed under 
the duke of Terceira. July 17. Death of 
the young quef-n, from diphtheria. 

April 26. Death of the duke of Terceira, pre- 
sident of the council. Aug. 3. A commer- 
cial treaty is concluded with Japan. 



POS 



1861. Nov. 12. Death of Pedro V., who is succeeded 
by his brother, the duke of Oporto, under 
the title of Ferdinand II. 



COtriTTS OF POETUGAL. 
A.D. 

109.5. Henrique, or Henry. 
1112. Theresa, queen regent. 
1128. Alfonso. 



1139. 
118.5. 
1212. 
1223. 
1248. 
1279. 
132.5. 
1357. 
1367. 
1383. 
1433. 
14-i8. 
1481. 
1495. 
1521. 
1557. 
1578. 
1.580. 
1640. 
1656. 
1683. 
1706. 
1750. 
1777. 
1786. 
1816. 
1826. 
1826. 



KINGS OP POETUGAL. 

Alfonso I. 

Sancho I. 

Alfonso II. 

Sancho II. 

Alfonso III. 

Denis, or Dionysius. 

Alfonso IV. 

Pedro I., the Severe. 

Ferdinand I. 

Joam, or John I., the Great. 

Edward. 

Alfonso V. 

Joam, or John II. 

Emanuel. 

Joam, or John III. 

t'ebastian. 

Henry the Cardinal. 

Portugal is tmited to Spain. 

Joam, or John IV., duke of Bragan?a 

Alfonso VI. 

Pedro II. 

Joam, or John V. 



Pedro III. and Maria I. (Francesca). 

Maria I., lYancesca (alone). 

Joam, or John VI. 

Pedro IV. 

Maria II. (da Gloria). 

Miguel. 

Maria II. (restored). 

Pedro V. 

Ferdinand II. 



PosEH- (Prussia). — This province formerly 
belonged to the kingdom of Poland. Part 
of it was annexed to Prussia a.d. 1772, and 
the remainder in 1793. It was taken from 
Prussia, and annexed to the duchy of 
Warsaw in 1807, and restored in 1815. The 
secret societies for the dehverance of 
Poland from foreign dominion, which led to 
the revolution of 1830, had their ramifica- 
tions ia the duchy of Posen. An insurrec- 
tion of the Poles took place in April, 1848, 
attended by fearful atrocities on the part 
of the peasants, which were retaliated by 
the German troops. The revolt was put 
down in May, 1848. 

PosEir, the capital of the province of 
the same name, was erected into a bishopric 
on the introduction of Christianity into 
Poland in the 10th century, and became the 
residence of the dukes of Poland in the 13th 
century. Napoleon I. gave an audience here 
to the deputies of Poland on behalf of that 
kingdom, Nov. 29, 1806. Murat threw up 
his command in the French army here, and 
abandoned the emperor's cause, Jan. 17, 
1813. Eugene made a resolute stand at 
Posen for three weeks on the retreat of the 
French from Russia, and evacuated the city 
Feb. 12, 1813. An insurrection on behalf of 
Polish nationality broke out Feb. 14, 1846, 
but it was soon suppressed. 

Posting. — Cyrus, king of Persia, B.C. 559, 
2 T 2 



POS 

is believed to be the first who established 
a regular system of posting in his domin- 
ions, and Prescott states that the Peruvians 
and Mexicans possessed perfect institntious 
of the same kind, long before they were 
introduced into modern Europe. Edward lY. 
estabUshed post - stations at distances of 
twenty miles from each other between 
England and Scotland, about a.d. 1470. By 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 3 (1548), the hire for post- 
horses was made a penny a mdle. The 
letting of post-horses was vested solely in 
the postmaster-general and his department 
by 12 Charles II. c. 35 (1660). The duty 
on Hcencea for letting post-horses was regu- 
lated by 25 Geo. III. c. 51 (1785). 

POSTMASTEE-GEITEEAI. — The first pOSt- 

master in England was Sir Thomas Eandolph, 
who received the appointment a.d. 1581. 
The office was regulated by 12 Charles II. 
c. 35 (1660), which was repealed by 9 Anne, 
c, 10 (June 1, 1711). This act ordered the 
estabhshment of one postmaster-general, to 
be made and constituted by letters patent 
tmder the great seal. 

PosT-oPFiCE (London). — A letter-office, in 
connection with the principal mails, was esta- 
bhshed a.d. 1635, under the superintendence 
of Thomas Witherings, whose receiving-house 
was in Sherborne Lane. By an act of the 
Long Parliament, passed in 1656, the erec- 
tion of a central general office was ordered, 
and after the Eestoration the measure was 
continued by 12 Charles 11. c. 35 (1660), and 
it was amended by 9 Anne, c. 10 (Junel, 1711). 
At the commencement of the last century, 
the General Post-office was situated in 
Cloak Lane, near Dowgate, whence it was 
transferred to Bishopsgate Street, and after- 
wards to Lombard Street. In 1765 four 
houses in Abchurch Street were added to 
the estabhshment ; but the accommodation 
proving insufficient, commissioners for 
choosing a new site were appointed by the 
private act, 55 Geo. III. c. 91 (1815), and a 
spot at the junction of Newgate Street and 
St. Martin's-le-Grand was selected. Exca- 
vations for the new building were commenced 
in 1818, but the proceedings were suspended, 
and the first stone was not laid till May, 
1824. It was opened for business Sept. 23, 
1829. 

Post-office Savings Banks. — By 24 & 
25 Vict. c. 14 (May 17, 1861), the postmaster- 
general was empowered to direct his officers 
at various places to receive cash deposits 
for remittance to the general office at 
London, to be repaid at 2^ per cent, interest. 
No deposit may be of less value than one 
shilling, and all the existing acts relating to 
savings banks apply to the Post-office banks. 
In accordance with this act, Post-office 
savings banks were opened throughout 
Great Britain, Sept. 16, 1861. 

Posts a3n-d Postage. — Herodotus de- 
scribes the Persian mode of forwarding com- 
munications by what they called relays, cou- 
riers being stationed along the road, one man 
and horse to every day' s j oumey, B.C. 480. A 
somewhat similar course was pursued by the 



POS 

Komans in the time of Augustus, B.C. 31. 
Estabhshments of this kind existed in France 
under Charlemagne, Louis XI., and Charles 
V. In England royal messengers were em- 
ployed, under the name of cokinus, nuncius, 
and gareio, for the conveyance of letters as 
early as a.d. 1252 ; Sir Bryan Tuke exercised 
supervision over these officials, holding a 
situation analogous to the modern post- 
master-general, in 1533. An act was passed 
fixing the rate for post-horses at one penny 
per mile in 1548. Sir Thomas Eandolph 
was the first post-master of England, ap- 
pointed by Queen Ehzabeth in 1581 ; James 
I. constituted the office of post-master for 
foreign parts, which was bestowed upon 
Matthew de I'Equester, in 1619. This office 
he assigned to William FrizeU and Thomas 
Witherings, who were protected by royal 
denunciation against private adventurers, in 
1632. The letter-office of England and 
Scotland was estabhshed in 1635, and a 
weekly conveyance to all parts of the king- 
dom was set on foot by Edmund Prideaux 
in 1649, which was opposed by the common 
council of London ; but parhament declared 
that the office was "in their sole power and 
at their disposal," March 21, 1649. The 
private undertakers, who performed the 
work for the pubhc at a cheaper rate, con- 
tinued to flourish, and expressed their de- 
termination, "by God's help," to go on; 
but John Manley, Esq., having farmed it for 
£10,000 per annimi, the adventurers were 
forcibly put down in 1653 ; and an ordinance 
of the House of Commons, in 1657, set forth 
that government, holding the monopoly of 
posts, would be the best means to discover 
and prevent many dangerous and wicked 
designs against the commonwealth. Farmed 
to Daniel O'Neal for £21,500, the revenue 
was settled upon the duke of York, the 
king's brother, in 1663. It was again farmed 
to Sir William Petty at £43,000 in 1674. 
The metropoUtan penny post (q.v.) was es- 
tablished in 1683, the net revenue being 
£65,000 in 1685. A distinct postal system 
had been organized for Scotland in 1662, and 
Sir Eobert Sinclair received a gi'ant from 
King WiUiam III. of the whole revenue, with 
a salary of £300 a year, to keep up the 
estabhshment, in 1698. The system was 
reorganized and consohdated by 9 Anne, e. 
10 (June 1, 1711). The cross-posts were 
farmed in 1720, to Mr. Allen, who cleared 
out of his contract £12,000 a year, for forty- 
two years. The net revenue was £96,339 in 
1724. The privilege of franking was con- 
firmed and regulated by parhament in 1764. 
Mr. Palmer's improvements were inaugu- 
rated Aug. 2, 1784. (S'ee Mail Coaches.) All 
previous post-office acts were repealed, their 
chief provisions being consolidated into one 
general statute, by 1 Vict. c. 32 (July 12, 
1837) ; 1 Vict. c. 33 (July 12, 1837) ; 1 Vict, 
e. 34 (July 12, 1837) ; 1 Vict. c. 35 (July 12, 
1837) ; 1 Vict. c. 36 (July 12, 1837), and 
1 Vict. c. 76 (July 17, 1837). The Lon- 
don district postage was reduced to one 
peimy, Dec. 5, 1839, and the uniform rate 



POT 



PEiE 



of one penny came into operation Jan. 10, 
1840. 

PoTASSixTM. — This metal was discovered 
by Sir Humphry Davy a.d. 1807. 

Potato. — This plant, a native of Chili and 
Peru, was, according to the generally received 
account, Ijrought into England from Virgi- 
nia by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter 
Kaleigh, a.d. 1584, who returned in July, 
1586. This, however, is not correct, the 
plant having been first described by Caspar 
Bauhin in 1590, and afterwards introduced 
here. For along period the cultivation was 
limited to the garden, and it was not planted 
as a field crop in Scotland until 1732. By 
the middle of this century it was generally 
known throughout England. The failure of 
the potato crops in Ireland in 1845, and the 
four following years, caused one of the most 
terrible famines recorded in history. 

PoTOSi (South America). — The silver- 
mines, near this town of Bolivia, in Peru, 
were discovered by an Indian, a.d. 1545. 

Potsdam (Prussia). — The royal palace of 
Sans Souci, containing Frederick the Great's 
apartments in the state in which he left 
them, was commenced a.d. 1673. The town- 
haU was built in 1754. Over the tomb of 
Frederick the Great, at the hour of mid- 
night, the emperor Alexander of Russia 
and the king of Prussia vowed eternal 
friendship, Nov. 3, 1805. Ifapoleon I. visited 
the tomb precisely one year after, Nov. 3, 
1806. 

PoTTEET. [See China -WAEE, Ceockeet- 

"WAEE, DEESDEIf ChINA, EaETHENWAEE, 
AND POECELAIN.) 

Poultey Comptee (London). — The date of 
the foundation of this, the old sheriffs' prison, 
is not known, but it was certainly very an- 
cient. It is stated that the name Comp- 
ter, apphed to debtors' prisons, is derived 
from computare, to account, because "who- 
soever sMppeth in there must be sure to 
account, and pay well too, ere he get out 
again." This prison was the only one spared 
in the Gordon riots of 1780, 

Pound.— By 31 Edw. I. c. 1 (1303), the 
weight of the London pound was settled at 
twelve and fifteen ounces in different cases. 
A standard brass weight of one pound troy, 
made in 1758, and preserved in the custody 
of the clerk of the House of Commons, was 
made the imperial standard pound by 5 Geo. 
rV. c. 74, s. 4 (June 17, 1824), which fixes 
the weight of the pound avoirdupois at 7,000 
grains troy. 

Poundage. {See Tonnage and Pottnd- 

AGE.) 

PoTNiNGs' Act oe Law. — The statute 
of Drogheda, restricting legislation in the 
Irish parhament to measxires that had first 
been approved of by the English council, 
was passed a.d. 1494. It was named after 
Sir Edward Poynings, appointed deputy of 
Ireland, Sept. 13, 1494, and it was repealed 
in 1782. 

Pe^monsteatensians. — This order of 
canons was established by St. Norbert in the 
Isle of France, a.d. 1120, and called from 



that Norbertines. Adopting the rule of St. 
Augustine, they were approved by Pope 
Honorius II. in 1126. Nicholas IV. granted 
them permission to eat flesh when travelling, 
in 1288 ; and Pius II. extended the licence 
to a general use of that diet, except during 
Lent, in 1460. They came into England in 
1146, and were called White Canons. 

Pe^muniee, from prcemuniri, a corrupt 
form of prcemoneri, to be forewarned, is the 
name of a writ issued for the prosecution of 
persons charged with certain offences, and it 
is also apphed to the offences for which the 
writ is issued, which were originally such as 
related to the dominion of the papacy in this 
country. Persons convicted imder writs of 
praemunire are placed out of the pale of the 
royal protection, their possessions are for- 
feited to the erovm, and they themselves 
are committed to prison during the sove- 
reign's pleasure. The first statute of prae- 
munire is 27 Edw. III. s. 1, c. 1 (1353), but 
the most important is 16 Eich. II. c. 5 (1392), 
which prohibits the purchase of papal bulla 
from Rome, and declares the Enghsh crown 
independent of the temporal sovereignty of 
the pope. The killing of a person attainted 
in a praemunire was first declared unlawful by 
5 Ehz. c. 1, 3. 21 (1562). By 13 Charles II. 
c. 1 (1661), the assertion that parhament 
possesses legislative authority, independent 
of the royal sanction, is declared a praemu- 
nire, and by the Habeas Corpus Act, 31 
Charles II. c. 2, s. 12 (1679), the iUegal con- 
finement of Enghsh subjects in foreign 
prisons submits the offender to the same 
penalties. 

Pe^toe. — This title, originally apphed 
to the Roman consuls, was specially appro- 
priated to a magistrate called the prcetor 
urbanus, B.C. 365. A plebeian first ob- 
tained the office b.c. 336. The prcetw 
peregrinus, for deciding questions in which 
foreigners were concerned, was created b.c. 
247. Their number was increased by SyUa to 
eight, B.C. 80, and to sixteen by Tiberius. 

Pe^toeians were formed into nine co- 
horts, and made body-guards by Augustus. 
Claudius having been raised by them to the 
throne, gave to each a donation of £120, 
A.D. 41. Their expectations or demands in 
that respect rose so high that Hadrian com- 
plained that the promotion of a Caesar had 
cost him two millions and a half sterling in 
117, The emperor Pertinax was murdered 
by them in 193, after which they openly put 
the empire up to auction, proclaiming from 
the ramparts that the Roman world was to 
be disposed of to the highest bidder, when 
it was " knocked down" to Didius Juhanus. 
Severus banished them, on pain of death, a 
hundred miles from the capital, and remo- 
delled the force, estabhshing the office of 
praetorian praefect, in 197. During a popular 
tumult, they were besieged by the citizens 
in their camp in 238. Diocletian abohshed 
their privileges, and reduced their numbers 
in 303. They were totally routed by Con- 
stantine I. near Rome in 312, and he sup- 
pressed them in 313. 



Pejetok Peeegeinus. — This officer, who 
administered justice between Roman citizens 
and foreigners, or between foreigners, was 
created B.C. 247. 

Peaga (Poland), a suburb of Warsaw, 
was destroyed by the Russians, S'ov. 5, 1794. 
The Poles, after a two days' conflict, were 
defeated here by the Russians, Feb. 25, 1831. 

Peagmatic San-ctigk. — An ordinance 
issued by Louis IX. of Prance, a.d. 1268, 
resisting the claim of the Roman pontiffs to 
nominate the bishops of Prance, was re- 
newed and confirmed by the states of the 
kingdom assembled by Charles Til. at 
Bourges, a.d. 1438. A concordat, abro- 
gating the chief provisions of the Pragmatic 
Sanction, was signed Aug. 18, 1516, in the 
reign of Francis I. Another ordinance 
bearing this title, to regulate the succession 
in his family, was issued by the emperor 
Charles VI. of Austria, a.d. 1724. The name 
has been conferred upon several edicts. 

Peague (Bohemia). — The old town was 
founded about a.d. 759, and the Neustadt, 
or new town, in 1348. Prague was captured 
by Henry the Fowler in 930. The Jews 
were nearly exterminated by the populace, 
in consequence of a rumour that they 
had insulted the Host, in 1290. The cathe- 
dral was commenced in 1344 ; the city was 
made the capital of Germany in 1347 ; 
the first university in Germany was founded 
here by the emperor Charles IV. in 1348, 
and the palace of the kings of Bohemia in 
1353. The Hussite insurrection took place 
in 1419, and the famous articles of Prague 
were promulgated by Ziska in 1420. Sigis- 
mund captured Prague iu 1435. Maximihan 
of Bavaria defeated Frederick V., the' elector 
palatine, at the battle of Prague, fought 
ISov. 8, 1620. The peace of Prague was 
signed in 1635. Prague was taken by the 
Swedes in 1648, and was occupied, Nov. 26, 
1741, by the French, under Marshal Brogho. 
They were blockaded by Prince Charles of 
Lorraine for nearly two years, when, most 
of the garrison having escaped, the rest 
capitulated (1742). In 1744 Prague was 
taken by Frederick II. of Prussia. He 
defeated the Austrians under the walls of 
Prague, May 6, 1757, and laid siege to the 
town, but was eventually obliged to retire 
and evacuate Bohemia. A congress of the 
allied powers and Napoleon I. met here 
July 5, 1813, and broke up Aug. 9. The 
people revolted against Austria June 12, 
1848, and the insurrection was quelled 
June 19. The bishopric of Prague was 
founded byBoleslaus II. in 967, and councils 
were held here in 1355 ; April 29, 1381 ; 
June 17, 1392 ; and Jime 7, 1421. 

Peatees. — Bingham states that the cus- 
tom of holding morning and evening prayer 
daily in churches commenced in the 3rd 
century a.d. (See Common Phatee.) 

Peedestinatiow. — This doctrine was first 
taught in the Christian church by St. Au- 
gustine, A.D. 442. It led to bitter contro- 
versies, and in 469 Faustus protested against i 
it. Lueidus, a disciple of St. Augustine and 



PEE 

an advocate of predestination, was compelled 
to retract his opinion at the councils of Aries 
and Lyons, both held in 475. This is one of 
the doctrines maintained by the Calvinists. 

Peeez, or Peeetz (Denmark), owes its 
origin to a convent, founded a.d. 1216. 

Peenzlow, or Peenzlaij (Prussia). — St. 
Mary's Church, one of the most remarkable 
brick buildings in Germany, was buUt a.d. 
1325. Twenty thousand Russians, under the 
prince of Hohenlohe, surrendered to the 
French at this town in October, 1806. 

PeeeogativeCouet. — This court was esta- 
blished for the trial of will cases, and was 
under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of 
Canterbury, who appointed its judge, and 
enjoyed by special prerogative a probate of 
aU wills made in his archbishopric. Appeals 
from this court were at one time made to the 
pope, but by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19 (1533), they 
were ordered to be made to the king in 
Chancery. This act was repealed by 2 & 3 
Will. IV. c. 92 (Aug. 7, 1832), which trans- 
ferred the appeal to the Privy Council, and 
by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 (Aug. 14, 1S33) , it was 
ordered to be made to the Judicial Com- 
mittee of the Pi'ivy Council. This court was 
abolished by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (Aug. 28, 
1857). 

Peesbueg, or Peessbtieg (Hungary). — 
Ofen having fallen into the hands of the 
Turks, A.D. 1446, Presburg was declared the 
capital of Hungary, and the diets were held 
here. It was again made the capital after 
the capture of Buda by the Turks in 1541, 
but in 1784 Joseph II. again made Buda 
the capital. Presburg was taken by Beth- 
len Gabor in 1619, and was retaken in 1621 
by the Imperialists under Boucquoi. A 
treaty was signed here Dec. 26, 1805, after 
the battle of Austerlitz, by which Venice was 
ceded to France, and the Tyrol to Bavaria. 
The royal palace was destroyed by fire in 
1811. The defences of Presburg were 
strengthened in 1850. 

PEESBi'TEEiANisM appears to have been 
the early form of church pohty among the 
Waldenses, from the treatise of Archbishop 
Seyssel, of Turin, a.d. 1520, confirmed by 
a letter of Morel, a Waldensean minister, in 
1530. Luther is found advising the Bohe- 
mians to elect their own pastor in 1523. 
John a Lasco estabhshed this form of church 
government at Embden in 1544, and its 
divine right was maintained in a conference 
held at Wesel in 1566, and also by the synod 
at Embden in 1571. It was introduced into 
Westphalia in 1588. The system was recog- 
nized by the Bohemian Book of Order, 
adopted in 1616, and has existed in Hun- 
gary since 1564. It was partially adopted 
in Switzerland -in 1541, and made way in 
France in 1555 ; the first national synod 
having been held at Paris in 1559, and 
the last at Loudun in 1669. The first Dutch 
synod met at Dort in 1574. A party, con- 
sisting of fifteen ministers and a number of 
laymen, met at Wandsworth to choose elders, 
Nov. 20, 1572. It was declared by parUa- 
ment to be "lawful, and agreeable to the 



PRE 

woi'd of God," and an order for the election 
of elders was made in March, 1646. With 
the exception of chapels for the king and 
peers, all parishes were declared to be 
under this form of church government in 
1648. It was superseded by episcopacy at 
the Restoration in 1660. The first general 
assembly of the church of Scotland met in 
1.560 ; the assembly was dissolved by Crom- 
well in 1653. The first meeting of a pres- 
bytery in Ireland took place at Carrickfer- 
gus in 1642. 

Peescott (Upper Canada). — A number 
of American sympathizers having landed 
here a.d. 1838, were attacked and compelled 
to surrender by the British under Captain 
Sandom and Colonel Young, April 16. 

PEESiDENT.^The first president of the 
United States of America, G-eorge Washing- 
ton, was elected a.d. 1789. Louis Napoleon 
was chosen president of the French republic 
Dec. 10, 1848. 

President oe the Cousrciii, the fourth 
great office of state in England, was at the 
new modelling of the privy council by 
Charles II., a.d. 1679, bestowed on Anthony 
Ashley, Lord Shaftesbury. This officer was 
styled Principahs et Capitalis Consiliarius in 
the time of King John. 

President Steamer. — This vessel, which 
left New York for Liverpool in April, 1841, 
was never heard of afterwards. Among the 
passengers were Lord WiUiam Lennox and 
Tyrone Power, the celebrated actor. 

Pressed to Death. — This mode of pun- 
ishment was instituted about the time of 
Edward I. Walter Calverley, of Calverley 
HaU, Yorkshire, was pressed to death 
Aug. 5, 1604, by iron weights placed on his 
breast, in York Castle, for the murder of his 
wife and two children; and Major George 
Strangways was pressed to death Feb. 28, 
1657, in the press-yard, Newgate, for the 
murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. FusseU. 

Press-Gang. — "The uncertainties of 
raising troops by voluntary enlistment," 
says HaUam, "led to the usage of pressing 
soldiers for service," and in the preamble of 
an act empowering the king to levy troops 
by this compulsory method, for the sup- 
pression of the Irish rebellion, it is declared 
that no man should be compelled to go out 
of his country to serve as a soldier except in 
cases of urgent necessity, a.d. 1641. The 
practice of raising seamen for the Royal 
navy in this manner seems to have prevailed 
from an ancient date, and by 2 Rich. II. 
c. 4 (1378), a remedy is provided against 
their desertion. Various statutes have regu- 
lated the exemptions and penalties for con- 
ceahnent, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 24 
(Aug. 21, 1835), the period of compulsory 
service is limited to five years. The first 
impressment of sailors in Ireland was made 
in 1678. It was decided by the judges and 
crown lawyers that the power was indispen- 
sably inherent in the crown in 1676. A de- 
bate on a bni brought into the House of 
Commons by William Pitt, for setting the 
press-gang to work, led to a duel between 



PRI 

the minister and Mr. Tierney, who opposed 
it, the hostile meeting having taken place on 
Putney Heath, Sunday, May 27, 1798. 

Preston (Lancashire) . — The parish church 
was erected a.d. 930, and dedicated to St. 
WUfred. James I. visited Preston Aug. 14, 
1617. The plague broke out in 1630. Having 
declared for Charles I., it was taken by Sir 
J. Seaton after a desperate resistance, Feb. 
12, 1643, and was retaken by the earl of 
Derby March 17. The royal forces under 
Sir Philip Musgrove were defeated here by 
Cromwell, Aug. 17, 1648. The rebels, par- 
tisans of the house of Stuart, were de- 
feated near this town by General Carpenter, 
Nov. 13, 1715, and many of them were 
executed in the beginning of 1716. Prince 
Charles Edward, the Pretender, passed 
through Preston in his retreat towards 
Scotland, Dec. 12, 1745. The first cotton- 
miH was built in 1777, A riot occurred here 
March 3, 1854. 

Prestonpans, (Battle,) was fought at this 
village, near Edinburgh, Sept. 21, 1745, 
between the royal army, under Sir John 
Cope, and the Highlanders, under Charles 
Stuart, the Young Pretender. The former 
were defeated. 

Pretenders. — James Francis Edwar^ 
Stuart, called the Old Pretender, or the 
Chevalier de St. George, a son of James 11.^ 
was born June 10, 1688. A bill of at. 
tatnder was passed against him in 1701. He 
landed at Peterhead, in Scotland, Dec. 22j 
1715, and, after a vain attempt to obtaiA 
the crown, escaped from Montrose to 
France, Feb. 4, 1716. Charles Edward, 
the Young Pretender, landed ia Scotland 
Sept. 4, 1745. After gainiag the battles of 
Prestonpans and Falkirk, he was utterly 
routed at CuUoden, April 16, 1746. He 
wandered for six months among the High- 
lands, a price of £30,000 having been set 
upon his head. He escaped Sept. 20, 1746, 
and landed at a small port near Morlaix, in 
Britanny, on the 29th. He died at Rome 
March 3, 1788. 

Pride's Purge, so called from the activity 
with which Colonel Pride seized upon the 
members of the Long Parliament as they 
entered the House of Commons, Dec. 6, 
1648. Many were taken prisoners, some 
fled to the country, and only fifty members 
remained (Dec. 8), who were afterwards 
styled the Rump (q.v.). 

Priest.— Melchizedek, king of Salem, is 
called " priest of the most high God " 
(Gen. xiv. 18), B.C. 1913 ; Aaron and his 
sous were consecrated to the office B.C. 
1496 (Lev. viii. & ix.), and aU the tribe of 
Levi B.C. 1496 (Num. iii.). During the 
famine in Egypt, when Joseph bought up 
the land for Pharaoh, the priests were left in 
possession of their portion, B.C. 1706 (Gen. 
xlvii. 22) . The duties of the priests were con- 
nected with the kingly office among the 
early Greeks, and were performed by the 
heads of families, as appears from various 
passages in Homer. Five priests were 
selected from among so many aristocratic 



PKI 

families to superintend the oracle of DelpM 
about B.C. 596. 

Peimebs. — The first of these devotional 
works, in which the practice of prayiug to 
saints was denounced, with a design to 
weaken the papal system, was printed by 
John Byddyl, June 16, 1535. This was 
followed by a second ; and a third, under 
the express sanction of the king, was pub- 
lished in 1.545. The three primers, edited 
by Dr. Edward Burton, were pubHshed in 
an octavo volume by the university of 
Oxford in 1834. 

Peimogenituke. — In the times of the 
patriarchs the firstborn son always inherited 
his father's position as head of his family. 
The Eoman law did not acknowledge the 
principle of primogeniture, and it was not 
recognized in France until the time of the 
Capets. It was estabhshed in England by 
the Normans, and took effect almost in all 
cases, except where its operation was hin- 
dered by the customs of gavelkind and 
borough-Enghsh (q.v.). 

Peince Edwaed's Island (North Ame- 
rica), discovered by Cabot June 24, 1497, 
was afterwards included in the territory ot 
New France, and was granted in 1663 as a 
feudal tenure to Sieur Doublet, a French 
naval officer. It was taken by the British in 
1745, but restored at the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle ; retaken by them m 1758 ; and, at 
the peace of 1763, confirmed, with Cape 
Breton, to England. In 1768 it was erected 
into a separate colony. The &cst house of 
assembly met in 1773. 

Peincb oe Wales' Island (Strait of 
Malacca). (See Penang.) 

Peince's Island (Atlantic Ocean). — This 
island, on the coast of Africa, was discovered 
a.d. 1471, and now belongs to Portugal. 

Feinting.— The art of block-printing was 
known in China as early as B.C. 202, and is 
said to have been introduced from that 
country into Europe by Marco Polo, in the 
latter part of the 13th century. It was first 
employed in this quarter of the globe in the 
manufacture of playing-cards and httle books 
of devotion, consisting in most cases of only 
one page, illustrated by rude pictures, and 
containing short scripture texts. The earliest 
date on these books is 1422. The invention 
of printing with movable type is claimed 
for several persons, the chief of whom are 
Laurence Coster, of Haarlem, John Guten- 
berg, John Faust, and Peter Schoefter, of 
Mentz. Coster is said to have printed by 
means of separate wooden types tied to- 
gether with thread as early as 1430 ; but the 
evidence of this is extremely doubtful. John 
Gutenberg, or Geinsfleisch, estabhshed him- 
self at Mentz in 1441, and printed two small 
books in 1442. In 1443 he took John Fust,' 
or Faust, into partnership ; and in 1450 he 
first employed cut metal types in the pro- 
duction of the Mazarin Bible, which ap- 
peared five years later. About the same 
year Peter Schoeffer, the servant of Guten- 
berg and Fust, invented cast metal types, 
which were first used in 1459. By 39 



PRI 

Geo. III. c. 79, s. 23 (July 12, 1799), aU 
persons possessing printing materials were 
required to send a notice thereof to the 
clerk of the peace, for transmission to the 
secretary of state. This act was amended 
by 51 Geo. III. c. 65 (June 10, 1811), and by 
2 & 3 Vict. c. 12 (June 4, 1839). 



14.55. 
14.57. 
1462. 



1467. 
1468. 

1469. 

1470. 

1471. 

147.5. 
1476. 
1488. 
1495. 
1500. 
1515. 
1529. 
1540. 

1542. 
1551. 
1637. 



1720. 
1725. 
1776. 

1778. 
1780. 
1784. 

1790. 

1800. 
1804. 

1811. 
1814. 
1815. 



The Mazarin Bible is printed by Gutenberg. 

Fust and Bchoeffer print the Psalter. 

Count Adolphus of Nassau takes Mentz, and 

compels ilie printers to remove to other 

towns, whereby the art is diffused. 
Greek characters are first employed this 

year. 

The use of them was at first confined to 

quotations. Printing was first practised in 

Italy this year, at Subiaco, iu the Papal 

states. 
Sweyuheym and Pannartz eatablish the first 

press at Rome. 
They introduce Roman types. 
A book is said to have been printed at 

Oxford this year. 
The first French press is established at 

Paris. 
" Signatures " are first employed by Antonio 

Zorat at Milan. 
Caxtou sets up the first press in England, at 

Westminster, and prints the " Game of 

Chess." 
Piiuting is introduced into Spain, at Bar- 

The first work wholly in Greek type is 
printed at Milan. 

The first Bible iu Hebrew characters is printed 
at Soricino, iu Italy. 

The art of printing music is introduced into 
England. 

Aldus Mauutius invents Italic type about 
this year. 

Ottavio de Petrucci invents music-printing 
from metal types. 

The first patent of king's printer is granted 
to Thomas Berthelet this year. 

The " Byrth of Maukynd," printed this year, 
ia the earliest English work iu which 
copper-plate printing is employed. 

The " Imprimerie Koyale" is established at 
Paris by Francis I. 

Humphrey Powell introduces printing into 
Ireland. 

By order of the Star Chamber, the businesses 
of printer and type-founder are ordered to 
be kept distinct, aud only four type- 
founders are permitted iu the kingdom. 

The first press in America is set up at Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts. 

Type-fouuding is first practised with success 
in England, by William Caslon. 

Stereiitype printing is invented by William 
Ged, or Edinburgh. , 

The printing of maps with movable types is 
iuventeJ by Conrad Sweynbeyin. 

Henry Johnson invents logogi-aphic printing 



improved system of 



{q.v.,. 

Mr. Tilloch invents 
stereotvpe. 

Valentiue Haiiy invents embossed typo- 
graphy, and applies it to printing books 
for the blind. 

Mr. W. Nicholson patents a self-acting print- 
ing machine. 

Loi-d Stanhope invents the Stanhope press. 

M. Konig directs his attention towards the 
improvement of the piinting-press. 

April. The sheet H of the Annual Register, 
for 1810, pi in ted this month, is the fii-st 
work printed by a machine. 

Nov. 28. The Times of this day is the firat 
steam-printed newspaper, Konig's machine 
being the apparatus employed. 

Compositiou balls for inking type are in- 
vented by Mr. Benjamin Foster. 



PEI 



1815. Mr. E. Cowper commences his inventions 
connected with the press, and introduces 
the inkingroller. 
817. Mr. R. Ackerman introduces lithographic 
printing into England. 

1818. Mr. George Clymer, of Philadelphia, patents 
the Columbian press in London. 

1827. Mr. Gall, of Edinburgh, invents a system of 
printing for the blind. 

1852. Andrew Worsing, of Vienna, invents Nature- 
printing {q. v.). 

1858. Hoe's American machine is introduced into 
this country. 

Printing- in Colottes.— This art origi- 
nated in the desire of the old printers to 
enable their productions to vie with the 
illuminated MSS. of their predecessors the 
monks. The Psalter of Faust and Schoeffer, 
printed in 1457, is one of the earliest ex- 
amples, and in 1509 Lucas Cranach produced 
the first attempt in printing in chiaroscuro. 
A very fine German engraving in colours 
bears the date of 1543, but is of doubtful 
authenticity. Mr. J. B. Jackson devoted 
much time to the subject, and published a 
work on engraving and printing in chiaro- 
scuro in 1754, and in 1819 Mr. Wilham 
Savage commenced his " Hints on Decora- 
tive Printing." Mr. George Baxter's first 
efforts in printing in colours were made in 
1835, and in 1837 M. Engelmann succeeded 
in effecting it by lithography. 

Printing-machine. — For a long period 
after the invention of printing, the press 
remained unaltered. About a. d. 1620, 
Wilham Jansen Blaew introduced several 
improvements. The first patent for ma- 
chine-printing was taken out by WilHam 
Nicholson in 1790, and in 1813 Donkin and 
Bacon introduced a new machine, in which 
the type was arranged on a piston. The 
first practically successful machine was 
Konig's, which was constructed in 1814. 
In 1816 Mr. Edward Cowper made a machine 
for using curved stereotype plates ; in 1818 
one for ordinary type; and in 1827, con- 
jointly with Mr. Applegath, he invented a 
four-cylinder machine for the Times, which 
printed between 4,000 and 5,000 copies per 
hour. Applegarth's vertical machine, in- 
vented in May, 1848, produces no fewer than 
15,000 impressions per hour. Hoe's Ame- 
rican machine, introduced into this country 
about 1858, prints about 20,000 sheets per 
hour. {See Printing.) 

Priories, originally offshoots from, 
and subordinate to, the great abbeys, were 
introduced into this country about the 
commencement of the 7th century. The 
alien priories (q.v.) were dissolved by act of 
parhament, and granted to the crown a.d. 
1414. Cathedrals founded for priories, 
were turned into deaneries and prebends in 
1540. The priory of Canterbury, with 
ethers, was dissolved about 1538. The 
priors of cells were granted pensions of £13 
per annum by Henry VIII., in 1538. 

Priscilianists, followers of PrisciHan, 
bishop of AvUa, in Spain, a.d. 372. This 
doctrine was a strange compound of Gnos- 
tic and Manichaean opinions, and his foUow- 



PRI 

ers were excommunicated by the council of 
Saragossa, and sentenced to exUe by Gra- 
tian in 380. They were condemned by the 
council of Bordeaux in 384. Priscihan, 
and two of his adherents, were beheaded at 
Treves in 385, being the first reputed heretics 
who judicially suffered capital punishment. 

Prisoners of War. — Among the an- 
cients, prisoners of war were either sacri- 
ficed to appease the manes of such as had 
fallen in fighting against them, or, as was 
most frequent among the most poHshed na- 
tions, were made slaves. During the feudal 
ages they were redeemed by ransom, and the 
present custom of exchanging prisoners was 
not firmly established tiU about the middle 
of the 17th century. The Dutch were in the 
habit of selling the captives they made in 
Barbary to the Spaniards, as late as 1664, 
and in 1792 Christian prisoners of war were 
used as domestic slaves in Turkey. 

Prisons.— By 14 Edw. III. s. 1, e. 10 
(1340), the custody of prisons was vested in 
the hands of the sheriiis, and heavy penal- 
ties on such as assisted prisoners to escape 
were imposed by 16 Geo. II. c. 31 (1743). 
John Howard's efforts to amehorate the 
condition of prisoners commenced in 1755, 
in consequence of the hardships he endured 
during a captivity at Brest as a prisoner of 
war, and Ehzabeth Fry began her benevo- 
lent exertions among the female prisoners 
at Newgate in 1808. The laws relating to 
the building and regulation of the prisons 
of England and Wales were consolidated 
and amended by 4 Geo. IV. c. 64 (July 10, 
1823) . The four inspectors of prisons were 
first appointed by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 38 
(Aug. 25, 1835). In addition to Bride- 
well, the Fleet prison, the King's (or 
Queen's) Bench, Newgate, and the Poultry 
Compter (q.v.), the chief prisons connected 
with London are the following : — 

Coldbath Fields Prison, or the Middlesex House of 

Correction, founded in 1615, and rebuilt in 

1794. 
Giltspur Street Compter, a debtors' prison, built by 

Dance in 1791. 
HoUoway New City Prison was commenced Sept. 26, 

1849. 
Horsemonger Lane Gaol, commenced in 1791, was 

completed iu 1798. 
House of Detpntion, Clerkenwell, founded in 1775, 

and rebuilt in 1818 and 1844. 
Marshalsea Prison, founded before 1376, and re- 
moved to the King's (or Queen's) Bench in 1842. 
MUlbauk Prison, or Penitentiary, established in 

1812. 
Model Prison, Pentonville, the first stone of which 

was laid April 10, 1840, and the prison opened 

Dec. 21, 1842. This prison was established on 

the separate system. 
Tothill Fields Prison, founded in 1618, repaired in 

1655, and rebuilt in 1836. 
Whitecross Street Prison, for debtors, built in 1813- 

1815. 

Privas (France) was held for two months 
against Louis XIII. by St. Andre Montbrun, 
A.D. 1629, but was at last abandoned, when 
its fortifications were destroyed, and the 
gallant defender hanged. A sjmod of the 
reformed churches was held in the town in 
1612. 



PEI 

Pkivateees. — The right of the king to 
grant letters of marque and reprisals was 
declared by 4 Hen. V. c. 7 (1417) ; and 4 Will. 
& Mary, c. 25 (1692), was passed for their 
encouragement. 

Peivt Coitxcil, originating in the ne- 
cessity felt by the monarch to seek ad-vice in 
important state affairs at a time when the 
great council of the realm, or the parHa- 
ment, was not assembled, existed in some 
form from the earliest period, but only 
began to be known by its present name in 
the early part of the reign of Henry VII., 
about 1488. Some authors declare that it 
was instituted by Alfred in 896. It assumed 
high arbitrary powers under Henry VIII., 
in 1540, of which it was deprived in the suc- 
ceeding reign, about 1547. By 16 Charles I. 
c. 10 (1641), its interference in civil cases 
was prohibited, and by 6 Anne, c. 7 (1707), 
it was enacted that it" should remain in ex- 
istence six months after the demise of the 
crown. The judicial committee of the 
privy council was instituted by 3 & 4 WiU. 
IV. c 41 (Aug. 14, 1833). The "Privy 
Council Register" was commenced Aug. 18, 
1540. 

Peivt Seal, which accompanies the royal 
sign manual, originated in the practice of 
persons using their armorial bearings to 
attest the mark made for their signature, 
when the art of writing was not veiy com- 
mon. A charter bearing the seal of Offa, 
king of Mercia, a.d. 794, and another with 
that of Ethelwulph, king of Wessex, were 
found at St. Denis in France, in 837. In Scot- 
land the practice began with King Duncan 
in 1094 ; and in Ireland in the 12th century. 
It was also used by dignified ecclesiastics in 
Trance and England, the earHest known 
being of the year 1128. The offices of clerks 
of the signet and privy seal were regulated 
by 2 AVill. IV. c. 49 (June 23, 1832). The 
Lord Privy Seal was called keeper of the 
privy seal in the tune of Edward III. The 
office was usually filled by ecclesiastics until 
1538, when Lord Mamey succeeded Bishop 

Peize-Mois-et. — By an act passed a.d . 1404, 
the king claimed a fourth part, the remain- 
ing three-fourths to be equally divided 
among the captors. An act (2 WiU. IV. 
e. 53) for consohdating and amending the 
laws relating to army prize-money, received 
the royal assent Jime 23, 1832. A proclama- 
tion for the distribution of naval prize-money, 
by which flag officers were to have one-six- 
teenth, captams and commanders one-sixth of 
the remainder, and a scale was fixed for the 
shares of subalterns and men, was issued 
March 21, 1834. James Vaughan, a watch- 
man of Marylebone, for representing him- 
self as next of kin to Corporal Leason, 
deceased, in order fraudulently to obtain 
some prize-money due to him, was hanged 
at Newgate, Nov. 26, 1806. 

Peobate CotTET, for testamentary mat- 
ters, was constituted by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 
(Aug. 25, 1857). 

Pboclamations.— By 31 Hen. VIII. c. 8 



PRO 

(1539), the king's proclamations were deemed 
as vahd as acts of parHament. 

Peome (Burmah) was occupied by Eng- 
hsh troops, who held it all the summer, 
A.D. 1825. It was again captured by the 
Enghsh, July 9, 1852, and having been eva- 
cuated, was retaken Oct. 9, 1852. An inun- 
dation of the Irrawaddy nearly destroyed 
this town in 1856. 

Peomissoet Notes were probably intro- 
duced with bills of exchange (q.v.), to which 
they bear so much resemblance, in the 13th 
century. 

Peopaganda Fide. — The congregation 
was founded at Rome, for the propagation 
of Christianity, by Gregory XV., a.d. 1622; 
and the college was established in 1627. 

Peopagation of the Gospel in Foeeigh 
Paets. — This society, which grew out of the 
society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
New England, estabUshed July 27, 1649, was 
incorporated by WiUiam III. June 16, 1701. 
Its operations were extended to the West 
Indies in 1710, to Austrahain 1795, toHindos- 
tan in 1818, to South Africa in 1820, to New 
Zealand in 1839, to Ceylon in 1840, and to 
Borneo in 1849. 

Peopebtt Tax. (See Income Tax.) 

Peophestings, or meetings of the clergy 
for prayer and the exposition of scripture, 
were commenced by the Puritans at North- 
ampton, about A.D. 1570, and were forbidden 
by Queen Ehzabeth, May 7, 1577. 

Peopontis, the modern Sea of Marmora, 
had many colonies planted on its shores by 
Greeks from Miletus, B.C. 750. The Goths 
passed the Bosphorus here to invade Greece, 
destroying the ancient city of Cyzicus, a.d. 
259. 

Peotectionists, so named from 
the metropolitan society for the protection 
of agriculture, formed in opposition to 
the anti-corn law league, with the dukes of 
Richmond and Buckingham as president and 
vice-president, Feb. 17, 1844. They sepa- 
rated from Sir Robert Peel when he brought 
in a bin for the abohtion of the duty on 
com in 1846. 

Peotestants. — The second diet of Spires, 
A.D. 1529, decided that rehgious differences 
could only be settled by an ecclesiastical 
council, and hence entirely disallowed the 
right of private judgment. A solemn pro- 
test was made against this decision by the 
Lutheran princes of Germany, April 19, 
1529, in consequence of which the members 
of the reformed churches have ever since 
been known as Protestants. The protest 
was drawn up by Luther and Melancthon, 
and was signed by the elector of Saxony, 
the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, the prince 
of Anhalt, the duke of Brunswick, and 
Ernest, hereditary prince of Saxony, and 
by the representatives of thirteen imperial 
towns. 

Peovence (France), forming a portion 
of the Gallia Narbonensis of the Romans, 
was taken from that people by the Visigoths 
and the Burgundians, a.d. 416. It was 
partly recovered in 450, was conquered by 



PEO 

the Franks in 534, and subsequently in- 
tjluded inthe empire of Charlemagne, and 
passed by marriage to the count of Anjou 
m 1245. Having been made over to Louis 
XI. and his successors in 1481, it was re- 
united to the crown of France in 1487. 

!Pro VERBS. — Solomon's Proverbs were 
written about B.C. 984. Zenobius, a so- 
phist, made an epitome of the proverbs of 
Terraeus and Didymus about a.d. 200, and 
a collection was formed by Diogenianus also 
about the same time. Both of these were 
edited, with many additions, by Andrew 
Schott, at Antwerp, in 1612. A large col- 
lection, by Michael Apostolius, was pub- 
lished by the Elzevirs in 1653 ; Eay's col- 
lection appeared in 1672, and Oswald Dyke's 
in 1708. 

Pbovidewce (North America). — This 
town of Ehode Island was founded a.d. 
1635, and incorporated in 1649. Brown 
University, belonging to the Baptists, found- 
ed at Warren in 1764, was removed to 
Providence in 1770. The Athenaeum was 
founded in 1836, Butler Hospital in 1848, 
and the normal school in 1854. 

Peovince Welleslet (Malay Penin- 
sula)- was obtained by purchase from the 
king of Quedah, a.d. 1802. 

PEOVisioifS, or reversionary grants of 
benefices, were made by Clement V. about 
A.D. 1307, on the plea that aU ecclesiastical 
benefices belonged to the pope. 

Pbotisoes (Statute of), forbidding ap- 
peals to the papal court, and making it 
penal to procure ecclesiastical appointments 
from Eome (25 Edw. III. s. 6), was en- 
acted A.D. 1350. Several statutes of a simi- 
lar nature were afterwards passed. 

Petjd'Hommes, a council was established 
by King Eene, to decide disputes between 
the fishermen of Marseilles, a.d. 1452. 
Louis XI. allowed the citizens of Lyons to 
appoint a prud'homme to settle questions 
that might arise between merchants attend- 
ing the fair in 1464. Napoleon I., by a 
decree dated March 18, 18U9, established a 
councU of nine members at Lyons to arbi- 
trate between workmen and employers, 
masters and apprentices. Since that time 
several have been formed in various parts of 
France. 

Petjsa (Asiatic Turkey), the modem 
Brusa, or Broussa, was built by Prusias, 
king of Bithynia, B.C. 187; taken by the 
Goths A.D. 259, and by Orchan, the son of 
Othman, in 1325. He allowed the Christian 
inhabitants to ransom their fives and pro- 
perty by a payment of thirty thousand 
crowns of gold, and made it the capital of 
the new Ottoman empire. , 

Pe ITS SI A. — The early history of this 
country, the Latin name of which is Bo- 
russia, is involved in that of the other 
districts of Central Europe. During the 
10th century it was inhabited by a bar- 
barous tribe, known as the Porusses, be- 
cause they occupied a territory beyond the 
river Kuss, a tributary of the Memel -, Fo 
signifying behind. 



PEU 



997. St. Adalbert, bishop of Prague, preaches 
Christianity to the barbarous Prussia.iis, by 
whom he is murdered. 

101-5. Prussia is ravaged by Boleslaus I. , of Poland. 

1163. Berlin is founded by Albert the Bear. 

116-1. Boleslaus IV., of Poland, with his ai-my, 
perishes in a fruitless iuvasion of Prussia. 

1192. Casiuiir II., assisted by the SUesians, carries 
on war victoi-iously against the Prussians. 

1219. The Germans institute a crusade against them. 

1283. The Teutonic knights complete the conciuest 
of Prussia. 

1309. They fix their capital at Marienburg. 

1415. Frederick VI. of Nuremberg acquires the 
margraviate of Brandenburg from the em- 
peror Sigismund by purchase. 

1454 The Prussians revolt against the knights, and 
are assisted by the king of Poland. 

1466. By the treaty of Thorn, West Prussia and 
Ermland are ceded to Polaud. 

1525. April 8. By the treaty of Cracow, Albert of 
Brandenburg is invested with the sove- 
reignty of the possessions of the Teutonic 
knights, and establishes Lutheranism in 
his dominions. 

1544. The university of Konigsberg is founded. 

1609. Cleves, La Mark, and Eavensburg, are an- 
nexed to Pi-ussia. 

1618. John Sigismund, elector of Brandenbiu-g, as- 
sumes the title of duke of Prus.-^ia. 

1648. By the treaty of Westphalia, part of Pome- 
rania, the county of Hoheustein, the arch- 
bishopric of Magdeburg, and the bishoprics 
of Halberstadt and Minden, are an- 
nexed to Prussia. 

1656. Prussia is declared independent of Poland by 

treaty. 

1657. Sept. 19. By the treaty of Vehlau, Poland ac- 

knowledges the independence of Prussia. 

1686. The Prussians assist the Hungarians against 
the Tui-ks. 

1694 The elector, Frederick HE., founds the uni- 
versity of HaUe. 

1701. Jan. 18. Frederick Til., elector of Branden- 

burg, crowns himself king of Prussia at 
Konigsberg, by the title of Frederick I. 

1702. He joins the grand alliance against France. 
1707. Neufchatel is annexed to Prussia. 

1711. Pomerauia is invaded by the Kussiaus, Poles, 
and Danes. 

1714. Prussia obtains Upper Guelders. 

1715. "War is declared against Sweden. 

1719. Aug. 14. An alliance is concluded with Great 

Britain. 

1720. Jan. 20. Peace is concluded at Stockholm 

with. Sweden, which power cedes Stettin 
to Prussia. 

1725. Sept. 3. Prussia, France, and England form 

the league of Herrenhausen, or Hanover, 
against Austria. 

1726. Oct. 12. Pi-ussia secedes from the league of 

Herrenhausen, and concludes the treaty of 
Wusterhausen with the emperor. 

1730. The king's eldest son, Charles Frederick, and 

his friend. Lieutenant Von Kiitte, are 
arrested and imprisoned at Custrin. Nov. 
6. Katte is beheaded. 

1731. The principality of Meurs, the county of 

Lingen, and the seigniories of Hei-istal and 
Tourneheut, are ceded to Prussia. 

1740. Dec. 22. An expedition against Maria Theresa 

enters Silesia. 

1741. April 10. The Austrians are defeated by the 

Priissians at Molwitz. 

1742. June 11. By the peace of Breslau (q.v.), 

Glatz and Silesia are ceded to Prussia. 

1744. Friesland is annexed to Prussia. 

1745. June 4. The Austrians are defeated at the 

battle of Hohenfreiburg. Nov. 23. Fre- 
derick II. is victorious at Heunersdox-f. 
Dec. 15. He defeats the Austrians at Kes- 
seldorf. Dec. 25. Peace is restored by the 
treaty of Dresden. 
1748. The Code Frederick is compiled by the king 
chancellor Cocceji, and other lawyers. 



A.D. 

1751. 
1756. 



1772. 
1778. 



1794. 
1795. 



PEU 



The crown peasants are emancipated. 

Jan. 16. An alliance is concluded with Eng- 
land. Aug. 31. Frederick II. invades Saxony 
and commences the Seven Tears' war. 
Oct. 1. He is victorious at Lowositz, in 
Bohemia. Oct. 13. The aaxon army capi- 
tulates at Lilienstein. 

May 1. A secret treaty for the partition of 
Prussia is concluded between France and 
Austria. June 18. Frederick II. sustains 
a severe defeat from the Saxons at Kolin. 
June. Prussia is invaded by the Kussians. 
Aug. 30. The indecisive battle of Gross- 
Jagersdorff is fought with the Russians. 
Nov. 4. Frederick It. is victorious at Bos- 
bach Nov. 22. He is defeated at Breslau 
(q. v.). Dec. 5. He defeats the Austrians 
at Leuthen {q. v.). 

Aug. 25. The Russians are defeated with 
immense slaughter at Zorndorf. Oct. 14. 
Frederick II. is defeated by Daun at 
Hochku-chen. 

July 23. The Prussians are defeated by the 
Russians at Zulichau. Aug. 1. The allies 
are victorious at Minden. Aug. 12. The Rus- 
sians defeat the Prussians with terrific 
slaughter at Ciinersdorf. Nov. 21. The 
PiTissians lose the battle of Maxen. 

Aug. 15. Frederick II. defeats the Austrians 
under Laudon at Liegnitz. Oct. 9. Berlin 
surrenders to the Russians, Austrians, and 
Saxons. Nov. 3. Daun is defeated by the 
Prussians at the battle of Torgau, which 
reduces all Saxony, except Dresden, to 
subjection to Fi-ederick. 

April 7. Peace is concluded with Sweden. 
May 5. Also with Russia. July 21. The 
Austrians are defeated at Burkersdorf . in 
Silesia. Aug. 16. The Austrians under 
Daun are defeated at Reichetibach. Oct. 29. 
Thfi Prussians under Prince Heni'y gain the 
battle of Freiberg. 

Feb. 15. Peace with Austria is restored by 
the treaty of Hubertsburg, which puts 
an end to the Seven Years' war, and 
confirms Prussia in the possession of 
Silesia. 

Aug. 25. Frederick II. and the emperor of 
Austria conclude a convention of neutrality 
at Neisse. 

Aug. 5. I'russia participates in the first treaty 
for the partition of Poland. 

July 4. Frederick II. has a dispute with Aus- 
tria respecting the Bavarian succession, 
and invades Bohemia. 

May 8. Prussia joins the armed neutrality. 

July 23. The Fiirsterbund alliance is con- 
cluded at Berlin, and commences the 
Germanic Confederation. Aug. 17. Death of 
Frederick II. 

Jan. 31. An alliance is concluded with Tur- 
key. March 29. A fictitious treaty is con- 
cluded with Poland. July 27. A conven- 
tion for the settlement of the Nether- 
lands is concluded with England and 
Austria. A new code of laws is intro- 
duced this year. 

Aug. 27. Prussia, Austria, and Saxony resolve 
to re-establish the French monarch at the 
conference of Pilnitz. 

The Prussians invade France. 

They invade Poland and seize Dantzic. By 
the second partition of Poland, Pi-ussia 
acquires Thorn, Posen, and other places. 

April 21. The Prussians fail in an attempt to 
take Wai-saw. 

AprU 5. The treaty of Basel is concluded with 
Fi-ance. By the third treaty for the parti- 
tion of Poland, concluded this year, Prussia 
acnuires Warsaw. 

April 3. The Prussians seize Hanover. 

March 8. The convents in Pi-ussia are sup- 
pressed. 

Dec. 15. By the treaty of Vienna, Prussia 
dissolves her alliance with England. 

700 



PEU 



1805. Dec. 15. By the treaty of Vienna, Prussia 

cedes Anspach to Bavaria, and Neufchatel 
and Oeves to France, receiving in exchange 
Hiinover and Bayreuth. 

1806. AprU 1. The Prussians seize Hanover and 

proclaim I'rederick - William III. king, 
whereupon England declares war. Sept. 24. 
In consequence of the occupation of 
Wesel and other towns by the French, 
war is declared against Napoleon I. 
Oct. 14. The Prussians are defeated by 
the French at the battle of Auerstadt 
or Jena (q. v.). Oct. 21. Berlin is occupied 
by the French. Nov. 20. Napoleon I. pub- 
lishes the Berlin decree (q. v.). 

1807. July 7. Prussia is compelled to a^ee to the 

humiliating treaty of Tilsit (q. v.). 

1808. Serfdom is abolished. 

1812. March 14. Prussia is compelled to conclude 

an alliance with Fi-ance and Austria. 

1813. Feb. 28. The treaty of Kalisch is concluded 

with Russia against France. March 4. 
The French evacuate Berlin. March 16. 
War is declared against France. May 31. 
Napoleon I. invades SUesia. Aug. 26. The 
French tmder Ney are defeated by 
Bluchpr at the battle of the Katzbach. 

1814. Jan. 2. The allies cross the Rhine and invade 

France. Feb. 1 & 2. The battle of Brieime 
(q. v.). Feb. 14. Blucher is defeated at 
janvilliei-s. (See Craonnk and Laon.) 
June 6. The king visits England. 

1815. May 2.5. The cougress of Vienna concludes 

its sittings, having ceded the Rhenish pro- 
vinces, Posen, Dantzic, Thorn, and h.alf of 
Saxony, to Prussia, which power obtained 
Swedish Pomevania and Rugen from Den- 
mark in exchange for Luxemburg, and 
Cletes and Berg from Bavaria in exchange 
for Anspach and Bayi-euth. Sept 26. 
The Holy AUiance is concluded with 
Russia and Austria. 

1817. Aug. An insurrection in Breslaii is suppressed 
with gi'eat severity. 

1819. Aug. 1. The congress of Carlsbad (q.v.). 
Sept. 12. Death of Marshal Blucher. 

1823. Provincial parliaments are established. 

1826. May 20. Commerce with England is per- 
mitted on the same terms as with other 
countries. 

1831. The cholera appears in Prussia. 

1833. March 22. The Zollverein (q. v.) is instituted. 

1842. Jan. 25. The king of Prussia officiates as god- 
father on the occasion of the prince of 
Wales' baptism. 

1844. July 26. The king's life is attempted by 
Tesch. 

1848. March 14. An insurrection breaks out at 

Berlin. April 23. A militaiy insurrection 
is suppressed at Warsaw. Nov. J2. Berlin is 
declared in a state of siege. Nov. 29. The 
Constituent Assembly meets in the castle 
of Brandenburg. Dec. 5. A new constitu- 
tion is promulgated. 

1849. March 28. The king of Prussia is elected 

hereditary emperor of the Germans. 
April 28. He declines to accept the title. 
May 10. Martial law is proclaimed. June 12. 
An attempt is made on the life of the 
prince of Prussia. June 23. The Pmssians 
occupy Carlsruhe. July 10. An armistice 
is concluded with Denmark. Sept. 8. The 
Frankfort assembly declares Frederick 
WUliam TV. the head of the Bavarian 
imperial constitution. Sept. 30. A treaty 
is concluded with Austria. Nov. 12. Aus- 
tria protests against the Bavarian consti- 
tution, and the alliance of Prussia with 
the minor states of Germany. Dec. 7. 
A convention is signed between the king 
of Prussia and the prince of HohenzoUern 
and Sigmai'ingen. 

1850. Feb 6. The king swears fidelity to the con- 

stitution. Feb. 21. Hanover withdraws 
Iruui the Prussian alliance. 



PRU 



. March 20. Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen is incor- 
porated with PiTissia. May 22. The king's 
life is attempted. June 20. Hesse-Darmstado 
secedes from the Prussian league. July 2. 
A treaty of peace is concluded with Den- 
mark. July 6. A congress of deputies 
from the Zollverein meets at Cassel. 
Aug. 25. The king refuses to acknowledge 
the Frankfort diet. Nov. 6. Death of the 
prime minister. Count Brandenburg. 
Nov. 7. The entire Prussian army is called 
out. Dec. 10. The army is reduced to its 
former footing. 

Jan. 18. The 150th anniversary of the 
Prussian monarchy is celebrated. May 18. 
The king visits the emperor of Russia. 
May 27. In company with theczarhe leaves 
Warsaw, to meet the emperor of Austria at 
Olmutz. May 31. The statue of Frederick 
the Great is erected at Berlin. Sept. 7. A 
commercial treaty is concluded with 
Hanover. 
. Jan. 12. The council of state is revived. 
May. 28. The industrial exhibition of 
Berlin is opened- June 7. A customs 
union with Austria is refused. Nov. 21. 
The minister of state, Greneral Thule, dies 
at Frankfort-on-the Oder. 

Feb. 19. A commercial treaty is concluded 
with Austria. March 26. A democratic plot 
is discovered at Berlin. May 19. The king 
visits Vienna. Nov. 14. The naval affairs 
of the kingdom are separated from the 
military department, and an admiralty 
board is established. Dec. 25. Death of 
General Radowitz at Berlin. 

Jan. 13. Protocols are signed with the allies. 
April 9. A new protocol is concluded. 
April 20. A treaty is signed with Austria. 
June 8. The king has an interview with 
the emperor of Austria at Tetschen. Sept. 6. 
The Prussian government declares its in- 
tention to remain neutral in the Eastern 
question. 

March 10. M. Hinckeldy, the superintendent 
of the Prussian police, is killed in a duel. 
March 18. Prussia is permitted to take 
part in the conference of Paris. May 4. 
Public rejoicings are held in Berlin in 
consequence of the end of the Russo- 
Turkish war. Sept. An insurrection com- 
mences in Neufchatel, and royalist subjects 
of Pnissia are imprisoned. Dec. 8. The 
Prussian government threatens war unless 
they are set at liberty. 

Jan. 15. The captives are released. March 5. 
A conference for the adjustment of the 
Neufchatel difficulty assembles at Paris. 
May 26. A treaty between Prussia and 
Switzerland is signed at Paris, and ter- 
minates the dispute. Sept. 9. A treaty 
with the Ai'gentine confederacy is signed 
at Parana. Oct. 23. In consequence of the 
severe illness of the king, the crown prince 
is appointed regent for three months. 

Jan. 6. The regency is continued. Jan. 25. 
Marriage of Prince Frederick -William, 
eldest son of the Crown Prince, to the 
Princess Royal of England. Aug. 10. The 
Queen and Prince Consort visit their 
daughter in Prussia. Oct. 7. The Crown 
Prince is made regent during the king's 
life. Oct. 25. The piince-regent swears 
fidelity to the constitution. Nov. 5. Baron 
de Manteuffel's ministry resigns, and is 
succeeded by that of the prince of Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen. 

Jan. 27. Birtb of Frederick William Victor 
Albert, eldest son of the Princess Royal. 
May 5. The Prussian government asserts 
its intention of endeavouring to terminate 
the Italian war. June 19. The govern- 
ment states that the Prussian army has 
been called out for the protection of Ger- 
many. July 25. The army is restored to a 
peace footing. 



PRU 



1860. Jan. 12. In opening the diet, the prince- 

regent announces important changes in. 
the military organization of the kingdom. 
March 27. Pinissia protests against the 
Fi-ench annexation of Savoy. April 25. 
Jews are admitted to judicial appoint- 
ments. May 4. The Prussian chambers 
express their intention of aiding the 
Sleswig-Holsteiners in the maintenance of 
their political rights. June 16. The prince- 
regent, with other German sovereigns, has 
an interview with Napoleon III. at Baden- 
Baden. Oct. 12. The queen of England 
has an interview with the prince-regent at 
Coblentz. 

1861. Jan 2. Death of Frederick- William IV., who 

is succeeded by the prince-regent as Wil- 
liam I. Jan. 13. An amnesty is published 
in favour of political offenders. Jan. 24. 
A commercial treaty with Japan is signed 
at Jeddo. Feb. 6. The Baron de Vincke 
carries an amendment on the address of 
the chambers to the king, to the effect that 
Prussia should not oppose the consolidation 
of Italy. May 1. The Macdonald affiair is 
amicably adjusted. June 1. A general 
commercial code for Germany is adopted 
by the chambers. 



MAEGEAVES OP BEANDENBT7EG, 
A.I>. 

1134. Albert I. 
1170. Otho I. 
1184. Otho II. 
1206. Albert II. 
1221. John I. and Otho III. 
1266. John II. 
1282. Otho IV. 
1309. Waldemar. 

1319. Henry I., le Jeune. 

1320. Interregnum. 

1323. Louis I. , of Bavaria. 

1352. Loui« II., the Roman. 

1365. Otho v., le Fain6ant. 

1373. Wenceslaus. 

1378. Sigismund. 

1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 

1411. Sigismund (again). 

1415. Frederick I. (VI. of Nuremberg) 

1440. Frederick II., Dent de Fer. 

1470. Albert III. 

1476. John III., Cicero (Margrave). 

1486. John III. (Elector). 

1499. Joachim I. 

1535. Joachim II. 

1571. John-George. 

1598. Joachim-Frederick. 

1608. John-Sigismund. 

DUKES OP PETTSSIA. 
A.D. 

1618. John-Sigismund. 

1619. George-WUliam. 
1640. Frederick-WiUiam. 
1688. Frederick. 



KINGS OP PEUSSIA, 
A.D. 

1701. Frederick I. 
1713. Frederick-William I. 
1740. Frederick II., the Great. 
1786. Frederick-William II. 
1797. Frederick- WiUiain III. 
1840. Frederick-William IV. 
1861. William I. 

Peussic Acid, or Htdeocianic Acid, 
was procured by Scheele from Prussian 
blue, A.D. 1782. Berthollet showed its com- 
position to be carbon, nitrogen, and hy- 
drogen, in 1787 ; and Gray-Lussac isolated 
cyanogen itself, showing the true constitution 
of the acid, in 1815. 

701 



PRU 

Pbuth (Europe), from the Buckovrina to 
its mouth, was constituted the boundary 
between Russian and Turkish Moldavia by 
the treaty of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. The 
river boundary was crossed by the hostile 
army of Russia, May 7, 1S28 ; and a second 
time, leading to a declaration of war by 
Turkey, July 2, 1853. (See Falczi.) 

Pettanis, the chief magistrate in many 
of the Grecian states. This office was 
instituted at Corinth, at the death of the 
last king, B.C. 745, and abolished by 
Cypselus when he gained absolute power, 
B.C. 655. 

Psalms as"d Psaltees. — The Book of 
Psahns is the production of various authors, 
the earMest of whom is Moses, who composed 
the 90th. David wrote the greatest number, 
andiSj^arexceZZewce, the psalmist. The Psalms 
were translated into the Saxon language 
A.D. 709; and the Latin Psalter, on vellum, 
published by Faust and Schoeffer, of Mentz, in 
1457, is the earUest printed book to which a 
date is attached. Attempts were made to 
render the Psalms into metrical English 
verse as early as the reign of Henry II. or 
Richard I. ; and in 1540 they were translated 
into French verse by Clement Marot. Stern- 
hold and Hopkins's version of the Psalms was 
first published as part of the Prayer-book 
in 1562, and is known as the Old Version. 
The New "Version, by Tate and Brady, ap- 
peared in 1698. 

PsEUDoscoPE. — This apparatus was in- 
vented by Professor Wheatstone, who de- 
scribed it in the Bakerian Lecture read 
before the Royal Society Jan. 15, 1852. It 
is called the pseudoscope because it " con- 
veys to the mind false perceptions of aU 
external objects," — converting the appear- 
ance of a raised rehef into that of a hoUow 
cast, and producing many other illusions. 

PsKOW, or Pskov (Russia), capital of a 

Government of the same name, is said to 
ave been founded by the grand-duchess 
Olga in the 10th century. It was unsuccess- 
fully besieged by Gustavus Adolphus a.d. 
1614, and fortified by Peter the Great in 
1701. The Kremlin was erected by Priace 
Dowmont 1266—1299. 

Ptolemaic System, which maintained the 
immobihty of the earth and the revolution 
of the planets around it, was founded by 
Ptolemseus of Alexandria, a.d. 130 — 150, and 
prevailed till the time of Copernicus, a.d. 
1473—1543. 

Publicans, denying all religious ordi- 
nances, and acknowledging only the exist- 
ence of God, were tried by a tribunal of 
archbishops, bishops, and eminent theolo- 
gians at A'ezelay, seven being condemned to 
be burned, a.d. 1134. The sect was excom- 
municated by the third council of the La- 
teran, in 1179. 

Public Good (League of). {See 
Leagues.) 

Public Safety. — ^A committee of pubhc 

safety, formed at Paris April 5, 1793, was 

invested with supreme power May 31, 1793. 

They decided that the queen, Marie An- 

702 



PUIiT 

tomette, should be brought to trial, which 
resulted in her execution, Oct. 16, 1793 ; 
resolved on the destruction of the Dantonist 
anarchists, the chief of whom were executed, 
April 5, 1794 ; issued a decree, refusing 
quarter to the English or Hanoverian sol- 
diers, in these woras, " No prisoner shall be 
taken from the English or Hanoverians," 
May 29, 1794 ; and sent aU the farmers- 
general to the revolutionary tribunal, where 
they were at once condemned. May 8, 1794. 
Their power gradually declined ; and they 
were defeated in an attempt to save Fouquier 
Tinville, July 30, 1794. 

PucKLECHUECH (Gloucestershire) was the 
court of the Saxon king Edmund I., who was 
assassinated here by an outlaw named Liofa, 
May 26, 946. 

Pulley. — The invention of the pulley is 
ascribed to Archimedes, B.C. 287 — 212. 

Pulpit. — The pulpitum of the Romans, 
where the actors on the stage recited their 
parts, is described by PoUux in his "Ono- 
masticon," dedicated to the emperor Corn- 
modus, A.D. 176. In churches it generally 
faced the west, that the people might sit 
facing the east, tiU the direction was changed 
by Sir Walter Mildmay on his foundation of 
the chapel of Emanuel College, Cambridge, 
A.D. 1584. It was ordered that clocks should 
be placed over the pulpits in 1483. 

PuLTUSK (Poland). — The united army of 
the Saxons and Poles was defeated here by 
Charles XII. May 1, 1703. An action, of 
which both claimed the victory, was fought 
here between the French and the Russians, 
Dec. 26, 1806. 

Pumps, according to the statement of 
Vitruvius, were invented by Ctesibius of 
Alexandria, and thence called machinm 
CtesibiccB about B.C. 200. Ladles or cups 
for drinking were first attached to wells and 
springs by Edwin, king of Northumberland, 
A.D. 617—633. 

PujfCTUATioir was not introduced into 
Greek Mterature till b.c. 365. For some 
time after the invention of the art of priat- 
ing, arbitrary marks were employed to 
divide sentences. The conmion parenthesis, 
interrogation, and period were gradually 
introduced in the 16th century. The colon 
is found in the " Acts of Enghsh Worthies," 
pubhshed in 1550, and the semicolon in 
Hackluyt's Voyages, which appeared in 1599. 

Punic Waes.— The first of these wars 
between the Romans and Carthaginians 
commenced B.C. 264, and closed with con- 
ditions severely humiliating to the latter, 
B.C. 241. The second began by the capture 
of the island of Saguntum by Hannibal, 
B.C. 218, and closed with his defeat at Zama, 
B.C. 202. The third opened B.C. 149, and 
terminated with the destruction of Carthage 
B.C. 147. 

PuNJAUB (Hindostan) was invaded by 
Alexander, who defeated Porus, with his 
army of 30,000 foot, 4,000 horse, and 200 
elephants, B.C. 327. The Mohammedans 
effected some conquests about A.D. 705. It . 
was overrun by Mahmoud of Ghizni in 1000. 



PUR 

The d3Tiasty of the slave kings, with Delhi 
for their capital, was founded in 1205. Ta- 
merlane invaded it in 1398; and Nanak 
founded the Sikh power in 1649. It was 
raised to an independent kingdom, under 
Kanjit, 1791—1839. Hostilities broke out 
between them and the British, and the battle 
of Moodkee was fought, in which Sir Hugh 
Gough commanded and Sir Robert Sale was 
wounded, Dec. 18, 1845. The battle of 
Goojerat, in which the Sikhs were totally 
routed, fought Feb. 21, 1849, was followed 
by the annexation of the country, March 
29, 1849. 

PuKGATOET, " possible with St. Augus- 
tine," says Milman (Lat. Christ., vol. vi. 
b. xiv. ch. 2), "pi'obable with Gregory the 
Great, grew up, I am persuaded (its growth 
singularly indistinct and imtraceable) , out 
of the mercy and modesty of the priest- 
hood." Origen taught that the souls of good 
men will, at the judgment-day, pass through 
a purgatorial fire, a.d. 240; Augustine ex- 
pressed an opinion that this might take 
place in the interval between death and the 
day of judgment, in 407 ; and Gregory esta- 
blished it as an article of faith in 604. The 
Benedictine monks industriously dissemi- 
nated the doctrine in 625 ; and the duty of all 
persons to pray for souls in purgatory was 
enjoined by the pope in 1000. Peter Lombard 
taught that sins committed after baptism 
were so punished, in 1164. It was declared 
to be an article of faith by the council of 
Florence in 1439. The doctrine had gone out 
of fashion in England in 1547. " Yet," says 
HaUam, '* in the first liturgy put forth under 
Edward VI. (a.d. 1549), the prayers for de- 
parted souls were retained, whether out of 
respect to the prejudices of the people, or 
to the immemorial antiquity of the practice. 
But such prayers, if not necessarily imply- 
ing the doctrine of purgatory (which yet, in 
the main, they appear to do), are at least 
so closely connected with it, that the behef 
could never be eradicated while they re- 
mained. Hence, in the revision of the 
liturgy, two years afterwards, they were 
laid aside, and several other changes made 
to eradicate the vestiges of the ancient su- 
perstition." 

PuEiTAifs. — The name was first applied 
to persons who, in the time of Queen EHza- j 
beth, refused to adhere to the episcopal j 
form of worship. They returned in consi- i 
derable nimibers from the continent, a.d. i 
1558. Many of the clergymen were deprived | 
of their benefices in 1565. Conferences were 
held with them by James I. at Hampton j 
Court, Jan. 14, 15, 16, 1604, and they were | 
forbidden to leave the kingdom without j 
licence, July 21, 1635. James II. pubhshed 
his declaration of indulgence, April 4, 1687 ; 
and the Toleration Act, passed May 24, 1689, 
relieved from the penal statutes aU Protes- 
tant dissenters except Unitarians. 

Purple was procured by the Phoenicians 
from several species of univalve sheU-fish, 
the Tyrians being famed for cloth dyed in 
this maimer, B.C. 2112. It is mentioned in 



PYD 

connection with the construction of the 
Jewish tabernacle (Exodus xxv. 4), B.C. 
1491, and was worn in Greece B.C. 559. Its 
use was restricted to the person and palace 
of Justinian I,, under a penalty of death, in 
532. After having been lost for ages, the 
method of producing the Tyrian purple was 
rediscovered in the 17th century. 

PuEVEYOBS for the royal household were 
subjected to some restrictions in the exer- 
cise of their arbitrary duties, by Magna 
Charta, June 15, 1215, and many subse- 
quent statutes. The prerogative was abo- 
hshed by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). 

PusEYiSM derives its name from Dr. 
Pusey, Hebrew professor at Oxford. The 
Puseyite movement commenced with the 
pubUcation of the Oxford tracts in 1833, and 
speedily attracted attention, from its alleged 
Romish tendencies. In 1839 Dr. Pusey ad- 
dressed a letter on the subject to the bishop 
of Oxford, wherein he repudiated this .im- 
putation ; but the secession to Rome of the 
Rev. John Henry Newman, one of the 
authors of the tracts, in 1845, and subse- 
quently of many other members of the 
party, proved that it was not altogether 
groundless. A meeting, composed of the 
vice-chancellor, h^ads of houses and proc- 
ters, assembled at Oxford March 15, 1841, 
and passed a resolution condemning these 
tracts. The receivers of this system are 
known as Anglo-Cathohcs, Puseyites, or 
Tractarians. 

PuTEOLi (Italy), the modern IVozzuoli, 
originally called Dicsearchia, was founded 
by a colony of Samians, B.C. 521; fortified 
by the Roman senate against Hannibal b.c. 
215 ; became the principal port for landing 
supplies of corn for the Roman army b.c. 
212, and received a Roman colony b.c. 194. 
St. Paul landed here on his journey to Rome 
a.d. 59 (Acts xxviii. 13) . It was captured 
by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and by 
Totila in 545. An eruption of the Soltatara 
caused much destruction in 1198, and a 
volcanic disturbance of the Monte N^uovo did 
considerable damage in 1538. It was a 
favourite resort of the Roman nobility 
towards the close of the republic, and here 
Cicero had a viUa, which.he named Academia, 
B.C. 45. In its theatre, capable of contain- 
ing 25,000 spectators, Augustus presided 
at the games, b.c. 31, and Nero entertained 
Tiridates I., king of Armenia, vrith combats 
of gladiators and wild beasts, a.d. 66. 

Ptdka (Greece), whence Themistocles 
took ship for Asia, b.c. 466 ; was captured 
by Archelaus, who removed its site twenty 
stadia from the sea, b.c. 411. It was be- 
trayed to Philip in the beginning of the 
Social war, when Demosthenes ransomed 
some Athenian citizens who had been sold 
into slavery, b.c. 358 — 356. Olympias took 
refuge here, and it was besieged, and she was 
made prisoner by Cassander, b.c. 316. The 
fate of the Macedonian monarchy was 
decided in a plain near this city, when 
Perseus was defeated and made prisoner by 
the Romans, June 22, b.c. 168. 

703 



PYL 

Ptlus. — The inhabitaiits of this city, the 
modern iJlavarino, emigrated to Cyllene at 
the close of the second Messenian war, 
B.C. 662. A fort was erected upon the pro- 
montory by Demosthenes, the Athenian 
commander, B.C. 424. Here, with five galleys 
allowed for his defence, he was besieged by 
the Spartans. Eurymedon came to his 
rehef, and he defeated the fleet of the be- 
siegers B.C. 425. A treaty was made by 
which the Athenians agreed to give up the 
fortress to the Lacedaemonians, B.C. 421 ; 
nevertheless they retained possession till 
B.C. 409. The Avars settled here, from 
whom it received its name of Avarino, sub- 
sequently corrupted into Navariao, in the 
6th century. 

Pteamids (Egypt). — The great pyramid 
is ascribed to Cheops, who employed 100,000 
men twenty years in building it, B.C. 1082; 
the second to Cephren or Cephrenes, B.C. 
1032; and the third to Mycerinus, B.C. 960. 
They were explored by Mr. Davison, a.d. 
1763 ; by Belzoni in 1815 ; by Captain Cavi- 
gha in 1816, and by Colonel Tyse in 1836. A 
victory gained here by Bonaparte over the 
Mamelukes, who lost 2,000 of their best 
troops, July 24, 1798, is called the battle of 
the Pyramids. 

Pyrenees (Treaty). — This peace between 
France and Spain, by which the former 
was confirmed in possession of Alsace and 
Pignerol, and received EoussiUon and Cer- 
dagne to the foot of the Alps, was concluded 
iN'ov. 7, 1659. 

Pyeometee, or fire-measurer, was in- 
vented by Musschenbroek, a.d. 1730. 
Eamsden's was described in 1785, and 
Wedgewood's in the " Philosophical Trans- 
actions" for 1782, 1784, and 1786. Professor 
Daniel constructed one, which gained him 
the Eumford medal, in 1830. Mr. Erics- 
son's was shown at the Great Exhibition in 
1851. 

Pyeotechny. (See Eieewoeks.) 

Pyeehic, or Maetial Dance, in which 
the two performers were armed, and went 
through all the mihtary evolutions, is as- 
cribed to Minerva, and was revived by Pyr- 
rhus, B.C. 318 — 273. It formed a regular 
part of the discipHne of the Eoman legions, 
A.D. 98—180. 

Pyeehonism, or scepticism, was founded 
by Pyrrho of Elis, about B.C. 340, and his 
system was fully expounded by Sextus Em- 
piricus, about a.d. 180. 

Pythagoeean Philosophy, instituted 
by Pythagoras, who was bom in Samos B.C. 
580, was carried into practice at Crotona, 
where he settled B.C. 535. A dispute having 
arisen regarding the spoil of the conquered 
Sybarites during the popular tumult that 
ensued, the house of Milo was fired, and 
many of the Pythagoreans perished in the 
flames, B.C. 510. The general persecution 
of the sect throughout Magna Grsecia, which 
followed, only ceased on the establishment of 
a democratic forna of government. Pytha- 
goras died, it is said, at Metapontum, about 
B.C. 507. Its distinguishing feature, the 
704 



QUA 

metempsychosis, or the doctrine of the 
transmigration of souls, prevailed amongst 
the Egyptians and the Hindoos. 

Pythian Games, originally musical con- 
tests'near Delphi, in celebration of the victory 
of Apollo over the Python, were said to have 
been established by Apollo himself. They 
were kept every ninth year tiU B.C. 589, 
and afterwards every fifth year, tiU about 
A.D. 394. Aflute contest and athletic sports 
were added B.C. 586, and chariot-races B.C. 
582. 

Qtjackeey. — Impostors in the practice of 
medicine have abounded in all ages, and the 
ancient Greeks and Eomans were inundated 
with them. Hippocrates Eidens (May 17, 
1686) sketches one thus : " His sagacity is re- 
markable; for he hath found out an art both 
to conceal his own ignorance and impose on 
that of other folks, to his own advantage. 
Has prime care is to get the names of 
diseases without book, and a bead-roU of 
ratthng terms of art, which he uses to 
beguile the mobile, — first of their senses, 
and next of their pence. He has an ex- 
cellent talent in persuading well people they 
are sick ; and, by giving them his trash, 
verifies the prediction, and is sure to make 
them so." A quack who exhibited upon a 
stage in Covent Garden in 1690, amused his 
spectators by taking thirteen grains of some 
poisonous drug, under the inspection of 
several surgeons and physicians. He con- 
trived by some means to prevent any visible 
iU-efiects from a dose that would have killed 
twenty men. St. John Long, a celebrated 
quack, was tried for the manslaughter of 
one of his patients (Miss Cashin) Oct. 30, 
1830. He was found guilty, and fined £250. 
A coroner's inquest returned a verdict of 
manslaughter against the same quack Nov. 11, 
1830, for having occasioned the death of Mrs. 
Catherine Lloyd. He was tried on this 
charge, and acquitted, Eeb. 19, 1831. 

QuADi. — This ancient people inhabited 
that part of Germany known as Moravia. 
They submitted to the Eomans in the reign 
of the emperor Titus Antoninus, about a.d. 
168. At a later period they joined a con- 
federacy of German nations against Eome. 
They led the Eomans into a defile, where no 
water could be obtained, occupied every 
strong post, and left their enemies to perish, 
A.D. 174. The second war lasted three 
years, — from 178 to 180, — with no decisive 
result, and the Quadi remained unsubdued. 
In the reign of Constantius II. they invaded 
the Eoman empire, about 353 ; but the em- 
peror repelled them, and spread desolation 
and terror throughout their country. They 
overran Gaul in 407, and their name dis- 
appears from history about the 5th century. 

QuADEAGESiMA SUNDAY, SO Called bccause 
it is the fortieth day before Good Friday. 
The festival of the estabhshment of St. 
Peter's Chair at Antioch, instituted about 
A.D. 36, is kept on Quadragesima Sunday by 



QUA 

the Roman Catholic church. Edward III. 
celebrated a jubilee on this day in 1376. 

QuADBAKT. — The first astronomical quad- 
rant of which we have any account is that 
used by Ptolemy, a celebrated astronomer, 
who flourished in Egypt about the middle of 
the 2nd century. The instrument known as 
Davis's quadrant or back-staflp!, was invented 
by Captain John Davis a.d. 1590. A port- 
able quadrant was invented by Gunter in 
1618. Hadley^s quadrant, supposed to have 
been invented by John Hadley, who died 
Feb. 15, 1744, is the chief instrument now in 
use for observing altitudes at sea. 

QuADEATUBE, or Squaeingthe Ciecle. — 
Archimedes (b.c. 250 — 212) is the first who 
attempted a practical solution of the ques- 
tion. Gregory of St. Vincent, an able 
mathematician, published his work on the 
quadrature of the circle a.d. 1647. It 
was refuted by Descartes and other eminent 
mathematicians. After the time of Wewton 
(born Dec. 25,1642; died March 20, 1727), 
mathematicians seem to have relinquished 
the attempt to solve the problem, though 
numerous pretended solutions were put for- 
ward. Mathulon, a Frenchman, in 1727 
offered 3,000 livres to any one who should 
prove his solution wrong, and he was actually 
compelled by a court of law to pay the reward. 
Causans in 1753 offered to bet 300,000 francs 
on the correctness of his process, and de- 
posited 10,000 francs, which were claimed by 
several persons, and, amongst others, by a 
young lady, who brought an action for 
them ; but the bet was declared void. The 
French Academy of Sciences resolved in 
1755 not to examine any more pretended 
solutions, — a course which was followed by 
the Royal Society in this country a few 
years afterwards. 

Quadeille, a dance of French origin, 
was introduced into this country about 
A.D. 1813. 

QuADETJPLE Alliance. — This treaty of 
alliance between Great Britain, France, and 
the emperor, for the purpose of guaranteeing 
the succession of the reigning famihes in 
Great Britain and France, and settling the 
partition of the Spanish monarchy, was 
signed in London Aug. 2, 1718. On the 
accession of Holland to this treaty shortly 
afterwards, it obtained the name of the 
Quadruple Alliance. Spain acceded to the 
terms of this alliance Jan. 26, 1720. 

Qu^STOE. — This officer in ancient Rome 
had the management of the public treasure. 
Two qusestors were first appointed B.C. 
485. Their number was doubled B.C. 420; 
and it was decided that the four qusestors 
should be chosen from the patricians and 
the plebeians. It was not, however, till b.c 
409 that a plebeian succeeded in making his 
way to the quaestorship. After the Romans 
had made themselves masters of Italy, the 
number of quaestors was increased to eight, 
B.C. 389. During the time of the emperors 
their number varied ; and from the reign of 
the emperor Claudius (a.d. 41—54) it be- 
came customary for quaestors, on entering 
705 



QUA 

office, to give gladiatorial spectacles to the 
people ; so that none but the wealthiest 
Romans could aspire to the office. 

QUAKEES, or Society of FEiENDS.-^This 
sect was fovmded a.d. 1647 by George Fox, 
who was bom at Drayton, in "Lancashire, in 
I July, 1624, and died in London in 1691. Fox 
I was brought before Gervase Bennet at Derby 
I in 1650. " He," says Fox, " was the first 
I that called us Quakers, because I bid them 
': quake at the word of the Lord." A Quaker 
j in Colchester starved himself to death upon 
I the presumption that he could fast forty days, 
in April, 1656. Another Quaker, who person- 
ated Jesus Christ at Bristol and other places, 
was found guilty of blasphemy, and was sen- 
tenced to be whipped, put in the pillory, and 
his tongue bored through vrith a hot iron, 
I Dec. 17, 1656. An address was presented to 
James II. by the Quakers in March, 1685. 
After congratulating him on his accession, it 
proceeded thus : " We are told thou art not of 
the persuasion of the Church of England any 
more than we, and therefore we hope that 
thou wilt grant unto us the same Hberty 
which thou allowest thyself." An act of 
indulgence to the Quakers, that their solemn 
affirmation should be accepted instead of an 
oath, was passed in 1696, and in 1828 their 
aSirmation was allowed in civil and criminal 
trials. In 1761 members engaged in the 
slave-trade were disowned. The Hicksite 
schism commenced in America in 1827, and 
the Beaconites arose soon after. Great 
changes have recently occurred amongst 
this sect. Mixed marriages were sanctioned 
Nov. 2, 1858. By 23 Vict. c. 18 (May 15, 
1860), which came into force June 30, 
marriages solemnized according to the 
usage of Quakers, where only one of the 
parties is a Quaker, are declared valid. 

Quaeantine was devised for the purpose 
of preventing the communication from one 
country to another of contagious diseases. 
The term originally signified a period of 
forty days, during which persons coming 
from foreign parts were not permitted to 
land. It originated at Venice, where pest- 
houses, or lazarettos {q.v.), were esta- 
blished A.D. 1423. Regulations for ships to 
perform quarantine were passed in 1710. All 
former quarantine acts were repealed by 
6 Geo. IV. c. 78 (July 27, 1825), and the ex- 
isting quarantine regulations depend upon 
its provisions and orders in council issued 
imder its authority. 

Qtjaeeies. — Bgypt in ancient times pos- 
sessed numerous quarries, those in the 
neighbourhood of Syene and in the island 
of Elephantine being the most famous. 
The masterpieces of Grecian sculpture were 
executed in the white marble obtained from 
the quarries of Attica and the islands of the 
Archipelago. The quarries at Ephesus con- 
stituted an immense labyrinth. One of these 
in the hill Epipolae, with the stone from 
which the edifices of Syracuse were built, 
about B.C. 732, was large enough to hold 
7,000 Greek soldiers taken prisoners when 
Nicias retreated from that city, b.c. 413. 



QUA 

The Greek and Roman quarries were worked 
by slaves. The most celebrated quarries in 
England are those of Portland, which fur- 
nished Sir Christopher Wren with the stone 
for St. Paul's cathedral, the Monument, 
and most of the public edifices in London, 
bmlt after the Great Fire in 1666. The quar- 
ries near Plymouth, which were opened in 
1812, furnished the stone for the construction 
of the breakwater. 

QuAETEELT REVIEW. — The first number 
appeared in April, 1809, under the editorship 
of William GifFord, a celebrated pohtical 
writer and critic, who was born at Ashburton, 
in Devonshiie, in April, 1757, and died in 
London, Dec. 31, 1826. 

QuAETEE Sessioi^s Cotiet was ordered 
to be held in every quarter of the year, or 
oftener if required, a.d. 13S8; and by sub- 
sequent statutes, quarter sessions were di- 
rected to be held at uniform periods. By 1 
Will. IV. c. 70 (July 23, 1830), these periods 
were fixed at the first week after Oct. 11, 
the first week after Dec. 28, the first week 
after March 31, al^d the first week after 
Jime 24. 

Qtiatee Beas, (battle,) fought at this 
village in Belgium, between the aUied army 
and the French, under Marshal Ney, June 16, 
1815. The inferiority of the allies in num- 
bers, and their want of artillery and cavalry, 
the Belgian horse, 2,000 strong, having left 
the field in a panic early in the action, ren- 
dered the combat for a long time unequal. 
The British, however, received reinforcement, 
and after a most desperate struggle the battle 
ended in favour of the allies. 

Quebec (Canada), founded by the French, 
July 3, 1608, was captured in 1629 by the 
English, and restored March 17, 1632, to 
the French, who fortified it in 1690. A 
British army under General Wolfe attacked 
and defeated the French under Montcalm, 
on the Heights of Abraham, near Quebec, 
Sept. 13, 1759. Both armies lost their 
commanders, and the French surrendered 
the city Sept. IS. It was finally ceded to 
the English at the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 
1-763. During the revolutionary war, the 
Americans under Montgomery attempted to 
take the city by assault on the night of 
Dec. 31, 1775, but they were repulsed with 
great loss. A fire which destroyed 1,650 
i&ouses, and rendered 12,000 persons home- 
less, occurred May 28, 1845, and another, 
which destroyed upwards of 1,200 dweUings 
in less than eight hours, and left 15,000 
people without shelter, took place June 28, 
1845. 

QuEEif.— The word, derived from the 
Saxon cwen, signifying wife, originally re- 
ferred exclusively to the wife of a king. 
The wives of the Roman emperors were 
distinguished by the title Augusta. By 
25 Edw. III. St. 5, c, 2 (1350), it was made 
high treason to conspire the death of a queen 
consort, or to violate her chastity. The 
Salic law (q.v.) excluded females from ex- 
ercising royal authority ; but by 1 Mary, s. 3, 
c. 1 (1553), the dignity of queen-regnant was 
706 



QUE 

declared constitutional in this country. 
Queens-consort are regarded in law as 
single women in some respects, and may 
possess private property, which they are 
entitled to bequeath or sell. This hberty 
was confirmed by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88 
(July 28, 1800). 

QtTEEa- Akn-e's Bouk-tt.— The first-fruits 
and tenths (see Aswates), which originally 
formed part of the papal exactions from the 
British clergy, were, by 26 Hen. VIII. c. 3 
(1534), annexed to the revenue of the crown, 
and continued to form part of the royal 
income until Queen Anne, in 1703, obtained 
the act 2 & 3 Anne, c. 11, authorizing 
her to devote them to the augmentation of 
the hvings of poor clergymen, which she did 
by letters patent, dated Nov. 3 in that 
year. By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 20 (April 11, 1838), 
the offices of first-fruits, tenths, and Queen 
Anne's bounty, were consolidated, and by 
4 & 5 Vict. c. 39, s. 4 (June 21, 1841), pro- 
visions were made for substituting an equi- 
valent for the first-fruits and tenths paid 
by the ecclesiastical commissioners to the 
governors of the bounty. 

Queen AnjS^e's Faethings. — In accord- 
ance with a suggestion made by Dean 
Swift, A.D. 1712, that the copper money of 
the realm should be re-coined, and 
adorned with devices of a medaUic type, a 
few pattern farthings were struck. The 
most celebrated is the farthing of 1713, 
which bears a bi\st on the obverse, and a 
figure of peace in a car, with the legend 
"Pax missa per orbem"on the reverse. 
The farthing of 1714, known as the " canopy 
farthing," from the device of Britannia seated 
under a portal, was issued, but is now very 
rare. Another pattern farthing dated 1715, 
after the queen's death, has the motto 
" Bello et pace" in basso-relievo, and is the 
most scarce. Some impressions in gold and 
silver were struck from the same dies, but 
the designs were poor, and the project was 
abandoned. A Queen Anne's farthing of 
the ordinary type is worth from 14s. to £1 ; 
but much higher prices have been paid. 

QuEEX Chaelotte Islands (Worth Pa- 
cific). — This group of islands, forming part 
of British Columbia, was first observed by 
Captain Cook, while exploring the north- 
west coast of America, a.d. 1778, and were 
thought by him to form part of the con- 
tinent. They were discovered to be islands 
by Captain Dixon, in 1787, who gave them 
their present name. They were included in 
the colony of British Columbia by 21 & 22 
Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 2, 1858). 

Queen Chaelotte Islands (South Pa- 
cific Ocean) were discovered by Mandana, 
a.d. 1595, and the principal one named 
Santa Cruz. They were visited by Captain 
Carteret in 1767, and, probably in ignorance 
of Mandana' s discovery, named by him 
Queen Charlotte Islands, which appellation 
they have since retained. 

Queen's Bench. {See King's (or 
Queen's) Bench.) 

Queen's College (Cambridge) was 



QUE 

founded by Margaret of Anjou, consort of 
Henry VI., a.d. 1448, or, according to some 
authorities, March 30, 1M9, and refounded 
by Elizabeth WoodviUe, consort of Edward 
IV., in 1465. It was at first called St. 
Bernard and St. Margaret's College, and 
took its present name in 1465. Richard III. 
granted the forfeited estates of John Vere, 
earl of Oxford, to the college ; but this grant 
was annulled on the accession of Henry VII. 
in 1485. A by-feUowship was founded in 
1694. 

QtTEEif's College (Oxford) was founded 
by Robert Eglesfield, confessor to PhUippa, 
queen of Edward III., a.d. 1340, for a 
provost and twelve fellows, to be chosen in 
the first instance from the counties of Cum- 
berland and Westmoreland. Eight fellow- 
ships and four scholarships, open to aU, and 
four exhibitions, confined to the province 
of Canterbury, were also founded, from 

Property left for that purpose by John 
[ichel in 1739. The foundation-stone of the 
south quadrangle was laid by the provost, 
Dr. WiUiam Lancaster, Feb. 6, 1710. Queen 
Charlotte, in 1733, gave £1,000 towards its 
completion, which took place in 1759. The 
interior of the west side was consumed by 
fire in 1778. The library was begun in 1692, 
and the outside finished in 1694. The chapel, 
the foundation of which was laid in 1714, 
was dedicated on All Saints' day, 1719. 
The window over the altar contains the 
Holy Family, painted by Price in 1717. 
King Henry V. is supposed to have been 
educated here. 

QuEEif's Colleges (Ireland). — By 
8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 (July 31, 1845), the queen 
was authorized to endow new coUeges 
for the advancement of learning in Ireland. 
Charters were accordingly granted for the 
estabMshment of a college at Cork, Dec. 19, 
1845, and at Belfast and Galway Dec. 30. 
In order to enable the students at these 
colleges to receive degrees, letters-patent 
were issued, Aug. 15, 1850, for the foun- 
dation of the " Queen's University in Ire- 
land," the seat of which was ordered to be 
in Dublin. The university held its first 
senate June 19, 1851, and conferred degrees 
for the first time in 1852. 

Qtjeensland (Australia). — Moreton Bay 
was separated from JSTew South Wales and 
erected into a colony, under the name of 
Queensland, by letters patent published 
Dec. 4, 1859. 

Queen's Lettee. {See Beief.) 

Queen's Peison. (-S'ee King's (or 
Queen's) Bench Peison.) 

Queen's Theatee (London) . — This 
theatre, in Tottenham Street, Tottenham 
Court Road, was built by Paschah for the 
concerts of ancient music, which were re- 
moved, A.D. 1794, to the King's Theatre, in 
the Haymarket. It was next hired by 
Colonel Grenville, for his entertainment, — 
the Pic-Kic Society, — in 1802 ; and it was 
converted into a theatre, under the name oi 
the Regency Theatre, in 1810. 

QUEENSTOWN (Canada).— The Americans 
707 



QUI 

were defeated here by the British, Oct. 13, 
1812, their commander. General Wadsworth, 
with 900 men, being taken prisoners. It 
was occupied by the Americans in May, 
1813 ; and in December of the same year 
they made an attempt to destroy the town 
with red-hot shot, but were defeated by a 
British force. It was again occupied by the 
Americans in June, 1814. 

QuEENSTOWN (Ireland) was so named by 
the queen on her first visit to Ireland, 
Aug. 3, 1849. It was previously called the 
Cove of Cork, and was, as recently as 1786, 
a small village, inhabited by a few pilots and 
fishermen. During the French war it became 
a place of some importance, and a rendezvous 
for shipping. A pier was built in 1805, 
and the handsome parish church was 
erected in 1810. 

Queen Victoeia Steamee, Capt. Church, 
sailed from Liverpool for Dublin, with 112 
persons on board, Feb. 14, 1853. About 
midnight she passed the Bailey lighthouse, 
when a thick snow-storm commenced, which 
rendered surrounding objects nearly invi- 
sible. In a short time the ship struck 
upon the Howth rocks, at the entrance to 
Dublin harbour, and sank almost imme- 
diately. Eff'orts were made to use the 
boats, but, owing to the general panic, they 
proved of little service, and fifty -nine of the 
passengers were drowned. The calamity 
was attributed to the carelessness of the 
captain and his officers, who all perished. 

QuENTiN, St. (France), the ancient Au- 
gusta Veromanduorum, was the seat of a 
bishopric, which was transferred to ]S"oyon 
in the 6th century. It was besieged by a 
Spanish army of 50,000 men, with an aux- 
iliary corps of 8,000 English, in 1557, and 
was bravely defended by Admiral Cohgny. 
The constable, Montmorency, who came to 
its rehef with a considerable army, was 
defeated by the Spaniards, Aug. 10, 1557, 
whereupon the town surrendered. It was a 
strongly -fortified place at this time, and was 
considered one of the bulwarks of France on 
the north-eastern frontier. 

Queen. — This primitive hand-mUl, formed 
of two heavy stones, is said to have been 
used by the Romans. BosweU states that it 
was the ancient instrument of the High- 
landers, and that he and Dr. Johnson ob- 
served a woman using one in the Isle of Sky 
during their tour in the Hebrides, a.d. 1773. 
He adds that it had then almost entirely gone 
out of use. 

QuESNOY (France) . — A siege of this town, 
A.D. 1340, is mentioned by Froissart. It 
was captured by Turenne in 1654. The 
duke of Ormond besieged it June 8, 1712, 
and it surrendered July 4. It was recap- 
tured by the French Oct. 4 in the same 
year. The Austrians took it, after a 
short siege, Sept. 11, 1793 ; and the French 
were defeated in a great battle in the neigh- 
bourhood Sept. 13. The French regained 
possession Aug. 15, 1794. It was taken by 
che allied armies June 29, 1815. 

QuiBEEON Bax (France). — An English 
2 z 2 



QUI 

fleet destroyed some French ships and dis- 
mantled the forts in this bay in September, 
1746. Admiral Hawke defeated the French 
fleet here Nov. 20, 1759. A body of French 
emigrants and soldiers, to the number of 
about 3,000, conveyed by a British fleet, 
landed in Quiberon Bay June 27, 1795. 
They took possession of lort Penthievre 
Jiine 30 ; but their hopes of support from 
the population of the surrounding country 
not being realized, they were expelled by 
the republican army, July 21, 1795. The 
British fleet, owing to stormy weather, could 
not approach the shore to succour them ; 
and the royahsts capitulated, on condition 
that the lives of the soldiers should be 
spared, and the emigrants allowed to em- 
bark. In spite of this, the National Con- 
vention decreed that all the prisoners should 
be put to death ; and 800 were shot, the I 
remainder being allowed to escape. The ■ 
forts in the bay were attacked and dis- 1 
mantled by an Enghsh squadron under Sir i 
Edward Pellew, June i, 1800. A monument ^ 
to the memory of the victims of the expedi- 
tion of 1795 was erected, under the auspices 
of Marshal Soult, in 1814. 

QxiiCKSiLVEE was known to the ancients 
from the remotest ages. The most pro- 
ductive quicksilver-mine is that of Ahnaden, 
in Spain, mentioned by Pliny as producing, 
in his time, 10,000 Koman pounds annually. 
The next in importance is that of Idria, in 
Blyria, discovered accidentally by a peasant 
A.D. 1497. The mines of Guancaveha, in 
Peru, were discovered about 1566 or 1567. 
Its use for refining silver was discovered in 
the 16th century, and it was first employed 
for this purpose "in the silver-mines of Peru 
in 1571. 

QriETisir. — The views of this sect were 
embodied in the worlcs of Michael MoHnos, 
a Spanish priest in the 17th century. His 
books were condemned at Eome, and he was 
imprisoned, and died a. n. 1696. About the 
same time Madame Guyon, or Guion, became 
a great advocate of quietism in France. 
She fixed her residence at Paris in 1688 or 
1689, and wrote several works in its favovir, 
which were condemned by Bossuet, who 
caused her to be confined in a monastery 
for six months. She was afterwards impri- 
soned in the Bastille for several years, and 
died in 1717. The archbishop of Paris called 
her writings "a monstrous" and diabohcal 
system." They were defended by Fenelon, 
which led to his condemnation by the pope 
in 1699. 

QuiLLOTA (Choi), founded A.n. 1726, has 
suffered severely from earthquakes, and was 
nearly destroyed by one in 1823. The copper- 
mines in its vicinity are the richest in Chili. 

Qtjills are said to have been first used 
for wi-iting in the 5th century. The earhest 
authentic account of their use is in the 
vrritings of Isidore, who died April 4, 636. 

QriLOA, or Keelwa (Africa), situated 

on an island close to the mainland, was taken 

by the Portuguese after repeated attacks, 

A,D. 1505. When they made Mozambique 

708 



QUI 

the centre of their settlements in Africa, 
the town fell into decay, and was ultimately 
wrested from them by the imam of Muscat. 
On its first occupation by the Portuguese it 
was the capital of Eastern Africa, but no 
traces of its ancient splendour existed when 
visited by Captain Beaver in 1812. 

QuiLoif (Hindostan). — This town on the 
coast of Travancore was formerly called 
Coulan, and is said to have been "founded 
A.D. 825. The Dutch wrested it from the 
Portuguese in 1662, and it afterwards fell into 
the hands of the English. 

QiJiMPEB, orQtiiMPEECoEENTiir (France), 
derives its present name from its first bishop 
in the 5th century, previously to which it 
was called Coriospitum. Charles of Blois 
took the town a.d. 1345, and put the greater 
part of the inhabitants to death. It was 
besieged and taken by the English auxiharies 
of de Montfort in 1364. In the Breton war, 
Quimper sided with the party of the duke 
of Mercceur, but was compelled to submit 
to Henry IV. in 1595. The cathedral dates 
from 1424. 

QriNCE. — Some writers regard the quince 
as a Phocaean importation into this country ; 
others say that it was introduced by the 
Eomans. It was cultivated in EagUsh gar- 
dens in the time of Gerard, a famous herb- 
ahst, born at Nantwich, in Cheshire, a.d. 
1545. It is also mentioned in Peacham's 
Emblems as a feature of the fruit-garden in 
1612. The Portugal quince was cultivated 
in England in 1729, and the Japan quince in 
1796. 

QuiNDECEMviES, an order of priests ap- 
pointed by Tarquin the Proud, about B.C. 
534, to take care of the Sibylline books. 
At first only two were appointed; but the 
number was increased to ten about B.C. 367, 

! and to fifteen (hence their name) by SyUa, 

j B.C. 80. 

I QnifiifE.— This important vegetable alkali, 
contained principally in the yeUow bark, 
was discovered by PeUetier and Caventon 
A.D. 1820. 

QrisrisEXTATf CouifCiL, called also the 
council in Trvdlo, from the chamber in the 
imperial palace at Constantinople in which 
it was held, was summoned by the emperor 
Justinian II. a.d. 691. It is the great au- 
thority for the discipHne of the Greek church. 

Quilf QUAGESIITA SUNDAT, Or SHEOTE SUW- 

DAT, is so called because it occurs about the 
fiftieth day before Easter. Its observance 
was instituted by Pope Gregory XIII. about 
A.D. 1572. 

QxTiN-QrEifALiAN Games were instituted 
at Eome by Nero, a.d. 60, in imitation of 
the Greek festivals, and were celebrated 
every four years. They consisted of musical, 
gymnastic, and equestrian contests. The 
celebration of these games appears to have 
ceased after Nero's time. They were revived 
by Domitian in honour of Jupiter Capito- 
linus, A.D. 86, and were called Capitoline 
Games. 

QriNTiLiANS, a sect of heretics of the 2nd 
century, so called after their founder, a 



QUI 

female named Quintilia, of Carthage. They 
attributed extraordinary gifts to Eve, for 
having eaten of the tree of knowledge, and 
allowed women to be priests and bishops. 
They denied water-baptiam. Tertullian 
wrote against this heresy early in the 3rd 
century. 

QuiRiTES, the name given to the Sabines, 
who settled in Eome and built a new town 
on the Quirinal and Capitohne hills in the 
time of Komulus, B.C. 722. On the death of 
their chief, Titus Tatius, Eomulus became 
king over both Eomans and Quirites. 

QuiSTELLo (Battle). — The Austrians de- 
feated the French at this place, on the 
Secchia, Sept. 15, 1734. 

Quito (South America), the capital of the 
republic of Ecuador, founded by Sebastian 
Benalcasar a.d. 1534, was incorporated as a 
city by Charles V. in 1541, and made a 
bishop's see in 1545. A plain near the city 
was chosen by the French and Spanish 
astronomers in 1736 for measuring a degree 
of the meridian ; and their labours from 
that time till 1742 are commemorated by an 
alabaster slab, with a Latin inscription, 
placed in the church of the Jesuits. Earth- 
quakes are of frequent occurrence, and one 
Feb. 4, 1797, is said to have destroyed above 
40,000 persons in the province. During the 
revolt against the mother covmtry, the 
leaders of the Junta of Quito, to the 
number of 300, were slaughtered by the 
Spanish viceroys of Santa Fe de Bogota and 
Peru in 1811. A dreadful earthquake oc- 
curred March 22, 1859, which reduced the 
city to ruins. 

QxJoiTS. — This game, called by the ancients 
discus, is said to have been invented by 
Perseus, a Greek, who, having inadvertently 
slain his grandfather, Acrisius, in throwing a 
quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos (to 
which he was heir on the death of Acrisius) 
for that of Tirynthus, and founded the king- 
dom of Mycenae about b.c. 1313. Quoits 
formed a favourite amusement amongst the 
lower classes of Londonin the reignof James I. 
In the country the rustics, not having round 
perforated quoits to play vrith, used horse- 
shoes ; and in many places the quoit itself is 
called a shoe. 

Quorum, a term derived from the words 
used in the commission issued to justices of 
the peace, the form of which was settled by 
all the judges a.d. 1590. The expression 
employed is quorum unum A. B. essevolumus, 
"ot whom we will that A. B. be one," thus 
rendering it necessary that certain indivi- 
duals (said to be of the quorum) should be 
present at the transaction of business. 
Hence, when in a meeting, &c., it is neces- 
sary that a certain number should be present 
to give vahdity to its acts, that number is 
said to form a quorum. 

Quo WAKBAifTO Act was passed Nov. 7, 
1280. By this act a writ may be directed 
to any person who holds any office or fran- 
chise, to inquire by what authority he does 
so. A quo warranto was brought against 
the charter of the corporation of London 



EAC 

by Charles II., and the court of King's 
Bench gave judgment against the city, and 
declared their charter forfeited June 12, 
1683. An act for reversing this judgment 
and for restoring the city to its ancient rights 
and privileges passed May 20, 1690. 



Eaab (Hungary).— a battle was fought 
near this town between the Austrians, under 
the archduke John, and the French, under 
Eugene Beauharnais, June 14, 1809. The 
former were defeated, and the tovra fell into 
the hands of the French Jime 24. They 
began building a fortress Aug. 15. Eaab 
was occupied by the Austrians under Win- 
disgratz, Dec. 26, 1848. The Hungarians 
took possession shortly afterwards, and were 
driven out by the Austrians under General 
Haynau, June 28, 1849. 

Eacing formed an important part of the 
Grecian games, the race for full-aged horses 
having been introduced b.c. 649; that for 
mares, called the Calpe, B.C. 493; and for 
under-aged horses b.c. 253. It is beheved 
to have been practised by the Anglo-Saxons, 
and King John held running horses in high 
estimation. Edward III. purchased running 
horses in 1326, and Henry VIII. took great 
pains to improve the royal stud in 1509. 
Eacing, which had languished in Elizabeth's 
reign, was revived under James I. at Gatley, 
in Yorkshire. Eaces took place at Chester 
in 1512 for two silver bells; and on St. 
George's day, in 1609, three silver bells of 
good value were offered as prizes. The first 
races at Newmarket took place in 1640, 
and the round course was made in 1666. 
Oliver Cromwell kept a stud of race-horses 
in 1653. A ladies' plate was advertised to 
be run for at Eippon-heath, Yorkshire, 
women to be riders, Tuesday, Sept. 14, 1725, 
A silver beU was the prize in the reign of 
James I. Camden speaks of a golden beU 
as the prize; whence the proverb, "bears 
the beU." Mr. Surtees, in his "Durham," 
mentions subscription purses in 1613; the 
beU was altered to a cup, with the exploits 
and pedigree of the horse engraved upon it, 
1661 — 1685. At Pisa, the prize was a mantle 
of some kind of rich stuff in 1264. 

Eack. — This instrument of torture was 
used against the Christians in early times, 
and was employed by the Inquisition. It is 
said to have been introduced into the Tower 
by the duke of Exeter, when constable, a.d. 
1447, and thence called the " duke of Exeter's 
daughter." Hollinshed makes mention of 
it in 1467. It was in common use in the 
reign of Henry VIII., and from that time 
till 1640, when it was aboHshed, it was the 
instrument of torture for prisoners confined 
in the Tower. 

Eacquet, or Eacket, hand-tennis, is said 
to have originated in the 14th century. This 
game was first played with the naked hand, 
and then with a glove. Afterwards thongs or 
corda were bound round the hand to make 
709 



EAD 

the ball rebound more forcibly, and from | 
this, according to St. Foix, the game derived 
its name. In 1424 a damsel named Margot 
played at hand-tennis at Paris better than 
any man. i 

Eadcliffe Libeaet. — ^Dr. John EadclifFe, | 
who died Nov. 1, 1714, bequeathed by wiU 
£40,000 to the university of Oxford for a ; 
library. The first stone of the building was i 
laid May 12, 1737, and it was opened April 13, 
1749. An observatory, of which the foun- 
dation was laid June 22, 1772, was completed 
in 1786. The Lunatic Asylum on Head- ' 
ington Hill (1827) received a portion of the 
funds left by this benevolent man, and was 
called the Kadcliffe Asylum. ^ 

Kadcot Beidge (Battle).— De Vere, ere- ( 
ated duke of Ireland, who had raised an \ 
army in support of the cause of Kichard II., I 
was defeated at Eadcot Bridge, in Oxford- 
shire, Dec. 20, 1387. He made his escape [ 
into Ireland. 

Eadicals. — The extreme democrats in | 
England first received the name of Eadicals 
about A.D. 1819. i 

Eadstadt, or Eastadt (Baden). — The 
margrave of Baden, Louis William, fixed 
his residence at this place, then a small vil- 
lage, towards the end of the 17th century. 
Prince Eugene and Marshal ViUars signed 
a treaty of peace here March 6, 1714, which 
put an end to the war of the Spanish Succes- 
sion. The palace, buUt on the model of that 
of Versailles, was tiU 1771 the residence of 
the margraves of Baden. A congress as- 
sembled at Eadstadt Dec. 9, 1797, to negotiate 
a peace between Erance and the German 
empire. It was dissolved by the emperor of 
Germany April 7, 1799. During the insur- 
rection in Baden of 1849 the insurgents shut 
themselves up in Eadstadt. After a month's 
siege they surrendered to the Prussians, 
July 23. 

Eapts. — Hiram, king of Tyre, entered 
into a contract to supply Solomon with cedar 
of Lebanon for the building of the temple, 
which was to be brought to Jaffa in floats 
(1 Kings V. 9 5 and 2 Chron. ii. 16), B.C. 
1014. The Eomans transported timber by 
water for building purposes and for firewood. 
It appears to have been conveyed in this 
manner to the river Saale, in Saxony, the 
duty being remitted to the monastery of 
Porta, A.D. 1258. The duty on floats on the 
same river was reduced in 1410. A citizen 
of Freiberg commenced the conveyance of 
timber on the Mulda by rafts in 1431, and 
the nobihty unsuccessfully attempted to pro- 
hibit it in i486. Timber was first floated on 
the Elbe for building the church of Aschers- 
leben, in 1495. The city of Paris having 
consumed all the wood in its neighbourhood, 
John Eouvel, a merchant, suggested bringing 
supplies by means of rafts in 1549, and his 
plans were carried out by Eene Arnoul in 
1566. 

Bagged Schools. — Thomas Cranfield 

commenced what he called a fragment school 

in Mint Street, Southwark, early in the 

19th century. Efforts were made to establish 

710 



EAI 

schools for the neglected and outcast, and 
in 1837 the first ragged school was opened 
in London. The Field-Lane ragged school 
was opened in 1843, and the Eagged School 
Union was formed in 1844. The Bristol 
ragged school for males and females was 
established in 1846, and schools of a like 
description were opened in the same year 
in Manchester, York, and other towns. A 
ragged school for boys was opened in Aber- 
deen in 1841. 

Eagman's Eoll, containing the legal at- 
testation of allegiance of the nobility and 
gentry of Scotland to Edward I., was sub- 
scribed A.D. 1296, and having been deposited " 
in the Tower, was pubhshed in Prynne's 
Eecords in 1666, and by the Bannatyne 
Club in 1834. 

Eagusa (Austria). — This town was en- 
larged and fortified in the 7th century. 
From 1260 to 1368 Eagusa was governed by 
Venetian rectors, who held office for two 
years, and were chosen from the patrician 
families of Venice. War broke out in 1368 
between Venice and the king of Hungary, 
and Eagusa gained her independence and 
power to choose her own rectors. In 1414 
the Eagusans purchased peace with the 
Ottomans by agreeing to pay an annual tri- 
bute of 500 ducats. The manufacture of 
woollens was introduced here in 1433 from 
Florence. The Turks ravaged the district of 
Canale in 1471, and Eagusa purchased safety 
by paying a tribute amounting to 8,000 
ducats. The town was nearly destroyed in 
1667 by an earthquake. During the 17th 
and 18th centuries, Eagusa continued to 
enjoy her independence. Napoleon I. seized 
the town May 27, 1806, and defeated the 
Eussians under its walls, Sept. 29. In 1814 
it came into the possession of Austria. 

Eaid of Euthven. — A conspiracy, headed 
by Alexander Euthven, earl of Gowrie, 
against Lennox and Arran, favourites of 
James VI. of Scotland, having been formed, 
the Iring himself was seized at Euthven Cas- 
tle, and the obnoxious persons were removed, 
Aug. 23, 1582. James VI. remained in the 
power of the faction till he made his escape 
to the castle of St. Andrews, which he ac- 
complished June 27, 1583. 

Eailways. — Wooden rails for the trans- 
port of coal were constructed at the New- 
castle collieries about a.d. 1630, and in 1716 
a surface of iron was laid upon the rails. 
Eails whoUy composed of cast iron were used 
at Whitehaven in 1738, and an edge-rail of 
similar materials was laid down at Colebrook- 
dale about 1767. In 1776 Mr. John Curr 
introduced an improved rail nailed to wooden 
sleepers, and in 1789 Mr. \\ illiam Jessop 
invented a rail and wheel, specially adapted 
for each other. Stone blocks were first 
employed instead of wooden sleepers in 1800 
by Mr. Benjamin Outram, of Little Eaton, 
Derbyshire, and roads so constructed were 
known as " Outram roads," and afterwards as 
" tram roads." The first important edge-rail 
was that at Penrhyn slate-quarries, which 
was laid down in 1801, and the first line for 



EAI 

public use wrs that of the Surrey Iron Eail- 
way, incorporated the same year. The first 
patent for a locomotive steam-carriage was 
taken out by Eichard Trevithick and An- 
drew Vivian, March 24, 1802. This engine 
was adapted for traction on common roads, 
but in 1804 Trevithick invented an engine to 
work on iron rails, which was tried at Mer- 
thyr Tydvil the same year, and proved a 
scientific triumph, though its application to 
business purposes was impracticable. In 
1811 Mr. Blenkinsop patented a locomotive 
with racked wheels, intended to work on 
cogged rails, and a line on this principle was 
actually opened at the Middleton collieries 
near Leeds, Aug. 12. 1812. A locomotive to 
work upon legs, moving alternately like 
those of a horse, was projected by Mr. 
Brunton, of the Butterley works, in 1813, but 
blew up during its construction, and the 
Heedlessness of all contrivances to increase 
the adhesion of wheels upon railroads was 
demonstrated by Mr. Blackett, of Wylam, 
the same year. George Stephenson's first 
engine was tried upon the Killingworth rail- 
way, July 25, 1814, and excelled all its pre- 
decessors, although its speed was not greater 
than that of a horse's walk. In 1815 Mr. 
Stephenson discovered the steam-blast, and 
appMed it in the construction of a second 
engine, and in 1829 he employed a multitu- 
bula,r boUer in the Socket, which proved the 
victor in the competition of engines, held at 
Eainhill in October of that year, attaining 
a maximum speed of 29 miles per hour, 
and an average of 15 miles. The Liverpool 
and Manchester railway was the first public 
Mne worked by steam power. It was opened 
Sept. 15, 1830. {See Liverpool.) Mr. Bru- 
nei introduced the broad gauge in 1838, and 
it was adopted in the Great Western railway. 
Stationary engines were originally employed 
on the Blackwall railway, which was opened 
July 4, 1840. They were afterwards aban- 
doned for locomotives. Trains worked by 
atmospheric pressure were started on the 
Kingston and Dalkey lines in 1843, on the 
Croydon line in 1845, and on the South 
Devon railway in 1847 ; but the system 
proved a failure. The mania for railway 
speculation reached its height in 1845, when 
prospectuses were issued, and warrant ob- 
tained for the construction of no less than 
1,428 new lines. The conveyance of mails 
by railroad was regulated by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 98 
(Aug. 14, 1838). Companies were compelled 
to provide proper gates and gate-keepers at 
places where railroads and public highways 
cross by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 45 (Aug. 17, 1839), 
and railways were placed under the super- 
vision of the Board of Trade by 3 & 4 Vict, 
e. 97 (Aug. 10, 1840). The phraseology of 
railway bills was much simplified by the 
Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, 8 & 9 
Vict. c. 20 (May 8, 1845), and the gauge 
was regulated by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 57 (Aug. 18, 
1846). The jurisdiction of the Board of Trade 
was transferred to a body of railway com- 
missioners by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 105 (Aug. 28, 
1846). This act was repealed by 14 & 15 



EAI 

Viet. 0. 64 (Aug. 7, 1851), which restored 
the authority ot the board. Malicious acts 
upon railways are punished by 14 & 15 
Vict. c. 19 (July 3, 1851), and further mea- 
sures for the regulation of the railroad sys- 
tem were made by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 31 (July 
10, 1854). Stephenson's engine was intro- 
duced into France in 1829. The first line in 
America was constructed in 1830 in Massa- 
chusetts, and was about four miles in length. 
A comprehensive railway system, extending 
over a distance of 347 nules, was sanctioned 
by the Belgian government. May 1, 1834. 
I^he English government authorized the con- 
struction of two lines in India in 1849. 
George Stephenson, the father of English 
railroads, died at Tapton, near Chesterfield, 
Aug. 12, 1848. The following is a list of the 
principal hnes in Great Britain and Ire- 
land : — 

A.D. 

Aberdeen and Huntley , Sept. 19, 18-54 

Abingdon June 1.5, 1855 

Alloa Branch Sept. 2, 1850 

Ambergate and Rowsley June 4, 1849 

Andover and Salisbury May, 1807 

Ardsley Extension Oct. 10, 1854 

Ascot and Wokingham July 9, 1856 

Ayr and Dalmellington Aug. 1856 

Ayr and Maybole Oct. 13, 1856 

Bagenalstown to Kilkenny Nov. 14, 1850 

Ballymena and Portrush Nov. 7, 1855 

Bandon and Ballinhassig Aug. 1, 1849 

Banflf, Macduflf, and Turriff Sept. 5, 1857 

Bedale and Leybum Nov. 2, 1806 

Bedford (London and North-Western) . . Nov. 1846 

Belfast and Armagh March 1, 1848 

Belfast and Ballymena April 11, 1848 

Belfast and County Down Aug. 2, 1849 

Bideford Extension • Nov. 2, 1855 

Birmingham and Liverpool July 4, 1837 

Birmingham, Worcester, and Derby Junc- 
tion Aug. 2, 1839 

Bishopstoke and Gcsport Feb. 1842 

Blackburn and Bolton June, 1848 

Blackburn, Clitheroe, and Chatbum, June 22, 1850 

Blaiigowjie Branch Aug. 1855 

Blyth and Tyne 1852 

Boston, Sleaford, & Midland Counties, June 16, 1856 

Bradford, Wakefield, and Leeds Oct. 5, 1857 

Bridport Nov. 12, 1857 

Burscough and Southport AprU 9, 1855 

Burston and Norwich Dec. 12, 1849 

Caledonian Feb. 1848 

Cannock Branch Nov. 2, 1857 

Carlisle and Moffat Sept. 1847 

Carlisle and Silloth Bay Sept. 4, 1856 

Carlow Junction to Bagenalston July 24, 1848 

Caterham Aug. 5, 1856 

Cavan Feb. 8, 1856 

Chester and Crewe 1848 

Chipping-Norton Branch Aug. 10, 1855 

Cockermouth and Workington April 28, 1847 

Colchester and Ipswich June 15, 1846 

Cork and Bandon Dec. 8, 1851 

Cork, Blackrock, and Passage June 8, 1850 

Crieff Junction March 16, 1856 

Crystal Palace & Wandsworth Common Dec. 1, 1856 

Cumnock to Gretna Oct. 28, 1850 

Darlington and Bamard-Ca,tle July 8, 1850 

Darlington and Stockton Dec. 27, 1825 

Deeside Sept. 8, 1853 

Derby and Ripley Sept. 1856 

Dublin and Drogheda May 26, 1844 

Dublin, Drogheda, and Howth July 30, 1846 

Dublin and Galway Aug. 1, 1851 

Dublin and Kingston Dec. 17, 1834 

Duudalk and Newbliss Aug. 14, 1855 

Dundee and Arbroath ApjU 1, 1846 

Dundee and Newtyle 1832 

Dundee and Perth May 24, 1847 

711 



EAI 



Diu-sley and Mid]and Junction Sept 22, 1856 

East Fife Ang. 18, 1857 

East Grinstead July 9, 1835 

East Lancashire May 24, 1838 

East Lmcolnshrre Oct. 1, 1848 

EdlnbTLrgh and Berwick June 18, 1846 

Edinburgh and Glasgow Feb. 18, 1842 

Evesham and Campden March 19, 1855 

Exeter and Crediton May 12, 1851 

Fife to Strathmiglo Juiie 8, 1857 

Forth and Clyde Junction M;..y 26, 1856 

General Terminus & Glasgow Harbour March 30, 1849 

Glasgow and Ayr Aug. 12, 1840 

Glasgow and South -Western Oct. 28, 1850 

Grand Junction July 6, 1837 

Great South -'Westeni to Kosciea (Lre- 

land) Oct. 19, 18-57 

Grunsby and Boston Oct. 1. 1848 

Grimsby and Loutt March 1, 1848 

Hales worth and Haddiscoe Kov. 30, 1852 

Hammersmith May 1, 1857 

Hartlepool July 1, 1835 

Hanghley to Burston July 2, 1849 

Hereford, Boss, and Gloucester June 1, 18.55 

Hertford and Welwyn Junction Nov. 18-57 

Homcastle and Kirkstead Aug. 11, 18.55 

Huddersfield and Sheffield July 1, 18-50 

Hull and Bridlington Oct. 1846 

Hull and Holdemess June 27, 1854 

Hull and Selby July 1, 1840 

Huntly to Keith Oct. 11, 18-56 

Inverness and Nairn Nov. 5, 18-55 

Inverary and Old Meldi-unx July 5, 18-56 

Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund's Dec. 23, 1846 

Jrdburgh July 17, 18-56 

Kendal and "Windermere April 21, 1847 

KUlamey Junction May, 1854 

Kingston to Dalkey Oct. 11, 1355 

Kirriemuir Branch Nov. 18-54 

Lancaster and Carlisle Dec. 16, 1846 

Lancaster and Preston June 30, 18M) 

Leeds and Bradford 1846 

Leeds, Bradford, and Halifax Aug. 1, 1855 

Leicester and Hitchin May 8, 1858 

Leicester and Swannlngton 1852 

Leominster and Kington July 29, 18.57 

Lesmahagow Dec. 1, 18-56 

Leven July 3, 1^54 

Limerick and Castle-Connel Nov. 1, 18-57 

Liverpool and Bury Nov. 20, 1848 

Liverpool and Manchester Sept. 15, 18:^0 

Liverpool and Preston Oct. 31, 1838 

London and Birmingham Sept. 17, 1838 

London and Blackwall July 4, 1840 

London and Bi-ighton Sept. 21, 1841 i 

Loijdon and Bristol June 30, 1841 I 

London and Cambridge July 30, 1845 I 

London and Colchester March 29, 184:3 

London and Croydon June 1, 1839 I 

London and Deptford Dec. 14, 18;36 i 

London and Dover Feb. 7, 1844 ' 

London and Greenwich Dec. 28, 18:38 

London and Hastings June 27, 1846 

London and Liverpool Sept. 17, 1838 

London and Peterborough Aug. 6, 1850 

London and Eichmond July, 1846 

London and Southampton May 11, 1840 

London and Southend June, 18-56 

London and Twyford (Great Western), July 1^ 1839 

Louth and Firsby Sept. 3, 1848 

Manchester and Birmingham Aug. 1842 

Manchester and Leeds March 1, 1841 j 

Manchester and Normanton Oct. 1, 1844 ' 

Manchester and Southport AprU, 18-55 I 

Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire, Aug. 18-57 i 

Maybole and Girvan Aug. 18-56 

Mid-Kent and North-Kent Junction .. Jan. 1, 18-57 ! 

Middlesborough and Guisborough Feb. 2-5, 1854 

Midland Counties June 30, 1840 

Mullingar and Longford Nov. 8, 18-55 ' 

Newcastle and Darlington April 1.5, 1844 j 

Newmarket and Bui-y April 1, 1854 j 

Newport to Brandon July 30, 1845 ! 

Newry to Warrenpoint May 28, 1849 | 

Norton Branch Nov. 2, 1857 

712 ' 



EAL 



Nottingham and Derby May 30, 1839 

Oldham Branch July, 185-5 

Peebles July 4, laSa 

Perth and Dunkeld April 7, 1856 

Perth and Fortar Sept. 11, 1843 

Picton and Stoke-ley March, 1857 

Port Carlisle June 22, 1854 

Preston and Langridge 1849 

Beading July 9, 1856 

Eoyston and Hitcbin Oct. 21, 1850 

St Andrew's July 1, 1832 

Scottish Ceutnil May, 1848 

Selkirk and Galashiels April 5, 1856 

Sheffield and Rotherham Nov. 1, 1838 

Shrew-bury and Birmingham Nov. 12, 1849 

Somerset Central A\ig. 28, 18-54 

South Devon 1850 

Staines and Ascot June 4, 1356 

Stamford and Essendlne Nov. 1, 1857 

Stockton and Darlington Sept. 27, 1825 

Stotfield and Lossiemouth to Elgin. . Aug. 10, 1852 

Strood to Faversham Nov. 11, 1857 

Sydenham and Wandsworth Oct. 30, 18-56 

Torquay Branch Dec. 1843 

Ulster Aug. 18:39 

TJlverstone and Lancaster Aug. 10, 18.57 

WeUs and Fakeuham Dec. 1, 1857 

West Jx.ndnu May 27, 1844 

Wintehaven, CUator, and Egi-emont, Jan. 11, 1857 

Widne-ss and G.irston July 1, 18.52 

Wimbledon and i.'roydon Oct. 22, 1855 

Worcester and Stoke Feb. 18, 18.52 

Yarmouth and Norwich May 1, 1844 

York and North Midland June, 1840 



Eaiit (Battle). — Gustavus Adolphns, at 
the head of a Swedish army, defeated Tilly, 
at Eain, on the banks of the Lech, in Ger- 
many, April 5, 16.j2. Tilly died of a wound 
received in this battle, and the victorious 
leader, Gustavus Adolphus, feU at Liitzen, 
!^^ov. 6 in the same year. The battle of 
Eain is sometimes called the battle of Lech, 
or Leek. 

Eaixbow. — Newton ascribes the first ex- 
planation of the rainbow to Antonio de Do- 
minus, archbishopofSpalatro, whose account, 
said to have been composed a.d. 1590, was 
pubhshed at Venice in 1611. The true theory 
was explained by Descartes, in his " Diop- 
trics." Mariotte, in 1686, considered it to 
be produced by refraction. 

Eajmahal (Hindostan), according to 
native authorities, was founded B.C. 3000. 
The Enghsh obtained possession a.d. 1765. 
The splendid palace, the ruins of which still 
exist, was built by the sultan Sujah, brother 
of the emperor Aurungzebe, in 1630, and 
was greatly injured by a fire, which also 
destroyed a large portion of the town, in 
1631. 

Eajpootaka (Hindostan) . — This extensive 
district, so called from the Eajpoots, its 
early inhabitants, was conquered by the 
Mohammedans, but maintained a half inde- 
pendence, A.D. 1194. At the death of Au- 
rungzebe, in 1707, it became nominally 
subject to the emperor of Delhi, and its 
chiefs achieved their independence in 1748. 

Eakowitz (Battle). — A large army of 
Turks was defeated by Stephen, vaivode of 
Moldavia, in this battle, fought a.d. 1475. 

Raleigh's Conspieact.— Jamesl. having 
broken faith with the Eoman Catholics, to 
whom he had promised toleration and iudul- 



EAM 

gence, a design was formed, a.d. 1603, to 
take away his life and that of his eldest son. 
Prince Henry, and to place Arabella Stuart 
upon the throne. The conspirators, amongst 
■whom were Kaleigh, Sir Grifiin Markham, 
lords Grey and Cobham, with many others, 
were arrested in July. They were removed to 
Winchester in Jfovember. Sir Griffin Mark- 
liam and others were found guilty Not. 15, 
Sir Walter Kaleigh ]Vov. 17, Lord Cobham 
I^ov. 25, and Lord Grey Nov. 26. IS'one of 
these were executed. William Clarke and 
William Watson, two priests concerned in the 
conspirac}'-, hanged Nov. 29, and Brooke, 
Lord Cobham's brother, beheaded Dec. 5, 
were the only persons who suflfered the 
extreme penalty of the law for their share 
in this plot. 

Eambotjillet (France). — The castle was 
the residence of the kings of France to the 
time of Charles X. Here Francis I. died 
in 1547, and Charles X. signed his abdication 
of the French throne Aug. 2, 1830. Napo- 
leon III. converted the castle into a semi- 
nary for ofticers' daughters in 1852. 

Eakillies (Battle). — The allies under 
the command of the duke of Marlborough 
defeated the French under Marshal de i 
Tiller oy with great slaughter, at this village 
in Belgium, May 12 (0. S.), 1706. | 

Eammekexs (Holland), constructed as a ' 
fortress, a.d. loj.7, and called Zeebourg, \ 
was one of the Cautionary towns {q. v.) 
given to Queen Elizabeth by the States-gene- 
ral, for the aid rendered by her against Spain : 
in July, 1585. 

EAMJ^rGGUR (Hindostan). — This town in | 
the Punjaub was stormed by Maha Singh, I 
father of Eunjeet, a.d. 1778. Several severe j 
skirmishes between the English under i 
Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under Shere i 
Singh, took place in the neighbourhood, in | 
November, 1843, and Lord Gough gained a j 
signal victory here Dec. 3. | 

Eamsgate (Kent), called also Eiums Gate, ! 
or gate of Eium. After the Eevolution, : 
A.D. 1688, the inhabitants began to trade j 
with Eussia, and in the beginning of the 17th i 
century this place, at that time a small fish- ! 
ing village, gradually increased in importance. 
The pier was commenced in 1750, and is \ 
described by Pennant in 1787 as the finest 
existing. The harbour was formed in 1780 — 
1795. A stone lighthouse was erected in ' 
the commencement of the present century, j 
and the parish church in 1827. I 

Eaxelagh Gardens (London). — This ; 
celebrated pla<'e of pubHe entertainment at | 
Chelsea was commenced about a.d. 1740, I 
on ground once the property of Viscount 
Eanelagh. The Eotunda, which constituted 
the principal attraction, was founded in 1741 i 
and opened April 5, 1742. Eanelagh was 
last used in 1802, when an installation ball 
of the knights of the Bath was held there. 
It is now completely obliterated, a portion 
of its site being occupied by the gardens of 
Chelsea Hospital. 

Eangoon (Hindostan). — This town, the 
name of which signifies " City of Victory," 



EAS 

built A.D. 1753, by Alompra, the founder of 
the Burmese monarchv, was occupied by 
the British May 11, 1824, during the first 
Burmese war. It was entii-elv destroyed 
by fire Dec. 28, 1850, and was shortly after- 
wards rebuilt nearly a nule from the" site of 
the old town. In the second Burmese war 
it was attacked by the British Jan. 2, 1S52, 
and was stormed and captured April 14. 
Eangoon suffered severely from conflagra- 
tions in February, 1853, and December, ISoo. 

Eantebs, a sect which sprung up a.d. 
1645, received this name, which was also 
given to the Primitive Methodists, who sepa- 
rated from the old Methodist society June 28, 
1808. The first general meeting after the 
society had been divided into circuits was 
held at Nottingham in 1819, and a society of 
Eanters was foimded in London in December, 
1822. 

Eape. — The ancient Jewish laws punished 
this crime with death when the woman was 
betrothed to another man ; and in other cases 
compelled the ravisher to marry her, and 
pay a fine of 50 shekels to her father. The 
Eoman codes made it in every case a capital 
offence ; and it was treated with the same seve- 
rity by the laws of the Goths and the Anglo- 
Saxons. William the Conqueror conmiuted 
the penalty to mutilation and blinding, and 
by 3 Edw. I. c. 13 (1275), it was reduced to a 
mere misdemeanour, punished by two vears' 
imprisonment and a fine, unless the offender 
were prosecuted within forty days after the 
commission of the crime. In consequence 
of the inefficacv of this law, rape was made 
a capital felony by 13 Edw. I. c. 34 (1285) ; 
and by 18 EUz. c. 8 (1576), persons con- 
victed of this crime were deprived of benefit 
of clergy. The laws on the subject were 
consolidated by Geo. IV. c. 31 (June 27, 
1828), which made the carnal abuse of a girl 
under ten years of age a capital felony, and 
of females of greater age a misdemeanour, 
punishable by imprisonment at tlie pleasure 
of the court. Transportation for fife was 
substituted for the capital penalty by 4 & 5 
Vict. c. 56 (June 22, 1841). 

Eaphia (Syria). — A great battle was 
fought near this maritime city B.C. 217, 
between Ptolemy Philopater and Antiochus 
III., of Syria, in which the latter was de- 
feated with great loss. It was represented 
by its bishop in a cotmcU held at Ephesus 
A.D. 476, in one held at Constantinople in 
536, and at the fifth general council held at 
Constantinople from May 4 to June 2, 553. 

Eaphoe (Bishopric). — This Ii'ish see is of 
great antiquity, and is said to have been 
founded bv St. Eunan in the 9th century. 
By the Church Temporalities Act, 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), this see was 
annexed to Deny, 

Easpbeekt. — The Virginian raspberry 
was brought from North America before a.d. 
1696, and the flowering raspberry from North 
America in 1700. Some seeds of this plant 
found in the cavity of the stomach of an an- 
cient Briton exhumed at Dorchester were 
sown, and germinated about 1835. 

713 



EAT 

Eatheitaf, or Eathenow (Battle).— Fre- 1 
deriek William, elector of Brandenburg, ' 
defeated the Swedes, -who had been sub- j 
sidized by the French to invade his ter- : 
ritory, near this town of Prussia, in June, ' 
1675. i 

Eathmines (Battle). — The marquis of 
Ormond, while besieging Dubhn, was 
attacked by Colonel Jones, at this place, in 
the vicinity, and after a struggle which 
1 asted two hours, was totally defeated , 
Aug. 2, 1649. 

Eatibok (Prussia) became a principality , 
A.D. 1288, and was united to Oppeln iii the 
15th century. 

EATioifALiSM, denying the possibility of 
a revealed religion, began to assume a 
systematic form in Germany under the advo- 
cacy of Eeimarus, professor of philosophy 
at Hamburg, who died March 1, 1768. 
Among theologians, Eichhorn took the lead 
in his Library of Bibhcal Literature (1788 — 
1801). Afterwards the system was more 
fuUy developed by Dr. Paulus of Heidel- 
berg in his "Commentary on the New 
Testament" (1800—1804) and "Life of 
Jesus" (1828). An opposition was com- 
menced by Eeinhard, which continued from 
1810 to 1817, producing a second form of 
the sceptical system that was fully applied 
by Dr. Strauss in his "Life of Christ," 
pubhshed in 1835 and 1836. 

Eatisbon (Bavaria). — A council was held 
here a.d. 768 or 769, and a stone bridge was 
built over the Danube in 1135. The 
Scotch Benedictine church of St. James 
was founded in 1165, and the Gothic cathe- 
dral, commenced in 1275, was completed in 
1634. Eatisbon was made a free city 
in 1200. In the bishop's palace, now a 
brewery, the emperor Maximilian II. died, 
Oct. 12, 1576. Since the 10th century 
Eatisbon has sustained seventeen sieges. 
Near the cathedral is the old hall in which 
Ihe German diets held their meetings from 
1663 tin 1806. In the middle of the 17th 
century, Eatisbon began to dechne. The 
German empire was governed by the diet 
of Eatisbon in 1792, and a congress of 
German princes met here Aug. 3, 1802. It 
was captured by the Austrians April 28, 
1809. The WalhaUa, founded in 1830, was 
completed in 1848. A monument was 
erected in 1817 to Kepler, who died here 
in 1630. Councils were held here in August, 
792, Jan. 20, 799, and Jan. 14, 932. 

Eatisbon (Treaties).— A peace was con- 
cluded at this place between France and the 
emperor, Oct. 13, 1630, which resulted in 
the settlement of the Mantuan succession. 
A truce for twenty years was agreed to at 
Eatisbon, between France and Spain and 
Germany, Aug. 15, 1684. A convention was 
also signed here between the emperor of 
Austria and the elector of Wiirtemberg, 
June 2, 1804. 

Eiucotrx, or Eocoux (Battle).— Marshal 

Saxe defeated the allies under Prince 

Charles of Lorraine at this village, in Belgium, 

Oct. 11, 1746. The loss of the allies was 

714 



EAV 

estimated at 12,000 men in kiUed and 
wounded, and 3,000 prisoners. 

EAVEfTNA (Italy). — Strabo relates that 
this city of Cispadane Gaul was of Thessalian 
origin. It became subject to Eome B.C. 234, 
and was occupied by Metellus, the general 
of SyUa, B.C. 82. Augustus made it the per- 
manent naval station of the Eoman Adriatic 
fleet, and erected a celebrated lighthouse 
or pharos at the mouth of its harbour. It 
was besieged and taken by Maximian a.d. 
307, and was erected into the capital of 
the Western empire by Honorius in 404. 
Odoacer, king of Italy, was besieged here 
for three years by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 
and a few days after his surrender was 
stabbed by his captor, March 5, 493. In 
December, 539, Behsarius took the city from 
the Gothic king Vitiges, and in 568 it was 
made the capital of an exarchate, comprising 
the provinces of Eome, Venice, and Naples, 
besides other territories. Luitprand, king 
of the Lombards, took the city and abolished 
the exarchate in 750, and in 754 it was wrested 
from the Lombard monarch Astolphus, and 
presented to the pope by king Pepin. From 
this time its prosperity declined. Pietro 
Traversari declared himself duke of Eavenna 
in 1218, and in 1275 it passed into the power 
of the Polenta family. In 1441 it was seized 
by the Venetian republic, by which it was 
finally ceded to the pope in 1509. A terrible 
battle between the French and the allied 
Spanish and papal forces was fought here on 
Easter Sunday, April 11, 1512, in which the 
French were victorious, though they lost 
their general, Gaston de Foix. The van- 
quished lost 800 men-at-arms, 1,300 light 
cavalry, and 7,000 infantry ; and the victors 
700 men-at-arms, 880 archers, and 9,000 
infantry. The result of the battle was the 
seizure of the city by the French. Ea- 
venna was annexed to the new kingdom of 
Italy in 1860. The bishopric of Eavenna was 
founded by St. ApoUinaris, a disciple of St. 
Peter, a.d. 44, and it was erected into an 
archbishopric in 439. Councils were held at 
Eavenna in February, 419, 874 ; July 22 to 
September, 877 ; in 898 ; April 20, 967 ; in 
968 ; May 1, 998 ; in 1014 ; April 30, 1016 ; 
in 1128 ; April 28, 1253 ; in 1261 ; July 8, 
1286 ; June 17, 1310 ; June 17 to 21, 1311 ; 
Oct. 10, 1314 ; and Oct. 27, 1317. 

EXAECHS OP EAVBNKA. 



AD. 

Flavius LonginuB . . 568 

Smaragdus 584 

Eomanus 590 

Callinious 697 

Smaragdus (again) . . 602 
Johauiies Lemigius 611 

Eleutherim 616 

Isaac 619 

Plato 638 

Theodorus I. (Callio- 

pas) 648 

Olympius 649 



Theodorus I. (again) 652 

Gregory 666 

Theodorus H 678 

Johannes Platyn . . 687 

Theophilactus 702 

Johannes E-izocopus 710 
Eutychius the Eu- 
nuch 711 

Scholasticus 713 

Paul 727 

Eutychius (again) . . 728 



Eavensbubg (Westphalia). — ^This ancient 
town and district of Germany were erected 
into a coimty by Hermann I. about a.d. 1071. 



EAV 

The family of its counts became extinct in 
1346. It was afterwards conferred upon 
the duke of Juliers, and in 1666 it was an- 
nexed to Prussia. 

Kavenspue (Yorkshire) . — Edward IV., 
accompanied by his brother Kichard, duke 
of Gloucester, landed at this town, at the 
mouth of the Humber, vnth. 2,000 men from 
Zealand, March 14, 1471. 

Beading (Berkshire) was in possession 
of the Danes a.d. 871, who were compelled 
to evacuate it in 872. It was burned by 
them in 1006, and an abbey of nuns was 
destroyed. A councU was held at Beading 
July 30, 1279. Henry VI. summoned a par- 
liament to meet here March 6, 1453 ; and 
in consequence of the severity of the plague 
in London, the Michaelmas sittings of the 
courts of justice were transferred to Beading 
in 1625. During the civil war it was taken 
by the parhamentarian forces under the 
earl of Essex, Aijril 27, 1643. A Benedictine 
monastery was erected by Henry I. in 1121 ; 
in which he was buried in 1135. The church 
of St. Lawrence, a Norman structure, was 
repaired in 1434, St. Mary's was rebuilt in 
1551 ; the Free Grammar-school was 
founded in 1556 ; the Oracle, for the em- 
ployment of the poor, was founded by Mr. 
John Kendrick in the 17th century ; and the 
Roman Catholic chapel was erected in 1840. 

Eealists. {See Nominalists.) 

Beal Presence. — The second council of 
Nicsea, Sept. 24 to Oct. 23, 787, determined 
that the elements in the Lord's supper were 
the real body and blood of Christ, and the 
doctrine that this was the effect of a miracu- 
lous change had gained ground in the Greek 
church as early as 813. Badbert, a monk, 
who became abbot of Corbey, defined and 
maintained it in 831. Scotus in his "De 
Eucharistia" opposed it in 844; and a violent 
controversy on the question took place 
between Lanfranc and Berengarius in 1059. 
It was opposed by Wycliffe in 1381. Luther 
maintained it under the name of consub- 
stantiation in 1524. Disputations on the 
doctrine were held at Oxford and Cambridge 
in 1549 and 1550. 

Beaping-Machine was invented by the 
Eev. Mr. Bell, Carmylie, Forfarshire, about 
A. D. 1836. At a trial of reaping-machines, held 
at Keillor farm, Forfarshire, Sept. 4, 1852, 
the unanimous verdict of the judges was 
given in favour of this machine. Hussey's 
American machine competed on this oc- 
casion. 

Beason (Temple). — The National Con- 
vention at Paris ordered the worship of the 
Goddess of Beason, Nov. 10, 1793. Gobel, 
archbishop of Paris, with a number of the 
clergy, abjured the Christian faith at the 
bar of the National Assembly, and soon after 
Madame MaiUard, a member of the opera 
corps, was driven in a magnificent car to the 
cathedral of Notre Dame, where she was 
elevated on the high altar, and received 
homage from the crowd. The sacred edifice 
was thenceforth styled the "Temple of 
" "A similar act of impiety was 



EEC 

afterwards enacted in the church of 
St. Sulpice, the Divinity beiag personated 
by Madame Momaro. 

Beate (Italy). — This ancient city, one 
of the chief strongholds of the Sabines, 
is first mentioned in history about the date 
of its subjection to Borne, B.C. 290. Its 
inhabitants sent many volunteers to serve 
under Scipio, B.C. 205, and they were as- 
sisted by Cicero in a legal contest with the 
citizens of Interamna, B.C. 54. Beate was 
erected into a bishopric at a very early date, 
St. Prosdocimus, who flourished a.b. 46, 
being its first bishop. Its modern name is 
Bieti, and it was the scene of a victory 
gained by the French over the Neapolitans 
in 1798. 

Bebecca Biots, against toll and turnpike 
gates, broke out in Wales in February, 1843, 
and spread from the rural districts of Pem- 
brokeshire and Caermarthenshire into the 
mining and manufacturing districts in July. 
An old woman, keeper of a toll-gate, having 
been murdered Sept. 10, a proclamation, 
offering £500 reward for the discovery of 
incendiaries, appeared in the Gazette Oct. 3, 
and a commission to inquire into the opera- 
tion of the turnpike laws in Wales was 
appointed Oct. 10. A special commission 
for the trial of the prisoners was opened at 
Cardiff Oct. 27, when several persons were 
sentenced to various terms of transportation • 
and imprisonment. It closed Oct. 30. 

Bebellions. (See Plots.) 

Beceipts. — Stamp duties were first laid 
upon receipts for money by 23 Geo. III. c. 49 
(1783), which was amended by 24 Geo. III. 
c. 7 (1784), and 31 Geo. III. c. 25 (1791). 
Additional duties were imposed by 35 Geo. 
III. c. 55 (May 5, 1795), and a uniform 
stamp of one penny on all sums above £2 
was imposed by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (Aug. 4, 
1853) . The forgery of receipts was made a 
capital felony by 45 Geo. III. c. 89 (Julv 10, 
1805). 

Becipeocitt Teeatt, for commercial 
purposes, wasconcluded between the United 
States and Great Britain at Washington by 
Lord Elgin, June 7, and ratified by the 
senate Aug. 5, 1854. 

Becitative. — This mode of singing was 
first employed by Jacopo Peri in his opera 
of "Eurydice," which was performed at 
Florence a.d. 1600. It is supposed to be 
a restoration of the method of singing among 
the Greeks and Bomans, but there is no 
reason to believe the supposition is correct. 

Becoedee. — This officer acts as a legal 
adviser of the lord mayor and aldermen. 
As a judge in their courts, and in corpora- 
tions, he takes precedence of all who have 
not filled the office of mayor. The earhest 
known recorder of the city of London is 
John de Norton, who was appointed to the 
office A.D. 1298. 

Eecoeds, Public. — The public records of 
England were first preserved by order of 
Henry I., a.d. 1100, and a roll of his reign 
is stiU in existence. The pipe rolls extend 
in an imbroken series from the year 1156 
715 



EEC 

to 1831, and form a collection of public 
documents unequalled in the archives of 
Europe. The making of false entries in the 
records was declared punishable by fine by 
8 Eich. II. c. 4 (1384). The records are 
mostly written on parchment, the earliest 
on paper being of the time of Edward II. 
They are generally in the Latin language, 
except during the Interregnvun, when English 
was substituted. Latin was finally abohshed 
in the keeping of the records, as well as in 
other legal matters, by 4 Geo. II. c. 26 
(1731). Many efibrts have been made for 
the systematic arrangement of the records. 
A commission, to inquire into the best mea- 
sures to be adopted, was appointed Jvdy 19, 
1800, and was frequently renewed, the last 
time being by royal letters dated March 12, 
1831. The commissioners presented their 
report Feb. 7, 1837, and the result was the 
passing of the " Act for keeping safely the 
Public Eecords," 1 & 2 Vict. c. 94 (Aug. 14, 
1838), which estabhshed the Public Eecords 
Office. 

Eecoveeies AisTD EiNES in fictitious suits 
were abohshed by 3 & 4 WUl. IV. c. 74 
(Aug. 28, 1833). 

Eectjlvee (Kent). — The ancient fortress 
of Eegulbium was erected by the Eomans 
towards the end of their occupation of 
Britain, and the Saxons changed its name to 
Eaculf Ceastic. Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
gave up his palace at Canterbury to St. 
Augustine, and retired to this place a.d. 597. 
In 669 Egbert conferred it upon Bassa, a 
mass-priest, that it might form the site of a 
monastery, and in 949 the castle and monas- 
tery were granted to Canterbury cathedral 
by Edred. The church was pulled down in 
1809, and the only ruins remaining are the 
west towers, which are luiown as "the 
Sisters." The sea encroaches on the coast 
at this place at an average rate of two feet 
every year, and the beach beneath the old 
churchyard is strewn with the bones that 
have been washed out by the tide. 

Eecusants. — Persons who refused to 
attend church on Sundays and hohdays were 
so styled by 1 Ehz. c. 2 (1559). Dissenting 
Protestants were reheved from the penalties 
of this act by 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1689), 
and Eoman Catholics in 1791. The act itself 
was repealed by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 102 (Aug. 9, 
1844). 

Eedan (Sebastopol), one of the defences 
of this town, was attacked by the Enghsh, 
who were repulsed with loss by the Eus- 
sians, June 18, 1855. They experienced 
another repulse Sept. 8, 1855, and it was 
evacuated by the Eussians Sept. 9, 1855. 

Eedhill Eefoematoet (Surrey), for 
juvenile off'enders, was established by Eobert 
Young A.D. 1788, and incorporated in 1806. 
Its operations were for many years carried 
on in St. George' s-in-the-Fields. Land was 
purchased at Eedhill, and the school was 
opened in April, 1849. Forty-five of the 
boys were confirmed by the bishop of Win- 
chester in May, 1859. 

Eedhina (Battle).— Wellington defeated 
716 



EEP 

the French under Massena and 'Sej at this 
place in Portugal, March 12, 1812. 
Eed Eose. (See Lancasteians and 

YOEKISTS.) 

Eed EtrssiA. — Galicia and Lodomeria 
were generally known under this name until 
A.D. 1773. 

Eefoem AssociATioif, to insure the regis- 
tration of electors and protect them in the 
exercise of the franchise, was instituted at a 
meeting held in Westminster, May 20, 1835. 

Eefoemation.— The earhest efforts di- 
rected against the errors of the Eomish 
church were those of the Paulicians, in the 
7th century. 



lol7. A reformation is attempted in France by the 
Albigeuses {q. v. ). 

1377. John Wycliffe opposes papal tyranny in 
England. 

1408. John Huss introduces reformed doctrines 
in Bohemia (g. v.). 

1498. Jerome Savonarola, the Dominican precursor 
of the Reformation, is burnt for heresy. 

1517. M.irtiu Luther commences the Beformation 
in Gerniauy. 

1519. It is introduced into Switzerland by Ulrich 
Zuinglius. 

1521. Andreas Bodenstein, better known as Carl- 
stadt, from the place of his bii-th, intro- 
duces the Reformation into Denmark. 

1525. The progress of the Reformation in Germany 

liroduces the war of the peasants. 

1526. Prussia receives the reformed faith. 

1527. It is officially established in Denmark. 

1528. Patrick Hamilton is burnt at St. Andrew's 

for preaching the Reformation in Scotland. 

1529. The Reformation is established in England, 

and the receivers of the new views assume 
the title of Protestants {q. v.). 
15.32. John Calvin preaches in France. 

1534. The papal supremacy is abolished in England. 

1535. George Browne, the first Protestantarchbishop 

of Dublin, introduces the Reformation into 
Ireland. 

1536. The refoi-med views are widely adopted in 

Norway. 
1539. The Kcfoimation is officialy recognized and 

adopted i n Saxony. 
1541. Protestantism is preached in Venice and 

Naples. 

1544. It is completed in Sweden. 

1545. Hungary and Transylvania receive the prin- 

cix)les of the Reformation. 
1547. John Knox preaches in Scotland. 
1550. The Reformers are numerous in Spain. 
1556. John i Lasco preaches the Beformation in 

Poland. 

1559. Gustavus Vasa introduces reformed Chiis- 

tianity into Lapland. 

1560. Protestantism is established in Scotland. 

1567. The receivers of the Beformatiou are nu- 
merous in Holland, where they are per- 
secuted by the duke of Alva. 

1614 It is adopted by the elector of Brandenburg. 

Eefoematoet Schools, for the better 
care and reformation of youthful criminals 
in England and Scotland, were estabhshed 
by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 86 (Aug. 10, 1854). 

Eefoem Banquets (French) . — A reform 
banquet was held at Ma^on Sept. 20, 1847, 
and the leaders of the French opposition de- 
termined on holding a grand reform banquet 
at Paris, Jan. 19, 1848. The project was pro- 
hibited by the police, according to alaw passed 
Aug. 24, 1790; but they persisted in their 
design, and on the 14th of February an- 
nounced their intention of celebrating the 



REF 

; 

feast the following Feb. 22. A large open space 
in the Champs Elysees was selected, and pre- 
parations made for the accomimodation of 
6,000 guests, when a compromise was effected 
with government, by which the banquet 
was to be converted into a procession. 
Owing to the refusal of the opposition 
deputies to take part in the procession, 
addresses were published on the afternoon 
of Feb. 21, announcing the abandonment of 
the entire scheme. On the following day 
the people assembled, according to the first 
arrangements, and remained in order tUl the 
evening, when barricades were erected, and 
the revolution commenced, which resulted 
in the expulsion of Louis Philippe from 
France {q.v.). 

Reform Bills. — Mr. Pitt's bill for reform 
in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, 
May 7, 1782. His proposal was again de- 
feated by a majority of 144, May 7, 1783, 
and of 74, April 18, 1785. Sir Francis 
Burdett's plan was negatived by a majority 
of 69, June 15, 1809 ; and Mr. Daniel 
O'Connell's project for introducing imiversal 
suffrage, triennial parliaments, and the bal- 
lot, was rejected by 306 votes. May 28, 1830, 
The first reform bill introduced by govern- 
ment was that of the Grey administra- 
tion, which was brought before the House 
of Commons March 1, 1831. The first 
division took place March 22, when a ma- 
jority of one declared in favour of the second 
reading. On the question of a committee, 
General Gascoyne proposed as an amend- 
ment, " that the number of representatives 
for England and Wales ought not to be 
diminished," which was carried by a ma- 
jority of eight, April 19. The bill was 
relinquished in consequence, and parliament 
dissolved April 22. A new parliament as- 
sembled June 14, and the bill was again 
introduced June 24. The motion for its 
second reading passed by a majority of 
136, July 6; and a majority of 109 de- 
clared in favour of the third reading, 
Sept. 21 ; but the bill was rejected in the 
Lords on the question of its second reading, 
by a majority of forty-one, Oct. 7. A new 
biU was introduced by Lord John Russell 
Dec. 12, and passed its first reading without 
a division. The motion for its second read- 
ing was carried by a majority of 162 (the 
number of assentients being just double that 
of the dissentients), Dec. 17; and it was 
read a third time by a majority of 116, 
March 22, 1832. This bill was read a first 
time in the Lords March 26 ; and the second 
reading was carried by a majority of 9, 
April 13. The biU was consequently carried 
into a committee of the Lords, where an 
amendment by Lord Lyndhurfet for consider- 
ing the question of enfranchisement before 
that of disfranchisement was carried against 
government by a majority of 35, May 7. The 
ministry resigned May 9, but resumed their 
offices May 18, having obtained powers to 
create a sufficient number of new peers to 
secure them a majority in the Lords. The 
bill passed the Lords' committee May 30, 



REG 

and was read for the third time by a 
majority of 84, June 4. It received the 
royal assent June 7, and appears in the 
statute-book as the " Act to amend the 
Representation of the People in England 
and Wales, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 45 (June 7, 
1832) ." The representation of Scotland was 
amended by 2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 65 (July 17, 
1832), and that of Ireland by 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
c. 88 (Aug. 7, 1832). Lord John Russell 
received leave to introduce another re- 
form bill Feb. 13, 1854; which, in conse- 
quence of the Russian war, was withdrawn 
April 11. Mr. Disraeli introduced a bill 
Feb. 28, 1859, which was thrown out on the 
second reading by a majority of 39, March 31. 
Lord John Russell introduced another mea- 
sure March 1, 1860, which was withdrawn 
June 11. 

Refreshment-Hotjses in England were 
subjected to a licence duty by 23 Vict. c. 27 
(June 14, 1860), and in Ireland by 23 & 24 
Vict. c. 107 (Aug. 28, 1860). 

Regalia, or the Insignia of England, at 
present kept in the jewel-house of the Tower, 
were made for the coronation of Charles II., 
April 23, 1661, the former set having been 
destroyed in 1649 by order of the Long Par- 
liament. An attempt was made to carry off 
the regalia from the Tower by the notorious 
Colonel Blood, May 9, 1671. 

Regatta, from the Italian, meaning a race 
on the water, was first applied to a fete at 
Venice, in which the gondoliers contended 
for prizes. The term was introduced into 
this country and applied to boat-races about 
the end of last century, such a contest, 
which took place on the Thames June 23, 
1775, being announced as a novelty. 

Reg ED (Scotland), corresponding to 
Annandale, in Dumfriesshire, formed one 
of the numerous small kingdoms into which 
the country was divided a.d. 626. 

Regeistct Bills. — ^A measure of this kind 
was passed, appointing the princess dowager 
of Wales regent, on the death of Frederick, 
prince of Wales, should the crown descend 
to a minor, a.d. 1751. During the first iLLness 
of George III. he himself proposed one, the 
name of his mother being included, April, 
1765. The premier moved three resolutions 
in the House of Commons, when George III, 
was a second time attacked by his malady, 
to consider what steps should be taken to 
provide for the government, Dec. 10, 1788. 
The decision of the legislature as to what 
powers should be invested in the regent, was 
submitted to the prince of Wales, Dec. 30, 
1788, and a biU, which passed the Commons, 
after a warm discussion, was introduced 
Feb. 3, 1789, and reached the second reading 
in the Lords, Feb. 19, 1789, after which it 
was abandoned, owing to the recovery of his 
majesty. It was, however, revived and 
passed Feb. 5, 1811, and the prince of Wales 
exercised the regency tiU the death of his 
father. By 1 Will. IV. c. 2 (Dec. 23, 1830), 
the administration of the government, in 
the event of the crown descending to the 
Princess Alexandrina Victoria in her mi- 
717 



EEG 

nority was provided for ; and by 3 & 4 Vict. 
(Aug. 4, 1840), Prince Albert was appointed 
regent in the event of the demise of the 
crown during the minority of the next ia 
succession. 

Eegents were first appointed in England 
by Henry III. under the name of Custodes 
regni, about A.D. 1230. The Black Prince, 
then duke of Cornwall, was left guardian of 
the kingdom in 1339, when he was but ten 
years of age, and his son Eichard, when 
still younger, during the absence iu France 
of Edward III. in 1372. During the mino- 
rity of Henry YI. the duke of Bedford was 
appointed protector, and the duke of Glou- 
cester in his absence in 1422; and when 
Henry's mental incapacity became decided, 
the peers elected the duke of Fork protec- 
tor in 1454. This regency terminated with 
the recovery of the king, but he relapsed 
after the affair at St. Alban's, and the duke 
was re-appointed by parliament, N'ov. 19, 
1455. During the minority of Edward YI. 
his uncle, the earl of Hertford, created duke 
of Somerset, was declared protector, March 
13, 1547. When George I. went to Germany, 
he left the prince of Wales guardian of the 
kingdom, July 7, 1716, and George II. 
appointed Queen Caroline regent when he 
visited Hanover, May 17, 1729. The prince 
of Wales (George lY.) assumed the regency 
on account of his father's mental incapacity, 
Eeb. 5, 1811. On the death of Louis XIY. 
of France, the duke of Orleans was recog- 
nized as regent of the kingdom, Sept. 2, 
1715. 

Eegent's Cakal (London). — The new 
branch, uniting all the principal canals in 
the kingdom with the river Thames, which 
had been nearly seven years incomplete, 
was finished under the superintendence of 
J. Nash, and opened Aug. 1, 1820. 

EE&EifT's Park (London). — This park 
forms part of old Marylebone P ark, which 
has been long disforested. It was com- 
menced by Mr. James Morgan a.d. 1812, 
but the public were not admitted to the 
inner plantations until 1838. The terraces 
surrounding the park were designed by 
John ISTash and Decimus Burton. 

Eeggio, or Ehegiusi (Italy), was founded 
by the Chalcidians about b.c. 720 ; became 
the head-quarters of the Pythagoreans after 
the death of their master, b.c. 497; rose to 
great prosperity under Anaxilas, who died 
B.C. 476, expelled his two sons b.c. 461, 
and fitted out a large fleet and army against 
Dionysius of Syracuse B.C. 399. After 
sundry attempts he took the city, and 
destroyed it, slaughtering the citizens, or 
selling' them for slaves, B.C. 387. It was 
restored by the younger Dionysius, whose 
yoke was thrown off B.C. 351. Through 
fear of Pyrrhus, it formed an aUiance with 
the Eomans, received from them a garrison | 
of Campanian troops, who rose against the 
inhabitants, putting the men to the sword, i 
and reducing to slavery the women and 
children, B.C. 280. The Eomans took the 
city, and punished their rebel soldiers, b.c. I 
718 



EEG 

270. An earthquake nearly destroyed it ; 
B.C. 91, and it became a Eoman municipium 
B.C. 88. Octaviusmade it the head-quarters 
for his fleet and army in the war with Sextus 
Pompeius, B.C. 38 — 36. It was captured by 
Alaric a.d. 410, and byTotUa in 549. Having 
been subject to the Greek emperors, and 
taken by the Saracens, it came into posses- 
sion of Eobert Guiscard in 1060. It was 
sacked by the Turks in 1543, again in 
1558, and a third time in 1593. An earth- 
quake in 1783 did not leave a house un- 
injured, and a second did much damage in 
1841. 

EEGiFrGirM, or Fugalia. — This festival, 
said by some writers to have been instituted 
in commemoration of Tarquin's flight from 
Eome, was held annually, in that city, Feb. 24 
according to some authorities, and May 24 
according to others. 

Eegillus. (See Lake EEGiLiiUS.) 

Eegimex TS appear to have been first con- 
stituted and so designated in France, about 
A.D. 1562. The French guards were raised 
by Charles IX. for his personal defence in 
1563. In England mention is made of them 
during the threatened invasion in 1588, and 
in connection with the army in Ireland in 
1598. Just after the restoration in 1661, the 
army having been disbanded, two regiments, 
one of foot and the other of horse, were 
re-formed in 1661. The Scotch corps, which 
returned from France in 1661, and was called 
the first, or royal regiment of infantry, is the 
oldest regiilar corps in Europe. The two 
regiments of hfeguards at the head of the 
army hst were raised in 1788. One regiment 
of infantry was raised in Ireland in 1684, 
afterwards called the Eoyal Irish, in honour 
of its gallant conduct at the siege of Wamur 
in 1695. 

Eegisteation" op Bieths, Deaths, and 
Maeeiages.— It was enjoined in the 12th 
article of Cromwell's injunctions, issued in 
September, 1538, that a record of these 
should be kept in each parish. Various sub- 
sequent injunctions having met %vith little 
attention, a biQ to enforce the performance 
of the royal mandate was introduced into 
parhament in March, 1563, but was not 
passed. The archbishop of Canterbury 
made some exertions in the matter in 1597, 
and again in 1603. By 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6 
(1694), certain duties on marriages, births, 
and burials, also on bachelors and widowers, 
and for having them duly registered, were 
imposed, to enable the king to carry on the 
war with France. By 52 Geo. III. c. 146 
(July 28, 1812), alterations were made 
in the existing law. The registration act, 
6 & 7 WiU. lY. c. 86, passed Aug. 17, 1836, 
came into force July 1, 1837. This was 
amended by 1 Vict. e. 22 (June 30, 1837). 
The registration in Scotland was assimilated 
to that of England by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 80 
(Aug. 7, 1854) . 

Eegisteation- of Deeds. — Bargains and 
sales of land were required to be registered 
by 27 Hen. YIII. c. 16 (1536) . A register 
was established for the West Eiding of York- 



REG 

shire by 2 & 3 Anne, c. 4 (1703) ; one in the 
East Eiding for wills and deeds by 6 Anne, 
c. 35 (1707) ; one for Middlesex by 7 Anne, 
c. 20 (1709) ; and one for the North Eiding by 
8 Geo. II. c. 6 (1734). Bills of sale of per- 
sonal chattels, to prevent fraud upon cre- 
ditors, are required to be registered by 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 36 (July 10, 1854) . 

Registeatioit op Votebs was established 
by 2 Wm. IV. c. 45, s. 26 (June 7, 1832). 
The law was amended by 6 Vict. c. 18 
(May 31, 1843). The law in Scotland was 
amended by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 58 (July 21, 
1856). 

Eegittm DomjM:, or Eoyal Gift, to the 
amount of £600, was granted as secret 
service money by Charles II., to be distri- 
buted annually among the Presbyterian 
clergymen of Ireland, a.d. 1672= Having 
been discontinued, it was renewed in 1690 
by William III., who increased the sum to 
£1,200. George I. granted a considerable 
sum for the relief of ministers belonging to 
the Presbyterians, Independents, and Bap- 
tists, in 1723. It was further augmented to 
£2,200 in 1784, to £5,000 in 1792, and to 
£38,953 in 1856. 

Eeichenbach (Germany) . — Preliminaries 
of peace were signed between Prussia and 
Austria at this town, July 27, 1790. A con- 
gress was assembled here by the British 
ministry to form an alliance against Eussian 
aggression in 1791. The treaty that laid the 
foundation of the grand alliance against 
Napoleon I. was signed here June 14, 1813 ; 
and Austria gave her adherence to it July 27. 

Reichenbeeg (Germany). — The troops 
of the emperor Frederick, under the prince 
of Severn, drove the Austrians, commanded 
by Count Konigsegg, from a strong position 
near this town of Bohemia, a.d. 1757. It 
was occupied by the French in 1813. 

Reichseath, or council of the Austrian 
empire, was extended by an imperial patent 
March 5, 1860. It met in May, and a new 
constitution was promulgated Oct. 21. Both 
houses re-assembled May 1, 1861. 

Eeigate (Surrey), anciently called Cherch- 
feUe, or Churchfield, at which place a church 
existed a.d. 1199, in the reign of King John. 
Eeigate castle is said to have been buUt 
before the Norman conquest, and in 1216 
was in possession of Louis, dauphin of 
Fi-ance. It was demolished by order of the 
Long Parliament, July 4, 1648. Eeigate 
priory is said to have been built by WilSam 
de Warren, who died in 1240. Eeigate 
received a charter from Edward II. in 1313, 
and another from Charles II. in 1673. 
It first sent two members to parliament in 
1295, and continued to do so till 1832, when 
the number was reduced to one by the 
Reform Bill. 

Eeign of Teseoe. — The first period of 
anarchy, bloodshed, and confiscation, called 
the reign of terror, commenced in France 
after the fall of the Girondists, May 31, 1793, 
and extended to Danton's death, March 31, 
1794. The second period extended from 
April 5 till the fall of Robespierre, July 27, 



REM 

1794. Nearly a million persons were put to 
death during this short time. 

Relics.— Those of St. Andrew, St. Luke, 
and Timothy, were traniported in pomp by 
Constantius II. to the church of the Apostles 
at Constantinople, a.d. 360; and what were 
called the ashes of Samuel, the prophet and 
judge of Israel, received a like distinction 
about 410. An immense trade in relics sprung 
up at Jerusalem, the articles consisting of dry 
bones, chips of wood, rusty nails, and rotten 
rags of cloth, which were said to possess the 
virtue of working every description of miracle, 
A.D. 604. At the taking of Constantinople by 
the Latins, April 9, 1204, these formed a 
valuable portion of the pillage, the abbot 
Martin securing as his share " a stain of the 
blood of the Lord, a piece of the holy cross, 
the arm of the apostle James, some of the 
bones of John the Baptist, some of the milk 
of the Blessed Virgin, and many more." 
Baldwin II. sold to St. Louis the crown of 
thorns which had been placed on the head 
of the Saviour for the sum of ten thousand 
marks of silver, the relic being transferred 
from Venice to Paris, where the king, bare- 
foot and in his shirt, carried it in triumph 
through the streets in 1261. When the 
council of Basel; met for the deposition of 
Pope Eugenius, and many bishops absented 
themselves through timidity, their place was 
supplied by the coUeeted reHcs of many 
famous saints, which were borne by the 
priests through the city, and introduced into 
the hall of council May 16, 1439. The shrine 
of Thomas Becket was plundered, and many 
objects of superstitious veneration in Eng- 
land were destroyed in 1538. The sale of 
relics was prohibited by Pope Innocent III., 
A.D. 1198. 

Religioh-s. — The following tables exhibit 
the numerical strength of the most important 
religious systems according to the best au- 
thorities. For the chronology see each ar- 
ticle separately. 



Clii-istiaiis 

Jews 

Mohammedans . 
Krahminists . . . 

Buddhists 

Other sects 



Malte- 
Brmi. 



22S,00n,000 
5,000.000 

110,000,000 
6,000,000 
15,000,000 

100.000,000 



252,000,000 
3,930,000 
120,105,000 
111.353,000 
315,977,000 
134.490'000 



260,000,000 
4,000,000 
96,000,000 
6,000.000 
170,000,000 
147,000,000 



CHEISTIANS. 

Eomanists 148,300,000 

Greek Church 63.520,000 

Church of England 16,000.000 

Methodists 2,100,000 

Independents 2,000,000 

Universalists 600,000 

Quakers 245,000 

Memnonites 150,000 

Moravians 70.000 

New Church 40,000 

Mormonites 40,000 

Remonsteaitce, called the Great Remon- 
strance, consisting of 206 articles, condemna- 
719 



EEM 



EEU 



tory of the acts of Charles I., was debated 
seventeen hours in the house of Commons, 
and carried by a majority of eleven, the 
numbers being 159 for, and 148 against, 
Ifov. 22, 1641. It was presented to the king 
Dec. 1. 

EEitoifSTEAirTS, SO Called from a remon- 
strance presented by the followers of James 
Arminius to the states of Holland, setting 
forth the grievances under which they 
suffered, and praying for redress, a.d. 1610. 
(See Aeminians.) 

EejS^dsbue& (Denmark) was encircled by 
walls A.D. 1539, and was till 1581 alternately 
in the hands of the Holsteiners and Danes. 
It was fortified anew by Frederick Til. of 
Denmark in 1669, and additional fortifica- 
tions were constructed in 1685 and 1695. The 
general assembly of the states met here 
April 3, 1848, and the town was taken by 
the Eussian and Holstein troops in 1848. 
The Danes regained possession and dis- 
mantled it in 1852. 

Eeniega, (Battle,) was fought a.d. 1521, 
between the French under Andre Lesparre 
and the Spaniards, in which the latter were 
victorious, capturing the French general, and 
recovering IS'avarre. 

Eenkes (France), captured a.d. 841, 
was the capital of a country till 992, 
and was the seat of the parliament instituted 
by Henry II. in 1555. Eenaes was devas- 
tated by a fire, which lasted from Dec. 22 to 
29, 1720, consuming 850 houses. The par- 
hament house of the states of Britanny, now 
the Palais de Justice, was erected in 1670. 
In 1788 twelve hundred gentlemen of the 
states of Britanny met at Rennes and St. 
Brieux and chose twelve of their number as 
a deputation to bear the remonstrances 
of the various states to the king. An insur- 
rection broke out Jan. 26, 1789, A council 
was held here jlay 22, 1273. 

Eents. — The system of paying rents in 
money instead of in kind was introduced 
A.D. 1136. Sir Eichard Philips estimates 
the proportion of rents to produce as follows : 
*' In the age of the Plantagenets, rents were 
to produce as 1 to 30 ,: at the Eevolution, 
1 to 12 ; under the funding system they 
rose as 1 to 7. In the paper-money times 
they became as 1 to 5 and 4 ; and under the 
fall of markets, have, since 1830, been as 
3 '5, and 3'1" A great reduction in 
rents was made in 1621, owing to the 
cheapness of wheat, and in 1703 a sudden 
fall in prices rendered farmers unable to 
pay their rents. Eents experienced their 
greatest rise about the year 1812. By 
8 Anne, c. 14 (1709), no goods could be taken 
in execution unless the sheriff has previously 
paid the landlord the rent due, and by 
4 Geo. II. c. 28 (1731), arrears of all Idnds 
of rent were made recoverable by distress. 
I* o arrears can be recovered for more than 
six years by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 27, s. 42 
(July 24, 1833). 

Eepeal of the Ujs-ioir.— Daniel O'Connell 
first commenced to form associations for 
the repeal of the union. a.d. 1829. The 



house of Commons by a majority of 4S5 
rejected his motion for repeal, April 27, 1834, 
The National Loyal Eepeal Association, 
which had been formed in 18411, was again 
put into active operation early in 1843, and 
a monster meeting was held at Trim, March 
16, 1843. O'Connell was tried and convicted 
Feb. 12, 1844', and was released Sept. 5. 

Eeqtjests (Court of). {See Co:<science.) 

Eeseete Forces.— By 22 & 23 Tict. c. 40 
(Aug. 13, 1859), the Admiralty was em- 
powered to raise a body of men, not exceed- 
ing 30,000, to be called the Eoyal Naval 
Volunteers ; and by 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42 (Aug. 
13, 1859), the sovereign was empowered to 
raise and keep up in the United Kingdom a 
reserve force of soldiers not exceeding 
20,000 men. 

Eetford, East (Nottinghamshire). — The 
first charter was granted to this town Ijy 
Henry III., a.d. 12-16, and a second by Ed- 
ward I., Nov. 27, 1279. It first sent repre- 
sentatives to parliament in 1315, but in 1330 
the burgesses petitioned the king to release 
them from the privilege, on account of their 
being too poor to pay the expenses of their 
representatives. A fresh charter, granted 
by Edward III. in 1336, was confirmed by 
another granted by Henry I. in 1424. The 
town-hall was built in 1388, and rebuilt in 
1755. East Eetford again sent representa- 
tives to parhament in 1571, but, owing to the 
bribery and corruption of the voters, an 
act was passed, July 23, 1830, which ex- 
tended the franchise of Eetford to the whole 
of the freeholders of the hundred. A great 
flood happened in 1795, which caused much 
damage to the town. Eetford was first 
lighted by gas Dec. 22, 1831. 

Eethel (France) is supposed to have 
been built on the site of a Eoman fort. In 
the Middle Ages it was ruled by its own 
coimts, and was, a.d. 1581, made the seat 
of a duchy, conferred by Henry III. on 
the duke of Nevers, whose descendants 
sold it to Cardinal Mazarin. Eethel 
was taken by the Spaniards in 165i», 
and was retaken by Turenne in 1655. The 
Austrians were defeated by the French in a 
battle fought near this town, Dec. 15, 1650. 

Eeteeat of the Ten Thousand, known 
to the ancients as the " Eeturn of the Cy- 
reian Greeks." Cyrus II., king of Persia, 
took the field with 100,000 barbarians and 
13,000 Greeks, commanded by Clearchus, 
and encountered the army of his brother, 
Artaxerxes II., near Cunaxa, losing the en- 
gagement and his own Ufe, B.C. 4-!)l. The 
Greeks were victorious on their part of the 
field, and commenced their return home- 
wards to the city of Ephesus in Ionia. 
Clearchus, having fallen by the treachery of 
the Persians, Xenophon was chosen leader. 
The march terminated at Cotyora, after 
many dangers and dilficulties, as narrated 
by Xenophon in his "Anabasis," the dis- 
tance, 3,465 English miles, having been 
accomplished in fifteen months. 

Eeuss (Germany).— Several small states 
of Germany bore this appellation, and three 



REU 

of them became extinct, one a.d. 1236, an- 
other in 1532, and the third in 1550. Two 
only, namely Eeuss Greiz and Eeuss Schleiz, 
now exist, "derived from the two sons of 
Henry the Peaceful, who died in 1535. The 
rank of counts of the empire was bestowed 
upon them in 1673, and the title of prince 
was conferred upon the elder, or Eeuss 
Greiz hne, ia 1778, and upon the younger, 
or Eeuss Schleiz line, in 1806. They both 
joined the Germanic confederation in 1813. 

Eettss (Germany). — Pope Benedict XII., 
the tool of Phihp of France, having renewed 
the excommunication of Louis, emperor of 
Germany, the electors met at Eeuss a.d. 
1338, and declared that the pope had no 
jurisdiction over the German empire. They 
prohibited the publication of papal buUs in 
Germany without the previous consent of 
the German bishops. 

Eevel, or Eeyal (Eussia), was founded 
as a bishopric by Valdemar II. of Denmark, 
about A.D. 1218. The oldest church is the 
Esthonian, mentioned in 1284. That of St. 
Olai was founded in 1329, and having been 
destroyed by fire, was rebuilt in 1820. Eevel 
was captured by Peter the Great in 1710. 

Eevelatiois^ of St. John the DrviifE. 
(See Apocalypse.) 

Eeveij-ue. — The greater portion of the 
pubhc revenue of England was anciently de- 
rived from the rents of the crown property. 
As the royal estates decreased in extent, while 
the national expenditure became more heavy, 
the system of tenths or fifteenths (see Aids 
and Bei^evolence) was introduced, by 
parhament granting to the crown a tenth or 
fifteenth part of the moveable property of 
the people. This system gradually became 
obsolete, and the revenue is now mainly 
derived from the customs, stamp, and excise 
duties, and the assessed, income, land, and 
property taxes, with the receipts of the post- 
office. The pubhc revenues of Great Britain 
and Ireland were consohdated by 56 Geo. 
III. c. 98 (July 1, 1816). The following table 
exhibits the public revenue of England at 
dififerent periods — 

■William I £400,000 

William IL 350,000 

Henry 1 300,000 

Stephen 250,000 

Bichard 1 150,000 

• John 100,000 

Henry IIT 80,000 

Edward 1 150,000 

Edward IL 100,000 

Edward IIL 154,139 

Richard TI 130,000 

Henry IV. 100,000 

Heni-y V 76,643 

Hem-y VI 64,976 

Edward IV. 100,000 

Edwai-dV. 100,000 

Richard III. 100.000 

Henry VII. 400,000 

Henry VITI 800,000 

Edward VI 400,000 

Mary 4-50,000 

Elizabeth 500,000 

James 1 600,000 

Charles I 895,819 

Interregnum 1,517,247 

ChaiiesII 1.800,000 

721 



EEY 

James II 2,001,8.55 

WUliam & Mary 3,895,205 

Anne (at the Union) 5,691,803 

GeoTgel 6,762,643 

George II 8,522,540 

George III. (1788) 15,-572,971 

Ditto (1800) 36,728,000 

Ditto (1814) 71,153,000 

George IV 58,000,000 

William IV 56,000.000 

Victoria (1845) 53,060,354 

Ditto (1850) 52,810.680 

Ditto (1855) 63,364,605 

Ditto (1859) 61,660,090 

Eeviews. — The Journal des Savans, com- 
menced at Paris a.d. 1665, is said to have 
been the first publication of the kind. The 
" Monthly Eeview," established in 1749, was 
the first in England. 

THE PEIlfCIPAI, eeviews. 

a.d. 

British and Foreign 1835 

British Quarterly 1845 

Church of England January, 1837 

Dublin 1836 

Eclectic 1805 

Edinburgh October, 1802 

Foreign Quarterly 1827 

London Quarterly 1853 

National 1855 

New Quarterly 1852 

North British 1844 

Quarterly Februaiy, 1809 

Retrospective 1820 

Westminster 1824 

Eevivals. — The first great period of reli- 
gious enthusiasm to which the name of 
" revival " was given, was that which com- 
menced in New England in December, 1734. 
The last great revival occurred Sept. 23, 1857, 
when Mr. J. C. Lamphier commenced a 
series of weekly prayer-meetings at Pulton 
Street, New York. These meetings were at 
first poorly attended, but gradually excited 
great interest, and were held every day, 
besides being imitated throughout the United 
States. The movement afterwards passed 
into Scotland and the north of Ireland. 
Belfast was one of its chief centres, and 
it reached its height about September, 1859. 

EETOLTJTioifs. — The following is a list of 
the most important, which are described at 
greater length imder the countries where 
they took place : — 

A.D. 

Bavaria 1848 

Belgium 1830 

Brazil 1821 

British America 1775 

Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel 1830 

China 1649 

Colombia 1819 

Denmark 1772 

England 1649 and 1688 

Florence 1859 

France 1789 — 1830—1848 

Genoa 1797 

Greece 1821—1843 

Hanover 1848 

Hesse-Cassel 1848 

Holland 1580—1795—1813 

Hungary 1848 

Lombardy 1848 

Mexico 1821 — 18-58 

Slodena 1859 

Naples 1860 

Pai-ma 1859 

Peru 1823 

Poland 1795—1830 

3 A 



EEY 



Portugal 1640 

Eome 1798-1848 

Eussia 1730-1762 

Saxony 1848 

Sicily 1848—1860 

Sweden 1525 — 1772 — 1809 

Tuscany 1859 

tTnited States I860 

Venice 1797—1848 

Eetoivee. — The earliest example of a 
revolving firearm in existence is a mafcelilock 
in the Tower armoury, supposed to be of the 
loth century, which has a revolving breech 
with four chambers. A specimen of the 
17th century, in the Hotel Clugni at Paris, 
has eight chambers ; and a brass pistol with 
six chambers, and supposed to be of the 
time of Charles I., forms part of the col- 
lection in the United Service Museum, 
London. Elisha H. CoUier patented a ro- 
tating chamber-gun in America in 1818 ; and 
in August, 1819, CorneUus Coolidge patented 
a weapon in which an attempt was made to 
introduce a mechanical contrivance for as- 
sisting the chambers to revolve. Samuel Colt 
commenced his improvements in repeating 
fh-earms in 1829, and patented the revolver 
which bears his name in 1835. In 1836 he 
produced a weapon combining his pistol with 
the American bowie-knife ; but the combi- 
nation proved a comparative failure, and 
was abandoned. {See Aequebtis.) 

Eh^tia (Europe). — This ancient country 
became known to the Eomans in the 2nd 
century B.C. After a struggle of many 
years, Ehgetia was conquered by the Eoman 
consuls Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15. Ac- 
cording to tradition, the Ehsetians were a 
tribe of Etruscans, driven from the plains of 
Lombardy by the Gauls. 

Ehe, Isle oe (France), having been taken 
by the French Huguenots, was wrested from 
them by Cardinal Eichelieu, a.d. 1625. It 
was attacked by an English fleet and army, 
under the command of the duke of Bucking- 
ham, July 9, 1627. The attack failed, and 
Buckingham returned to England with the 
loss of two-thu-ds of his forces. 

Ehegium. (See Eeggio.) 

Eheims (France), the ancient Durocor- 
torum, was the capital of the Eemi ; and, 
having been captured by the Eomans, was 
made by them the capital of Belgiea Secunda. 
Christianity was introduced into Eheims 
about A.D. 360, from which date it was the 
seat of a bishop. Clovi^ and the chief lords 
of his court were baptized by St. Eemi, then 
bishop of Eheims, in 496, and in 74A it was 
erected into an archbishopric. The abbey 
church of St. Eemi, the burial-place of St. 
Eemigius, the apostle of the Franks, was 
erected between 1048 and 1162, and the 
cathedral, commenced in 1212, was finished in 
1241. The archbishop's palace dates from the 
12th century, andvarious sovereigns of France 
have at different times lodged within its walls. 
In 1421 Eheims was taken by the Enghsh, 
who were driven out by Joan of Arc in 1429, 
and in the same year Charles VII. was 
crowned in the cathedral, Joan of Arc bear- 
722 



EHO 

ing her sacred banner. This town was taken 
March 12, 1814, by a corps of Eussians 
under St. Priest, a French emigrant, but 
was retaken the next day by Napoleon I., 
when 2,000 Eussians and their commander 
were slain. The town-hall, begun in 1627, 
was not finished till 1825. Councils were 
held here in 625; Julv,874; Jan. 28, 893; July 
6, 900 ; in 923, 975, 987 ; Jan. 23, 988 ; June 
17, 991; May 12, 1015; Oct. 3, 1049; in 
1093; Sept. 17, 1094; in 1097 ; July 2, 1105; 
March 28, 1115; Oct. 19 to 30, 1119; Oct. 
19, 1131 ; March 21, 1148 ; Oct. 26, 1157 ; in 
May, 1164; July 23, 1235; Oct, 1, 1287; 
Sept. 30, 1302, and April 28, 1408. 

Eheinfield (Switzerland). — This free 
town was ceded to the duke of Austria by 
the emperor Louis Y., a.d. 1330. A battle 
took place here Feb. 18, 1638, in which tlie 
imperialists were totally routed, and the 
town surrendered May 13 following. 

Ehine. (See Coneedeeation of the 
Ehine.) 

Ehinocohitea (between Egypt and 
Palestine), the modern El-Arish (q. v.), was 
founded, according to Diodorus Siculus, as 
a penal colony, by a king of Ethiopia, and 
derived its name from the convicts having 
their noses cut off. Baldwin, king of Jeru- 
salem, returning from his Egyptian expedi- 
tion, fell sick and died here, a.d. 1118. 

Ehode Island (North America) was 
settled by Eoger Williams, when he fled 
from rehgious persecution in Massachusetts, 
in June, 1636. He received a grant of terri- 
tory from the Narraganset Indians, March 
24, 1638. It received a charter from 
Charles II. in 1663, which remained in force 
till 1842. Having joined in the war of inde- 
pendence, it was seized by the British, 
Dec. 8, 1776 ; attacked by the French and 
Americans without effect, Aug. 8, 1778; 
abandoned by the British in 1779; and 
occupied by the French, July 11, 1780. 
Ehode Island was the last of the states that 
gave in their adherence to the federal con- 
stitution, which was done in May, 1790. In 
the war with England in 1812 it lent no aid 
to the United States forces. An effort was 
made to upset the constitution in 1840. A 
number of the people took up arms in 1841 
under a man named Dorr, who was made 
prisoner in 1842. A new constitution was 
agreed to and adopted in 1814. 

Ehodes (Archipelago) was taken posses- 
sion of by a branch of the Doric race, who 
held it at the time of the Trojan war, 
B.C. 1184. It was of small political impor- 
tance among the states of Greece till the 
city of Ehodes was built and made the 
capital of the island, B.C. 408. It was com- 
pelled to pay tribute to Athens at the out- 
break of the Peloponnesian war. B.C. 431. 
The inhabitants changed sides in the contest 
B.C. 412. The appearance of Conon with 
his fleet in their waters brought them back 
to the Athenian cause, B.C. 396. The de- 
mocracy which had been established proving 
tmsatisfaetory, the banished aristocrats, with 
the assistance of Sparta, recovered power. 



RHO 



mc 



B.C. 390. During the Social war it took 
part against Athens, b.c. 357 — 355. It sub- 
mitted to Alexander, and received a Mace- 
donian garrison, which was expelled B.C. 323; 
gaining' the highest distinction by its resis- 
tance to the successors of the conqueror, 
until it was besieged by Demetrius Polior- 
cetes, B.C. 304. Under favour of the Eomans 
it extended its authority to several of the 
adjacent islands, and fought against Mith- 
ridates, B.C. 108. In the war between 
Caesar and Pompey the Ehodians took part 
with the former, B.C. 50; and continuing 
their aid to Cassius, were defeated by the 
Eomans and completely subjugated, B.C. 42. 
They then held their liberties by the caprice 
of the emperors, and their city was made by 
Constantine I. themetropohsof the Provincia 
Insularum a.d. 330. It was taken by Chos- 
roes II., king of Persia, in 616; by the 
Saracens iu 651, and by the Knights of 
St. John, Aug. 15, 1309. Mohammed II. 
besieged it ineffectually in 1480, and the 
sultan Soliman II. compelled it to capitulate 
after a vigorous siege and brave defence, 
that lasted from June to December, 1522. 
The famous Colossus, 70 cubits high, built 
by Chares, pupil of Lysippus, and by Laches, 
was completed about b.c 280. It was over- 
thrown by an earthquake about b.c. 224. 

Ehodium. — This metal, so called from the 
rose-colour of one of its solutions, was dis- 
covered by Dr. Wollaston, a.d. 1803. 

Ehceteitm (Asia Minor) , the post assigned 
to Ajax for defence at the siege of Troy, 
where his sepulchre was erected, and the 
citizens celebrated his memory with divine 
honours, b.c. 1184. 

Ehuddlan", or Ehtddlak (Wales), was 
attacked by Harold II. when he invaded the 
country with Tostig, and its castle burned, 
A.D. 1063. It was again destroyed by Lle- 
WBlyn and his brother David, when fighting 
for their tudependence, in March, 1282. The 
parhament at which the statute of Wales 
was enacted, was held here by Edward I., 
May 24, 1284. Here his infant son was ac- 
knowledged prince of Wales iu 1284. The 
castle, held for Charles I. in the civil wars, 
was taken by General Mytton in 1646. 

EiAZAK (Eussia), capital of a province of 
the same name, was so called by Catherine 
II. A.D. 1777. 

EiBBON-MEN. — Owing to the secret nature 
of the constitution of this faction of Irish 
Eoman Cathohcs, the date of their institu- 
tion is not known. Some authorities refer 
their origin to about the commencement of 
the present century, while others state that 
they were not heard of tiU nearly twenty 
years afterwards. Their out;rages are men- 
tioned in March, 1820, and they have ever 
since been intimately connected with the 
troubles of Ireland. Numerous murders 
were committed by them in 1858 and 1862. 

EiBSTON- Pippin. — This species of apple- 
tree is traditionally said to have sprung from 
some pips brought from Eouen by Sir Henry 
Goodricke, and sown at Eibston Hall about 
the beginning of the 18th century. 
723 



EiCE, probably originally a native of 
India, and an important item of food 
to a large proportion of the human race, 
was described by Theophrastus b.c. 322; 
by Dioscorides a.d, 54 ; and by Pliny 
A.D. 72. 

EiCHAKD THE FiEST, the fourth child 
and third son of Henry II. and his wife 
Eleanor, was born at Oxford, Sept. 13, 1157, 
succeeded to the English throne July 6, 1189, 
and was crowned Sunday, Sept. 3. When 
young he was betrothed to Adelais, daughter 
of Louis VII. of France ; but the union did 
not take place, and Eichard married Beren- 
garia of If avarre, at Limesol, in the island 
of Cyprus, May 13, 1191, and she was 
crowned queen on the foUovrin^ day. They 
had no children. Eichard I. med Tuesday, 
April 6, 1199, from the effects of a wound 
received before the castle of Chains Chabrol, 
March 26. He was buried at Eontevrault. 
Eichard I. was surnamed Coeur de Lion, or 
lion-hearted, on account of his great bra- 
very. Berengaria, who survived him, died 
in 1230. 

EicHAED THE SECOND, SOU of Edward 
the Black Prince and Joan of Kent, was 
born at Bordeaux in Februaiy, 1366. He 
succeeded to the throne, Monday, June 22, 
1377, and he was crowned at Westminster 
July 16. In 1382 Eichard II. married Anne of 
Bohemia, called the " good queen Anne," 
who died in 1394. He married Isabella, a 
child seven years old, daughter of Charles 
VI. of France, in 1396. He was finally de- 
posed Sept. 30, 1399, and is generally be- 
lieved to have died at Stirling in 1419. He 
left no issue by either marriage, and his 
second queen died Sept. 13, 1409. Eichard 
II. was surnamed Bordeaux from the place 
of his birth. 

EiCHAED THE Thied, the youngest son 
of Eichard, duke of York, born at Fother- 
ingay, Oct. 21, 1450, assumed the crovni 
June 26, 1483, and was, with his queen, 
Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 
widow of Prince Edward, crowned at West- 
minster July 6, and again at York Sept, 8. 
They had but one chSd, Edward, bom at 
Middlehara, in Yorkshire, in 1473. He 
died April 9, 1484, and the queen herself 
died March 16, 1485. Richard III. was 
kiUed at the battle of Bosworth Field, Mon- 
day, Aug. 22, 1485, and was buried at Lei- 
cester, Aug. 25, He was surnamed Crook- 
back. 

EiCHBOEOUGH (Kent), one of the for- 
tresses for the protection of the sea-board, 
erected by the Eomans, was commenced 
A.D. 43, and completed in 205. 

EiCHMOND (Surrey), originally called 
Sheen, the name of the palace of Henry I., 
which, having been burned dovni, Dec. 21, 
1498, was rebuilt, and the name changed to 
Eichmond by Henry VII., a.d. 1499, He 
died here April 21, 1509. Chaucer was 
surveyor of works to the palace in 1389. 
Edward III. died at Eichmond June 21, 
1377, as did the "good queen Anne" of 
Eichard II. in 1394. Queen EHzabeth, who 
3 A 2 



EIC 

had been imprisoned here by her sister, and 
had afterwards chosen it as her faTourite 
residence, breathed her last within its walls, 
March 24, 1603. Philip I. of Spain was 
here the guest of Henry VII. in 1506, and 
it lodged Charles V. in 1522. It was de- 
stroyed during the great rebellion. A priory 
of Carthusian monks was founded by Henry 
V. in 1414. Henry YIII. seized and appro- 
priated it in 1540, Mary restored it in 1557, 
and it was finally suppressed in 1559. The 
convent of Observant friars was founded by 
Hemy YII. in 1499, and was suppressed in 
1534. Bishop Duppa's almshouses were 
founded in 1661 ; the theatre was built in 
1766. Eichmond bridge, begun Aug. 23, 
1774, was finished, at a cost of £26,000, in 
1777, and the church of St. John was erected 
in 1831. 

EicHMOWD (America). — This city, the 
capital of Virginia, was founded by an act 
of legislature a.d. 1742, and was made the 
seat of government in 1780. A fire, which 
broke out in the theatre, Dec. 26, 1811, 
caused the death of 72 persons. 

Eichmond Paek (Surrey) was enclosed 
bv Charles I., a.d. 1636. It was thrown open 
to the public Dec. 20, 1752. 

EiFLE CoEPS. [See Volunteees.) 

EiGA (Eussia) was founded by Albert, 
bishop of Livonia, a.d. 1200. In the 13th 
century it joined the Hanseatic League, and 
in the beginning of the 16th century it be- 
longed to the Teutonic knights. It contains 
two palaces, the most ancient having been, 
until 1561, the residence of the masters of 
the Brethren of the Sword, an order of 
knighthood which preceded the Teutonic in 
these countries. Eiga was taken by Gusta- 
Yus Adolphus in 1621, and by Peter the Great 
in 1710. Part of it was destroyed by fire in 
1812, and a granite column was erected in 
1817 to commemorate the repulse of the 
French by the citizens in 1812. A council 
was held here in 1429. 

Eights. {See Bill of Eights and De- 

CLAEATIOIN" OF ElGHTS.) 

:Eimenaut (Battle) .—The Spaniards, under 
Don John of Austria, were defeated at this 
town, in Prance, by the allied EngUsh and 
Dutch, under iS"orris, a.d. 1578. 

EiMiNi (Italy), the ancient Ariminum 
{q. v.), was made a bishopric a.d. 260. 
The celebrated council of Arians and Atha- 
nasians was held here in 359. On the fall of 
the Western empire, it became one of the 
cities of the PentapoHs, and was subject to 
the exarchs of Eavenna till the invasion of 
the Lombards in the 6th century. It be- 
longed to the German emperor Otho III. 
in 1200, Malatesta acting as his viceroy. It 
was seized by Venice in 1504, by the French 
in 1512, and was destroyed by an earthquake 
in 1672. The church of St. Francesco, now 
the cathedral, built in the 14th century, 
assimied its present form in 1450. The 
library was founded in 1617. 
EiMNiK (Battle). (5'ee MAETurESTi.) 
Ei^-GMEEE (Battle). — The Danes having 
landed at Ipswich, defeated Ulfkytel, the 
724 



EIO 

general of the East Angles, in a battle fought 
here. May 18, 1010. 

EiNGS. — Pharaoh gave Joseph his ring 
(Gen. xM. 42), B.C. 1715; the Israehtes of- 
fered to the Lord, amongst other orna- 
ments, the rings they had taken from the 
Midianites, B.C. 1451 (IS^umb. xxd. 50). 
The use of rings and seals was common in- 
Egypt B.C. 1700. Eings were also worn by 
the Etruscans and Sabines. The Eomans 
used iron rings, and gold rings are first men- 
tioned B.C. 321. It is recorded that, after 
the battle of Cannae, Aug. 2, 216 B.C., Han- 
nibal collected several bushels of gold rings. 
Love rings were used in the 15th century. 
The ring was used in marriage among Chris- 
tians as early as 860. 

Eio DE LA Plata (South America). — This 
river was discovered by De Solis, a Spanish 
navigator, a.d. 1515. De Sohs landed with a 
small party, and fell, with five companions, 
into an ambuscade of the Indians, who 
killed their captives, roasted and devoured 
them. It was next visited and explored by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1526, who gave the river 
the name of La Plata. {See Plata, La.) 

Eio Janeieo (BrazD).— The bay of Eio 
was discovered Jan. 1, 1531, by Martin Al- 
fonso de Sousa, a Portuguese navigator. 
The Portuguese founded the city of Eio in 
1567. The French captured it in 1711, and 
it was restored in 1713. In 1763 Don Joseph 
transferred the viceregal residence here, 
from Bahia, hitherto the capital of Brazil. 
In 1808 it became the residence of the Por- 
tuguese court, and in 1822 was constituted 
the capital of the independent empire of 
Brazil. A revolution took place in 1831, 
when the empei'or Pedro I. abdicated in 
favour of his son, who assumed the sove- 
reignty under the title of Pedro II. 

EiOTS. — The following are the most im- 
portant riots in EngKsh history. (See 
Plots, &c.) 

A.D. 

1189. The accession of Richard I. is disgraced by 

violent riots at London and York, in which 

many Jews are massacred. 
1221. Westminster Convent, London, is destroyed 

bya riotous mob. The ringleader is h.auged, 

and several of his followers are condemned 

to lose their hands and feet. 
1262. A skirmish takes place in London between 

the goldsmiths' and tailoi-s' companies. 

Thirteen of the most violent rioters are 

hanged. 
1271. Noi-wieh cathedral and monastery are burnt 

by rioters. 
1381. Kiotous assemblies and incendiary flres occur 

in London, Cambridge, and other places, 

during Wat Tyler's insurrection {q. v.). 
1515. The " clear the causeway" riot at Edinburgh 

results in the death of 250 of the rioters. 

(See Edisbxjiigh.) 
1517. The evil Mayday riots. (See Apprentices.) 
1628 Dr. Lambe is murdered in London by a 

riotous mob. 
1637. July 23. Edinburgh is the scene of religious 

riots on the occasion of the introduction of 

the liturgy. 
1682. The Guildhall, London, is the scene of violent 

riots on the occasion of the election of a 

sheriff. 
1710. Feb. 28. The partisans of Dr. Sacheverel 

cause disturbances in London, and destroy 

many dissenters' chapels, &c. 



EIO 



A.D. 

1715. May 29. The Newcastle and Ormond riots 

break out in London. 

1716. July 24. The Must-house riot in Salisbury 

Court, Fleet Street, is raised by the 
Jacobites, the leader of whom, Vaughan, 
is shot. 
1725. Jan. 25. The Shawfleld riot against the malt- 
tax breaks out at Glasgow. 

1735. Jan. 30. A riot is occasioned in London by 

the members of the Calves' Head Club 
{q. v.). 

1736. Sept. 7. The Poi-teous riot breaks out at Edin- 

burgh. Violent gin-riots take place this 
year. 

1749. Jan. 16. A riot takes place at the Hay- 
market theatre, in consequence of the 
Impostirre of the bottle-conjurer {q.v.). 
Oct. 18. The execution of a sailor at 
London occasions a riot among his 
comrades. 

1758. Aug. 12. The factory hands at Manchester 
occasion riots, with the object of exacting 
increased wages. 

1763. Oct. 3. A riot breaks out among the Spital- 
flelds weavers, who bum the looms of one 
of their masters, and destroy large (luantities 
of silk. 

1765. May. In consequence of the introduction of 
French silks, riots break out among the 
Spitalflelds weavers. 

1768. May 10. The Wilkes riot takes place in St. 
George's Fields. The soldiers fire on the 
mob and kill young William Allen, who 
was guiltless of participation. 

1779. Feb. 2. " No poppry" riots break out at Edin- 
burgh. Oct. 9. Kiots against the intro- 
duction of machinery take place at Man- 



1780. 
179L 



1797. 
1798. 

1806. 
1808. 
1809. 
1810. 

1811. 
1812. 
1814. 
1815. 



1819. 
1821. 



The Gordon riots {g. v.). 

July 14. An attempted celebration of the an- 
niversary of the Fj ench revolution occasions 
a riot at Birmingham. 

Numerous riots take place in Scotland, in 
consequeuce of the Militia Act. 

May 22. The earl of Thanet and others stir 
up a riot at Maidstone, on the occasion of 
Arthur O'Connor's trial and his conviction 
for high treason. 

The "Threshers'" riots take place in Ire- 
land. 

May 14. A riot of cotton-spinners at Man- 
chester is suppressed by the military. 

Sept. 18. The " O. P." riot {q. v.) commences 
at Covent Garden theatre. 

April 6. A gang of rioters endeavour to rescue 
Sir Francis Burdett as he is conducted 
under escort to the Tower. 

Nov. 10. The Luddite riots {q. v.) commence at 
Nottingham. 

June 1. Edinburgh is the scene of a dan- 
gerous riot. 

Dec. 16. Riots take place at the Crow-street 
theatre, Dublin. 

March 6, &c. Mr. Robinson's Com BUI occa- 
sions iT-ots in London and Westminster. 
(See Corn Laws.) April 6. A serious riot 
breaks out at Dartmoor military dep9t, 
occasioned by an attempted escape on the 
part of some American prisoners, seven of 
whom are shot. 

May 4. A serious bread riot takes place at Brid- 
port. Dec. 2. The Spafi.elds riot takes place 
at London, when Mi-. Piatt, of SnowHill,is 
shot by the rioters. 

Jan. 28. Riots take place ■ in London on the 
occasion of the opening of parliament by 
the prince regent, who is fired at by some 
cue in the mob. March 10. The blan- 
keteers {q. v.) create disturbances at Man- 
chester. 

Aug. 16. The memorable riot at Manchester, 
known as the Field of Peterloo. 

Aug. 14. London is the scene of riots, on the 
occasion of the funeral procession of Queen 
Caroline. 



EIO 



1822. Dec. 14. A riot breaks out in Dublin theatre, 
in consequence of the unpopularity of the 
marquis of Wellesley, lord lieutenant of 
Ireland. From the circumstance that a 
bottle was thrown into his box, the dis- 
turbance is known as the " bottle riot." 

1826. Numerous food riots occur at Manchester. 

1829. Nimierous riuts occur in the manufacturing 
districts and at Spitalfields. May 2. A 
factory is burnt by the mob at Man- 



1846. 
1848. 



1849. 
185L 



June 15. A food riot, attended with loss of 
life, breaks out at Limerick. 

June 3. Riots occur among the iron-miners 
at Merthyr Tydvil. June 8. The Forest of 
Dean {q. v.) is the scene of riots. June 18. 
A disturbance takes place at Newtown- 
ban-y (q. v.), in Ii'eland, in which twelve 
or thirteen persons are killed by the 
military. Oct. 8. The rejection of the 
Reform Bill by the House of Lords oc- 
casions fatal riots at Derby and Not- 
tingham. Oct. 29. Riots take place at 
Bristol. 

May 28 to 31. Thom's riots take place at 
Boughton, near Canterbury. Dec. 12. A 
proclamation is issued against the nume- 
rous Chartist riots. 

July 15. Chartist riots at Birmingham. 
Nov. 4. John Frost, at the head of a gang 
of Chartist rioters, attacks Newport. 

Jan. 11. An intended outbreak of the Char- 
tists is discovered and prevented at Shef- 
field. 

June 10. Food riots break out at Cork. 

The "Rebecca" rioters in Wales destroy 
turnpikes, &c. 

April. Food riots occur in Tipperary. 

March 7. Riots take place at Ediuburgh and 
Glasgow. April Id. The grand Chartist 
meeting is held on Kennington Common. 
{See Chartists.) 

July 12. A riotous affray between Orangemen 
and Roman CnthoUcs takes place with fatal 
results at Dolly's Brae, in Ireland. 

May 28. Free-trade riots occur at Tam- 
worth. July 14. A fatal Orange and 
Roman Catholic riot breaks out at Liver- 
pool. 

June 29. Stockport is the scene of violent 
riots against the Roman Catholics. July 1 4. 
Riots between Roman Catholics and Pro- 
testants rage at Belfast. July 22. Five 
men are killed and several wounded at 
the fatal election-riot at Six-mile-bridge 
iq.v.). 

Feb. 19. Bread riots at Liverpool {q. v.). 
June 24. Riotous assemblages against Lord 
Grosvenor's Sunday-trading Bill com- 
mence in Hyde Park (q.v.). 

July, &c. Religious riots occur at Belfast, 
in consequence of the opposition of the 
Roman Catholics to open-air preaching. 

March 12. A serious riot is stirred up at 
Dublin. Aug. 8. Riots against machine 
labour in agriculture occur at Kilkenny. 

March 29. Religious riots take place at Gal- 
way, in consequence of Father Gavazzi's 
anti-popery orations. Aug. 21. A dis- 
graceful series of religious riots commences 
at the church of St. George's in the East. 

Feb. 11. An outbreak of the convicts at 
Chatham is suppressed by the military. 



EiOT Act. — Means for the suppression of 
riots were provided by 17 Eich. II. e. 8 (1393), 
by 13 Hen. IV. c. 7 (1411), by 2 Hen. V. 
St. 1, c. 8 (1414), and by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. 
c. 5 (1548). The last-mentioned act made it 
high treason for an assemblage of twelve or 
more persons to refuse to disperse upon 
proclamation. The act usually known as 
the Eiot Act, is 1 Geo. I. st, 2, c. 5 (1714). 
725 



1857. 
1858. 



EIP 

The capital penalty it enforced was remored 
by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. e. 91 (July 17, 
1837), and by 4 & 5 Vict. c. 56 (June 22, 
1841). 

Eipoif (Bishopric). — The erection of this 
see was recommended in a report of the 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners, dated March 
17, 1835, and was carried into effect Oct. 5, 
1836. 

EiPON- (Yorkshire).— The first historical 
notice of this town occurs a.d. 661. The 
monastery, built by Archbishop Wilfrid in 
678, having been totally destroyed by the 
Danes, was restored and incorporated by 
Alfred in 886. It was again destroyed by 
the Danes in the middle of the 10th century, 
was afterwards rebuilt, and for the third 
time destroyed by William I. in 1069. It 
soon revived, but, vrith its monastery, was 
burnt by Robert Bruce in 1323. Eipon 
Minster was built by Thurstan, archbishop 
of York, in 1140, and he founded St. 
Mary's hospital in 1144. During the plague 
in London in 1401, Henry IV. retired 
with his court to Eipon, and James I. 
rested here in 1617 on his way to Scotland. 
The grammar-school was founded in 1546. 
Charles I. was at Eipon in 1633. It was 
taken by the Parhamentary forces under 
Sir Thomas Mauleverer in 1643, and again 
occupied by Charles I. in 1644. In 
1767 an act was passed for making the 
river Ure navigable from its junction with 
the Swale. The market was buUt in 1781, 
the theatre in 1792, the town-hall in 1801, 
and Eipon minster was erected into a cathe- 
dral in 1836. 

EivoLi (Battle).— The French under 
Ifapoleon I. defeated the Austrians under 
Alvinzi at this town, near Verona, Jan. 17, 
1797. 

EoADS. — The invention of paved roads 
has been ascribed to the Carthaginians, and 
the Greeks are regarded as the earhest 
nation that legislated for their repair and 
maintenance. The Eomans were eminent 
for the excellence of their military roads, 
the earliest of which, the Via Appia, was 
constructed by Appius Claudius B.C. 312. 
Julius Caesar caused roads to be made 
between aU the chief cities of Italy, which 
were thus brought iato connection "with the 
Eoman forum, the centre of the internal 
communication of the empire. Milestones 
were estabhshed throughout their entire 
length, and a system of post-houses was 
instituted, which enabled the traveller to 
progress at the rate of a hundred miles 
per day. Gibbon states, " If we carefullly 
trace the distance from the waU of Antoninus 
to Eome, and from thence to Jerusalem, it 
wiU be found that the great chain of com- 
munication, from the north-west to the south- 
east point of the empire, was drawn out to 
the length of four thousand and eighty Eo- 
man miles," of which only eighty-five miles 
was by water-communication. He adds : 
" They united the subjects of the most dis- 
tant provinces by an easy and famUiar inter- 
course ; but their primary object had been 
726 



EOB 

to facihtate the marches of the legions ; nor 
was any country considered as completely 
subdued till it had been rendered, in aU its 
parts, pervious to the arms and authority of 
the conqueror." The most important Eo- 
man roads in Britain are Watting Street, 
Hermin Street, Hcenild Street, and the Fosse. 
The first, and most celebrated of these, ran 
from Eichborough, in Kent, through Lon- 
don, to Chester, and was named by the 
Saxons in honour of the sons of Watla, one 
of their my thic heroes. Hermin Street ex- 
tended from Pevensey to the south-east of 
Scotland, and was called Hermin Street by 
the Saxons, in honour of one of their divini- 
ties. Ikenild, or Iknield Street, extended 
from the coast of Norfolk to the south-west 
of Cornwall, and is of uncertain etymology ; 
and the Fosse, or Eyknield Street, from the 
mouth of the Tyne to St. David's, in Wales. 
From the time of the Eomans no measures 
were taken to secure the proper regulation of 
the roads of the kingdom, until the passing of 
13 Edw. I. Stat. 2, c. 5 (1285), which ordered 
highways between market-towns to be in- 
creased in breadth. The earliest statute pro- 
viding for the svstematic repair of roads was 
2 & 3 Philip & Mary, c. 8 (1555), which or- 
dered two surveyors of highways to be elected 
annually in every parish. Turnpikes were 
established by 16'Charles II. c. 1 (1663), but 
the system did not become general till 1767, 
when it was extended to all the chief roads 
of the kingdom. The use of the spirit-level 
in laying out roads was commenced in Scot- 
land by Lord Daer in 1790 ; and in 1815 Mr. 
Thomas Telford introduced his system of 
roadmaking in the Holyhead road. John 
Loudon Macadam introduced his method 
about 1815, and macadamized roads are now 
the most frequent. Wooden pavement was 
introduced in London about 1839, but proved 
unsuccessful, and was removed. It was 
again employed in Holborn in 1841, but again 
failed. Prescott states that the art of road- 
making was carried to extraordinary perfec- 
tion by the incas of Peru. 

EoANOKE (N. America). — This island of 
North Carolina is celebrated as the place 
where Sir Walter Ealeigh made the first 
British settlement in North America a.d. 
1584. 

EoASTiNG Alite. — In the reign of Henry 
v., Sir John Oldcastle, called Lord Cob- 
ham, was roasted alive in London, in De- 
cember, 1418. He was hung in chains by 
the middle and his legs broken. Servetus 
was roasted aUve at Geneva, on a charge of 
heresy, June 17, 1553. {See BtiEiriNa 
AirvE.) 

EoBBEES. — According to the English laws, 
robbery is the crime of theft attended with 
threats or violence. HaUam (" Middle Ages," 
ii. 376) states that " highway robbery was, 
from the earhest times, a sort of national 
crime." The Anglo-Saxons punished it 
with fine, and in the reign of Henry I. it 
was made a capital offence. It was included 
in the list of capital crimes by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. 
c. 29 (June 21, 1827), which was repealed by 



EOB 

7 Wm. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 87 (July 17, 1837), 
except in cases where the offence was at- 
tended with cutting and wounding. 

EoBEETALLiAN LiNES, named after M. de 
Eoberval, who claimed to be their inventor, 
are said to have been first known in Italy 
A.D. 1644. They were noticed by James 
Gregory on his visit to Padua in 1668, and 
pubUshed in his " Universal Geometry" in 
1692. 

EoccASECCA (Battle). — Ladislaus, king 
of Naples, was defeated by Loms of Anjou, 
in this action, fought May 19, 1411. 

EocHDALE (Lancashire). — A church ex- 
isted here prior to a.d. 1193. Edmund De 
Lacy obtained a charter for a market in 
1241, and the grammar-school was founded 
in 1564. John Byron was created Baron 
Byron of Eochdale by Charles I. in 1642. 
St. Mary's church was erected in 1740, St. 
James's church in 1814, and the Presbyte- 
rian chapel in 1717. The Eochdale canal 
was opened in 1804. Eochdale first sent 
a member to parliament in 1832. 

EocHEFOKT (France) was founded by 
Louis XIV. A.D. 1644, and made a naval 
station in 1666. An expedition against 
Eoehefort, contemplated by the English in 
1757, was not carried out. In 1809 Lord 
Cochrane burnt five French vessels which 
lay at anchor here. Napoleon I., defeated 
in a vain attempt to escape to America after 
the battle of Waterloo, gave himself up at 
Eoehefort, July 15, 1815, to Captain Mait- 
land, of the Bellerophon. A million of francs 
was voted in 1840 for building a fort to pro- 
tect the roadstead. 

EocHELLE (France). — By the marriage of 
Eleanor of Guienne to Henry II., May 18, 
1152, this town came into the hands of the 
English, and was captured by Louis VIII. in 
1224. In 1360 it was ceded to England, but 
was finally recovered by Bertrand de Gues- 
clin in 1372. The Huguenots held it from 
1557 to Oct. 28, 1628, when it surrendered 
to Louis XIII. who razed it to the ground. 
It was again fortified by Vauban in the reign 
of Louis XIV. An attempt made by the 
English in 1809 to destroy the French fleet 
here, was only partly successful. 

EocHESTER (Bishopric). — This diocese 
was founded by Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
A.D. 604, and Augustine ordained Justus 
as its first bishop. The patronage of the see 
was vested in the archbishop of Canterbury 
by Eang John, Nov. 22, 1214. By an 
order in council Aug. 8, 1845, great altera- 
tions were made in its extent and territory, 
large districts in Xent being separated from 
Eochester and added to Canterbury and 
London, in exchange for the whole county 
of Hertford and the greater part of Essex. 

EocHESTEB (Kent) . — A missionary 
church, afterwards the cathedral, was es- 
tabhshed here a.d. 600, by St. Augustine, 
who consecrated Justus first bishop of Eo- 
chester in 604. The cathedral suffered much 
from the incursions of the Danes, and at 
tbe Norman conquest was in ruins. Gun- 
dulph, who was made bishop in 1077, restored 



ROC 

it. The castle is supposed to have been 
built by Odo of Bayeux in 1087. The ca- 
thedral was roofed vrith lead in 1199, and it 
suffered much in 1264 from the troops of 
Simon de Montfort, who used it as a stable 
while they were besieging the castle. Queen 
Elizabeth visited Eochester in 1573, and 
James I. and the king of Denmark in 1606. 
Watt's hospital was built in 1579, the church 
of St. Nicholas was rebuilt in 1624, and the 
town-haUwas founded in 1687. A free school 
was founded in 1701. The bridge was rebuilt 
in 1857. 

Eochester (North America) was incor- 
porated as a village in 1817, and as a city in 
1834. In 1812 the post was brought on 
horseback by a woman. 

Eockets for war purposes were invented 
by SirW. Congreve, Bart., born May 20, 1772, 
and died May 14, 1828. They were fii'st used 
in an attack upon Boulogne, Oct, 8, 1806. 
They were employed at the siege of Copen- 
hagen in 1807, at the bombardment of 
Flushing in 1809, at the battle of Leipsic, 
Oct. 16 to 18, 1813, and at Waterloo, June 
18, 1815. At the siege of Acre in 1840, the 
explosion of the powder magazine, which 
proved so disastrous to the enemy, is said to 
have been caused by a rocket. 

EOCKINGHAM ADMIlflSTRATION-S. — The 

first was formed on the dissolution of the 
Grenville administration {q.v.) in July, 1765, 
and the marquis of Eockingham was ga- 
zetted first lord of the Treasury July 13. 
The cabinet was thus constituted : — 



Treasury Marquis of Eockingham. 

Lord Chancellor Karl of Northington. 

President of the Council .. Earl of Winchelsea. 

Privy Seal Duke of Newcastle. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Mr. Dowdeswell. 
Principal Secretaries of ) Duke of Grafton and 

State j Mr. Conway. 

Admiralty Earl of Egmont 

Board of Trade Earl of Dartmouth. 

The duke of Grafton resigned, and the duke 
of Eichmond was appointed one of the 
principal secretaries of state in his place. 
May 6, 1766. This administration was suc- 
ceeded by the Chatham (second) administra- 
tion (q. v.), July 30, 1766. The second Eock- 
ingham administration took office on the 
dissolution of the North administration 
{q.v.), March 20, 1782. The cabinet was 
thus constituted : — 

Treasuiy , .Marquis of Eockingham. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Thmiow. 

President of the Council .. Lord Camden. 

Privy Seal Duke of Grafton. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .Lord John Cavendish. 

•priTK-inal SpcvPt-iriP^ off^'^'^ "^ Shelbume and 
Principal Secietanes of I jj^_ Charies James 

^^^ I Fox. 

Admiralty Viscount Keppel. 

Commander-in-Chief General Conway. 

Ordnance Duke of Kichmond. 

Duchy.of Lancaster . ■ . - {""^J^TS^^^" 

Mr, Thomas Townshend was secretary at 
war, and Edmund Burke paymaster-general 
in this administration, which was dissolved 
727 



EOC 

on the death of the marquis of Eockinghain, 
July 1, 1782. {See Shelbueh'e Admih'is- 

TEATIOM".) 

EocKT Mors-TAiiTS (North America). — 
This extensive mountain-range of Xorth 
America commences on the south with the 
plateau and Cordilleras of Mexico and Cali- 
fornia, and terminates on the north in the 
broken ridges of Eussian America. Alexan- 
der Mackenzie, employed by the North- 
west Tur Company, was the first European 
who crossed these mountains. He accom- 
phshed this feat in 1793. Messrs. Lewis and 
Clarke, dispatched by the United States Go- 
vernment to reach the Pacific overland, suc- 
ceeded, after a toilsome march of 50 days, 
in crossing the Eocky Mountains in 1805. 

EocEOT (France) was only a village until 
fortified by Francis I. to defend the north- 
em frontier, a.d. 1537. It was raised to 
the rank of a town in the reign of Henry II. 
(1547 to 1559). Eocroy is celebrated as the 
scene of the great victory gained by the 
French, under the youthful prince de Conde, 
over the Spaniards and Walloons; under 
Francisco de Melo, May 19, 1643. In this 
battle, which laid the foundation of Conde's 
military renown, 9,000 Spaniards and Wal- 
loons were slain. 

EoDEz (France) is mentioned by Ptolemy, 
who lived about the middle of the 2nd cen- 
tury, under the name of Segodunum, as the 
principal town of theEuteni, apeople of Gaul. 
Eodez became the capital of the province of 
Eouergne in the Middle Ages, and was 
united to the crown of France on the acces- 
sion of Henry IV. in 1589. It is the seat of 
a bishop, and contains a fine Gothic cathe- 
dral of the 13th century. 

EoGATioifs. {See Litanies.) 

Eo&ATiox Week. — In former times it 
was a general custom for the people to ac- 
company the bishop or some of the clergy 
into the fields, on one of the three days pre- 
ceding Holy Thursday, to implore the mercy 
of God, to pray that he would avert the e^ils 
of plague and pestilence, that he would send 
good and seasonable weather, and give 
in due season the fruits of the earth. 
The litanies or rogations then used gave 
this week the name of rogation week. They 
were first observed by Mamertius, bishop 
of Vienna, a.d. 5-50. He introduced, at the 
same time, the custom of perambulating pa- 
rishes during rogation week. In the canons 
of Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury, 
made in 747, the clergy and the people are 
ordered to observe with great reverence the 
three days before Ascension-day, according 
to the custom of our forefathers. In the 
injunctions issued in Ehzabeth's reign (1558 
to 1603) it is ordered that the people, vrith 
the curate and substantial men of the parish, 
shall walk about the parishes with wiUow 
wands, and at their return to church make 
their common prayers; that the curate, 
at certain and convenient places, shall 
admonish the people to give thanks to God, 
in the beholding of God's benefits, for 
the increase and abmidance of his fruits. 



EOL 

saying the 103rd Psahn, &c., at which time 
the minister shall inculcate this or such- 
like sentences : " Cursed be he which trans- 
lateth the bounds and doles of his neigh- 
bour ;" or such order of prayer as shall be 
hereafter appointed. , 

EoHiicusp (Hindostan). — This province 
was occupied by the Mongols under Baber 
A.D. 1526, and became a flourishing country. 
A body of Affghans of the tribe of Eoh, or 
EohiUas, conquered it about 1673. The 
nabob of Oude, who had long coveted the 
country, entered into a treaty, in 1773, with 
Warren Hastings, for its subjugation, and a 
quarrel with the EohiUas was made the pre- 
text for claiming the assistance of the British. 
A corps under Colonel Champion defeated 
the Eohillas, April 23, 1774, and the country 
was handed over to the nabob, who put several 
tribes to the sword, vnthout regard to sex or 
age. It was ceded to the British, Nov. 4, 
1801. A body of 15,000 Mahratta horse, 
under Meer JEChan, invaded Eohilcund in 
February, 1805, and took possession of its 
capital, Moradabad. A British force imme- 
diately marched on the town, when the 
Mahrattas fled; but were pursued and de- 
feated, March 2. They sufifered a second 
defeat March 10, which so disheartened 
the survivors, that they retired across the 



EoHiLiAS. — This tribe of Affghans, from 
the mountains which separate Persia from 
India, erected an independent state in Hin- 
dostan, about A.D, 1738. They defeated the 
last army the Mongols ever assembled, in 
1749. The Mahrattas invaded and devastated 
their country in 1771, when Zabita Khan, 
their chief, made a treaty vrith the subahdar 
of Oude for their expidsion ; but he made no 
effort to perform this service. The Mahrattas 
retired across the Ganges ; but returned in 
1772, and extorted a sum of money as the 
price of their retreat. The subahdar of Oude 
made a treaty with Warren Hastings, in 
October, 1773, for the assistance of English 
troops in the conquest and extermination of 
the Eohillas. A British force was despatched 
against them, and an obstinate battle took 
place, April 23, 1774, when the Eohillas were 
defeated. They were now in the power 
of the nabob, who put man, woman, and 
child to the sword. The EohiUas, with few 
exceptions, were exterminated. 

EoLicA (Battle). — The French, under 
Laborde, were defeated near this town, in 
Portugal, by the Enghsh and Portuguese 
commanded by Sir Arthur WeUesley, Aug. 17, 
1808. 

EoLLS Chapel (London), founded by 
Henry III. (a.d. 1216 to 1272), as an hospital 
for the reception of converted Jews, was 
soon crowded with converts. Edward I. 
bestowed upon it half the estates of several 
Jews, who were hanged for chipping the 
current coin, in 1279. The expulsion of the 
Jews from England in 1290, to the number 
of 16,511, caused the House of Converts to 
become neglected. They appear to have 
retained their residence till 1377, when the 



EOM 

house was converted into a receptacle for 
valuable records, or rolls of parchment ; and 
hence the present name. 

EoMAGNA (Italy). — This name was given 
in the Middle Ages to a tract of country 
north of the Apennines, extending along the 
coast of the Adriatic, from the river Pogha, 
near Pesaro, to the Scoltenna, or Panaro, 
which partly separates Bologna from Mo- 
dena. The name of Komagna, or Eoman- 
diola, is said to have been given to it in 
consequence of the exarchs having fixed their 
residence at Eavenna (a.d. 568), which 
thereby became a second Eome, being the 
seat of the imperial government in Italy. 
It was annexed to the Papal states by 
Julius II. (1503 to 1513). After the division 
of the country into legations, the name of 
Eomagna continued in use, being applied 
more especially to the eastern part of the 
country near the Adriatic. The inhabitants 
of the Eomagna decided in favour of annex- 
ation to Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860. 

EoMAiNTiLLE (Battle). — The French, after 
a desperate resistance, were defeated by 
the allies on this elevation, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Paris, March 30, 1814. 

EoMAif Catholics. — The following table 
exhibits the most important incidents in 
the history of the Eoman CathoUcs or 
Papists : — 



1535. Henry VIII. puts to death several Eiman 
Catholics who deny his spiritual suprem- 
acy. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More 
being among the number. 

1581. It is declared treason to make Eomanist 
proselytes from the Established Church, by 
23 Eliz. c. 1. 

1585. It is made felony to relieve a Boman Catholic 
priest, by 27 Eliz. c. 2. 

1593. Popish recusants are prohibited from wan- 
dering above five miles from their houses, 
by 35 Eliz. c. 2. 

1604 Roman Catholics are prohibited from sending 
their children to foreign places for their 
education, by 1 James I. c. 4. 

1605. The Gunpowder PJot (q. v.). 

1672. Papists are prohibited from holding offices 
under government, by 25 Charles II. c. 2. 

1677. Papists are excluded from Parliament by 

30 Charles II. st. 2. 

1678. Oates's plot (q. v.) occasions the death of many 

Koman Catholics,, on a charge of implica- 
tion therein. 
1689. They are excluded from the benefits of the 

Toleration Act, 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18, s. 17. 

Papists are debaixed the crown, by 1 Will. 

& Mary, sess. 2, c. 2. 
1780. They are perseciited by the mob in the Gordon 

riots. 
1791. Eoman Catholics are released from various 

penalties and disabUities by 31 Geo. III. 

1824. The Eoman Catholic Association is founded 
at Dublin, by Mr. Daniel O'Connell. 

1829. Feb. 12. The Eoman Catholic Association 
votes its own dissolution. March 30. The 
Eoman Catholic Belief BUI passes the 
Commons by a majority of 178. April 10. 
It is passed by the Lords, majority 104. 
April 13. It receives the royal siguatiu-e, 
and appears among the statutes as 10 Geo. 
IV. c. 7. AprU 28. The duke of Norfolk 
and Lords Clifford and Dormer take their 
oaths ana seats in the house of Peers, being 
the first Eoman Catholic members of that 



EOM 



1832. Aug. 15. Roman Catholics are placed on the 
same footing as Protestant Dissenters as 
respects theii' places of worship, &c., by 
2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115. 

1840. St. George's Eoman Catholic Cathedi'al is 
erected in Southwark. 

1844. Aug. 9. The Eoman Catholics are released 
from many oijpressive restrictions by 7 & 8 
Vict. c. 102, 

1850. Sept. 24. The Pope publishes a buU esta- 
blishing a Eomish priesthood in Great 
Britain. 
1851. April 22. The Boman Catholic Defence As- 
sociation is formed at Dublin. Aug. 1. The 
establishment of a Eoman Catholic hie- 
rarchy in Great Britain is prohibited by 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 60,— the Ecclesiastical Titles 
BiU (q. v.). 

EoMANCES. — The earliest work in this 
species of writing is a Greek romance, called 
" Theagenes and Chariclea," by Hehodorus, 
bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, who flourished 
about A.D. 390, and is called the " Father 
ofEomanoes." European romantic fiction 
may be said to have originated with the 
legendary stories, of English origin, relating 
to Arthur and the knights of the Eound 
Table, which were reduced into prose in the 
course of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. 

EoMAKTS (Epistle). — According to Gres- 
well and Neander, this epistle was written 
by the apostle Paiil, at Cenchrea, near Co- 
rinth, A.D. 56. Alford dates its production 
at Corinth, a.d. 58. A person named Tertius 
acted as his amanuensis. 

EoMAM- Walls were erected to defend 
Britain from the incursions of the Picts and 
Scots. The first wall, 80 Eoman miles in 
length, extended from the Tyne to the Sol- 
way Frith, and was built by the emperor 
Hadrian, a.d. 121. The second wall, 32 
Eoman miles in length, extended from the 
Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, and 
was built by LoUius XJrbicus, in the reign of 
Antoninus Pius, about 140. The first wall 
was renewed and strengthened by Septimius 
Severus, in 208. It had battlements and 
towers to contain soldiers. Many remains 
of these walls stUl exist. 

Eome (Italy). — Chronologists have re- 
ferred the foundation of Eome to various 
dates: — Varro, B.C. 753; Cato, b.c. 751; 
Polybius, B.C. 750 ; Fabius Pictor, B.C. 
747; and Cineius, B.C. 728. The com- 
putation of Varro is that usually adopted. 
Councils were held at Eome in 197, 251, 
256, 258, 260, 313; June, 342; 349, 352, 
358, 364, 366, 367, 369, 372, 374, 375, 
377, 378, 379, 382 ; Jan. 6, 386 ; in 390, 
400 ; Aug. 11, 430 ; in May, 431 ; July 31, 
433; in 444, 445; Sept. 29, 447; Feb. 22, 
449; in Oct. 449; 451, 458, 462; Nov. 17, 
465 ; Oct. 5, 485 ; March 13, 488 ; in 495 ; 
496 ; March 1, 499 ; in 501 ; Nov. 6, 502 ; in 
503, 504, 530 ; Dec. 7, 531 ; in 534 ; Dec. 
590 ; Feb, 591 ; July 5, 595 ; in 600 ; April 5, 
601 ; in 606 ; Feb. 27, 610 ; in 640 ; Jan. 
641 ; 648, 650 ; Dec. 19, 667 ; m Oct. 679 ; 
March 27, 680 ; in 704, 721, 731, 732 ; March 
22, 743, Oct. 25, 745 ; April 12, 769 ; m 774, 
799; Dec. 800; 816,823; Nov. 15, 826 ; in 848; 
Dec. 8, 853 ; in 860, 861, 862, 863, 868 ; Oct. 4, 
729 



EOM 

868; in 872, 875; in April, 876; July, 877 
878 ; May 1, 879 ; in Aug. 879 ; 896 or 897 
898, 949 ; ISToY. 6 to 22, 963 ; Feb. 26, 964 
in Jan. 967 ; 968, 969 ; April 23, 971 ; in 975' 
989, 996; April 24, 998 ; Jan. 6, 1001 ; Dec. 3^ 
1002 ; ISTov. 1, 1007 ; April 6, 1027 ; in 1044 
Jan. 1047 ; April 11, 1049 ; May 2, 1050 ; in 
1051, 1053 ; April 18, 1057 ; AprU 13, 1059 
in 1061, 1083, 1065,1070, 1072; Feb. 24, 1075 
in 1076; Lent, 1078; Nov. 1078; Feb 
1079; 1080; May 4, 1081 ; IS'ov. 20, 1083 ; in 
1084; Jan. 1085; 1089; Aug. 7, 1098 
April 25, 1099; in March, 1102; 1104 
March 26, 1105, in May, 1105 ; March 7 
1110 ; in 1144, 1200 ; K"ov. 1210 ; Nov. 18 
1227; in 1228; Oct. 30, 1302; in 1412, and 
1413. 



B.C. 

753. April 21. Romulus founds Home on the Pala- 
tine Mount. 
750. The forcible abduction of the Sabine women 

leads to a war with the Sabines. 
747. The Sabines settle on the Capitoline and 
the Quirinal, and form a league with Ko- 
mulus. 

732. Romulus founds the Circensian games. 

716. He is assassinated by the senators. 

715. The Romans elect Nimia Pompilius as his 
successor. 

710. Numa regulates the priesthood about this 
year. 

670. The victory of the Horatii renders Alba sub- 
ject to Rome. 

665. Tullus Hostihus defeats the Albans and de- 
stroys their city. 

640. Rise of the plebeian order, and foundation of 
the port of Ostia. 

621. The Laureutalia festivals are established. 

615. Foundation of the Capitol (g. v.). 

605. The Circus Maximus is erected. 

600. The Cloaose are built. 

578. The first Roman money is coined. 

566. The fii-st census is taken, and the number of 
citizens estimated at. 84,700. 

550. Servius Tullius divides the Romans into sue 
classes, institutes the Comitia Centuriata, 
and surrounds Rome with a wall and 
ditch. 

534. Sei-vius is murdered by his daughter, Tullia, 
and her husi-and, Tarquinius Superbus. 

520. The Sibylline b^oks are removed from Cuma 
or Cum£e to Rome. 

510. The violation of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius 
results in the expulsion of the Tarquins 
and the establishment of a consular go- 
vernment, under L. Junius Bnitus and 
Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. 

508. The Romans conclude a commercial treaty 
with Carthage. Rome is taken by Por- 
senna ot Clusium. 

502. War is commenced against the Latins. 

500. The patricians and plebeians commence their 
civil contests. 

499. The dictatorship is instituted, and the 
Romans are victorious at Lake EeffUlus 
{q. v.). 

496. The Romans take Fidense {q. v.). 

494. The plebeians secede to Mous Sacer the 
Sacred Mountain. ' 

493. Rome is compelled to acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of the Latins. Caius Mai-tius 
takes Corioli {q. v.). The Comitia Tributa 
are established, and the city is visited by a 
severe famine. 

491. Coriolanus is banished, and takes refuge with 
the Volscians. 

489. He leads a besieging army of Volscians against 
Rome. 

488. At the intercession of his mother, Volumnia, 
he withdraws from Rome, and is murdered 
by the incensed Volscians. 
730 



ROM 



486. The first Agrarian law {q. v.) is proposed, for 
the division of the conquered territory of 
the Hemici. 
485. Quc-estors are appointed. 

477. July 16. The family of the Fabii,with the ex- 
ception of one child, perishes in battle with 
the Veientes at the Cremera. 
474. A truce of forty years is concluded with 

Veil. 
471. Tlie PublUia lex is passed, which vests the 
election of the plebeian magistrates in the 
Comitia Tributa. 
468. The Romans take Antium. 
460. L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, "awful from the 

plough," is elected to the consulship. 
458. He is made dictator, and delivers the Romans 

from the Sabines and the .S;qui. 
456. The Aventine Mount is assigned to the ple- 
beians. 
454. An embassy is despatched to Greece to in- 
vestigate the Grecian laws. 
451. Appointment of the Decemviri. 
449. Lu consequence of the attempted violation of 
Virginia by Appius Claudius, and her de- 
livery from his p:)wer by death at the 
hands of her father, the decemvirate is 
abolished ; and the plebeians secede a 
second time to the Sacred Hill. 
447. The election of the qutestors is, for the first 

time, intrusted to the plebeians. 
445. Marriage between patricians and plebeians is 

permitted by the Lex Canuleia. 
444 Three military tribunes are elected. 
443. The office of censor and that of the naval 

duumviri are instituted. 
440. Rome is visited by a severe famine. 
438. The Fidenreans revolt, but are reduced to 

subjection the following year. 
434. War is declared against the Etruscans. 
433. The Temple of Apollo is dedicated. 
431. Tnbertius defeats the JHqai and Volsci at 

Mount Algidus. 
426. Fidense again revolts, and is taken and de- 
stroyed by the Romans. 
420. The number of quaestors is raised from two to 

four. 
418. I^avici is taken from the Mrim, and erected 

into a Roman colony. 
409. Three plebeian quaestors are elected. 
407. The Romans are defeated by the Volscians. 
406. The Roman army first receives regular pay 

this year. 
405. The Romans lay siege to Veil. 
403. Bachelore are taxed by the " ..Es Uxorum." 
400. The first Lectistemium, or public banquet of 
the gods, is celebrated, in consequence of a 
plague. 
396. Veil is taken by the dictator Camillus. 
393. The lands of the Veiientes are partitioned 

among the plebeians. 
390. July 16. The Gauls, under Brennus, defeat 
the Romans at the battle of Allia. July 19. 
They enter and bum Rome. 
389. The city is rebuilt. 
387. Institution of the Capitoline games. 
384 Manlius Capitolinus is convicted of ha-\'ing 
aimed at sovereign power, and is hurled 
from the Tarpeiau rock. 
380. Prteneste is taken by the Romans. 
376. Civil war recommences between the patri- 
cians and plebeians. 
367. The " Rogationes Licinise," passed this year, 
enact that one of the consuls shall be a 
plebeian. 
365. Lucius Sextus is the first plebeian elevated to 
the consular dignity. The oflSce of prsetor 
is instituted; and cumle oediles are first 
appointed. 
364 The Ludi Scenici, instituted this year in 
eonsequ«nce of a pestilence, are the earliest 
dramatic performances held at Rome. 
362. M. Curtius, in obedience to an oracle, leaps 

into a gulf opened in the Forum. 
36L ManUus Torquatus defeats the Gallic cham- 
piozi. 



EOM 



EOM 



354. An alliance is concluded with the Samnites. 
350. The Gallic invaders of It^ly are defeated by 

the consul Popilius. 
348. The treaty with Carthage is renewed. 
343. The Samnite wai-s commence. 
342. The army mutinies at Capua, and the ple- 
beians rise in insurrection. 
341. Peace is concluded with the Samnites. 
338. The Latins and Campanians submit to Rome. 
337. The vestal Misurtia is buried alive for break- 
ing her vow of chastity. 
3.34. Gales, in Campania, is made a Roman colony. 
332. A league is concluded with Alexander of 

Epinis. 
327. The Samnite war recommences. 
323. A league is concluded with the Apuleians and 

the Leucanians. 
321. The Romans sustain the terrible defeat 

known as the Caudine Forks (q. v.). 
314. A revolt of the Campanians is suppressed. 
312. The "Via Appia, the first Roman military 

road, is constructed by Appius Claudius. 
307. The Samnites are defeated by the proconsul 

Fabius at the battle ot AUifae. 
304. Peace is concluded with the Samnites. 
300. The Lex Ogulina admits the plebeians to the 

priesthood. 
298. The third Samnite war commences. 
295. The Romans defeat the allied Etruscans, 

Gauls, Samnites, and Umbrians at Sen- 
tin um, 
290. The Samnites are finally defeated, and sue 

for peace, which terminates the Samnite 

wars. 
289. The Triumviri Capitales are appointed. 
286. The last secession of the plebeians takes 

place. 
285. The Romans are defeated at Arretium. 
283. Etruria is annexed to the Roman territories. 
281. PyiThus, king of Epirus, engages in war 

against the Romans. 
280. Pyrrhus dt- feats the Romans at the battle of 

Pandosia, near Heracleia. 
278. He is victorious at Asculum. 
275. He is defeated at the great battle of Bene- 

ventum. 
273. An embassy is received from Ptolemy Phila- 

delphus, king of Egypt. 
269. The first silvc- coinage is struck at Rome. 
266. The whole of Italy is subjected to Rome. 
264 Commencement of the Punic wars (g. v.). 

Gladiators flist exhibit at Rome. 
260. The Romans build theu- first fleet. 
254. Panormus, in SicUy, is besieged and taken by 

the Romans. 
250. The Roman general Regulus is cruelly exe- 
cuted at Carthage {q. v.) ; and the revolt of 

the Falisci is suppressed. 
247. The Cai-thaginians invade Italy. 
241. End of the first Punic war. Sicily is reduced 

to a Roman province ; and a revolt of the 

Falisci is suppressed. 
235. A revolt is suppressed in Sardinia ; and, the 

empire being at peace, the temple of Janus 

is closed. 
231. Corsica and Sardinia are annexed to the 

Roman dominions. 
228. The Romans send an embassy to Greece for 

the first time. 
225. The Gauls invade Italy, and are defeated at 

Clusium. 
222. Marcellus defeats the Gauls at Clastidium 

(q. v.). 
220. The Circus Flaminius is built, and the Via 

f laminia constructed. . 
218. Commencement of the second Punic war. 
217. Hannibal defeats Flamioius at Lake Thrasy- 

mene. 
216. Aug. 2. The battle of Cannae (q. v.). 
215. The extravagance of the Roman ladies is 

restrained by the Lex Oppia. 
213. The Romans engage in war with Philip of 

Macedon. 
208. Marcellus is defeated and slain by Hannibal 

near Venusia. 
203. The battle of Zama (q.v.) 



197. Philip of Macedon is defeated at the battle of 
Cynoscephalje {q.v.), which ends the war 
against him. Citizens are exempted from 
scourging and capital pimishments by the 
Lex Porcia. 

191. "War is commenced against Antiochus the 
Great of Syria. 

188. Peace with Antiochus is ratified. 

183. Death of Scipio Af licanus. 

181. Discovery of the^sacred books of Numa Pom- 
pilius. 

179. Tiberius Gracchus subdues the Celtiberians 

174. The Roman streets are paved this year. 

171. The third Macedonian war is commenced. 

168. June 22. Perseus, king of Mauedon, is de- 
feated at the battle of Pydna, and his 
kingdom is added to the Roman states. 

167. The first public library is opened at Rome. 

161. Philosophers and orators are banished from 
the city. 

156. Conunencement of the wars with Dalmatia 

(q.v.). 

149. Commencement of the third Punic war. 
146. Subjection of Epirus, and destruction of Car- 
thage and Corinth. 
140. The Numantine war commences. 
138. Lusitania is annexed to Rome. 
134. Commencement of the Servile war in Sicily. 
133. Pergamus and Spain become Roman pro- 
vinces. Legislation and muider of Tiberitis 
Gracchus. 
132. ConclusiiiU of the Servile war. 
121. The war of the Classes breaks out in Rome, 
and results in the death of Caius Giucchtis. 
115. Submission of the Ligures. 
112. Commencement of the Cimbrian war. 
111. The Jugurthine war (q.v.) is commenced in 

Africa. 
106. Jugurtha is made prisoner, and Numidla 
becomes a Roman province. Cicero and 
Pompey are bom this year. 
102, The eagle becomes the national standard. 
The second Servile war breaks out In 
Sicily. 
100. July 12. Birth of Julius C»sar. 
96. Cyrenaica is bequeathed to the Roman re- 
public. 
91. Commencement of the Marsian or Social 

war. 
88. The inhabitants of Southern Italy are ad- 
mitted to the rights of Roman citizens, 
and the Marsian war is thereby concluded. 
The Mithridatic war and the civil wars of 
Marius and Sylla commence this year. 
87. Anarchy prevails at Rome, owing to the fac- 
tions of Sylla and Marius. 
86. Death of Caius Marius. 
84. End of the first Mithridatic war. 
83. The Capitol is destroyed by fire, and the 

second Mithridatic war commences. 
82. Sylla takes Rome, and publishes his pro- 
scription, which results in the destruction 
of 150,000 lives. He is declared perpetual 
dictator. 
81. The second Mithridatic war is concluded. 
79. Abdication of SyUa. 

74. Commencement of the third Mithridatic 
war. Bithynia and Cyrenaica become 
Roman provinces. 
73. The Servile "War of Italy is commenced by 
the revolt of 70,000 slaves under Spar- 
tacus. 
71. Spartacus is killed, and the insurrection is 

suppressed. 
69. "War is undertaken against the Cretans. 
67. Crete is erected into a Roman province. 
65. Catiline's first conspiracy. 
64. Pompey erects Svria into a Roman province. 
63. Suppression of Catiline's conspiracy (q. v.). 
60, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus form the first 

triumvirate. 
58, The sedUe Scaurus erects his marble theatre, 
which is said to have accommodated 30,000 
pei-sons. Banishment of Cicero, and com- 
mencement of Caesar's campaigns in GauL 
731 



EOM 



EOM 



55. Caesar invades Britain (g.v.). 

54. Commencement of the Parthian Tvar. 

52. The murlerof Claudius by the partisans of 
Milo occasions a riot at Eome, in which 
the senate-house is burnt down. 

51. Gaul is erected into a Roman province. 

49. Civil war commences between Pompey and 

Cassar. 
48. Pompey i- defeated at Pharsalia {q. v.). 

47. Csesar defeats Pharnaces, king of Pontus, at 

Zela (q.v.). 

46. Apiil 6. He defeats Sclpio and Juba at 
Tliapsus. Suicide of Cato at Utica. 
Cccsar is made dictator for ten years. 

44. March 15. Assassination of Julius Csesar, 
by Brutus, Cassius, and other conspira- 
tors. 

43. The second triumvii-ate is formed by Octavius, 

Mark Antony, and Lepidus. Cicero is put 
to death by order of Antony. 
42. The republiuaiis, under Bi-utus and Cassius, 
are defeated by the forces of the trium- 
virate at the battle of Philippi ((/.».). 

41. The Perusirtn war breaks out between 

Antony and Octavius. 
40. Antony is rei-onciled to Octavius, and man-ies 

his sister Octavia. 
36. Lepidus is excluded from the triumvirate. 
34. Death of the historian SaUust. Dalinatia is 

made a Roman province. 
32. Civil war commences between Antony and 

Octavius. 
31. Sept. 2. Defeat of Antony at Activun (?.».). 

30. Octavius is sole master of Rome. 
29. The temple of Janus is again closed. 

27. Rome becomes an empire under Octavius, 
who assumes the title of Augustus Cwsar. 
25. The Pantheon is built. 

22. The conspiracy of Murena is suppressed. 
12. Augiistus is made pontifex maximus. 

8. Death of Horace and his patron Maecenas. 
4. April 5. Jesus Christ is born in Judsea. 

A.U. 

9. Dalmatia is finally subdued by Tiberius. Ovid 

is exiled to Tomis. 
14 Aug. 19. Death of Aucrustus. 

17. Cappaddcia becomes a Roman province. 

18. Death of Ovid and Livy. 

23. Sejanus, the prtetorian prefect, obtains entire 

ascendancy over Tiberius, and poisons 
Drusus. 
27. Tiberius retiies to Capri, and Thrace becomes 
a Roman province. 

31. Condemnation and execution of Sejanns. 

42. Conquest of Mauritania, which is divided 

into two provinces. 

44. Judaea is reduced to a Roman province by 

Plautius. 

48. The infamous Messalina, wife of Claudius I. 

is put to death on a charge of conspiracy. 
Lycia is made a Roman province. 

50. The British chief Caractacus, king of the 

Silures, is can-ied prisoner to Rome. 

59. Nero puts his- mother Agiippina to death. 

60. He institutes the Quinquenalian Games, or 

the Neronia festival. 

64. Rome is nearly destroyed by a fire, said to 

have been occasioned by Nero. 

65. St. Paul, St. Peter, the poet Lucan, and the 

philosopher Seneca, are put to death by 
order of Nero, who kills his wife Poppsea 
by a kick. 

68. June 9. Nero, alarmed at the revolt of 

Vindex in Gaul, and Otho in Lusitania, 
stabs himself . 

69. AprU 4. Vitellius secures the sceptre by the 

battle of Beciriacum {q.v.). 
71. TitiLs and Vespasian celebrate theii- triumph 

for the capture of Jerusalem (q.v.), and 

the temiile of Janus is closed. 
75. Vespasian founds the Coliseum {q.v.). The 

censorship is abolished, and the Temple of 

Peace completed. 
80. A fire rages at Rome for three days. 
84. Domitian assumes the surname of Germanicus. 
86. The Dacian war is commenced. 
732 



Commencement of the Sarmatian war. 

Dacia is made a Roman province, and Arabia 
Petriea is conquered. Trajan marches into 
the East. 

Ti-ajan's column is erected in the Fonim. 

The Pai-thian war commences. 

Armenia becomes a Roman px'ovince. 

Hadrian commences a tour through the 
provinces. 

Wai- is commenced with the Jews. 

End of the Jewish w;ir. 

The pillar of Antoninus is erected at Eome. 

LucUla is exiled and put to death, for con- 
spiring against her brother Commodus. 

A destructive fire takes place at Rome. 

Capture and destruction of Byzantium (q.v.). 

The triumphal arch of Severus is erected 
at Rome. 

Cai-acalla extends the privileges of Roman 
citizens to all his subjects who are wUiiug 
to pay for them. 

May 16. ElagabaluB revolts at Antioch, and 
secures the im]jerial throne. 

The Gothx exact tribute from the Romans. 

The empire is invaded by the Goths. 

Peace with the Goths is purchased. 

The barbarians invade the empire on every 
side. 

The legions in various provinces set up nume- 
rous candidates for the empire, who are 
known as the Thirty Tyrants, although 
Gibbon states that their number did not 
exceed nineteen. 

Claudius II. defeats the Goths at the great 
battle of Naissus. 

Dacia is separated from the empire, and 
abandoned to the Goths. 

The Alemanni and the Marcomanni are de- 
feated, and the walls of Rome are restored. 

Siege and capture of Palmyra. 

Aurelian founds the Temple of the Sun. 

Aug. 29. Commencement of the Diocletian 
oera {q.v.). 

April 1. Diocletian associates Maxlmian with 
himself in the goverament. 

March 1. The empire is divided into four 
sovereignties under Maximian, Diocletian, 
Galerius, and Cimstamius. 

Galerius extends the empire eastward as far 
as the Tigris. 

May 1. Abdication of Diocletian and 
Maximian. 

Constjiutiue dies at York, and is succeeded 
by his son Constantine the Great. 

Constautine I. marries Fausta, daughter of 
his rival Maximian. 

Six emperors contend for the Roman empire ; 
viz., Galerius, Licinius, Maximiuus, Maxi- 
mian, Maxentius, and Constautine. 

Maximian is captured by Constautine I., and 
strangled at Marseilles. 

Death of Galerius. 

Constantine I. adopts as his ensign the sign of 
the cross {q.v.), and establishes Christianity 
as the state religion at Rome. Oct. 27. 
Maxentius is flually defeated by Constan- 
tine I. at Saxa Rubia, and is drowned in 
the Tiber in his flight. 

April 30. Maximiuus is defeated by Licinius 
at Hei-acleia, and dies at Tarsus shortly 
aftei-wards. 

Oct. 8. Constantine I. defeats his rival Lici- 
nius at Cibalis {q.v.). 

Sept. 18. Licinius is finally defeated at the 
battle of Chrysopolis, after which Con- 
stantine I. reigns alone. 

Licinius is treacherously murdered by order 
of Constantine I., who removes to Coustau- 
tinople {q.v.). 

The empress Fausta is put to death. 

The seat of government is transferred to 
Constantinople, and Christia'iity is for- 
mally recosniized as the established reli- 
gion. Constantine I. divides the empire into 
the Eastern, Illyrian, Italian, and Gallic 
praefectuxes. 



EOM 



EOM 



331. The heathen temples are destroyed. 

334. A revolt of 300,000 Sanuatian slaves is sup- 
pressed. 

337. May 22. Death of Constantine I. Sept. 11. 
Coiistantine II. reigns in Gaul, Constans 
in Italy and Africa, and Constantius in 
the East. 

840. March. Constans defeats his rival Con- 
stantine 11. at Aquileia, and puts him to 
death. 

350. Constans is put to death in Gaul by the 
rebel Mageutius. 

355. Julian marries Helena, sister of the emperor, 
and is proclaimed Caesar. 

360. Julian is proclaimed Augustus by the legions 
at Paris. He immediately abjures Chris- 
tianity, but publishes a decree of universal 
toleration. 

363. Julian invades Persia, and is killed in battle. 

June 26. He is succeeded by Jovian, who 
restores Christianity. 

364. March 28. Valentinian shares the empire 

with his brother Valens, who reigns as 
Augustus at Constantinople. This division 
originates the Eastern and Western em- 
pu-es (q. v.). 

395. The government of the Western empire is 
transferred from Rome to Milan. 

404. Honorius restores the walls of Rome. 

408. Rome is besieged by Alaric, king of the 
Goths, who letires the following year on 
thn receipt, of a heavy ransom. 

410. Aug. 24. It is taken by Alaric and submitted 
to a six diys' pillage. 

417. The restoration of the city is completed. 

455. June 15 to 29. Rome is taken and sacked by 
the Vandals under Genseric. 

472. July 11. It is sacked by Count Ricuner, gene- 
ral of the barbarians. 

476. Odoacer takes Rome and assumes the title of 
king of Italy, which event terminates the 
history of ancient Rome, and puts an end 
to the Western empire. 

500. Theodoric visits Rome. 

536. Dec. 10. Belisarius enters Rome. 

537. March 11. Vitiges, king of the Goths, lays 

siege to Rome. 

538. March. He is compelled to raise the siege by 

Belisarius. 

546. May. Another siege is commenced by the 

Gothic king Toiila, who takes the city 
December 17. 

547. Feb. Belisarius recovers Rome. 
549. Totila again seizes the city. 

553. It is finally wi-ested from the Goths by 
Narses, and annexed to the Eastern em- 
pire. Justinian abolishes the senate. 
600. According to Gibbon, " Rome had reached, 
about the close of the 6th century, the 
lowest period of her depression." 
728. Rome becomes an independent republic, 
under the temporal sovereignty of the 
pope. 
754. Rome is delivered from the Lombards by 

Pepin. 
800. Dec. 25. Charlemagne is crowned emperor of 

Rome and of the West at Rome. 
846. Rome is threatened bv the Arabs. 
1081. The emperor Henry IV. lays siege to Rome. 
1084. March 21. The gates are opened to him. 
1144. The Roman senate is restored. 
1155. Arnold of Brescia is burnt at Rome for heresy 
and sedition, i.e., for attempting to restore 
the republic. 
1167. The Romans are defeated by the Germans at 

the battle of Tusculum. ' 
1234. They are defeated at the battle of Viterbo. 
1252—1258. Rome fliiu>-ishes under the government 
of the senator Brancaleone. 



1278. Charles is compelled by the pope to abdicate. 
1309. The pope removes to Avignon. 
1341. April 8. Petrarch is crowned with laurel in 
the Capitol. 



A.D. 

1347. May 20. Cola di Rienzi assumes the govern- 
ment of Rome as tribune. Aug. 1. He is 
invested with the order of the Holy Ghost 
in the Lateran with great pomp. Nov. 20. 
He puts to death Stephen and John 
Colonna. Dec. 15. He is compelled to 
abdicate. 

1351. Rienzi finds an asylum at Avignon. 

1354. He is restored to power by Pope Innocent VI., 
and is made senator of Rome. Sept. 8. He 
is murdered by the populace. 

1420. Rome is restored by Martin V. 

1434. May 29. The Romans revolt against the tem- 
poral authority of the pope. 

1450. Nicholas V. commences the cathedral church 
of St. Peter. 

1453. Jan. 9. Stephen Porcaro is hanged for sedi- 
tion. 

1500. The papal authority is absolute at Rome from 
about this year. 

1506. The building of St. Peter's is resumed by Pope 
Julius II. 

1527. June 6. Rome is taken and sacked by the 
ex-constable de Boiirbon. 

1626. Dedication of St. Peter's by Urban VIII. 

1773. Aug. 16. The Jesuits are expelled from 
Rome. 

1797. Dec. 27. An insurrection breaks out at 

Rome, in which General Duphot is killed. 
Dec. 29. The French embassy quits the 
city. 

1798. Feb. 10. The Fi-ench army under Berthier 

enters Rome. Feb. 15. The pope is de- 
prived of his temporal authority, and is 
removed from Rome. Mai ch 20. The French 
proclaim the Roman republic. Nov. 29. 
They abandon the city to the Neapolitans. 

1800. July 3. The pope returns to Rome. 

1806. Feb. 13. Napoleon 1. asserts that he is emperor 
of Rome, and the ijope only his viceroy. 

1808. Feb. 2. The French enter Rome. May 21. 

Napoleon I. annexes the papal states to the 
kingdom of Italy, of which he declares 
Rome the second city. 

1809. May 17. Napoleon I. declares Rome a free and 

imperial city of the French emisire. July 5. 

Arrest of the pope by General Radet. 
1811. March 20. Napoleon's infant son, born this 

day, receives the title of king of Rome. 
1814. Jan. 23. The Pope retui-ns to Rome. Aug. 7. 

He restores the Jesuits and the luquisi- 

tfon. 
1819. April 2. The emperor and empress of Austria 

visit Rome. 
1823. July 15. The church of St. Paul is destroyed 

by fire. 

1846. June 16. Cardinal Mastai Ferreti is raised to 

the popedom by the title of Pius IX. 

1847. July 13. A plot to create a popular insurrec- 

tion at Rome is discovered. 

1848. April 29. The pope declares war against Aus- 

tria. May 19. The Roman volunteers are 
defeated by the Austriaus at the battle of 
the Piave. Nov. 15. Count Rossi, minister 
of justice, is assassinated. Nov. 16. An 
insurrection breaks out at Rome, in which 
Cardinal Palma, the iDope's secretary, is 
killed. Nov. 24. The pope quits Rome in 
disguise. Nov. 27. He protests against the 
revolution. The French government dis- 
patches M. de Corcelles, with a force of 
3,500 men, to his assistance. Dec. 11. A 
commission of regency is appointed. 

1849. Feb. 5. The " Constituent Assembly" meets. 

Feb. 8. It declares the pope deprived of all 
temporal power, and proclaims the Roman 
republic. Feb. 14. The pope protests 
against iiis loss of temporal power. Feb. 18. 
He appeals for assistance to the Roman Ca- 
tholic powers. April 26. A French army 
under Marshal Oudinot occupies Civita 
Vecchia. April 30. The French fail in. an 
attack on the city. May 5. The Roman 
forces tmder General Garibaldi defeat 
the Neapolitans. 

733 



EOM 



1849. June 3. The French commence the siege of 

Borne. June 21. They enter the city. June 
30. Eome surrenders to the French. July 3. 
Oudinot enters the city and sends the keys 
to the pope. July 4. Dissolution of the 
Constituent Assembly. July 15. The papal 
authority is restored. Aug. 3. The French 
general proclaims the restoration of the 
pope, but states that the city will remain 
under the protection of a French army of 
occupation. Sept. 4. The pope visits the 
king of Naples at Portici. Sept. 12. He 
publishes an amnesty, and promises judi- 
cial and admiuistrative reforms. 

1850. April 12. The pope returns to Rome. Sept. 24. 

He publishes a bull establishing a Eoman 
Catholic hierarchy in England. Assassina- 
tions are frequent at Eome this year. 

1851. AprU 25. A concordat is signed with Tu=cany. 
1853. Aug. 1.5. Alai-m is given of an iut*-nded 

insun-ectii 'n, in con? equence of which many 

arrests take place. 
1855. Aug. 18. A coucoidat is signed with Austria. 
1857. Mfiy 4. The pops leaves Rome on a tour 

through his dominions. Sept. 5. The pope 

returns to Rome. 

1859. Feb. 22. The pope announces his readiness to 

make an-angements for the evacuation of 
his territories by the French and Aus- 
trians. June 15. The pope protests against 
the recent insurrections in Bologna, ler- 
rara, and other places. June 20. His forces 
bombard and take Perugia. July 12. The 
pope protests against Sai-dinian inter- 
ference in the atfau-s of the Romagua. 
Aug. 26. A concordat is signed witb the 
queen of Spain, who engages to send au 
army of occupation into the Roman states, 
in case of the withdrawal of the French 
troops. Sept. 1. Opening of the national 
assembly of the Romagna at Bologna. 
Sept. 7. The assembly unanimously votes 
in favour of separation from the temporal 
power of the pope. Sept. 2G. The pope an- 
nuls all the acts of the assembly. Oct. 1. 
A decree is publi^^hed ordering public acts 
to be proclaimed in the name of Kuig 
Victor Emanuel. Oct. 9. The Sardinian 
ambassador quits Eome. Nov. 6. Prince 
EugSne di Savoy- Carignan is invested with 
the regency of the Romagna. Nov. 14. He 
declines the office, which is confcn'ed upon 
General Buoncompagni. Dec. 7. The pope 
again protests against the interference of 
Sardinia. Dec. 24. Modena, Pai-ma, and 
the Romagna are formed ii.to the province 
of Emilia. Dec. 31. Napoleon III. insists 
upon the cession of the Legations by the 
pope. 

1860. Jan. 8. The pope refuses to surrender the 

Legations. Jan. 27. The concordat with 
Tuscany is annulled. March 19. Rome is 
the scene of violent riots on the occasion of 
the anniversary of Garibaldi's birthday. 
March 20. Suppression of the Lombard con- 
cordat. March 26. Tne pope excommuni- 
cates all who have taken any part in the re- 
bellion of his provinces. May 1. The pope 
appeals to the Eoman Catholics of eveiy na- 
tion for a loan of 50,000,000 francs. May 19. 
An u-ruption of Tuscan volunteers under 
General Ziambianchi into the papal states 
is repulsed. Sept. 6. An insurection com- 
mences in the Marches. Sept 7. The Sar- 
dinian government demands ihe dismission 
of the foreign troops from the papal army. 
Sept. 9. The Sardinian general, Fantl, 
threatens to invade the Roman states. 
Sept. 11. Cardinal Antouelli, papal secre- 
tary of state, replies in the negative to the 
Sardinian ultimatum, in eonseriueuce of 
which generals Fanti and Cialdini enter 
the papal territories. Sept 12. Cialdini 
occupies Pe?aro. Sept. 13. He seizes Sini- 
gaglia. Sept. 14 Fanti takes Perugia, 

734 



EOM 



1860. Sept. 18. The papal troops under Lamori- 

cidre are defeated by Cialdini, at Castel- 
fidardo. The Sardinian admiral, Persano, 
bombards Ancona. Sept. 28. The pope 
protests against the Sardinian invasion. 
Sept. 29. Ancona surrenders to the Sar- 
dinians. Oct. 6. The Sardinians evacuate 
the papal cities, which are occupied by the 
French. Nov. 3. The result of popular 
suffr.age in the Marches is published, and 
is greatly in favour of annexation to Pied- 
mont. Nov. 4. Protest of the papal govern- 
ment against it. 

1861. Feb. 15. The pamphlet " La France, Rome.et 

r Italie," is published at Paris. Feb. 26. Car- 
dinal Antonelli replies to it in a note to the 
papal minister at Paris. March 27. Count 
Cavoui- states in the Sardinian chambers 
that it is essential to make Rome the capi- 
tal of Italy. April 15. The pajml govern- 
ment protests iigainst Victor Emanuel'a 
assumption of the title of " King of 
Italy." May 21. A petition for the with- 
drawal of the French troops, signed by 
10,000 of the Luhabitauts, ia forwarded to 
Napoleon III. 

KINGS OF HOME. 
B.C. 

753. Romulus. 
715. Numa Pompilius. 
673. Tnllus Hoatilius. 
641. Aucus Martius. 
616. Tarquiuius Priscus. 
578. Servius 'inUlius. 
5'M. Tai-quinius Superbus. 

510. Consular government is established, under 
Brutus and Collatinus. 



ESIPEEOES OF EOME. 



27. 


Augustus Caesar. 


Jl.D. 

14. 


Tiberius. 


37. 


Caligula. 


41. 


Claudius L 


54. 


Nero. 


68. 


Galba. 




{ Otho. 


69. 


\ Vitellius. 




( Vespasian, 


79. 


Titus. 


81. 


Domitian. 


96. 


Nerva. 


98. 


Trajan. 


117. 


Adrian, or Hadrian. 


138. 


Antoninus Pius. 


161. 


Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. 


168. 


Marcuj Aurelius, alone. 


180. 


Commodus. 




( Pertinax. 


193. 


< Juliauua. 




t Septimius Sevems. 


211. 


Caracalla and Geta. 


212. 


Caracalla, alone. 


217. 


Macrinus. 


218. 


Elgabalus. 


222. 


Alexander Severus. 


235. 


Maximinus. 


237. 


The Gordians, father and son. 


238. 


/Balbinus and Pupienus. 


(. Gordian, junior. 


244. 


Philippus, the Arabian. 


249. 


Decius. 


251. 




253. 


/ Emilia n us. 

(. Valerianus aad Gallienus. 


260. 


Gallienus, alone. 


268. 


Claudius IL 


270. 


Amelian. 


275. 


Tacitus. 


276. 


f Florianus. 
\ Probus. 


282. 


Cams. 



EOM 



283. Carinus and Numerianua. 

284. Diocletian. 

286. Diocletian and Maximian. 

300. Coustantius Chlorus and G-alerius. 

306. Constantine I., Galerius, Maximian (again), 

Maxentius, and Severus. 

307. Constantine I., Galerius, Maximian, Maxen- 

tius, and Licinius. 

308. Constantine I. , Galerius, Maximian, Maxen- 

tius, and Licinius. 

310. Constantine I., Galerius, Maxentius, Licinius, 

and Maximian. 

311. Constantine I., Maxentius, Licinius, and 

Galerius. 

313. Constantine I., Licinius, and Maxentius. 

313. Constantine I. and Licinius. 

323. Constantine I. alone. 

337. Constantius TI., Constans L, and Constan- 
tine II. 

340. Constantius II. and Constans. 

350. Constantius II., alone. 

860. Julian, the Apostate. 

363. Jovian. 

(See Easteen and Westeex Empiees, 
Italx, and Popes.) 

EoMHANY (Battle). — The Austrians 
defeated Eagotsky, the Hungarian rebel, 
in this encounter, which took place a.d. 
1710. 

EoNCESTALLES (Spain). — This small vil- 
lage, in the valley of the same name, is cele- 
brated as the spot where Eoland and twelve 
peers of France, who had invaded Spain a.d. 
778, were defeated and slain by the Navar- 
rese. The Spaniards were defeated here by 
the French in June, 1794, and again in Octo- 
ber, 1794. The pass of Eoncesvalles was 
forced by the French, under Marshal Soult, 
after an obstinate resistance by the Enghsh 
and Spaniards, July 25, 1813. 

EoNDA (Spain) was founded by the Moors 
and became the capital of the Moorish chief 
AbouMehc a.d. 1331. He built a castle, and 
strongly fortified the town, which was deemed 
impregnable xmtil taken by Ferdinand of 
Spain in 1485. The Spaniards were defeated 
here by the French in May, 1810. 

Eogt-aitd-Beanch Men. — The extreme 
republican party, who advocated the over- 
throw of the monarchy, and the destruction 
of the Church of England during the great 
rebellion, assumed this name about a.d. 1641 . 

Eope-Making. — The ancient Greeks and 
Eomans used the tendons of animals for their 
warhke machines. It was also customary to 
spin bark of trees, papyrus, and other sub- 
stances. Machinery to aid the manual ope- 
ration was first invented by Sylvester a.d. 
1783, and patented in 1784. It has been 
succeeded by nimierous other inventions and 
patents. Wire was substituted for hemp at 
the silver-mines of the Harz Mountains in 
1831, although a patent had prior to that 
time been taken out for the same purpose 
in England. 

RoQUB, San (Spain) .—This town, in An- 
dalusia, was built out of the ruins of the 
ancient Carteia, a.d. 1704. 

Eosamond's Bowee. — Eosamond, the 
daughter of Lord Chff"ord, became the mis- 
tress of Henry II. shortly before his acces- 
sion to the throne, a.d. 1154. To guard her 



EOS 

from injury, Henry kept her in a secret 
bower at Woodstock, the approaches to 
which formed a labyrinth so intricate that it 
could only be entered with the guidance of a 
silken thread which the king used for that 
purpose. Queen Eleanor is said to have 
discovered Eosamond' s retreat by means of 
this thread, and to have poisoned her rival. 
Eosamond was buried at Godstow church, 
whence her bones were removed to the com- 
mon cemetery by the bishop of Lincoln in 
1191 ; but they were afterwards replaced in 
the church. 

EosAET. — A Eoman Catholic devotional 
practice, said to have been first instituted by 
St. Dominic about a.d. 1200, in honour of the 
Virgin Mary. It consists in reciting fifteen 
times the Paternoster, and 150 times the 
Ave Maria ; and as the computation is made 
by means of beads, the string of beads used 
for this purpose has acquired the name of a 
rosary. According to the Abbe Prevost, it 
consists of " fifteen tens said to be in honour 
of the fifteen mysteries in which the Virgin 
Mary bore a part." 

EosAS (Spain), anciently called Ehode, 
was besieged and taken by the French, Feb. 
3, 1795. They were defeated here by the 
Spaniards, July 11, 1808. A French fleet of 
eleven armed vessels in the bay, protected by 
the powerful batteries of the town and cas- 
tle, were cut out by the boats of an English 
squadron, under Lieutenant Tailour, and 
the whole of them captured or destroyed, 
Nov. 1, 1809. Eosas, which had been occu- 
pied by the Spaniards, was besieged by the 
French, under Marshal St. Cyr, in Novem- 
ber, 1809; the town was soon taken, and 
the citadel and Fort Trinidad were breached, 
Nov. 27. The governor was about to sur- 
render, when Lord Cochrane arrived in the 
bay, threw himself into Fort Trinidad with 
a British force, and repulsed two assaults of 
the French with great slaughter. The cita- 
del, however, surrendered Dec. 4, and Loi'd 
Cochrane retired with the garrison of the 
fort on board his vessel. Eosas was sur- 
rendered by the French in April, 1814. 

Eos BACH (Battle). — A victory was 
gained at thi'fe place, in Prussia, by 
Frederick the Great, over 30,000 French 
and 20,000 Austrians, Nov. 5, 1757. The 
French and Austrians lost nearly 9,000 
men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
The battle-field of Eosbach was visited 
by Napoleon I. in October, 1806, when he 
ordered the column, erected by the Prus- 
sians to commemorate the victory, to be 
sent as a trophy to Paris. 

EoscoMMON (Ireland). — The Auteri, a 
people mentioned by Ptolemy, a.d. 139, 
were the earhest inhabitants. At a later 
period it was occupied by the red and the 
brown O' Conors, the Macdermots, the 
O'Dalys, and the O'KeUys. Miles de 
Cogan, an English adventurer, assisted by 
Murrough, son of Eoderic, king of Ireland, 
having invaded it, was compelled to re- 
treat in 1073. It was ravaged by William 
de Burgo Fitzaldelin, lord of Limerick, in 
735 



EOS 

1204.. Athlone Castle was built in 1216, and 
that of Eoseommon in 1268^ The power of 
the O' Conors was broten in a victory gained 
OTer them by the English in 1315. The 
county was divided into baronies in the reign 
of Elizabeth. The O'Conor Don having 
taken part with the Ulster insurgents, his 
estates were confiscated in 1641, but he was 
reinstated in possession of greater part of 
them at the Eestoration in 1660. The abbey 
of Boyle, now in ruins, was founded in 1148. 
Eoseommon, the chief town of the county, 
derived its origin from the abbey founded 
by St. Coman in 550. It formerly sent two 
members to parhament, but was disfran- 
chised Jan. 1, 1801. The abbey for the 
order of Preaching Friars was founded by 
O'Conor, king of Connaught, about 1257; 
and the castle, the ruins of which are still 
to be seen, was built by Sir Eobert de 
Ufford a few years later. 

EosE. — TheProvins rose was introduced 
from Italy before a.d. 1596; the damask 
rose, from the south of France, before 1573 ; 
the moss rose, from jSTorth America, before 
1724; the rose without thorns, also from 
North America, before 1726 ; and the China 
rose, from China, about 1789. 

EosES (War of). {See Lancastrians 
andToEKisTS.) 

EosETTA (Egypt) is said to have been 
founded by the son of the celebrated Haroun- 
al-Eashid, about a.d. 875. It was taken 
and fortiiied by the French in 1798, and 
captured from them by the British and 
Turks, April 19, 1801. A British force was 
defeated here bv an overwhelming body of 
Tui-kish horse, April 22, 1807. 

EosETTA Stone is the name given to a 
stone in the British Museum, which was 
discovered by the French among the ruins 
of Fort St. Julien, near Eosetta, a.d. 1801. 
It came into the possession of the British 
on the capitulation of Alexandria, Aug. 22, 
1801, and was brought to England in 1802. 
It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet 
long and 2% feet wide, with an inscription in 
three languages ; viz. hieroglyi^hic, excho- 
rial — or characters of the country — and 
Greek. The inscription in Greek eulogizes 
the virtues of Ptolemy Epiphanes, who suc- 
ceeded to the throne e.g. 205, when only 
four or five years old. It appears to have 
been erected about b.c. 193. 

Eosicetjcians. — ^A sect of visionary specu- 
lators in Germany, whose existence became 
first known to the public in the 17th century. 
In 1619 John Valentine Andreas, a German 
scholar, published a work containing an ac- 
count of Christian Eosenkreuz, a German 
noble of the 14th century, who after a long 
sojourn in the East, returned to Germany 
and founded a secret society of a few adepts 
who lived together in a building called Sancti 
Spiritus, where he died at the age of 106. 
The society renewed itself from time to time 
by the admission of new members in silence 
and obscurity, according to the last injvme- 
tions of its founder. The Eosicrucians have 
not been heard of as a separate order since 
736 



EOT 

a little after the middle of the 18th century, 
Mosheim contends that the name was applied 
to the Chemists, or Fire-worshippers. 

EosKiLD (Sweden). — Charles Gustavns, 
king of Sweden, after gaining several victo- 
ries over the king of Denmark, concluded a 
peace here, through the mediation of France 
and England, Feb. 25, 1658. 

Eoss (Hereford) was made a free borough 
by Henry III., and sent members to parha- 
ment A.D. 1305. This privilege was relinquish- 
ed on the petition of the inhabitants in 1306. 
Charles I. rested here on his way from 
Eagland Castle in 1645. John Kyrle, im- 
mortalized by Pope as the " Man of Eoss," 
died here at the age of 84, in 1724. 

Eoss, or New Eoss (Ireland), was sur- 
rounded with walls A.D, 1269. It was taken 
by Cromwell, and the fortifications demo- 
Hshed in 1649. Some insurgents who attacked 
the town were defeated with great slaughter 
by General Johnston, June 4, 1798. 

EosTOCK (Germany) was raised to the 
rank of a city a.d. 1030, and was taken and 
burnt by Valdemar I., king of Denmark, a.d. 
1161. It was annexed to Mecklenburg in 
1323, and joined the Hanseatic League, from 
which it separated in 1492. St. Peter's 
Church, remarkable for a steeple 420 feet in 
height, was founded at the end of the 12th 
century. The university of Eostock was 
founded in 1419. Eostock was repeatedly oc- 
cupied by hostile troops in the 18th century. 

EoTA Club. — This political society for 
contriving an equal government by rotation, 
was formed in London during the Inter- 
regnum. AH the principal officers of state 
were to be chosen bj' ballot, and a certain 
number of members of parliament were to 
be changed annually by rotation — whence 
the club took its name. 

EoTHENBUEG (Bavarfa) was anciently in 
the possession of the counts of Eothenburg, 
who became extinct about a.d. 1100, when 
the town was ceded to the emperor of Ger- 
many. It was mortgaged by Conrad IV. and 
Louis IV. to the house of Hohenlohe ; but 
on the last occasion the town redeemed itself, 
and obtained a promise from Louis IV. in 
1335 that it should not be mortgaged again. 
This promise was confirmed by Charles IV. 
and Wenceslaus. Eothenburg remained in 
possession of the empire tiU 1802, when it 
was bestowed on the elector of Bavaria. 

EoTHEEHAM (Yorkshire) is supposed to 
have been founded early in the Saxon period, 
and possessed a weekly market and annual 
fair before the Conquest. A second market 
and fair were granted to the town by Edward 
I. in 1307. The parish church, a handsome 
Gothic structure, was built in the reign of 
Edward IV. A coUege, founded in 1482, 
was suppressed in the reign of Edward VI. ; 
the remains stiU exist, and are used as an inn. 
The Free Grammar-school was founded in 
1584. Hollis's schools, for the education of 
thirty children, were founded in 1663. A 
meeting-house for Dissenters was built in 
1705. Almshouses for four aged females 
were founded in 1780. A public library was 



EOT 

established in 1775, which, with the news- 
room and dispensary founded in 1806, oc- 
cupy a substantial building erected in 1828. 

RoTHERHiTHE (Surrey), commonly called 
Redriff, a parish and suburb of London, is 
noted for its numerous docks. The great 
dock, finished a.d. 1700, was leased by the 
South- Sea Company in 1725, and called 
Greenland dock. It was purchased by a 
company of merchants in 1807, and after- 
wards much enlarged, and caUed the Com- 
mercial dock. A iiew dock was added to it 
Jan. 22, 1812. The church was built in 1714 
and 1715 ; but the tower was not finished tm 
1739. It contains a monument to Lee Boo, 
prince of the Pelew Islands, who died of 
smaU-pox Dec. 27, 1784. A fire, which con- 
sumed 206 houses, occurred June 1, 1765. 
The Asiatic cholera broke out here in Feb- 
ruary, 1832. 

RoTHESAT Castle. — This steam-packet 
from Liverpool to Beaumaris was wrecked 
near the latter place Aug. 17, 1831. From 
135 to 145 persons were supposed to have 
been on board, of whom only twenty-two 
were saved. 

EoTHWEiL (Germany) was seized by the 
French a.d. 1643. The imperial forces were 
defeated here by the French, under Turenne, 
in 1644, and it was taken by the French in 
1796. It was bestowed on the duke of Wiir- 
temberg in 1802. 

Rotterdam (Holland) derives its name 
from the river Rotte, which runs through the 
town. It was surrounded by walls in the 
13th century, and from this time its import- 
ance dates. Maximihan besieged it a.d. 
1489, and after an obstinate defence of six 
months, the city surrendered, on condition of 
an amnesty. A body of Spaniards, retreat- 
ing from the siege of Briel in 1572, were 
allowed to pass through the town in bodies of 
fifty with unloaded arms. The first detach- 
ment on entering slew the guard at the gates ; 
the rest then rushed in, and all persons 
found in arms were slain. The inhabitants 
were treated as if the town had been taken 
by assault. The time of Rotter dam's greatest 
prosperity was the 17th and 18th centuries. 
It was occupied by the French in January, 
1795. The Exchange was built in 1736, and 
the Academy of Sciences was founded in 1771. 

Rouen (France), anciently called Roto- 
magus, is first mentioned by Ptolemy, in the 
beginning of the 2nd century, as the capital 
of the Vellocasses, a Celtic people. It was 
taken and sacked by the Danes a.d. 841 ; and 
was ceded, with the whole of the province of 
Neustria, of which it was then the capital, to 
the Normans, under RoUo, about 911 or 912. 
It was unsuccessfully besieged by the count 
de Cotentin, in 930, and ' by Otho I. 
and Louis IV. of France in 948. Prince 
Arthur was murdered here by order of his 
uncle John, April 3, 1202. It was conquered 
by Philip II. June 4, 1204, and remained 
subject to the kings of France until taken by 
the Enghsh, under Henry V., Jan. 19, 1419. 
Joan of Arc was burned to death here 
May 30, 1431. The town was recovered by 
737 



EOX 

the French, under Charles VII., in 1449. It 
revolted against Louis XI. in 1465, and was 
retaken by him in 1466. The Huguenots 
captured it in 1562, and it was immediately 
besieged by the Royahsts, and captured by 
the duke of Guise, Oct. 20, 1562, when it was 
given up to pUlage for eight days. Four or 
five hundred Protestants were massacred 
here on the eve of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 
1572. It was besieged for eight months by 
Henry IV. in 1593, and at last taken by the 
treachery of its governor. A famine occurred 
in 1789 ; and the revolution gave rise to some 
troubles in 1792, 1793, and 1795. Louis 
PhUippe visited it in May, 1831, and again in 
1832. The most remarkable building in Rouen 
is the cathedral of iN'otre-Dame, a splendid 
Gothic edifice commenced in the 13th cen- 
tury, but not completed till the 16th. The 
abbey church of St. Ouen, to which it was 
attached, was founded in the 6th century, 
was rebuilt in the 12th century, and having 
been destroyed by fire, was again rebuilt in 
the 14th and following centuries. It was 
much damaged by the Huguenots in 1562. 
The great clock- tower was built in 1389, and 
the court-house was completed in 1499. The 
railway to Havre was opened May 13, 1847. 
Rouen was made an archbishopric in 260 ; and 
councils were held here in 689, 1049, 1055, 
1072, 1073, 1074; Feb. 1096; Oct. 7 to 
Nov. 5, 1118 ; in November, 1119 ; October, 
1128; Feb. 11, 1190; March 27, 1223; in 
1231 ; June 18, 1299 ; and Dec. 15, 1445. 
RouM. (See Iconium.) 
Roundheads. (See Cavaliers. ) 
Round WAT Down (Battle) . — An encounter 
between the Royalists and the Parliament- 
arians took place on Roundway Down, near 
Devizes, July 13, 1643, in which the latter 
were routed with great slaughter. 

RoussiLLON (Prance) . — This old province, 
nearly identical with the modern department 
of the Pyrenees-Orientales, obtained its name 
from the town of Ruscino, afterwards called 
RoscOiona, now Tour de EoussiUon, near 
Perpignan. The province was made subject 
to the Romans about B.C. 58. It was united 
in the 9th and 10th centuries with the county 
of Ampurius, in Spain ; but was separated 
towards the close of the latter century, and 
governed by its own counts, the last of whom 
bequeathed it to the kings of Aragon in 1178. 
John II. of Aragon ceded it to Louis XI. 
of France, in 1462, as security for money 
borrowed; but it was restored by Charles 
VIII. to Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1493. It 
was conquered by Louis XIII. in 1642, and 
was finally annexed to France by the treaty 
of the Pyrenees in 1659. The Spaniards 
invaded it in 1793, and were expelled in 1794. 

RovEREDO (Battle). — The Austrians were 
defeated by the French near this town, in 
the Tyrol, Sept. 4, 1796. So close was the 
pursuit, that the republicans entered Rove- 
redo pell-mell with the fugitives. 

RoxBURG Castle (Scotland), supposed to 

have been built by the Saxons while they 

held the sovereignty of the ]N orthmnbrian 

kingdom, was made a royal palace bv David I. 

3 B 



BOX 

on his accession to the throne, a.d. 1124. It 
was surrendered to the English by Wilh'am 
the Lion in 1174, as a part of the price of hia 
freedom, but was restored in 1189. The 
castle was seized by Edward I. ; and the 
court of King's Bench was held here in 1292. 
It was taken by Sir James Douglas by stra- 
tagem March 6, 1313, and was shortly 
afterwards demolished by Eobert Bruce. 
Edward III. restored the castle, and kept 
Christmas here in 1335. Sir Alexander Earn- 
say took it by escalade in 1342 ; but it was 
regained by the English in 1346, who held it 
tm Aug. 3, 1460, when James II. of Scotland 
lost his life in besieging it. His widowed 
queen, Mary of Gueldres, then captured the 
castle, and it was entirely demohshed. The 
duke of Somerset partly restored it in 1547. 
It was given up to the Scotch in 1550, 
and again destroyed. 

EoxBUEG (America). — This city of Massa- 
chusetts was incorporated a.d. 1630, and 
was made a city by charter in 1846. 

EoTAii AcADEirsr (London) was founded 
under the patronage of George III. Dec. 10, 
1768. The first exhibition of the acade- 
micians took place in PaU-maU in 1769. 
George III. granted them apartments in 
old Somerset House, and afterwards in 1780 
in new Somerset House. Their first exhibi- 
tion at the latter took place in May of that 
year. They removed to the National 
Gallery, where the first exhibition was 
opened May 1, 1838. 

PEESIDENTS OF THE HOTAL ACADEMY. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds 1768 

Benjamin "R^est 1792 

Sii- Thomas Lawrence 1820 

Sir Martin A. Shee 1830 

Sii- Charles Eastlake 1850 

EoTAL Academy op Mxrsic— A society 
bearing this title was estabhshed at London 
A.D. 1720 for the encouragement of the 
Italian opera. George Frederick Handel, 
Giovanni Bononcini, and AttiUo Ariosto, 
the three most eminent composers of the 
day, were engaged to supply works and 
superintend arrangements, but the institu- 
tion was never very successful, and after an 
existence of about nine years was dissolved 
in consequence of the quarrels of the singers. 
The present Academy of Music was founded 
by the earl of Westmorland in 1S22. The 
first concert took place Dec. 8, 1828, and 
the charter of incorporation was eranted in 
1830. 

EoYAi, Adelaide. — This steamer from 
Cork to London arrived at Plymouth 
March 28, 1850, and left on the following 
day, with about 180 passengers and a crew 
of 24 men. She was totally wrecked on the 
Tongue Sand off Margate, on the night of 
Saturday, March 30, when all on board 
perished. 

EoYAL Chaeteb screw steamer. Captain 
Taylor, bound/rom Port Phillip, Austraha, 
to Liverpool, was totally wrecked in Eed- 
wharf Bay, on the Anglesey coast, during 
the ni£fht, Oct. 25, 1859, and 459 Hves were 
738 



EOT 



lost. The vessel had from £500,000 to 
£800,000 worth of gold on board, much of 
which was recovered. 

EoYAL Exchange (Dublin) was founded 
Aug. 2, 1769, and opened in 1779, at a cost 
of £40,000. This sum was raised partly by 
parhamentary grants, partly by subscriptions, 
and partly by lotteries. 

EoYAL Exchange (London). — The foun- 
dation of the original edifice was laid by 
Sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566. Queen 
Ehzabeth opened it Jan. 23, 1571, and by 
the sound of trumpets her herald named 
it the Eoyal Exchange. It was destroyed 
by the great fire in September, 1666. 
Charles II. laid the foundation of another 
structure, Oct. 23, 1667, and it was opened 
Sept. 28, 1669, having cost £58,962. It was 
repaired and beautified in 1769, parUament 
contributing £10,000 towards the expense. 
This edifice was destroyed by fire, Jan. 10, 
1838. The new Eoyal Exchange, commenced 
in 1838, was opened by Queen Victoria 
in state, Oct. 28, 1844. 

Eoyal Geoege, of 108 guns, com- 
manded by Admiral Kempenfeldt, sank 
at Portsmouth, nearly a thousand lives 
being lost, at ten o'clock in the morning, 
Aug. 29, 1782. A court-martial which was 
held on Captain "V^'aghorne, relative to the 
catastrophe, acquitted him Sept. 9. Six- 
teen guns and other things were recovered 
by the diving-bell, 'Nov. 21. The wreck was 
surveyed by aid of the diving-bell, when 
the whole of the decks were found to have 
faUen in. May 24, 1817. 

Eoyal Household.— The duties of the 
different ofiieers of the royal household 
were first defined and reduced to order by 
Edward III. The expenses connected with 
it were fixed at £12,059 9«. lid. by the 
private act, 11 Hen. VII. c.36 (1494), which 
was amended by subsequent statutes. The 
duties of the great master of the king's 
household were regulated by 32 Hen. VIII. 
c. 39 (1540), which was repealed by 1 Mary, 
St. 3, c. 4 (1.553), {See Loed Stewaed op 
THE Household.) The purveyance system, 
which empowered the officers of the royal 
household to purchase goods for their 
master's use vrithout the consent of the 
vendors, was abohshed by 12 Charles II. 
c. 24 (1660). Edmund Burke commenced 
his efforts against the extravagance of this 
department in 1780, and procured the sup- 
pression of several unnecessary offices by 
22 Geo. IIL c. 82 (1782). 

Eoyal Institution of Gbeat Beitain. 
— This institution was founded by Count 
Eumford and Sir Joseph Banks, March 9, 
1799, and received its charter of incorpora- 
tion, Jan. 13, 1800. Its laboratory is cele- 
brated as having been the scene of some of 
the most important discoveries of Sir 
Humphry Davy and Professor Faraday, 
who have both been officially connected 
with the institution. In 1833, John Fuller, 
of Eose HiU, endowed two professorships, 
of chemistry and physiology, and in 1838, 
Mrs. Acton, of Euston Square, gave £1,000 



ROY 

towards establishing a septennial prize for 
the best essay on the goodness of Providence 
as exemplified by scientific research. 

Royal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. c. 11 
(1772), prohibited members of the royal 
family from contracting marriage without 
the consent of the Mng, signified under the 
great seal, until they attaiaed the age of 
twenty-five years. 

RoTAL Prerogative. — Blackstone defines 
the sovereign's prerogative as "that special 
pre-eminence which the king has, over and 
above all other persons, and out of the ordi- 
nary course of the common law, in right of 
his regal dignity." He enjoys supreme sove- 
reignty in civil and ecclesiastical affairs, and 
he is declared politically perfect, it being a 
constitutional maxim " that he can do no 
wrong." He is the supreme head of the 
military and naval force of the kingdom, 
the fountain of justice, mercy, honour, 
office, and privilege, and the only persofi em- 
powered to send or receive ambassadors, to 
declare war or conclude peace, and to coin 
the money of the realm. The royal preroga- 
tive was defined by 17 Edw. II. stat. 1 (132-1), 
and was continued by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 
(1535) . Constitutional limitation of the royal 
powers was secured by the Petition of Rights, 
3 Charles I. (1627) , which placed the sole power 
of granting money to the sovereign in the 
hands of the people's representatives in par- 
liament. The feudal rights of the king were 
abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660), and 
the dispensing power of the crown was de- 
stroyed by 1 Wm. & Mary, ss. 2, c. 2 (1689), 

Royal Society (London). — A number 
of gentlemen residing in London, among 
whom were Drs. Wilkins, Walhs, and God- 
dard, with Forster, professor of astronomy at 
Gresham College, associated themselves for 
scientific investigation, a.d. 1645. Some of 
them removed to Oxford in 1652, and formed 
a similar society there. The two were united, 
and held their meetings in London in 1659. 
They were suspended for some time, but at 
the Restoration in 1660 were resumed in 
Gresham CoUege. A code of rules was 
drawn up Nov. 28, and the first formal pro- 
ceedings took place Dee. 5. The society 
having presented a congratulatory address 
to Charles II., his majesty granted it a 
charter in 1662, which was amended and 
renewed in 1663. The king bestowed a mace 
upon the society in 1663; and signed his 
name in the charter-book as its founder, in 

1664. The first number of the " Philoso- 
phical Transactions " was published March 6, 

1665. The place of meeting was changed 
to Arundel House in January, 1667, and again 
to Gresham College in October, 1674. The 
delivery of lectures was commenced in 1674, 
and a sum of money for a lectureship was left 
by dame lady Sadlier, widow of Dr. Croone, 
in 1706, the first of which was delivered in 
1738, The Bakerian lecture on electro- 
chemistry was founded in 1774. A legacy of 
£400, received on the death of the bishop of 
Chester (Dr. Wilkins), was expended in the 
purchase of certain farm rents at Lewes, in 

739 



EtTG 

January, 1675. The college and lands at 
Chelsea, which had been granted to the 
society, were sold, and the proceeds were 
invested in stock in January, 1682. A paid 
secretary was appointed at a salary of £50 
per annum in 1686. The house in Crane 
Court, Fleet Street, whither the society re- 
moved, was purchased in 1701, and the go- 
vernment assigned it apartments in Somer- 
set House in 1782. Sir Isaac Nevrton was 
appointed president in 1703, holding the office 
tin his death in 1727. The society pubhshed 
the first edition of his Principia in 1686, 
Originally issued monthly, the " Philoso- 
phical Transactions " were collected and pub- 
lished in ninety volumes, embracing the 
period from 1665—1800. Sir Godfrey Copely 
founded a gold medal, purchased with the 
interest of £100, in 1709 ; Count Rumford 
presented a sum of £1,000 in the 3 per cents, 
for a like purpose in 1796 ; and George IV, 
made an annual grant of a hundred guineas 
for two medals in 1825. 

RuBicoif (Italy).— This river formed the 
northern boundary of Italy at the time Julius 
Caesar held the government of Cis-Alpine 
Gaul. The passage of this river was con- 
sidered as a declaration of hostilities, and 
precipitated the Social war B.C. 49, In the 
controversy regarding its identification, the 
arguments in favour of Fiumicino seem to 
preponderate, although a papal bull pro- 
nounced in favour of another stream, the 
Luso, A.D. 1756. 

RuEL, or RuEiL (France). — During the 
civil strife between the parliament on the 
one hand, and the queen mother with Maza- 
rin on the other, a treaty of peace was signed 
at this town March 11, 1649. 

Ruffles appear to have come into use as 
an article of 4ress in the reign of Henry VIII. 
Hand-ruffs were plaited and edged with lace 
in the time of Elizabeth. The Rev. "William 
Cole, in his journey to France in 1765, was 
taken for a clergyman because he did not 
wear ruffles. They seem to have gone out of 
fashion during the French revolution of 
1789. 

Rugby (Warwickshire). — The school was 
founded by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
tradesman, and native of the place, a.d. 
1567. It was regulated by act of parlia- 
ment in 1777, and rose to great distinction 
under the mastership of Dr. Arnold, 1827 — 
1842. The Elborow school was founded by 
Richard Elborow in the 18th century ; the 
parochial schools were built in 1830 ; St. 
Matthew's church was founded in 1841 ; 
and the Literary Institute in 1847. 

RtJGEN (Baltic Sea), the Holy Island of the 
Slavonic Varini, captured by the duke of 
Poland A.D. 1124, and by the Idng of Den- 
mark in 1169, was ceded to Sweden by the 
peace of Westphalia, Oct. 14, 1648. It was 
taken by the Danes in 1677. Having been 
restored to Sweden, Sept. 2, 1679, it was 
taken when Peter I. sent the Russian fleet 
against Charles XII., Nov. 17, 1715. Riigen 
was assigned to Sweden by the peace of 
Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. It capitulated to 
3 B 2 



EUM 



the French Sept. 7, 1807, and was ceded by 
Sweden to the Danish crown, hy the treaty 
of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, and by Denmark to 
the king of Prussia, June 4, 1815. 

EuM.— This West-Indian spirit is the pro- 
duct of molasses and the refuse of the sugar- 
manufactory. It is not known when the 
manufacture of rum commenced, or whence 
the spirit derived its name. Ships carrying 
rum must be of at least fifty tons burden, 
by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 107, s. 144 (Aug. 20, 
1853), which prohibits the importation of 
the spirit in casks of less than twenty 
gallons, or in bottles of more than three 
pints. The duties charged upon its im- 
portation have undergone several changes. 
By 21 Vict. 'c. 16 (May 11, 1858), a rate 
of 8s. 2d. per gallon is charged on every 
gallon of rum brought into the United 
Kingdom. 

EuMP PAEi-iAMEifT.— After the Long Par- 
hament had been sitting eight years. Colonel 
Pride, invading the House of Commons, sent 
forty-seven members to prison and excluded 
ninetv-six more, leaving a remnant of about 
fifty, Dec. 6, 1648. It voted the late treaty 
with King Charles I. dishonourable and 
dangerous, Dec. 13 ; and that he should be 
tried for treason against the people, Dec. 23. 
On the peers refusing their concurrence, the 
Commons passed the ordinance for the 
king's trial, Jan. 6, 1649 ; and the members 
who vrished to accept the king's concessions 
were expelled the house Feb. 1. This par- 
liament voted the House of Lords " use- 
less and dangerous " Feb. 6, and the office 
of king unnecessary Feb. 7. It passed acts 
abolisMng the office of king and the peerage, 
March 17 and 19, 1649. It took the style 
of " Parhamentum Reipublicae Anghae " j 
Feb. 9, 1650. It passed the celebrated 
Navigation Act affisctiug Dutch commerce, ! 
Oct. 9, 1651, and in the same month fixed its j 
ovm dissolution at Nov. 3, 1654. An act ' 
prohibiting the use of titles conferred since j 
Jan. 4, 1643, was passed January, 1652 ; and I 
an act of amnesty was passed Feb. 24, 1652. j 
Between it and the council of officers con- ' 
siderable differences arose as to the con- 
stitution of the new legislature. Crom- 
Avell entered the house with a strong guard, 
and terminated its existence by expelling the 
members, April 20, 1653. 

Etjnic Chaeactees, the alphabet, con- 
sisting of sixteen letters, used by the Teu- 
tonic nations, were ascribed by tradition to 
the god Odin, B.C. 508, although it was 
probably introduced to the people on the 
coast of the Baltic by Phoenician traders 
long before the Christian sera. The invention 
has also been ascribed to UlpMlas, bishop of 
the Goths, a.d. 350. They ceased to be 
used in Sweden in 1001, and were con- 
demned in Spain by the councU of Toledo 
in 1115. 

Ettnu-tmede (Surrey).— King John met 
the barons on this plain, near Egham, and 
granted Magna Charta, June 15, 1215. 

Efscia (Italy), the navale Thurioricnif 
which had been transferred to Euscianum, 
740 



EUS I 

or Eossano, was besieged by Totila, x.v. 547, ^ 
and after two attempts on the part of the 
Eomans, under Belisarius, to relieve the 
garrison, fell in 548. 

EussELL Administkatiott was formed 
after the resignation of Sir Eobert Peel and 
his colleagues, announced in parliament 
June 29, 1846. Lord John Eussell com- 
pleted his arrangements early in Jxily, and 
the cabinet was thus constituted : — 

TVooa,,^ / Lord John Eiissell, made 

^^^^"^ I E«l Kussell in 1861. 

T„-.^ ni,„„-.=ii„- /Lord, afterwards Earl, 

Lord Chancellor | CottcDbam. 

President of the Council. .Marquis of Lansdowne. 
Privy Seal Earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of Exchequer { ^^^^^ Barf '"' "^^ 

Home Secretary Sir George Grey, Bart. 

Foreign Secretary Viscount Palmerston. 

Colonial Secretary Earl Grey. 

Admiralty Eai 1 of Auckland. 

( Sir John Hobhouse, cre- 
Board of Control < ated Lord Broughton 

( Feb. 22, 1851. 
Duchy of Lancaster Lord Campbell. 

Woods and Forests ....{^-^^f JJ,Xc*^l,tr- 
Paymaster-Geueral • • • ■ { ^'M'aca':^^;""^ ""^^ 

Postmaster-General Marquis of Clanricarde. 

Boai-d of Trade Earl of Clarendon. 

Chief Secretary for Ire- ( Mr. Labouchere, after- 
land X wards Lord Taunton. 

The earl of Bessborough, lord lieutenant of 
Ireland, died May 16, 1847, and the earl of 
Clarendon succeeded him. May 20. Mr. 
Labouchere was appointed to the Board of 
Trade July 22, and his successor, as chief se- 
cretary for Ireland, did not receive a seat in the 
cabinet. The earl of Auckland died Jan. 1, 
and Sir Francis T. Baring became first lord of 
the Admiralty Jan. 15, 1849. The earl of 
Carhsle became chancellor of the duchy of 
Lancaster, March 6, 1850, in place of Lord 
Campbell, appointed lord chief justice. Sir 
Thomas AVilde, created Lord Truro, became 
lord chancellor July 15, 1850, Lord Cotten- 
ham having resigned June 19, and Mr. Fox 
Maule, afterwards Lord Panmure, obtained 
a seat in the cabinet as secretary at war. 
The government having been for some time 
in a precarious state, was defeated by 100 
to 52, Feb. 20, 1851, upon a motion to bring 
in a bill to make the franchise in the coun- 
ties of England and Wales the same as that 
of the boroughs, and resigned office Feb. 21. 
The earl of Aberdeen and Sir James Gra- 
ham having refused to assist Lord John 
Eussell in the reconstitution of his cabinet, 
and Lord Stanley having dechned the task 
of forming an administration, the Eussell 
ministry finally resumed office, and the 
ministerial crisis terminated March 3. Earl 
Granville, who had succeeded Mr. Macaulay 
as paymaster of the forces, and Lord Sey- 
mour, made first commissioner of works 
April 15, 1850, obtained seats in the cabinet 
in 1851. Lord Palmerston resigned the 
foreign secretaryship, and Earl Granville 
was appointed as his successor, Dec. 26, 
1851. Mr. Fox Maule replaced Lord 
Broughton at the Board of Control, Feb. 5, 



RUS 

1852. A.n amendment proposed by Lord 
Palmerston to the government Militia Bill 
was carried by 135 to 126, Feb. 20; and 
the announcement of the dissolution of 
the RusseU administration was made in both 
branches of the legislature JFeb. 23. (See 
Derby (Fikst) Administration.) 

EussELL Institution (London) . — A lease 
for the ground was obtained from the 
duke of Bedford, July 26, 1802, by James 
Burton, who proposed to erect a suite of 
assembly and ball-rooms. The progress of 
the work was delayed by a fire, which oc- 
curred in 1802. The KusseU Assembly- 
rooms were opened in February, 1804. This 
speculation failed, and early in 1808 meet- 
ings were held for the establishment of a 
literary and scientific society, and it was 
agreed to raise 12,500 guineas in five hun- 
dred shares at twenty-five giiineas each. 
General meetings were held April 20 and 
July 7, and the property was transferred to 
trustees for the formation of the Eussell 
Institution, Oct.] 8. The news-room was 
opened June 4, 1808, the circulation of 
books commenced Jan. 2, 1809, and lectures 
were first dehvered in 1810. The baU-room 
was converted into a library, which was 
opened March 23, 1814. The first catalogue 
was pubMshed in 1809, the second in 
1814, the third in 1820, the fourth in 1826, 
the fifth in 1835, and the sixth in 1849. 

Russia. — The kingdom, extending over 
great portions of Europe and Asia, partly 
corresponds with the ancient Sarmatia. It 
is said to derive its name from the Rhoxolani 
or Rhoxani, a Gothic people that settled 
there at a very early period, though several 
other derivations are given. It is first 
mentioned as Russia about a.d. 839. 



862. Euric the Norman, chief of the Varangians, 
establishes his government at Novgorod. 

865. The Russians attack. Constantinople, and are 
defeated by the emperor Michael III. 

879. Death of Ruric, who is succeeded by his 
infant son Igor, under the regency of his 
kinsman Oleg. 

882. Oleg makes Kief his capital. 

907. Another expedition against Constantinople is 
conducted by Oleg. who receives a large 
tribute from the emperor Leo VI. 

912. A commercial treaty is concluded with the 
Eastern empire. 

941. Igor invades the Eastern empire, and is re- 
pulsed by the emperor Romanus. 

945. A second tieaty is signed with the emperor. 
Igor is assassinated at Korosten, aud is 
succeeded by his son Sviatoslaf, his widow 
Olga acting as regent. 

957. The queen regent, Olga, visits Constantinople, 
where she is baptized. 

966. Sviatoslaf, prince oc Kief, overthrows the 
empire of the Khozars. 

968. He defeats the EulgariHns.in a great battle. 

970. He crosses the Balkan and invades Thrace. 

971. July. He sustains a great defeat from John I. 

at Dorystolon or Durostole. 
977. Civil war breaks out between the brothers 

Vladimir, Yaropolk, and Oleg. 
980. Yaropolk is assassinated by his brother 

Vladimir. 
988. Vladimir the Great takes Cherson from the 

Greek emperor Basil II., whose sister Anne 

he man-ies ; he also embraces Christianity. 
1018. Yaroslaf promulgates a code of laws. 



RUS 



1043. Vladimir, prince of Novgorod, attacks Con- 
stantinople and is defeated with great loss. 

1158. Yuiy I. founds Vladimir and makes it his 
capital. 

1223. The Tartars of the Golden Horde {q.v.) esta- 
blish themselves in the south-east parts of 



1235. 



1252. 
1318. 



1352. 
1380. 



1395. 
1425. 



1441. 
1462. 



1480. 
1481. 

1482. 

1487. 

1488. 
1493. 



1506. 
1510. 
1521. 



1524. 

1530. 
1538. 

1541. 
1543. 



1546. 
1550. 



Russia is invaded by 1,500,000 Mongols, under 
Batou Khan. 

The Tartat khan of Kiptschak exercises the 
supreme power in Russia. 

Alexander Newski defeats an invading army 
of Swedes and Danes at the battle of the 
Neva (q.v.). 

He receives the title of Grand Duke from 
the Tartars. 

The Russians make Moscow their capital, and 
invade Finland. 

The priucipality of Kief is seized by Gedi- 
min, duke of Lithua,nia. 

Ivan I., surnamed Kalita, becomes grand 
prince, and establishes the principle of 
hereditary succession. 

Red Russia is conquered by the Poles and 
Hungarians. 

Red Russia is seized by the Lithuanians. 

Dimitri, or Demetrius III., defeats the Tar- 
tars at the great battle of the Don, and is 
surnamed Douskoi in consequence. 

War is carried on against the Tartars, who 
burn Moscow. 

Russia is invaded by Timour the Tartar. 

Death of VassUi Dimitrievitch, in whose 
reign the first Russian coinage was esta- 
blished. 

The empire of the Kiptschak Mongols is 
divided into four principalities. 

Accession of Ivan III., or John Basilowitz the 
Great, the real founder of the modem Rus- 
sian empire. 

Ivan III. marries Sophia, niece of the last 
Greek emperor Constantine XIII., and 
adopts the title of czar, and the two-headed 
eagle as his badge. 

The Russians discontinue paying tribute to 
the Tartars. 

War is commenced with the Tartars. 

Jan. 15. The republican city of Novgorod 
submits to Ivan III. 

The Mongol power in Russia is destroyed by 
Ivan III. 

Ambassadors are fii-st received at the Russian 

COlU't. 

The Russians employ artillery for the first 
time this year. 

Ivan III. defeats the khan of Cazan at the 
battle of Svi.aga. 

War breaks out with Sweden. 

A league against Denmark is concluded with 
Sweden. The punishment of the knout 
is introduced into Russia about this time. 

A war is \mdertaken against Poland. 

The Tartars invade Russia. 

The Ci-im Tartars are defeated at the battle 
of Razan. 

Peace is concluded with Poland. 

The Russians sustain a defeat from, the Tartars 
on the Volga. 

Peace is concluded with the Tartars. 

Death of the queen-regent Helena, whose 
young son, Ivan IV., is kept in tutelage by 
the three brothei-s Shuiski. 

A Tartar invasion, under the khan of the 
Crimea, is repelled. 

Ivan IV., at the age of 14, puts to death 
Andrew Shuiski aud assumes the govern- 
ment, which he conducts with great 
tya-anny. 

Ivan rv. is solemnly crowned czar by the 
patriarch, being the first Russian monarch 
whose coronation was a public and eccle- 
siastical ceremony. 

He establishes the *' Strelitzes," the first 
standing army in Russia. 

War is resumed with the Tartars. 

741 



A.D. 

1552. 

1554. 
1555. 
1557. 

1558. 

1562. 

1570. 

1571. 
1576. 
1579. 



1604. 
1605. 



1612. 
1613. 



1618. 
1634. 

1649. 
1651. 
1654. 



EUS 



Oct. 2. Cazan is captured by the czar, and its 
inhabitants are massacred. 

The Eussians discover Siberia. 

The czar exacts tribute from the Siberians. 

The peasantry are declared the property of 
the landowners. 

War is commenced with the Teutonic 
knights. 

Russia and Sweden unite in a war against 
Poland. 

Jan. In consequence of a pretended insurrec- 
tion at Novgorod, Ivan IV. massacres 
60,000 of the inhabitants. 

Russia is overrun by the Tartars, who bum 



The Cossacks are fonned into a regular army 
of defence against the Tartai-s. 

Ivan IV. solicits the hand of Elizabeth of 
England, and puts his eldest son to death. 

The Greek Church in Russia is declared in- 
dependent of the patriarch of Constan- 
tinople. 

Death of the czar Feodor, and extinction of 
the Ruric dynasty. 

A monk pretends to be Demetrius, a de- 
ceased son of the czar Ivan IV. 

On the death of Boris Godunow, the throne 
is seized by the pseudo Demetrius, who is 
murdered by his subjects. 

An alliance is concluded with Sweden. 

A second impostor asserts himself to be 
Demetrius. 

The Poles are expelled from Moscow. 

Accession of the Romanoff dynasty. 

Feb. 27. Fiulaud is ceded to Sweden by the 
treaty of Stolbova. 

Ladislaus of Poland marches as far as Moscow. 

June 15. Peaoe with Poland is restored by 
the treaty of Wiasma. 

The laws are revised. 

English traders are excluded from Russia. 

The Co -sacks are taken under Russian 
protection, which occasions a war with 
Poland. 

Oct. 3. The truce of "Wilna, or Niemetz, is 
concluded with Poland. 

The czar refuses to receive an ambassador 
from Oliver Cromwell. 

July 1. The peace of OUva is concluded with 



Jan. 30. By the treaty of Andrussow, Russia 
cedes Servia, the Ukraine, and several 
towns, to Poland. 

Russian ambassadors are first sent to the 
courts of France and Spain. 

The ii surrection of Steuko Badzin termi- 
nates in his execution. 

Submission of the Tourgouth Tartars. 

War is commenced against the Turks. 

The Turks resign all claim to the Ukraine 
and the Cossack territoiy, and peace is 
restored. 

A mutiny breaks out among the Strelitzes. 

May 6. An alliance between Russia and 
Poland against Turkey is signed at 



1673. 

1678. 



1688. The czar Ivan V. resigns his share of the go- 
vernment. 

1697. Peter I. visits England and Holland. 

1698. In conseijuence of a revolt Peter I. puts to 

death all the Strelitzes. 
1700. Nov. 30. Peter I. sustains a severe defeat 

from the Swedes at Narva. He builds 

the first Russian frigate, and founds the 

navy. 
1703. May 27. Foundation of St. Petersburg {q.v.). 

1708. Revolt of the Cossacks under Mazeppa, who 

is assisted by Charles XII. of Sweden. 

1709. May. Charles is defeated by Peter L at 

Poltava (g. v.). 

1710. War is commenced with Turkey. 

1711. July 10. The treaty of Falczi {g. v.). A direct- 

ing senate is established. 

1712. Catheiine, the wife of Peter, receives the 

title of Czarina. 



74Z 



EUS 



A.D. 

1718. July 7. Death of the czarowitz Alexis, who is 
supposed to have been murdered by his 
father. 

1721. Aug. 30. The peace of Nystadt is concluded 

with Sweden, which cedes Esthonia, Livo- 
nia, and other ten-itories to Russia. 

1722. The czar Peter assumes the style of "Emperor 

of all the Russias." 

1723. Persia cedes extensive territory to Russia. 
1725. Feb. 8. Death of Peter I., or the Great. 
1730. Jan. 29. Death of Peter II., and extinction of 

the Romanoff dynasty : the throne is con- 
ferred upon Anne of Courland. 

1733. The Eiissians invade Poland. 

1735. The Riissian possessions in Persia, are relin- 
quished. 

1739. The Russian possessions in Turkey are re- 

stored by the treaty of Belgrade (g.v.). 

1740. A conspiracy against the czarina is detected. 
1742. Dec. 15. ITie army revolts and deposes 

Ivan VI. The throne is conferred on 

Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter I. 

and Catherine. 
1748. An alliance is concluded with Austria. 
1752. Sir Charles Hanbury Williams is sent to 

Warsaw by the English government, to 

effect a union between Russia, Poland, and 

Saxony. 
1757. Russia takes part in the Seven Years' war, 

and invades Pnissia. 
1760. Oct. 9. The Russians and Austrians take 

Berlin. 
1762. May 5. Peace is concluded with Prussia at St. 

Petersburg. July 10. A revolution breaks 

out at St. Petersburg, where the czar 

Peter III. is deposed. July 19. He dies. 
1764 The imprisoned czar, Ivan VI., is put to 

death. 
1768. Tirrkey declares war against Russia. {See 

OrroMAN EiiPiRE.) 

1772. Russia participates in the fii-st partition of 

Poland. 

1773. Rebellion of the Cossack Pugatcheff, who 

claims to be the deceased czar, Peter III. 

1774 July 10. Russia gains considerable acquisi- 
tions in Turkey by the treaty of Kout- 
chouk-Kainardji (q. v.). 

1775. The impostor Pugatcheff is broken on the 
wheel. 

1778. Piince Potemkin is made minister. 

1788. War is commeuced with Sweden. 

1790. The Swedes fail in an attack upon St. Peters- 
burg. Aug. 14 Peace is restored by the 
treaty of Werela. 

1792. Jan. 9. The Crimea is finaUy ceded to Russia 

by the treaty of Jassy {q.v.). June 8. War 
is declared against Poland. 

1793. March 25. An alliance is concluded with 

England against Fi-ance. Russia acquires 
considerable territory by the second parti- 
tion of Poland. 
1795. Poland is finally divided between Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria. 

1797. Russia acquires con^ide^able territory in Per- 

sia by the treaty of Teflis. 

1798. Dec. 29. Russia unites with England and 

Austria, in a coalition against Fi-ance. 

1799. Suwarrow assists the Austrians in Italy. 

Russia secedes from the Anglo-Austrian 
alliance, and forms a co£^tion with 
France. 

1800. Nov. 15. The emi)eror Paul lays an embargo 

on English ships. Dec. 16. A maritime 
confederacy is signed between Russia, 
Sweden, and Denmark. Dec. 30. The czar 
invites the contending sovereigns of Europe 
to meet at St. Petersburg, and settle their 
differences by a private combat, in which 
their ministers sboiild act as squires. 

1801. March 23. Paul I. is assassinated by a party 

of noblemen under Greneral Benningsen and 
Pahlen. May 17. A convention is signed 
with England. 
1805. April 11. Russia again joins the coalition 
against France. 



RUS 



RUS 



1806. A Russian army occupies Moldavia and Wal- 

lachia. Nov. 28. The French enter Warsaw 
for the purpose of aiding the Poles against 
the Russians. 

1807. June 2.5. The czar has an interview with the 

emperor Napoleon I. on the Niemeu, at 
Tilsit. July 9. Peace is restored by the 
treaty of Tilsit. Oct. 6. War is declared 
against Sweden. Nov. 8. War is declared 
against England. 
1809. May 5. War is declared against Austria. 
Sept. 17. Peace with Sweden is restored by 
the treaty of Frederickshatnm. 

1812. April 5. A coalition is formed with Sweden 

against France. June 24. The French, under 
Napoleon I., cross the Niemen. July 18. 
Peace is restored with England by the 
treaty of Orebro. Aug. 17. The Russians 
are defeated at Smolensko. Sept. 7. The 
French engage the Russians at Borodino 
(g. v.). Sept. 14. They enter Moscow, 
which is burnt by the inhabitants (see Mos- 
cow). Oct. 19. The French commence 
their retreat. Nov. 26—28. They are de- 
feated, with immense slaughter, at the 
Beresina {q.v.). 

1813. Jan. 19. The French recross the Niemen, 

having lost about 257,000 men in the 
campaign. June 4. The armistice of Po- 
ischewitz is concluded with Napoleon I. 
June 14. The convention of Reichenbach is 
signed with Great Britain. 

1814. March 31. The emperor Alexander I. and the 

allies enter Paris. June 6. He visits 
England. 

1815. June 20. The emperor of Russia is proclaimed 

king of Poland. 
1817. Dec. 27. The ministry of public instruction is 

united to that of religious affairs. 
1820. The Jesuits are expelled from Russia. 
1823. The grand-duke Constantine resigns his right 

to the throne. 

1825. The emperor Alexander I. makes a tour 

through his dominions. Dec. 1. He dies at 
Taganrog, and is succeeded by his brother, 
Nicholas I. Dec 26. A military revolt, 
under Colonel Pestal, is suppressed at St. 
Petersburg. Dec. 29. The troops at Moscow 
proclaim Constantine, and 200 are slain. 

1826. Feb. The duke of Wellington visits St. 

Petersburg. Sept. 3. Coronation of the 
emperor at Moscow. Sept. 28. War is 
declared against Persia {q. v.). 

1827. July 9. Nicholas I. visits England, where 

he receives the investiture of the garter. 

1828. Feb. 22. Peace with Persia is restored by the 

treaty of Turkmanshai. April 26. War 
is declared against the Ottoman empire 
ig.v.). 

1829. May 24. Coronation of Nicholas T. at War- 

saw as king of Poland. Sept. 14. Peace 
with Turkey is restored by the treaty of 
Hadrianople {q. v.), by which Circassia is 
annexed to Russia. 

1830. Nov. 29. A revolutionary war breaks out in 

Poland iq.v.). 

1831. June 27. Death of the grand-duke Con- 

stantine. Sept. 8. The capture of Warsaw 
by the Russians reduces the Poles to sub- 
jection. 
1834. Feb. 10. A treaty for the surrender of Polish 
refugees to the Russian authorities is con- 
cluded with Austria and Prussia. 

1840. Jan. Failure of the expedition against the 

Turcomans of Khiva, in Central Asia. 
July 15. Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, 
and Turkey conclude 'a treaty at London 
for the expulsion of Ibrahim Pasha from 
Syria. 

1841. The Circassian war commences. 

1844. June 1. Nicholas I. visits England, where 
he remains eight days. An insurrectionary 
movement is suppressed in Poland (q.v.). 

1846. June 9. The grand-duke Constantine visits 

Portsmouth. 

1847. Poland is made a province of the empire. 



March 3. The French revolution occasions 
great excitement at St. Petersburg. April. 
An insurrection commences in White Rus- 
sia. 
May. A Russian force is sent to the assist- 
ance of the Austrians in Hungary (q. v.). 
Nov. Russia demands the expulsion of 
Hungarian refugees from Turkey. 
Jan. 6. A conspiracy against the emperor is 

detected. 
The St. Petersburg and Moscow railway is 

commenced. 
May 8. Nicholas I. visits Vienna. May 16. 

He goes to Potsdam. 
July 2. The Russians occupy the Danubian 
principalities. Sept. 24. The emperors of 
Russia and Austria have an interview at 
Olmiitz. Oct. 2. Nicholas T. meets the em- 
peror of Austria and the king of Prussia at 
Warsaw. Oct. 5. War is declared against 
Turkey. (See Rdsso-Tukkish Wab.) 
Feb. 7. Baron Brunow, the Russian ambas- 
sador, leaves England. March 5. Ten of 
the northern governments, inclusive of 
Poland, are declared in a state of siege. 
April 23. Nicholas I. issues a manifesto as- 
serting that his only object in the war i^ 
the defence of the Christian faith. 

, March 2. Death of the emperor Nicholas 
at St. Petersburg. Sept. 25. Alexander 
II. visits Nicolaieflf. Oct. 15. He orders 
a levy of 10 men in 1,000 throughout 
the empire, seven provinces only excepted. 
Nov. 9. He visits his forces at Sebastopol. 
Nov. 18. He returns to St. Petersburg. 
Nov. 21. A treaty is signed between France 
and England with Sweden, by which the 
latter power engages to cede no territory to 
Russia, and receives the promise of as- 
sistance from the other parties in the event 
of Russian aggression. 

, Feb. 1. Death of Prince Paskiewitch at 
Warsaw. March 30. Peace is restored by 
the treaty of Paris. May 17. The depart- 
ment of public instiTiction is placed under 
the immediate control of the emperor. 
May 22. The emperor visits Warsaw. May 
27. He grants a political aminesty to the 
Poles. Sept. 2. He publishes a manifesto 
against English and French interference in 
the affairs of Naples. Sept. 7. He is 
solemnly crowned at Moscow. 

, Jan. 26. The works of the St. Petersbiurg and 
Warsaw railway are entrusted to a com- 
pany of Russian and foreign capitalists. 
Jvme 14. A commercial treaty is signed 
with France. Sept. 25. An interview be- 
tween the emperors of Russia and of 
France takes place at Stutgardt. Oct. 1. 
Alexander II. meets the emperor of Austria 
at Weimar. Dec. 16. The department of 
mUitary colonies is abolished. 

, Jan. 15. A committee is established under 
the presidency oi the emperor, to consider 
the best measures for ameliorating the 
condition of the serfs. May 28. A frontier 
treaty is concluded with the emperor of 
China at Aihun. June 9. A treaty of 
commerce and navigation is concluded with 
Belgium. July 2. The royal peasants are 
admitted to personal rights. Dec. 31. A 
commercial treaty is concluded with Great 
Britain. 

, May 27. The Russian government protests 
against any intervention on the part of the 
Germanic Confederation in the Italian 
question. July 27. An expedition against 
Schamyl is sent into Daghestan. Aug. 5. 
The stronghold of Ullu-Kale, in the Cau- 
casus, surrenders to the Russians. Aug. 8. 
Prince Bariatinski announces the sub- 
jection of the tribes of the Caucasus. Aug. 
26. Extension of political rights among the 
serfs. Sept. 7. Capture of the Circassian 
leader Schamyl. Sept. 20. The czarowitz 
Nicholas attains his majority. 

743 



EUS 



1860. Feb. 13. Russia rejects the principle of the 

sovereignty of the people. May 5. The 
Kussian government invites a conference 
of the European powers to assemble in 
Eussia for considering the condition of 
Christians in Tm-key. June 12. New regu- 
lations are made respecting the national 
bank. June 19. War recommences in 
the Caucasus. Sept. 14. A commercial 
treaty is concluded with Austria. Oct. 10. 
The Kussian ambassador is recalled from 
Turin. Oct. 22. The emperors of Russia 
and Austria, and the prince-regent of 
Pi-ussia, have an interview at Warsaw. 

1861. Feb. Troubles in Poland {q.v.}. March 18. 

An imperial manifesto is published^ which 
decrees the total emancipatirin of the serfs 
of the empire within two years. April 10. 
A commission of the states of Finland is 
summoned to meet at Helsingfors in 1862. 
Hay 30. Death of Prince Goitschakoff. 

ETJLEKS OF ETJSSIA. 
DUKES AND GRAITD-DTJKES. 



A.D. 

Ruric 847 

Oleg 879 

Igor 1 913 

Sviatoslav 1 943 

Yaropolk 1 973 

Vladimir I., the 

Great 980 

Sviatopolkl 1015 

Yaroslav 1 1018 

Isaslav 1 1051 

Sviatoslav IT. 1073 

Wsewolod 1 1078 

Sviatopolk II 1093 

Vladimii-II 1113 

Mistislav 1125 

Yaropolk n 1132 

Wsewolod II 1138 

Isaslav IL 1146 

YuryJ 1149 

Anrej 1159 



A.D. 

Michael 1 1175 

Wsewolod III 1177 

Yury n 1213 

Constantine 1217 

Yaroslav II 1238 

Alexander Newski 1243 

Yaroslav III 1262 

Vassili 1 1270 

Dimitri 1275 

Andrew I ; 1281 

DanUo 1294 

Michael II 1305 

Yury III 1317 

Ivan 1 1328 

Simeon 1340 

Ivan IL 1353 

Dimitrill 1359 

Dimitri III 1363 

Vassili IL 1389 

VassiUIU 1425 



Ivaa m 

Vassili rV. 


A.D. 

.. 1462 
1505 


Vassili Schuiskoi . 

Michael IIL 

Alexis 


A.D. 

. 1606 

. 1613 

1645 


Ivan rV 


.. l.';:^ 


Feodor 1 1584 

Boris Godunow 1598 

EHPE 

Peter Lorthe Great 168.5 

Catharine 1 1725 

Peter II 17-27 


Feodorll 

IvanV 

ROBii. 

Peterin 

Catharine II 


. 1676 
. 1682 

A.D. 

. 1762 
. 1762 






Alexander! 

Nicolas I 


. 1801 


Ivan VI 


.. 1740 


Elizabeth 


.. 1741 


Alexander IL . . . 


. 1855 



EiTssiA Company.— The English trade 
through Archangel was opened by some 
Englishmen who went on a voyage of dis- 
covery, A.D. 1553. They were sent for by 
Ivan rV., when international commerce was 
estabUshed, and a company formed in Lon- 
don, Eichard Chancellor and Anthony Jen- 
Mnson being the agents, in 1554. 

Eusso-TtTKKiSH War. — The sultan of 
Turkey finding it impossible to comply with 
the demands of the Czar respecting the holy 
places and the Turkish subjects professing 
the Greek religion, the Eussian embassy 
was recalled from Constantinople, May 21, 
1853, 

744 



EUS 



1853. May 28. A manifesto is issued to the great 

powers by the Sultan. June 8. The British 
fieet, under Admii-al Dundas, is ordered to 
the Dardanelles. July 2. The Russian 
army crosses the Pruth. Oct. 5. Turkey 
declares war. Oct. 23. l"he first encounter 
takes place at Isakcha. Oct. 30. The 
British fleet enters the Bosphorus. Nov. 4. 
The Turks are \'ictorious at Oltenitza, the 
Russians losing 1,000 men. Dec. 31. The 
"Identic Note " is accepted by the Sultan. 

1854. Jan. 2. The neutrality of Sweden and Den- 

mark is assured. Jan. 4. The allied fleets 
of England and F^•ance enter the Black 
Sea. Jan. 6. The Turks are victorious at 
Citate, with a loss to the Russians of 3,000 
men. Jan. 8. The Russians enter the 
Dohrudscha. Feb. 23. The erabaa-kation of 
British troops for the East. March 11. The 
Baltic fleet, under Napier, sails from Spit- 
head. March 19. The Freuch troops for 
the East begin to embark. March 20. 
The French Baltic fleet sails from Brest. 
March 28. Declaration of war by England 
and France. April 14. The siege of Si- 
listria is commenced by the Russians. 
April 15. A convention is agreed to 
between France, Turkey, and England. 
April 18. Liider is defeated by Omar Pastia 
near Rassova. April 20. Austria and Prus- 
sia agree to reruain neutral. April 22. 
Bombardment of Odessa by the French 
and English fleets. May 12. The Tiffer is 
lost oflT Odessa, and her crew made prison- 
ers by the Russians. June 14. Treaty of 
Boyadji-Keuy i^etween Austria and Turkey. 
June 23. The siege of Silistria is raised by 
the Russians. July 7. The Turks are 
victorious at Giurgevo. July 28. Wal- 
lachia is evacuated by the Russians. JvUy 
29. The Turks are defeated by the Russians 
nearBayazid. Aug. 6. The TUrks are again 
defeated at Kurekdere. Aug. 13—16. 
Bomarsund is besieged by the allied 
fleets, and surrenders unconditionally. 
Aug. 20. The Austrians enter the prin- 
cipalities. Aug. 24. Kola, in the White 
Sea, is bombarded by the Miranda, and 
completely destroyed. Sept. 7. The allies 
are defeated at Petropaulovski. Sept. 14. 
The allies (25,000 Fi-ench, 25,000 British, 
and 8,000 Turks) land at Old Fort, in the 
Crimea. Sept. 15. Moldavia is evacuated 
by the Russians. Sept. 20. Battle of the 
Alma, the Russians defeated bv ihe French 
and English. Sept. 23. The Russian fleet 
is suiik in the harbour of Sebastopol by 
Menschikoff. Sept. 26. Balaclava Is oc- 
cupied by the EngUsh. Sept. 29. Death of 
Marshal St. Amaud, the French com- 
mander-in-chief. Oct. 2. The siege army 
encamps before Sebastopol. Oct. 17. Bom- 
bardment commences. Oct. 25. Battle of 
Balaclava, and femous charge of the Light 
Brigade. Nov. 5. Battle of Inkermann. 
Dec. 2. Tripartite treaty between Austria, 
England, and France against Russia is 
signed at Vienna. Dec. 22. Admiral 
Dundas is succeeded by Sir E. Lyons. 
Dec. 24. Admiral Bruat succeeds Admiral 
Hamelin. 
1855. Jan. 26. Sardinia joins the allies. Jan. 29. 
The Sebastopol committee is appointed to 
inquire into state of the army. Feb. 6. A 
wanant is issued, giving commissions to 
sergeants and corporals. Feb. 24. The 
French are defeated at the White Works. 
March 2. The death of the emperor of 
Russia. March 15. Conferences are com- 
menced at Vienna. AprU 4. A fleet for the 
Baltic, under Admiral Sir R. S. Dundas, 
sails from Spithead. April 9. Sebastopol is 
again bombarded. Apiil 24. Embarkation 
of the Sardinian army at Genoa. The 
conferences at Vienna aa-e closed. 



EUS 



1855. May 16. General Canrobert is succeeded in the 

Crimea by Pelissier. May 22. An expe- 
dition is sent to the Sea of Azof. May 25. 
Keitch and Yenikale are taken by the 
allies. May 26. The allies enter the Sea of 
Azof June 3. Taganrog ia cannonaded by 
the allies. June 5. Massacre at Hango by 
the Russians of a boat's crew, under a flag 
of truce. June 6. Sebastopol is a third 
time bombarded. June 8. The Mamelou, 
Quarries, and White Works are taken. 
June 17. Sebastopol is a fourth time bom- 
barded. June 18. The allies are repulsed 
at the Malaklioff and the Redan. June 28. 
Death of Lord Raglan. Aug. 9. Sweaborg 
is bombarded. Aug. 16. The Russians are 
defeated at the Tcheraaya. Sept. 8. Re- 
pulse of the English from the Redan ; the 
Malakho£f is taken by the French ; evacua- 
tion of Sebastopol by the Russians. Sept. 9. 
Entrance of the allies into Sebastopol. 
Sept. 24. Taman and Fanagoria are taken 
by the allies. Sept. 29. The Russians are 
defeated by the French in a cavalry action 
at Eupatoria. The Tui-kish garrison of 
Kars, under General Williams, repulses 
the Russians. Oct. 17. The forts of Kin- 
burn capitulate to the allies. Nov. 6. The 
Turks, under Omar Pasha, defeat the 
Russians, and force the passage of the 
Ingour. Nov. 25. Kars surrenders to 
General Mouravieif. Dec. 16. Proposals of 
peace, approved by the allies, are sent to 
St. Petersburg by Austria. 

1856. Jan. 16. Bases for peace are agreed to by 

Russia. Feb. 1. A protocol is signed at 
Vienna by the ministers of Russia, France, 
England, Austria, and Turkey. Feb. 5. 
The report of Sir John M'Niell and Colonel 
Tulloch, commissioners to the Crimea to 
inquii-e into the state of the ai-my, is 
published. Feb. 25. The plenipotentiaries 
of France, Austria, Great Britain, Russia, 
Sardinia, and Turkey, Prussia being after- 
wards admitted, meet at Paris and agree to 
an armistice, to continue in force till the 
Slst of Marcn. Feb. 29. A suspension of 
hostilities is agreed upon in the Crimea. 
March 30. A treaty of peace is signed at 
Paris. April 16. The congress is closed. 
April 29. The treaty is ratified at Paris. 

Rtistchtjk (Turkey.) — This tovm was 
taken by the Russians under Generals Lan- 
geron and Markow, Oct. 14, 1811 ; and it 
again admitted a Russian force in 1828. 

Ruthenium. — Klaus proved the existence 
of this metal in platinum ores, a.d. 1844, 

RuTHVEN. {See Raib op Ruthvew.) 

Rye (Sussex), one of the Cinque Ports, 
supposed to be the Novus Portus of the 
Romans, was pillaged by a party of piratical 
Danes, under Hastings, a.d. 893. The 
castle was built by the earl of Kent, 
1134 — 1154. A charter, conveying permis- 
sion to fortify the town, was granted by 
Richard I. in 1194. The Huguenots, driven 
from France by Catherine of Medicis, found 
refuge here in 1572. The harbour was 
nearly choked up in the 16th century, and an 
act was obtained for improving it in 1548. An 
attempt to form a new mouth by a canal in 
1750, having been foimd useless, was aban- 
doned, and the old one was again resorted to 
and improved in 1778, The free grammar- 
school, founded by Thomas Peacock in 1638, 
and a school for poor children, by James 
Saunders, in 1702, are now united. 

RxE-HousB Plot, for an insurrection in 



SAB 

England and Scotland, in order to secure 
the succession to the duke of Monmouth, 
was discovered June 12, 1683. The earl of 
Essex, son of Lord Capel, was found in the 
Tower with his throat cut, July 13 ; Lord 
William Russell was executed July 21, and 
Algernon Sydney Dec. 7, 1683. The duke 
of Monmouth was pardoned, and Hampden 
fined £40,000 Feb. 6, 1684. The conspirators 
intended to murder Charles II. and the duke 
of York. 

Ryswick (Treaty). — Negotiations were 
opened at this village, in Holland, May 9, 
1697, to terminate the war which had com- 
menced in 1688, with France against Hol- 
land, Germany, Spain, and England. This 
treaty, by which Louis XIV. resigned some 
of his conquests and recognized William III. 
as king of England, was signed Sept. 10, 
1697 (O. S.). 

S- 

SaaIiFEI/D (Germany) . — This smaU walled 
town of Saxe-Meiningen contains the ruins 
of an old castle erected in the 8th century. 
The cathedral of St. John was built a.d. 
1212, and is remarkable for its fine painted 
windows. Bavaria entered into an alliance 
with the confederates of Smalcald at this 
town, Oct. 24, 1531. 

Saarbettck, or Saeeebruck (Prussia).— 
Its palace, which at one time belonged to 
the princes of Nassau-Saarbriicken, was 
destroyed by the French a.b. 1793. 

Saabdam (Holland), celebrated as the 
place where Peter the Great resided when 
working as a common shipwright, a.d. 1696. 

Saaelouis (Prussia).— This strong 
fortress, erected by Vauban, a.d. 1681, was 
ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

Saaz, or Saatz (Battle). — Ziska defeated 
the Germans at this place in Bohemia, Sept. 1, 
1421. 

Sabbataeians. — The term was applied 
in the 4th century to the followers of Sabba- 
tius. In the 16th century a division of the 
Anabaptists, who observed the seventh, 
instead of the first day of the week, received 
the name of Sabbatarians. It is uncertain 
when they first appeared in the Protestant 
church, but Fuller says they existed as 
early as 1633. There are two congregations 
of Sabbatarians in London, the first dating as 
far back as 1678. One is among the General, 
and the other among the Particular Baptists. 
A tract supporting this doctrine was pub- 
lished in 1740. They are sometimes called 
the Seventh-Day Baptists. 

Sabbath, as a name for Sunday, was, 
according to the elder Disraeh, first used in 
England a.d. 1554. In low Latin, and the 
languages derived from the Latin, the term 
designates Saturday. 

Sabbatical Yeae. — The Jews received 
the command for its observance every 
seventh year, in which they were neither 
to sow their fields nor prune their vineyards 
(Exod. xxiii. 10 & 11), b.c. 1491. The in- 
junction is repeated in Lev. xxx. 



SAB 

Sabellians. — The followers of Sabellins, 
according to some authorities a bishop, and 
according to others a presbyter of Upper 
Egypt, who flourished in the 3rd century, and 
taught that the Father suffered on the cross, 
and that there is but one person in the God- 
head. Pope Dionysius pronounced condem- 
nation of the doctrines of Sabellius in a 
council held at Kome a.d. 263. Marcellus, 
bishop of Aneyra, maintained the doctrine in 
325. The "Historia SabelUna" was pubhshed 
by "VVormius in 1696. The SabeUians were 
also called Patripassians and ModaHsts. 
Hallam says that Servetus held what were 
nearly Sabellian opinions. 

Sabines, a most ancient people of Italy, , 
supposed to have been named from Sabus, ! 
one of their deities. Little is known of 
their history. They were at war with the 
Komans at a very early period. A war | 
broke out between them B.C. 504, when a j 
portion of the Sabines migrated in a body to | 
Eome, where they were welcomed as citi- | 
zens, and gave rise to the powerful family 
and tribe of Claudii. The Sabines carried ! 
their ravages to the very gates of Eome, ! 
B.C. 469, and, when defeated by Marcus ' 
Horatius, B.C. 449, their camp was found j 
fuU of plunder obtained in the Koman terri- 
tories. They were again at war with the 
Eomans B.C. 290, and were soon vanquished, j 
many having been sold as slaves. The re- j 
maining citizens were admitted to the Eoman | 
franchise, but without the rights of suffrage. 
These were granted to them B.C. 268, and j 
from that time they enjoyed all the privileges j 
of Eoman citizens. The last time they are | 
mentioned as a distinct people is during ; 
the second Punic war, when they served as j 
volunteers in the army of Scipio. j 

Sao (Bretheen of the). — This reHgious 
order, estabhshed in the beginning of the 
13th century, had monasteries in France, 
Germany, Italy, and England. They never 
ate flesh or drank wine, and only wore 
wooden sandals, in addition to the sac, from 
which they took their name. 

Saccatoo (Africa). — A kingdom under this 
name was established in Soodan a.d. 1816. 
The town of Saccatoo was founded in 1803. 
The traveller Clapperton died here, April 
13, 1827. 

Sacheverell Eiots. — Dr. Henry Sache- 
verell, rector ""f St. Saviour's, Southwark, 
preached two sermons, one at Derby and 
another at St. Paul's, the latter Nov. 5, 1709, 
of which Mr. Dolben complained as being 
contrary to revolution principles. The House 
of Commons voted them " scandalous and 
seditious," and ordered Dr. Sacheverell to 
be impeached, Dec. 13. Dr. Sacheverell, 
brought to trial Feb. 27, 1710, was found 
guilty March 23, and sentenced to suspen- 
sion for three years. The people, con- 
ceiving the church in danger, during the 
progress of the trial broke into several 
meeting-houses, tore down the pulpits and 
pews, and made a bonfire of them in Lin- 
coln' s-inn Fields. Soldiers were called upon 
to disperse the mob, and the London trained 
746 



SAC 

bands were kept on duty. In 1713 Sache- 
verell was presented to the living of St. 
Andrew's, Holborn, and he died in 1724. 

Sachament. — In the primitive ages of 
Christianity there were but two sacraments. 
Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Otho, 
bishop of Bamberg, was the first who, a.d. 
1124, enumerated seven sacraments. 
Through the influence of Peter Lombard 
and of Gratian, this number was generally 
adopted by the Eomish clergy, and received 
the approval of Pope Eugenius IV. at the 
council of Florence .in 1439. The council of 
Trent, Dec. 13, 1545— Dec. 3, 1563, decided 
that there were seven instead of the two 
instituted by Jesus Christ. A sect sprung up 
in England early in the 18th century, found- 
ed by Dr. Deacon, who increased their 
number to twelve. The founder pubhshed his 
views on Christianity in 1748. 

Saceamextabies. — These hturgical books 
were used in the Eoman Catholic church, 
and contained the prayers and order of the 
celebration of mass and of the sacraments. 
The most celebrated sacramentaries are 
those of Pope Gelasius (492—496) and Pope 
Gregory the Great (590—604). About the 
11th or 12th century they were incorporated 
with the mass-books or missals (q.v.). No 
sacramentaries were employed by the Greek 
church. Luther denounced Zuinglius and 
his followers as sacramentaries in 1521. 

Sacramento (California).— The city of 
Sacramento, founded in the spring of 1849, 
contained more than 10,000 inhabitants in 
1852. 

Sacred. — The Christian emperors never 
used the term until the time of Justin II., 
A.D. 565. It was first added to the title of 
majesty, in this country, by James I. in 
1603. 

Sacred Wars.— The first, in which the 
Amphictyonic council declared war against 
the Cirrhseans, B.C. 595, in defence of Del- 
phi, lasted until b.c. 586, when Cirrha was 
taken, razed to the ground, and the sur- 
rounding country dedicated to the god. A 
second lasted from B.C. 448 to B.C. 447. The 
Phocians having been sentenced by the Am- 
phictyonic council to pay a fine for having, 
as they pretended, cultivated the Cirrhaean 
plain, B.C. 357, seized the temple, which led 
to the third Sacred war. It was brought to a 
conclusion by Philip I. of Macedon B.C. 346, 
and the temple was restored to the Amphic- 
tyons. By some writers the first contest is 
termed the Cirrhsean war, and the two latter 
the first and second Sacred wars. 

Sacrifice. — Cain offered one of the fruit 
of the ground, and Abel of the firsthngs of 
his flock, B.C. 3875 (Genesis iv. 2 — 4). Noah, 
after leaving the ark, offered up a burnt- 
offering, B.C. 2347 (Genesis viii. 20). Abra- 
ham was commanded by God to offer up his 
son Isaac as a sacrifice, b.c. 1872 (Genesis 
xxii. 2) . The Jewish system of sacrifice was 
instituted b.c. 1496. A decree of the Eoman 
senate aboUshed human sacrifices B.C. 99. 
The Egyptians, says Herodotus, offered up 
swine to Dionysus, god of the Nile, and to 



SAC 

the Moon, b.c. 408; and the Scythians to 
their deities sacrificed chiefly horses, b.c. 
408. Caesar found the Druids of Britain 
practising human sacrifices, B.C. 55. "The 
altars of Phoenicia and Egypt, of Eome and 
Carthage, have been polluted with human 
gore," and the Arab tribe of the Dumatians 
annually sacrificed a boy in the 3rd century. 
The Mohammedan pilgrimage to Mecca is 
consummated by a sacrifice of sheep and 
camels. The tribes of the Suevi were in the 
habit of resorting to the sacred wood or 
sonnenwald, in the marquisate of Lusace, 
and there offering human sacrifice, a.d. 
243. Theodosius prohibited sacrifice at 
Eome in 381. 

Saceilege. — A statute was enacted 
against it (4 Hen. VIII. c. 2) a.d. 1512. 
It was made punishable with death by 7 & 8 
Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 10 (1827), and with trans- 
portation for Hfe by 5 & 6 Will. IV, c. 81 
(Sept. 10, 1835). The penalty was further 
reduced to a term of imprisonment for 
three years by 6 WiU. IV. c. 4 (1836). 

Saceipoetus (Battle). — The consuls Ma- 
rius the younger and Papirius Carbo were 
defeated at this place, in Italy, with the loss 
of 20,000 slain and 8,000 prisoners, by Sylla, 
B.C. 82. 

Saddles. — Zonaras relates that Constan- 
tino the younger was killed a.d. 340 by a 
faU from his saddle, which seems to be the 
first mention of them. They appear to have 
been made of wood in the time of the empe- 
ror Theodosius I. In 385 he ordered that 
saddles of more than sixty pounds weight 
should not be put upon post-horses. The 
emperor Maurice ordered those of the 
cavalry to have large coverings of fur in the 
6th century. Etbelbert, £ng of Kent, 
bestowed one adorned with gems upon St. 
Augustine's abbey in 605. In a reformation 
of the Cluniacs, in 1233, it is ordered that no 
abbot or prior ride without one. Among 
the old Germans and Franks, carrying a 
saddle from place to place was an igno- 
minious punishment. 

Sadducees, who denied the existence of 
departed souls, and the resurrection from 
the dead, derived their name from Sadoc, 
a follower of Antigonus Sochaeus, president 
of the Jewish Sanhedrim about B.C. 250. 
The last-mentioned was the founder of the 
sect. 

Sadlee's "Wells (London). — A band of 
music was provided for the entertainment 
of the drinkers of the medicinal waters here, 
A.D. 1683. Mr. Eosoman sold three-fourths 
of his interest in the place for £7,000, June 
10, 1771. The theatre was opened in 1765. 
An accident occurred through a false alarm 
of fire, by which eighteen persons were suffo- 
cated or trampled to deatl;, Oct. 19, 1807. 
Two benefits took place for the reHef of the 
sufferers, Nov. 2 and 3, and two brothers 
were convicted at the Middlesex sessions 
for having caused the riot wluch led to the 
catastrophe. Dee. 4, 1807. 

Safety Lamp. — The " Davy "was invented 
by Sir Humphrey Davy a.d. 1815, and the 



SAI 

" Geordy " by George Stephenson in 1815. It 
was decided to be sometimes a source of 
danger when ventilation was neglected, by 
a committee formed to inquire into the 
subject after the great explosion near Sun- 
derland in 1839. 

Saefeow, the same as the Latin crocus, 
which was much used by the ancients as a 
perfume and in cookery, was first introduced 
into Spain by the Arabs and into England 
! by a pilgrim, who brought a bulb from the 
i Levant in the reign of Edward III. Its cul- 
tivation was an important feature of Euro- 
pean husbandry in the 15th and 16th cen- 
turies. In the neighbourhood of Saffron 
Walden it was much cultivated. Henry II., 
king of France, issued an order against its 
adulteration in 1550. 

Sagan (Prussia) was sold to WaUenstein 
by Ferdinand II. for 150,800 guilden, about 
a fourth of its value, a.d. 1627. It passed at 
his death in 1634 to the princes of Lobkowitz, 
who sold it to Peter, duke of Courland, in 
1785. The duke abdicated his sovereignty 
in 1795, and his second daughter was created 
duchess of Sagan in 1845. 

Sage. — Mexican sage was introduced into 
this country from Mexico a.d. 1724, and 
blue African sage from the Cape in 1731. 

Sagone Bay (Corsica) is also called 
Lazone Bay. Here two French store-ships 
and a large transport were discovered lying 
under the protection of a battery, by Cap- 
tain Eobert Barrie. He attacked and 
destroyed the vessels and demohshed the for- 
tification. May 1, 1811. 

Sageamento, St., or Colonia del Sacea- 
mento ( Brazil) . — This Portuguese settlement 
on the Plata was founded by the governor of 
Eio Janeiro a.d. 1678, and was claimed by the 
Spaniards in 1680. They relinquished their 
claim by the treaty of Lisbon, June 18, 1701, 
and by a treaty signed at Utrecht Feb. 6, 
1715, but at length it was ceded to Spain by 
the treaty of Lisbon, Jan. 13, 1750. Por- 
tugal recovered it by a convention signed 
Feb. 12, 1761 ; but on the commencement of 
war between the two countries in 1762 it was 
again seized by the Spaniards, who resigned it 
for the fourth time by the treaty of Paris, 
Feb. 10, 1763. Hostihties recommenced, 
however, and continued until the Portuguese 
ceded it to Spain by the treaty of St. Ilde- 
fonso, Oct. 1, 1777. It was finally annexed 
to the empire of Brazil in 1825. 

Saguntum, or Sagxjntus (Spain), was 
besieged while in alhauce with the Eomans, 
by Hannibal, and taken after a brave resist- 
ance, when all the male adults were put to 
death, b.c 218. This led to the second Punic 
war. It was recovered by the Eomans, who 
restored and made it a colony, B.C. 210. A 
mosaic pavement of Bacchus was discovered 
A.D. 1745. The town of Murviedro {muri 
veteres) now occupies its site, and the con- 
vent of La Trinidad that of the great temple 
of Diana. 

Sailoes' Home (London Docks) was 
founded a.d. 1829, and the new building, by 
Mr. George Green, was opened in May, 1835. 
747 



SAI 



SAL 



Saiittes (France). — This ancient town 
contains a cathedral, built on the site of a 
church founded by Charlemagne. The 
church of St. Eutrope was founded in the 
11th century. Councils were held here in 
562; January, 1081; Nov. 4, 1089; March 
2, 1097 ; and in 1282. 

Salamanca (Spain), the Eoman Salman- 
tica, and called by the Spaniards, from its 
fine architectural remains, Eoma la Chica, 
or Little Eome, was stormed and captured 
by Ordonno a.b. 862. It capitulated to the 
earl of Galway, June 7, 1706, and was oc- 
cupied by a Spanish force, under the dake 
del Parque, in October, 1809. Wellington 
reached it June 17, 1812 ; took the forts by 
assault on the 26th ; and totally defeated the 
French, near the town, July 22. The bridge 
of twenty-seven arches across the Tormeo 
rests on the piers of Trajan's bridge. The 
university was founded by Alfonso IX. of 
Leon, in 1200, and united with that of Pa- 
lencia in 12.39. It had 14,000 students in the 
14th century. The schools of the university 
were buHt in 1415; the four colegios 
may ores were founded — San Bartolome, in 
1410 ; Cuenca in 1506 ; Santiago in 1521 ; 
and King's College in 1625. Their pri-valeges 
were much curtailed in 1770. The Jesuits' 
college was bmlt in 1614. The old cathedral 
was erected in the 12th century ; the new one, 
begun in 1513, was finished in 1734. The Plaza 
Mayor, capable of containing nearly 20,000 
persons, and sometimes used as a bull arena, 
was erected between 1700 and 1733. Twenty 
convents, and about twenty colleges, were 
destroyed by the French during their oc- 
cupation of the town before the retreat of 
1812. Councils were held here Oct. 21, 
1310 ; May 24, 1335 ; If ov. 23, 1380 to May 
19, 1381, and in 1410. 

Saiamis (Greece), the modem Kuluri, 
was colonized by the .^acidse of ^gina at 
an early period;" Ajax, the son of Telamon, 
king of the island, accompanying the expe- 
dition against Troy with twelve ships, B.C. 
1193. It continued independent tiU a dispute 
arose, b.c. 620, between the Athenians and 
the Megarians for its possession, both claim- 
ants citing the " Diad" in support of their 
pretensions, when it was finally adjudged to 
the Athenians. It voluntarily received a Ma- 
cedonian garrison B.C. 318, and they held 
it until it was purchased by the Athenians 
B.C. 232. The Persian fleet of Xerxes was 
defeated by the Greeks oflFthe coast, b.c 480. 
Budorum, the western p}-omontory of the 
island, was taken by the Peloponnesians, 
B.C. 429. 

Salankemak (Battle). — A splendid vic- 
tory was gained, Aug. 19, 1691, at this place, 
in Himgary, by Louis, margrave of Baden, 
over the Turks, 20,000 of whom, the vizier 
Mustapha KioprUi being among the number, 
were slain. 

Salassi. — This powerful Alpine tribe, 
probably of Ligurian origin, is first men- 
tioned in history in connection with an un- 
provoked attack made upon it by the Eoman 
consul Appius Claudius, who suffered a 
748 



defeat and lost 5,000 men in the engagement. 
Having repaired his disaster in another at- 
tack, and slain a like number of his oppo- 
nents, he claimed a triumph, B.C. 143. To 
prevent the ravages of the tribe, a Eoman 
colony was estabhshed at Eporedia (Ivrea), 
at the mouth of the valley leading to their 
country, b.c. 100. They revolted B.C. 
35, but were subdued by Valerius Mes- 
sala B.C. 34. Again revolting, Terentius 
Varro compelled them to lay down their 
arms, and sold the whole nation (36,000 
persons) into slavery, B.C. 25. The gold- 
washings of the valley constituted the chief 
cause of dispute. 

SlLEAif (Battle). — The Persian general 
Sarbaraza having retired within the waUa 
of this town, it was suddenly attacked by the 
Eomans under HeracHus, and taken, after 
a brave defence, a.d. 624. Sarbaraza effected 
his escape. 

Saidanha Bat (Africa). — A Dutch fleet 
was captured by Commodore Johnstone in 
this bay, near the Cape of Good Hope, 
three ships, of 1,100 tons each, being saved 
from the fire, and afterwards brought to 
England, July 21, 1781. A Dutch squadron 
with 2,000 troops on board, destined to 
attack the Enghsh at the Cape of Good 
Hope, was captured in the same place by 
Admiral Elphinstone, Aug. 17, 1796. 

Salerno (Italy), the Eoman Salemum, 
capital of the province of Salerno, or Prin- 
cipato-Citra. The Eomans decided to es- 
tablish a colony here B.C. 197, the settle- 
ment being actually formed, B.C. 194. It 
was taken by Papius, the Samnite general, 
during the Social war, B.C. 90 — 88, and 
again by the Goths in the 6th century. 
Having faUen into the hands of the Lom- 
bards, it was besieged by the Saracens 
a.d. 872. The siege was raised by the em- 
peror Louis in 873. The Saracens eventu- 
ally succeeded in capturing it in 905. The 
Greek emperor dispossessed the Saracens 
in 920. Having reverted to the Lombards, 
the Saracens laid siege to it in 1005. In 
another attempt, in 1016, a force of Norman 
knights, on their way from Jerusalem, came 
to the rescue. It was captured, after a 
siege of eight months, by Eobert Guiscard, 
who deposed Gisulph, the last of the Lom- 
bard pi-inces, in 1077, and the city rose to 
great enainence, being classed with the opu- 
lentissimce urhes of Campania. Its school of 
medicine was celebrated as early as 1069. 
Pope Gregory VII. died here. May 25, 1085. 
An assembly of barons met and elected 
Eoger II., duke of ApuHa, king of Naples 
and Sicily, in 1130. The citizens betrayed 
the empress Constance to Tancred, king of 
Sicily, in 1191. It was sacked by the em- 
peror Henry VI. in 1193. Urban VI., in his 
struggles with Charles III., king of Naples, 
took refuge here in 1385. The crew of the 
Cagliari were undergoing their trial here 
when they were, with the vessel, dehvered 
up to the British government, June 8, 1858. 
The cathedral of St. Matthew was built by 
Eobert Guiscard in 1084, on the site of au 



SAL 

older edifice destroyed by the Saracens. The 
bronze doors were erected in 1099 ; the har- 
bour was commenced by John of Proeida 
in 1260 ; the tomb of Pope Gregory VII. 
was restored in 1578; and the university, 
probably the oldest in Europe, was replaced 
by the Lyceum in 1817. 

SaI/Ices (Battle), fought a.d. 377, near 
one of the mouths of the Danube, between 
the Eomans and the Goths, under Fritigern, 
was attended by great slaughter on both 
sides, without any decided advantage to 
either. 

Salic Law, supposed to have been insti- 
tuted by Clovis, to exclude females from in- 
heritance, is still in operation in France. 
Philip II. of Spain attempted, in defiance of 
this law, to secure the crown for his daughter 
Isabella Clara Eugenia, niece of Henry III., 
in 1590. Charles VI. of Austria dying with- 
out male issue, Maria Theresa succeeded to 
the throne by virtue of the Pragmatic sanc- 
tion, in 1740. The Salic law was abohshed 
in Spain March 29, 1830. Queen Victoria was 
excluded from the throne of Hanover in 1837 
by the operation of the SaHc law. 

Salisbuet (Bishopric) was originally esta- 
blished at Sherborne, a.d. 705, when St. 
Aldhelm was appointed its first bishop, and 
it was removed to Sahsbury, then known as 
Old Sarum, by Bishop Herman in 1072. By 
an order in council dated Oct. 5, 1836, the 
entire county of Berkshire was separated 
from the diocese of Salisbury, and annexed 
to Oxford. 

Salisbuet, or New Saeum (Wiltshire), 
had its origin in a quarrel between the bishop 
and canons of Old Sarum. The captain of 
the castle sided with the clerical party, and 
founded a cathedral at New Sarum a.d. 1220. 
It was completed in 1258, and the city re- 
ceived a charter from Henry III., and was 
walled in 1315. It has returned members to 

Earliament since 1294. A council was held 
ere by Edward II. Oct. 20, 1324 ; a parha- 
ment by Edward III. Oct. 16, 1328; and 
another by Kichard II, April 29, 1384. A 
rising in favour of Charles II. was made by 
Sir Joseph Wagstaffe, who surprised the 
judges March 11, 1655. During the great 
plague the court removed from London to 
Sahsbury, July 27, 1665. James II. having 
joined the main body of his army here, was 
deserted by the duke of Grafton and Lord 
Churchill Nov. 22, 1688. The poultry-market 
contains a hexagonal cross of the time of 
Edward III. 

Sallentines, or Salentines, inhabiting 
the southern part of the Itahan peninsula, 
are mentioned by Livy as having been de- 
feated by the consul L. Volumnius, who took 
some of their towns B.C. 306. According to 
some writers the historian confounds them 
with a neighbouring nation. In the fourth 
Samnite war they joined the confederacy 
against the Romans, and were defeated by 
L. uEmilius Barbula B.C. 281. War was de- 
clared against them by the Eomans B.C. 267 ; 
and their conquest was completed B.C. 266. 
Having revolted, they were subdued b . c . 213, 



SAL 

after which their name disappears from 

history. 

Salon- A, or Salok^ (Dalmatia), became 
the chief town of Dalmatia after the fall of 
Dalminium, B.C. 117, was taken by Cosconius 
B.C. 78, and by Asinius Pollio B.C. 39. M. 
Octavius, commanding a squadron for Pom- 
pey, was compelled to retreat from before it 
with loss B.C. 34. It maintained a siege 
against Bato, the native leader, a.d. 6. Dio- 
cletian built the palace, which gives its name 
to the modern town of Spalato, and many 
public buildings, when he retired here after 
his abdication in 305. Glycerins, emperor of 
the West, accepted its bishopric when he re- 
signed his sceptre in 474. It was taken by 
Odoacer, king of the Heruh, in 481. Belisa- 
rius made it his starting-point in the expedi- 
tion to Italy in 544, as did Narses in 552. It 
was pillaged and burned by the Avars in 639, 
A council was held here in October, 1076. 

Salonica, or Saloniki (European 
Turkey) , the ancient Thessalonica, in early 
times also called Emathia, Haha, and Therma, 
was the resting-place of Xerxes on his march 
to invade Greece, B.C. 481. It was taken by 
Pausanias about B.C. 479, occupied by the 
Athenians b.c. 421, and appears to have been 
rebuilt B.C. 315. It surrendered to the Ro- 
mans June 22, b.c. 168. Cicero found refuge 
here during his banishmemt, B.C. 58. It was 
the head-quarters of the Pompeian party in 
the first civil war, B.C. 649, and, siding with 
Octavius and Antoninus in the second, was 
made a free city B.C. 42. The apostle Paul 
addressed epistles to its church a.d. 52. It 
was made a Roman colonia in the middle of 
the 3rd century. The widow and daughter 
of the emperor Diocletian were beheaded 
here in 313. Its inhabitants were massacred 
for sedition by order of Theodosius the Great 
in 390, and it was besieged by the Ostro- 
goths, who were defeated by Sabinianus in 
479. Salonica was stormed after a few days' 
fighting, and the citizens were slaughtered or 
sold into slavery by the Saracens, whose fleet 
appeared before the city July 29, 904. It 
was taken by the Normans of Sicily Aug. 15, 
1185. Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, 
founded the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica 
in 1204. Theodore Angelus expelled Deme- 
trius, the son of Boniface, and assumed the 
title of emperor in 1222. Vataces, emperor 
of Nicaea, united it to his own empire in 1234. 
On the marriage, in 1284, of Violante with An- 
dronicus, the Greek emperor, her father Wil- 
liam, marquis of Montferrat, gave up as her 
dowry the nominal sovereignty of Thessalo- 
nica. After various changes, it was taken 
from the Venetians by the sultan Amurath II. 
in 1430. 

Salsette (Hindostan). — This island, for- 
merly part of the Mongol empire, was taken 
by the Portuguese in the 16th century. 
The Mahrattas conquered the island in 1750, 
and the British Dec. 28, 1774. The cause- 
way connecting it vsdth the island of Bombay 
was constructed in 1813. The temple-caves 
of Kennery, the largest of which is a Budd- 
hist temple, are of great antiquity. 

749 



SAL 



SAM 



Salt was imported into this eountry by 
the Phcenicians, according to Fosbroke, 
and the Eomans made pits and mines here 
(those at Droitwich being mentioned) a.d. 
816. The art of making common salt was 
published by Dr. Brownrigg in 1748. Beds 
of rock-salt were discovered in searching for 
coal at Marbury, near Worthwich, about 
1670, and near Lawton in 1779. A second 
stratimi was found at XorthAvich in 1781. 
In Lower Iformandy it has been procured 
by filtration through sea-sand and evapora- 
tion from sea-water since the 9th century ; 
and in Sardinia since 1550, from which place 
the process was introduced into Saxony in 
1559. The works at Ostia, on the Tiber, 
were formed B.C. 640 ; those at "VVilicska, in 
Poland, A.D. 1237 ; and at Bochnia, Galicia, 
in 1251. Those on the banks of the lagunes 
originated a quarrel between Tenice and 
Padua in 1336. A duty of 10s. per bushel 
was imposed in this country in 1798. It was 
increased to 15s. in 1805, reduced to 2s. in 
1823, and abolished Jan. 5, 1825. 

Saltees' Coup ant (London). — A livery 
was granted to this company by Eichard II. 
A.D. 1394. The Salters' HaU, buUt in Bread 
Street about 1451, was destroyed by fire in 
1533. Arms were granted by Henry VIII. 
in 1530. The company was incoi-porated by 
letters-patent of Elizabeth, July 20, 1558. 
The hall is mentioned in 1578 as having been 
rebuilt, but was again destroyed by fire 
in 1598. The present hall, commenced Oct. 
16, 1823, was finished iu 1827. 

Saltpetee, or Nitee, is mentioned in the 
works of Eoger Bacon, who died a.d. 1278, 
Lulhus speaks of obtaining aquafortis from 
it before 1315. Gunther, archbishop of 
Magdeburg, granted the right of collecting 
it, as it occurred in the form of an incrusta- 
tion on walls of houses, in 1419. A burgher 
of Halle obtained a like grant in 1460 ; and 
another had a contract for collecting it from 
two heaps of rubbish before the gates of 
Halle in 1544. The magistrates of that 
town had a manufactory for saltpetre in 
1545. In the Prussian states the royal 
right of collecting it was, on the urgent 
representation of the people, abohshed, — 
an indemnification being made to govern- 
ment in 1798. 

Saluzzo (Italy). — The French, under the 
duke of Montmorency, took possession of 
Saluzzo A.D. 1630. The marqidsate was 
annexed to the duchy of Savoy in the 
beginning of the 17th century ; and the 
ancient castle, once the residence of the 
marquises of Saluzzo, has been converted 
into a prison. 

Saltadoe, San" (Central America), was 
conquered by Alvarado, one of the officers 
of Cortes, a.d. 1-523. It remained under 
Spanish rule, attached to Guatemala, till 
united to Mexico by the revolution of 1821. 
A confederation was formed with Honduras, 
Guatemala, "Xicaragua, and Costa Eica, 
under the name of the Confederation of 
Central America, in 1823. It was dissolved 
in 184^"). The capital, bearing the same 
750 



I name, was totally destroyed by an earth- 
quake April 16, 1854. 

Saltadoe, St., or Cat Island (Bahama- 
or Lucayos Islands), called by the native 
Indians, Guanahani, or Cat Island, disco- 
j vered by Columbus in his first voyage to 
j America, Oct. 11, 1492, was the first land in 
j the New World reached by this enterprising 
j navigator. 

I Salzbach (Baden). — Turenne, who com- 
I manded the forces of Louis XIY., was killed 
! near this town, as he was visiting a battery 
I on the eve of giving battle to the troops of 
i the emperor, under MontecuculH, Jvij 26, 
j 1675. 

Salzbtteg (Austria), the ancient Juvavum, 
I capital of the duchy of Salzburg, the resi- 
[ dence of the native kings of Noricum, was 
destroyed by the Heruli, on the decMne of 
the Eoman power, a.d. 448, but was restored 
in the 7th century. The Benedictine church 
contains fine painted glass windows of 1480. 
St. Margaret was built in 1485. Paracelsus, 
whose grave is in the churchyard of St. Sebas- 
tian, died here in 1541. The university church 
was built between 1696 and 1707 ; the cathe- 
dral, with a fa9ade of white marble, between 
1614 and 1668. One of its eight gates, called 
the New Gate, was cut through the Monk's 
Hill, by Archbishop Sigismund, in 1767. By 
the treaty of Campo Formio, signed Oct. 17, 
1797, Salzburg was ceded to Austria. The 
French were defeated here in a great battle, 
by the Austrians under Archduke John, 
Dec. 14, 1800. The university was abolished, 
and a lyceum or academy established, in 
1806. Salzburg was ceded to the duke 
of Tuscany in December, 1802 ; was oc- 
cupied by the French in 1805 ; and again 
ceded to "Austria by the peace of Presburg, 
signed Dec. 26, 1805. The Austrian general 
Jellachich was defeated here by the French 
AprU 29, 1809 ; and by the peace of Vienna, 
signed Oct. 14, 1809, Salzburg was ceded to 
Bavaria. In 1818 the city was partly de- 
stroyed by fire. The botanic garden was 
opened in 1850. Councils were held here 
Jan. 26, 807 ; Feb. 1, 1178 ; in 1274, 1281, 
1287 ; Nov. 11, 1288 ; in 1291, 1310, 1340 ; 
July, 1380 ; January, 1386 ; Nov. 18, 1418 ; 
Feb. 8, 1451 ; and Oct. 19, 1490. 

Salzbueg (Duchy). — This country having 
been wrested from the Celts by the Eomans, 
and reduced to a state of ruin on the fall of 
the empire, was visited by Hrodbert, or 
Eupert, a Scotsman, who converted the 
people to Christianity, and became their 
first bishop, a.d. 716. Arno, the seventh in 
succession, was made archbishop by Pope 
Leo III. in 798. The Protestants, having 
received permission, left the duchy in 1732, 
to the number of 30,000, and settled in 
Prussia, Wiii-temberg, and Georgia (North 
America). The see having been secularized, 
was given, with the title of elector, to the 
ex-diike of Tuscany in 1801, and was annexed 
to Austria in 1806. It came into the posses- 
sion of Bavaria in 1809, but reverted to 
Austria in 1815. 
Samanides. — Ismael, founder of this dy- 



SAM 

nasty, invited by the Abbassides, crossed the | 
Oxus with 10,000 horse, conquered the Sof- i 
farian army, and established himself in 
Persia, a.d. 874. He was recognized as 
padishah, or king, by the caliph in 900. 
After a duration of 125 years, the Sama- 
nides were conquered by the Gaznevides in 
999. 

Samara (Kussia) was built a.d. 1591, as a 
defence against the Calmucks, and sur- 
rounded by a wall and moat. The fortifi- 
cations were destroyed in 1703. The country 
was formed into a government by a ukase 
issued in December, 1850, and Samara was 
mada the capital. 

Samarcand (Tartary), according to 
Strabo, was built by Alexander the G-reat. 
The manufacture of silk paper was known 
here a.d. 650. It was taken in 1219 by 
Zenghis-Khan, and in 1359 by Tamerlane. 
It was united to Bokhara by Abdullah at 
the close of the 16th century. 

Samaritans, a people brought from be- 
yond the Euphrates to inhabit Samaria when 
the ten tribes of the Israelites were carried 
into captivity by Shalmaneser, B.C. 721. 
The Jews destroyed the city and the temple 
of the Samaritans b.c. 109. They were re- 
built by Herod B.C. 25. A small remnant 
of the Samaritans still exists. They were 
visited by missionaries a.d. 1823, and again 
in 1838. 

Sambas (Borneo). — The Dutch began to 
trade here about a.d. 1604. In consequence 
of the piratical habits of the inhabitants, a 
British expedition was despatched against 
Sambas in 1812, but it was repulsed with 
great loss. Another expedition was sent in 
the following year, under Colonel Watson, 
who carried the fort by storm July 3, and 
compelled the rajah to retire into the in- 
terior of his dominions. 

Samian War, between the Athenians and 
the Samians, occurred about B.C. 440. In the 
beginning of this war Pericles, the Athenian 
commander, defeated the Samian fleet, 
landed his troops on the island, and be- 
sieged Samos. Having heard that a Phoeni- 
cian fleet was coming to the assistance of 
the Samians, he drew off part of his forces 
to intercept it. The besieged taking advan- 
tage of his absence, carried the naval encamp- 
ment of the Athenians by surprise. Pericles 
hastily returned, and again closely besieged 
the town. The Samians ventured upon 
another battle, in which they were defeated. 
They held the town for nine months, when 
they capitulated through famine. The Sa- 
mians were condemned to dismantle their 
fort, deliver up their ships, and pay the cost 
of the siege by instalments. 

Samnites.— This people, of Sabine origin, 
conquered Campania between B.c. 440 and 
B.C. 420, afterwards overran Lucania, and 
within a century spread themselves almost 
to the southern extremity of Italy. The 
Samnites concluded a treaty with Rome B.C. 
354. The first Samnite war began B.C. 343, 
and after several victories gained by the 
Eomans was concluded B.C. 341. The second 



SAM 

Samnite war commenced B.C. 327. The 
Eoman army having been decoyed by the 
Samnites into a narrow pass called the Cau- 
dine Forks, b.c. 321, had to pass under the 
yoke in the presence of the whole Samnite 
army. After suffering many defeats, the 
Samnites were compelled to sue for peace, 
which was granted B.C. 304. The third Sam- 
nite war commenced B.C. 298. The Samnites 
with their allies the Gauls were defeated 
in a great battle b.c. 295, and were com- 
pelled to sue for peace b.c. 290. They 
joined Pyrrhus B.C. 282, and finally sub- 
mitted to Rome b.c. 272. The Samnites 
declared for Hannibal B.C. 216, but renewed 
their submission to Rome B.C. 209. They 
joined in the Social war, and many of them 
were in the army of the younger Marius, 
which was defeated at Sacriportus B.C. 82. 
The Samnites having again revolted, were 
defeated by Sylla at the battle of the Colline 
gate, Nov. 1, 82 B.C. 

Samoan Isles. {See Naviq-atoe's Is- 
lands.) 

Samosata (Syria) was taken by Marc 
Antony b.c. 39. It was the native place 
of Paul, bishop of Antioch, who denied 
the divinity of Christ, and was deposed 
A.D. 269. The town, captured by Chosroes 
II. in 609, was recovered by Heraclius in 
625. 

Samos, or Samxts (Archipelago). — This 
island was occupied by Carians, lonians, &c., 
in the 10th century before Christ. The Sa- 
mians became remarkable for their com- 
merce about B.C. 776. During the reign of 
Polycrates, b.c 532 — 522, the Samian 
navy was the most powerful in Greece. 
Near this island was fought the celebrated 
battle of Mycale, B.C. 479, in which the 
Greeks gained a decisive victory over the 
Persians. The maritime strength of Samos 
was broken b.c. 440 (see Samian War), 
and from. b.c. 439 to b.c. 412 Samos re- 
mained without a fleet. It came under the 
sway of Rome B.C. 84, and was the residence 
of Antony and Cleopatra b.c. 32. It was 
plundered by the Arabs in the 8th century, 
and was recovered by the emperor Leo in 
the 13th century. Mohammed II. assailed 
it in 1453, and it was sacked by the Turks 
in 1550. A battle was fought here between 
the Greeks and Turks, Aug. 17, 1824, in 
which the latter were defeated. 

Samothrace (^gean Sea). — The inha- 
bitants of this island joined Xerxes in his 
expedition against Greece, and a Samo- 
thracian ship sank an Athenian ship at the 
battle of Salamis, in Cyprus, B.C. 449. Per- 
seus took refuge here after he was defeated 
by the Romans at the battle of Pydna (q.v.), 
B.C. 168. St. Paul passed a night here at 
anchor on his first voyage from Asia to 
Europe (Acts xvi. 11), a.d. 43. 

Sampeord-Courtenay (Battle). — The in- 
surgent Roman Catholics of Devon and 
Cornwall were defeated by the Protestant 
forces under Lord Russell, at Sampford- 
Courtenay, in Devonshire, Aug. 17, 1549. 
This action terminated the hopes of the 
751 



SAN 



SAN 



Cornish rebels, and most of them perished 
in the flight. Their leaders were taken 
prisoners and executed. 

Sanctttaet. — The custom of setting apart 
places where criminals were safe from legal 
penalties is of great antiquity, and was sanc- 
tioned by the Leritical appointment of cities 
of refuge. {See Asylum.) The right of 
sanctuary is said to have been introduced 
into this country by King Lucius about a.d. 
181, and it was expressly recognized by the 
code of Ina, which was promulgated in 693. 
Alfred the Great in 887 allowed criminals to 
obtain safety for three days by fleeing to a 
church ; and in 1670 William the Conqueror 
made express laws on the subject. Sanc- 
tuary was understood to be merely a tem- 
porary privilege, and by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 2 
(1529), felons or murderers availing them- 
selves of it were compelled to be branded 
with the letter A on the right thumb, in 
token that they abjured the reahn. {See 
Abjuration of the Kealm.) The privilege 
of sanctuary was taken away from aU per- 
sons guilty of high treason by 26 Hen. VIII. 
c. 13 (1534), and from pirates by 27 
Hen. VIII. c. 4 (1535). By 27 Hen. VIII. 
c. 19 (1535), aU persons in sanctuary were 
compelled to wear badges, and were prohi- 
bited from wearing weapons, and from going 
abroad before sunrise or after sunset. By 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1540), many sanc- 
tuaries were abolished, and the only places 
permitted to retain the privilege were 
cathedrals, parish churches, and hospitals, 
together Avith WeUs, Westminster, Man- 
chester, Northampton, Norwich, York, 
Derby, and Lancaster. The same statute 
abohshed the privilege of sanctuary in cases 
of wilful murder, rape, burglary, highway 
robbery, and arson. Westchester was sub- 
stituted for Manchester as a sanctuary city 
by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 15 (1541). These acts 
were aU repealed by 1 James I. c. ^6, s. 34 
(1604), and the abolition of sanctuary was 
again enforced by 21 James I. c. 28, s. 7 
(1623). In the case of debtors, however, it 
continued to exist in a modified form until 
it was finally removed by 8 & 9 Wfll. III. 
c. 27 (1697). The London sanctuaries were 
the Minories ; Sahsbury Court, Whitefriars ; 
Eam Alley and Mitre Court, in Fleet Street ; 
Fulwood's Eents, Holborn ; Baldwin's Gar- 
dens, Gray' s-InnLane; the Savoy; Montague 
Close, Deadman's Place; and the Mint, in 
Southwark. Owing to the laxity of the 
authorities, the Mint retained some of its 
privileges as a sanctuary until the reign 
of George I. 

Sandals. — The ancient Egyptians wore 
sandals of papyrus and sometimes of leather, 
and people of rank are said to have carried 
magnificence in this article of dress to a 
great extent. The emperor Elagabalus 
wore sandals adorned with precious stones, 
never using the same pair twice. 

Sandemanians. {See Glasites.) 

Sandhuest (Berkshire). — The Eoyal 
Military College, estabhshed at High Wy- 
combe A.D. 1799, was removed to Great 
752 



Marlow in 1802 by its founder, the late duke 
of York, and to the splendid estabUshment 
erected for the purpose at Sandhurst in 
1812. 

Sandwich (Kent) is first mentioned a.d. 
665. The Danes, defeated here by Athelstan 
in 851, destroyed the town in 993, and again 
landed in 1011, when they besieged Canter- 
bury, which they burned. Canute visited 
the town on leaving England in 1014 ; landed 
here in 1016, and again in 1029. The Danes 
ravaged it in 1048, and William I. made it 
the chief of the Cinque Ports in 1067. The 
corporation held the power in 1315 of in- 
flicting capital punishment by drowning. 
The French, under Marshal de Brez^, plun- 
dered the town in 1438 and again in 1456. 
The castle was held in 1471 against Ed- 
ward IV. by Faleonbridge and his followers. 
A mole was constructed in 1493. The har- 
bour began to be difficult of access in 
1500, and a century later was quite 
closed. A great number of Flemings set- 
tled here in 1561 and introduced sUk-weaving. 
St. Thomas's Hospital was founded in 1392, 
and the grammar-school in 1563. Queen 
Elizabeth visited the town in 1573, and the 
Guildhall was erected in 1579. 

Sandwich Islands (Pacific Ocean) were 
discovered by Captain Cook, Jan. 19, 1778, 
and again visited by him on his return from 
Behring's Strait in 1779. He was killed by 
the natives at Owhyhee {q.v.), Feb. 14, 1779. 
His bones were preserved by the priests, 
and continued to receive homage until 1819, 
when idolatry was abohshed and the natives 
embraced the Christian rehgion. The king 
and queen came to London in 1824, and died 
soon after their arrival. The Sandwich 
Islands are supposed to be identical with a 
group discovered by the Spanish navigator 
Gaetan in 1542, and named by him "the 
King's Islands." 

SanFeancisco (Cahfornia). — Its original 
name was Yerba Bueua, and it was con- 
nected with a Spanish settlement of mission- 
aries called San Francisco, founded a.d. 
1776. The modern city was founded in 1839. 
Gold was discovered in the neighbourhood 
in 1847, and San Francisco was ceded to the 
United States in 1848. A mint was esta- 
bhshed in 1853. 

Sangala (Hindostan). — This ancient city 
was besieged and taken by Alexander the 
Great B.C. 326, when 17,000 Indians were 
killed and 70,000 made prisoners. The town 
itself was razed to the ground. 

Sanhedeim. — The great council of the 
Jews consisted of seventy-one or seventy -two 
members, and decided the most important 
affairs of church and state. It is usually 
considered to have originated in the seventy 
elders who were appointed by Moses (Num. 
xi. 16) to assist him in his judicial duties, 
B.C. 1490. It was in existence in the time 
of Jesus Christ. The Grand Sanhedrim 
was summoned by the emperor Napoleon I. 
in July, 1806, and met at Paris to the num- 
ber of seventy-one, March 9, 1807. This was 
the first meeting of the kind since the dis- 



SAN- 

persion of the Israelites after the destruction 
of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. 

Sanitary Science. — A writer in the 
"Encyclopedia Britannica" (xix. 602) re- 
marks, — "In the books of Moses we have 
a surprising instance of the care which was 
taken to prevent disease by the inculcation 
of hygienic precepts and the adoption of 
sanitary laws." Hippocrates, who died B.C. 
357, embodied many valuable . directions for 
the preservation of health in his work on 
" Airs, Waters, and Places ; " and the 
Eoman physician Celsus, who is supposed 
to have flourished at the commencement of 
the Christian sera, devoted considerable at- 
tention to the same subject. The earliest 
measures for securing attention to the laws 
of hygiene in modern Europe arose from 
the frequent epidemics which repeatedly de- 
populated entire nations. (See Pla&ue and 
Lazaretto.) In 1802 the French govern- 
ment established a council of health for the 
sanitary regulation of Paris ; and in 1851 
the entire country was brought under con- 
trol of a central council, with minor branches 
in each department. The public health 
movement in this country was commenced 
by Dr. Southwood Smith, who made several 
suggestions tending to sanitary reform in 
his work on fevers, published in 1830. 
In 1838 his report on the state of Bethnal 
Green and Whitecbapel excited considerable 
attention. Mr. Edvrin Chadvsdck's report 
on the condition of the labouring poor ap- 
peared in 1840, and his report on interment 
in towns in 1843. The Health of Towns 
Association was formed in November, 1844, 
and numerous legislative and popular mea- 
sures, amongst which the following deserve 
particular notice, have since been adopted. 



Baths and Wash-houses Act, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 74 
(Aug. 26. 1846), amended by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 61 
(July 2, 1847). 

Kuisances' Removal Act, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 28, 
1846), renewed, amended, and made perpetual 
by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 123 (Sept. 4, 1848), and by 
12 & 13 Vict. c. Ill (Aug. 1, 1849). The pro- 
visions on the subject were consolidated by 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 121 (Aug. 14, 185.5), which was 
amended by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 77 (Aug. 6, 1860). 

Towns' Improvement Clauses Act, 10 & 11 Vict, 
c. 34 (June 21, 1847). 

Public Health Act, 11 & 12 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 31, 1848), 
amended by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 50 (Aug. 1, 1851), and 
by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 98 (Aug. 2, 1858). 

Metropolitan Interments Acts, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 52 
(Aug. 5, 1850), repealed by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 85 
(July 1, 1852), which was amended by 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 134 (Aug. 20, 1853), and 18 & 19 Vict. 
c. 128 (Aug. 14, 1855). 

Common Lodging-houses Act, 14 & 15 Vict. e. 28 
(July 24, 1851), extended by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 41 
(Aug. 4, 1853). 

Labouring Classes" Lodging-houses Act, 14 & 15 Vict. 
" 0. 34 (July 24, 1851). 

Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act, 16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 128 (Aug. 20, 18.53). 

Diseases' Prevention Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 116 
(Aug. 14, 1855). 



Sanquhar (Scotland) is supposed to owe 

its origin to the old castle of Sanquhar, the 

ruins of which are still extant on an eminence 

to the south-east of the town. Taken by 

753 



SAP 

the English in the reign of Edward III., it 
was recreated a burgh in 1484, and was made 
a royal burgh by James VI., in 1596. The 
town-hall, a handsome edifice, was built and 
presented to the town by the duke of 
Queensberry in 1734. The old church, part 
of which is supposed to have been built by 
the Picts, was taken down, and a new one 
erected on its site, in 1823. 

Santa Cruz (Canary Isles), discovered 
by Bartholomew Diaz, a.d. 1486. A Spanish 
fleet of sixteen vessels, protected by the 
guns of the castle and seven batteries erected 
on the shore, was attacked and destroyed 
by Admiral Blake, April 20, 1657. An 
unsuccessful attempt to take Vera Cruz was 
made by Nelson, who lost his right arm in 
the engagement, July 24, 1797. 

Santa Maria. (See Leucadia.) 

Santander (Spain).— This seaport-town, 
capital of a small province of the same name, 
was taken and sacked by the French in June, 
and again in November, 1808. The Spaniards 
carried it by assault in the beginning of 
June, 1809 ; and it was retaken with great 
slaughter by the French on the 10th of the 
same month. It was evacuated by them 
Aug. 15, 1812. Santander was declared a 
free port by a government decree, March 30, 
1818. 

Santia&o (S. America), the capital of 
Chili, was founded by Pedro de Valdivia, 
Feb. 24, 1541. It suffered severely from 
earthquakes in 1822 and 1829. 

Santiago, ©r Santiago de Composteha 
(Spain) , was one of the first towns wrested 
from the Moors by the successors of Pelayo, 
and was held by them until 997, when it 
was retaken by the Moors, who de- 
stroyed the temple, and placed its bells 
in the mosque at Cordova, where they re- 
mained tUI that town was taken by Ferdi- 
nand III. in 1235. They were then brought 
back to Santiago on the shoulders of his 
Moslem captives. On the building of the 
cathedral, about the end of the 9th century, 
the bodies of the apostle St. James, and two 
of his disciples, Athanasius and Theodorus, 
were, according to tradition, discovered, 
and placed in a subterranean chapel, , un- 
derneath the principal altar. This cir- 
cumstance brought pilgrims to Santiago from 
all parts of Europe ; and to protect them on 
their way from the attacks of the Moslems, 
the celebrated order of Santiago was founded 
in 1158 by Ferdinand II. No less than 916 
pilgrims left England for Santiago in 1428, 
and this number increased to 2,280 in 1433. 
The offerings of the pilgrims Avere supposed 
to have made the church immensely rich. 
When the town was taken by the French in 
1809, Marshal Ney ordered half of the money 
to be handed over to pay his troops, and it 
amounted to £40,000. The town was aban- 
doned by the French in 1814. An hospital 
for pilgrims was erected in the 15th century. 
Santiago is the see of an archbishop, and the 
seat of a university founded in 1533. 

Sapienza (Mediterranean). — This island 
on the south coast of the Morea, anciently 
3 c 



SAP 



SAR 



called Sphacteria, is famous for a naval victory- 
obtained near it by the Athenians over the 
Lacedaemonians B.C. 435. The Genoese cap- 
tured and destroyed the Venetian fleet here 
Nov. 4, 1354. 

Sapphic Verse, attributed to the cele- 
brated poetess Sappho, who was born at 
Mitylene, in the isle of Lesbos, about B.C. 
610. In consequence of a hopeless love for 
Phaon, a young Lesbian, Sappho is said to 
have thrown herself into the sea from Mount 
Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians 
paid her honour after her death, and stamped 
their coinage with her image. 

Sapphire. — This gem was known to the 
ancients as early as the time of Job, B.C. 1520 
(Job xxviii. 6), and was one of the jewels 
employed in constructing Aaron's breast- 
plate, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 18). It was 
also used in the costume of the Tyrian 
nobles. Sapphires are found in greatest 
abundance in Pegu, Ava, and Ceylon. A 
few specimens have been found in Bohemia, 
Prance, and Saxony. They are, next to 
diamonds, the hardest and most valuable of 
precious stones, although their constituents 
are almost entirely clay, with a httle iron as 
colouring matter. 

Saracens. — The name of this renowned 
Arab tribe is derived from Sarah, the wife of 
Abraham, whom they are said to claim as 
their foundress, to avert the stigma of their 
descent from the bond-woman Hagar. Bo- 
ehart denies this theory, and asserts that 
they were called Saracens in consequence of 
their nomadic and predatory habits, Saraka 
being the Arabic verb " to plunder." Reland 
states that the word simply denotes the 
eastern origin of the Saracens, Sharaka being 
a modification of the Arabic "to rise," and 
appUed in this case because the east is the 
quarter in which the sun rises. They are 
mentioned by the classical geographers, who 
do not define very exactly the locality they 
occupied. In consequence of their predatory 
encroachments, the emperor Decius caused 
a number of hons to be conveyed into their 
country from Africa, and turned loose among 
them, A.D. 251. The name was subsequently 
applied to all Moorish and Mohammedan 
people, and especially to the opponents of 
the Crusaders. {See Crusades, Moors, 
Mohammedans, &c.) 

Saragossa, or Zaragoza (Spain), capital of 
the old kingdom of Aragon, is said to have 
been founded by the Phoenicians or Cartha- 
ginians. It was rebuilt by the Eoman empe- 
ror Augustus, who gave it the name of Caesa- 
reia Augusta, and was taken a.d. 470 by the 
Goths, who were expelled by the Saracens 
in 712. It was made the capital of a separate 
Moorish state in 1017. Alfonso of Aragon 
besieged and took the town in 1018, and 
it was subsequently united to the kingdom 
of Castile. Saragossa is celebrated in mo- 
dern history for the two sieges it sustained 
during the Peninsular war. The French, 
who attempted to carry the town by assault, 
June 16, 1808, were repulsed with great loss. 
They then commenced a regular siege, and 
754 



succeeded in getting into the town Aug. 4, 
when a deadly struggle commenced, which 
lasted for eleven days. The Spanish com- 
inandei Palafox having been reinforced, the 
French abandoned the siege during the night 
of Aug. 14, with the loss of several thousand 
men. The second siege commenced Dec. 20, 

1808. The outworks were soon taken by the 
French, and a series of sanguinary combats 
ensued day and night until Jan. 27, 1809, 
when a general assault was made, and the 
French succeeded in penetrating into the 
town. The garrison made an obstinate 
defence; but an epidemic fever broke out 
amongst them, and Palafox surrendered 
the town on honourable terms, Feb. 20, 

1809. During the siege, 54,000 persons 
perished, of whom only 6,000 were killed by 
the enemy, the rest having been destroyed by 
the plague. The Spaniards were defeated near 
this town by the French, June 16, 1809. 
Saragossa was abandoned by the French in 
July, 1813. A body of Carhst troops pene- 
trated into the town, and occupied the prin- 
cipal posts, March 2, 1838. The inhabitants, 
without chiefs, and badly armed, attacked 
the assailants, made 2,000 prisoners, and 
expelled the remainder. 

Sarah Sands. — This iron screw steamer, 
with 300 soldiers on board, left Portsmouth 
for Calcutta in the middle of August, 1857. 
A fire broke out in the hold Nov. 11. The 
soldiers succeeded in clearing out the powder- 
magazine with the exception of two barrels, 
one of which exploded shortly afterwards, 
and the ship became a mass of flames. The 
fire, after raging twenty-four hours, was sub- 
dued by the exertions of the soldiers and the 
crew. A strong gale sprung up, and the 
vessel, with 15 i'eet of water in the hold, suc- 
ceeded in reaching the Mauritius Nov. 21, 
and not a single life was lost. 

Saratoga (North America). — Near this 
town, a British force under General Bur- 
govne surrendered to the Americans under 
General Gates, Oct. 17, 1777. 

Sarawak (Borneo), the capital of a 
settlement of the same name, was founded 
A.D. 1841 by Sir James Brooke, who was 
appointed its rajah. An outbreak of the 
Chinese settlers took place Feb. 18, 1857. 
They attacked and burnt the dwelling- 
houses of the Europeans in Sarawak, and 
kiUed several persons. Sir James Brooke 
and the greater part of the Enghsh escaped. 
The opportune arrival of a small steamer 
enabled the rajah to drive the Chinese 
out of the town, when they were attacked 
by the native Dyaks, and after a guerilla 
warfare of several days utterly routed. The 
Chinese settlements were destroyed, and out 
of a population of four or five thousand, not 
more than two thousand escaped. 

Sakdica. — This ancient town of Illyria 
was considerably enlarged by the emperor 
Trajan. According to Zonaras, the emperor 
Basil I. besieged it without success a.d. 876. 
A council, at which English bishops are said 
to have been present, was held here in 347. 

Saedinia (Mediterranean,, Sea) .— This 



SAR 

island, which was also called Ichnusa and 
Sandaliotis, is said to have been originally 
peopled by a colony of Libyans, who crossed 
over from Africa under the leadership of 
Sardus, — whence the name Sardinia, about 
B.C. 1200; but the traditions relating to its 
early history are obscure and conflicting. 
Its authentic history commences with its 
capture by the Carthaginians, of which 
the precise date is unknown. Sardinia was 
one of the chief corn-growing provinces of 
the Eoman empire. 



-480. Sardinia is conquered by the Cartha- 
ginians about this period. 
The Sardinians revolt against the Cartha- 
ginians. 
L. Cornelius Scipio defeats the Carthaginian 

fleet off Olbia, in Sardinia, and afterwards 

takes the city. 
The island is ravaged by the Romans, under 

C. Sulpicius. 
The Carthaginians cede their right to the 

island to the Romans. 
T. Manlius Torquatiis gains several victories 

over the natives. 
The inhabitants revolt under the native chief 

Hampsioora, who is subdued by Torquatus, 

and commits suicide. 
A revolt of the mountaineers is suppressed, 

with great severity, by the consul Tiberius 

Sempronius Gracchus. 
An insurrection is suppressed by M. Csecilius 

Metellus. 
Julius CfBsar visits Sardinia. 
It is ceded to Sextus Pompeius by the treaty 

of ' 



739. 
1000. 



1022. 
1164. 



1165. 
1309. 

1324. 

1325. 



1395. 
1409. 



Sardinia is wrested from the Roman empire 
by Genseric the Vandal. 

It is recovered for Justinian by Cyrillus. 

It is seized by the Goths, under Totila. 

Zabardus, governor of Sardinia, compels the 
barbarous mountaineers to embrace Chris- 
tianity. 

The Saracens obtain a footing in the island, 
and pUlage Cagliari. 

They are expelled. 

It is conquered by the Moor Musat, who 
assumes the tiHe of king of Sardinia. 

Musat is expelled by the allied forces of 
Genoa and Pisa. 

Fi-ederick Barbaros.sa sells Sardinia to Bari- 
sona, native prince or judge of the pro- 
vince of Arborea. He adopts the royal 
title, and is crowned at Pavia, but from 
want of funds is unable to support the 
diguity. 

The Pisans obtain the sovereignty of Sar- 
dinia. 

James II. of Aragon receives the investiture 
of Sardinia and Corsica from Pope 
Clement V. 

The infant Don Alfonso of Aragon con- 
quers the Pisan admiral Manfred, at the 
battle of Lucocistema. 

The defeat of the Pi.«an fleet, under Gaspar 
Doria, by the Aragonese admiral Francisco 
Carriiso, in the Bay of Cagliari, establishes 
the authority of the king of Aragon over 
the gj-eatev part of the island. 

April 15. Pedro IV. of Aragon establishes 
the representative govepiment of the 
Stamenti. 

The code of laws known as the "Carta de 
Logu " is promulgated. 

June 26. Don Martin, infant of Sicily, gains 
a great victory over the rebellious Sar- 
dinians near Cagliari. 

Alfonso V. of Ar;igou obtains tbe formal 
cession of the province of Arborea, and 
thereby extends his authority over the 
whole island. 

755 



SAR 



1478. A rebellion, headed by the marquis of Oris- 
tano, is suppresoed. 

1492. The Inquisition is established. 

1527. Andrea Doria, with the combined fleet of the 
Holy League, fails in an attack upon Sar- 
dinia. 

1540. The island is desolated by a terrible famine. 

1637. Feb. 21. Sardinia is invaded by the French, 
under Count Harcr.urt. 

1668. July 21. Assassination of the marquis of 
Camarussa, the Spanish viceroy, in Sar- 
dinia. 

1708. Aug. 12. An English fleet, under Sir John 
Leake, anchors off Cagliari, and conquers 
the island. 

1710. The Spaniards, under the duke of Tursis, fail 
in an attempt at its recapture. 

1714. Sardinia is ceded to the empsror by the 
treaties of Utrecht, Radstadt, and Baden. 

1717. Aug. 22. A Spanish fleet, under the marquis 
de Lede, arrives at Cagliari, and recovers 
the whole island in less than two months. 

1720. Feb. 17. Sardinia is restored to the emperor 
Charles VI. , who cedes it the same day to 
Victor Amadeus of Savoy, in exchange for 
the island of Sicily. 
{See Sardinia, Kingdom.) 

Sasdinia, Kingdom (Italy), comprising 
Savoy, Piedmont, and the island of Sar- 
dinia, was established by Victor Amadeus I. 
(II. of Savoy) a.d. 1720. {See Sardinia and 
Savoy.) 

A.D. 

1730. Sept. 2. Abdication of Victor Amadeus Lin 
fav^our of his son Charles Emanuel I. 

1732. Oct. 31. He expires in prison, where he is 

confined for an attempt to regain the 
throne. 

1733. Sept. 26. Charles Emanuel I. engages in the 

war of the Polish succession. 
1736. June 6. Tortona and Novara are ceded to 
Sardinia by the treaty of Luxemburg. 

1742. Feb. 1. A convention is signed at Turin with 

Maria Theresa. 

1743. Sept. 13 By the alliance of "Worms, Sardinia 

obtains the marquisate of Finale on condi- 
tion of assisting Austria against Spain. 

1745. Dec. 26. By the preliminary treaty of Turin, 
peace with France is restored, and Sardinia 
acquires the Milanese. 

1748. Oct. 18. By the treaty of A±x-la-Chapelle 
Milan reverts to Austria, and Finale to 
Genoa. 

1762. A decree is issued liberating the serfs in 
Savoy. 

1770. A new code of laws is adopted in Savoy. 

1792. The French invade the Sardinian territories, 
and occupy Savoy and Nice. 

1796. May 15. Peace with France is restored by the 
treaty of Paris, which cedes Savoy and 
Nice to France. Oct 16. Death of Victor 
Amadeus II. 

1798. Dec. 9. The king of Sai-diuia is deposed by 

the French, and compelled to retire to 
Leghorn. 

1799. March 3. He removes to Ca«liari, and is 

acknowledged king by the Sardinian. 

islanders. May 27. Turin is occupied by 

the Austrians and Russians. 
1802. June 4. Abdication of Charles Emanuel IT. 

in favour of his brother, the duke of Aosta. 

Sept. 11. Piedmont is incorporated with 

the Fi-ench republic. 
1805. May 26. Napoleon I. is crowned king of Italy 

at Milan, and includes Sardinia in his 

kingdom. 
1814. Victor Emanuel T. is restored, and returns to 

Turin. Dec. 12. Genoa is annexed to the 

kingdom of Sardinia. 
1821. March 13. Abdication of Victor Emanuel L 

in consequence of a popular insurrection. 
1824 Jan. 10. Death of the ex-king. 

3 c 2 



SAE 



1830. The army is increased by the addition of 

120,000 men. 
1839. Nov. 28. A commercial treaty is concluded 

with Sweden. 

1847. The department of public instruction is 

created. 

1848. Feb. 8. A new constitution is granted, esta- 

blishiug a free press and two legislative 
chambers. March 23. Charles Albert 
joins Milan and Venice against Aus- 
tria. April 3 and 4. A revolution is 
suppressed in Savoy. April 8. The Aus- 
trians are defeated by the Sardinians at 
Goito. April 15. Charles Albert decrees 
that the national flag of Italy shall be a 
tricolour of gi'een, white, and red. May 30. 
Peschiera is surrendered by the Austrians 
to Charles Albert. June 28. The Sar- 
dinian chambers vote for the annexation 
of Lombardy to Sardinia. July 4. The 
Venetian assembly votes for the incorpora- 
tion of Venice with Sardinia. Aug. 5. 
Milan capitulates to the Austrian mai-shal 
Eadetzky. Aug. 9. An armistice is con- 
cluded between the Sardinian and Austrian 



1849. 



Feb. 1. Meeting of the Sardinian parliament. 
March 12 Sardinia announces the termina- 
tion of the armistice. March 20. Hostilities 
are resumed. March 21. The Austrians 
defeat the Sardinians at Gambolo, and 
take Mortara. March 23. Radetzky gains 
an important victory at Novara, and 
Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his 
son Victor Emanuel II. March 25. The 
new king has an interview with Radetzky, 
at Novara. March 26. They conclude an 
armistice. July 28. The ex-king Charles- 
Albert dies at Oporto. Aug. 6. A peace is 
concluded with Austria at Milan. Sept. 24. 
A commercial treaty is concluded with 
Tuscany. 
April 9. All ecclesiastical jurisdiction is abo- 
Ushed by the Siccardi law. April 18. The 
archbishop of Turin publishes a pastoral 
letter to his clergy enjoiidng regulations 
opposed to this law. May 4. He is arrested. 
May 14. The papal government protests 
against his imprisonment. Nov. 5. A com- 
mercial treaty is concluded with France. 

Jan. 20. The com laws are repealed in Sar- 
dinia. 

Jan. 10. Sardinia joins the allies against 
Russia. March 2. The chambers pass a 
bill for the abolition of convents. March 15. 
A treaty of alliance is concluded with 
Turkey. May 9. A Sardinian army, under 
General de la Marmora, lands in the 
Crimea. Aug. 16. The Sardinian general 
Montevecchio is mortally wounded in the 
battle of the Tchernaya. Nov. 23. Vic- 
tor Emanuel II. visits Paris. Nov. 30. 
He visits London. 

April 16 The Sardinian plenipotentiaries re- 
quest England and France to decide against 
any military occupation of Italy by foreign 
powers. May 26. Lord Clarendon replies, 
condemning such occupation. 

March 16. In consequence of the attacks of 
the Sardinian press upon the Austrian 
government, the Austrian ambassador is 
recalled from Tm-in. March 23. Count 
Cavour recalls the Sardinian representative 
from Vienna. June 29. An insurrection is 
suppressed at Genoa. Oct. 30. Death of 
Count Joseph Siccardi. 

Jan. 30. Marriage of the Princess ClotUde, 
eldest daughter of Victor Emanuel IT., 
to Prince Napoleon, cousin of the emperor 
of the French. April 19. The Austrian 
government demands that the Sardinian 
army should be restored to a peace footing. 
April 25. A French force disembarks at 
Genoa to the assistance of the Sardi- 

756 



SAE 



April 26. The Sardinian government re- 
jects the Austrian ultimatum. April 29. 
The Austrians under General Gyulai enter 
the Sardinian territory. April 30. Victor 
Emanuel II. confides the government to his 
cousin. Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, 
and takes the command of his army in 
person. (See Austria and Italy.) July 11. 
The preliminary treaty of Villa Franca 
arranges that Lombardy is to be annexed 
to the Sardinian territories. July 13. Re- 
signation of the Cavour ministry. July 19. 
It is succeeded by the Ratazzi adminis- 
tration. Aug. 8. Victor Emanuel II. makes 
his solemn entry into Milan. Sept. 3. A 
deputation from Tuscany requests Victor 
Emanuel TI. to iniorporate that country 
with his own kingdom. Sept. 15. He 
receives the oaths of deputies from Parma 
and Modena. Sept. 24. A deputation from 
Bologna requests him to annex the Lega- 
tions. Oct. 10. The customs barriers be- 
tween Lombardy, Piedmont, Modena, 
Parma, and the Romagna, are abolished. 
Oct. 20. The emperor of the Fi-ench in a 
letter to Victor Emanuel II. advocates the 
formation of an Italian confederation, 
which the latter declares impracticable. 
Oct. 31. The enlarged kingdom of Sardinia 
is divided into seventeen provinces. Nov. 
10. The preliminary articles of Villa 
Franca are confirmed by the treaty of 
Zurich. Dec. 7. The Sardinian consti- 
tution is proclaimed. 
, Jan. 15. Count Cavour undertakes the forma- 
tion of a new ministry. Feb. 25. The 
French government recommend-' the com- 
plete annexation of Pai-ma and Modena to 
Sardinia, the establishment of a pro- 
tectorate, administered by the king of 
Sardinia in the name of the pope, in 
the Romagna ; the re-estaMishment of 
the duchy of Tuscany, and the incorpora- 
tion of Savoy and Nice with the French 
empire. Feb. 29. Sardinia accedes to 
the French propositions, except in the case 
of Tuscany, Savoy, and Nice, which is re- 
feiTed to the votes of the people. March 11. 
A ijowerful public demonstration is made 
in Nice agaii st annexation to France. 
March 15. France repeats her desii-e for 
the preservation of the duchy of Tus- 
cany. March 16. The result of the public 
votes in Tuscany is declared to be in favour 
of annexation to Sardinia. March 18. 
.^Imilia is annexed to Sardinia. March 22. 
Tuscany is annexed to Sardinia March 24. 
Savoy and Nice are ceded to France by a 
treaty signed at Turin. March 27. Prussia 
protests against the annexation of Savoy 
and Nice by France. March 31. Victor 
Emanuel II. releases the inhabitants of the 
ceded provinces from their allegiance, and 
officially announces the approaching an- 
nexation to France. April 15. The inha- 
bitants of Nice vote in favour of annexation 
to France. April 22. The inhabitants of 
Savoy by a large majority declare in favour 
of annexation to France. May 18. The 
government asserts its disapprobation of 
Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily. May 29. 
The Chambers confirm the cession of Savoy 
and Nice. June 14. The French take 
possession of their Piedmontese acquisi- 
tions. July 31. Lord John Russell addresses 
a note to the Sardinian government, dis- 
suading it from attacking Austria and 
Naples. Sept. 7. Count Cavour demands 
that the foreign troops shall quit the 
Roman states. Sept. 11. The papal govern- 
ment rejects the Sardinian ultimatum, 
in consequence of which General Cialdtni 
enters the Roman states. (See Rome.) 
Sept. 18. The French ambassador quits 
Twin. 



SAE 



1880. Sept. 23. The Sardinians, under Cialdini, 
invade Naijles {q.v.). Oct. 10. The Rus- 
sian ambassador is recalled from Turin. 
Oct. 26. The Spanish minister is summoned 
from Tuiin. Nov. 3. The results of the 
voting in Naples are published, and declare 
in favour of annexation to Sardinia. Nov. 
7. Victor Emanuel II. enters Naples, and 
announces his assumption of the sove- 
reignty of the country. Dec. 26. Four 
decrees are published, annexing the 
Marches, Ombria, Naples, and Sicily to the 
dominions of Victor Emanuel II. 

1861. Feb. 18. The first national parliament of 
Italy assembles at Turin. March 7. A 
frontier treaty is concluded with France. 
March 17. Publication of the law con- 
ferring on Victor Emanuel and his 
descendants the title of king of Italy. 
June 6. Death of Count Cavour at Turin. 
{See Italy, &c.) 

KIKGS OF SAEDINIA. 
A.D. 

1720. Victor- Amadeus I. 

1730. Charles Emanuel I. 

1773. Victor- Amadeus II. 

1796. Charles-Emanuel II. 

1802. Victor-Emanuel T. 

1805. Continental Sardinia forms part of the 

kingdom of Italy. 
1814. Victor-Emanuel I., again. 
1821. Charles-Felix. 
1831. Charles-Albert. 
1849. Victor-Emanuel II. 

Saedis, or Sardes (Asia Minor), the 
ancient capital of Lydia, was taken by the 
Cimmerians about b.c. 635, and remained in 
their possession until Alyattes II. drove the 
Cimmerians out of Asia, b.c. 617. It be- 
came subject to the Persians b.c. 584, and 
was taken by the lonians, assisted by the 
Athenians, B.C. 504, the town being de- 
stroyed by fire. The Persians were de- 
feated by the Greeks in the plain before 
Sardis, B.C. 395. It surrendered to Alex- 
ander the Great b.c 334, and was taken by 
Seleucus, in his war against Lysimachus, 
B.C. 283. Antiochus the Great made him- 
self master of it B.C. 214, and held it for 
twenty-fiye years, when the inhabitants, in 
the absence of Antiochus, delivered it up to 
the Eomans, in whose custody it remained. 
It was destroyed by an earthquake in the 
reign of Tiberius, and was rebuilt by order 
of the emperor. Sardis was one of the first 
towns to embrace Christianity, — having, it is 
said, been converted by the apostle John. 
It is one of the seven churches of Asia 
mentioned in the book of Revelations. The 
town was captured by the Turks in the 11th 
century, and again in the 14th century. It 
was also taken by Tamerlane. Sart, which 
now occupies the site of Sardis, is a miserable 
place, consisting of a few mud huts. 

Saeepta (Russia). — This fortified town, 
on the Volga, was founded by a colony of 
Moravian Brethren a.d. 1765. 

Saematia, a name given by the Romans 
to aU the country in Europe and Asia 
between the Vistula and the Caspian Sea. 
The people inhabiting this country were 
usually called Sauromatae by the Greeks, 
and Sarmatse by the Romans. The Sarma- 
tians first began to threaten the Roman 



SAR 

empire in the reign of Nero. They assem- 
bled on the borders of Thrace a.d. 64, for 
the purpose of invading that province ; some 
of them having been defeated by the Romans, 
the rest dispersed. They entered Moesia 
A.D. 69, defeated ten Roman cohorts and 
ravaged the country, but were defeated and 
driven across the Danube. Hadrian de- 
feated them in 119, and Marcus Aurehus in 
161 ; and the emperor CaracaUa gained some 
victories over them in 215, assuming, on 
that accoimt, the surname of Sarmaticus. 
They were defeated by Aurelian in the reign 
of Claudius, and by the emperor Cams, 
16,000 having been cut to pieces and com- 
pelled to recross the Danube in 282. They 
were subdued by Constantine the Great in 
322 ; and he espoused their cause in 332 
against the Goths, whom he defeated, and 
nearly 100,000 perished by famine and the 
sword. The Goths defeated them in 334. 
The Sarmatians joined the Goths against 
the Romans in 378, and were defeated with 
great slaughter by Theodosius I. They 
joined the Vandals and other barbarians in 
an invasion of Gaul in 407, and committed 
dreadful devastation. Those who remained 
in Sarmatia were afterwards subdued by 
Attila, and, vsdth their princes, served in his 
army when he invaded Gaul in 451. Upon his 
death, in 453, they recovered their liberty, 
and were allowed by the Roman emperor to 
settle in Pannonia, Moesia, and other pro- 
vinces on the Danube, where they remained 
in peace, tiU finally subdued by the Goths, 
with whom, in process of time, they became 
one nation. 

Saeno (Battles). — The first battle was 
fought near this river, in Italy, between the 
troops of Justinian, under Narses, and the 
Goths, under their king Teias, a.d. 553. 
The battle lasted two days, and ended in the 
defeat of the Goths, whose king fell in the 
encounter. John of Anjou defeated Fer- 
dinand II. of Naples near the Sarno, July 7, 
1460. 

Saettm, or Old Saeum (Wiltshire), was 
originally a British settlement, and is sup- 
posed to have been taken by Vespasian 
(a.d. 48 — 50), and made a Roman station, 
called Sorbiodionum or Sorviodunum. The 
Saxons wrested it from the Britons in 552, 
and named it Searesbyrig. It was the re- 
sidence of the kings of Wessex till the 
octarchy. The town was fortified by Alfred 
the Great, and here Edgar convoked a 
wittenagemote in 960, to deliberate on the 
best means of defence against the incur- 
sions of the Danes. It was taken and burnt 
by Sweyn, afterwards king of Denmark, 
in 1003. The seat of the bishopric of 
Sherborne was removed to this place in 1072, 
and a cathedral founded, which was finished 
in 1092. On the completion of the Norman 
survey in 1086, Wihiam I. summoned all the 
bishops, abbots, barons, and knights of the 
kingdom to Sarum, to do homage for the 
lands they held by feudal tenure. William 
II. assembled a council here in 1095 or 
1096, in which William, count of Eu, was im- 
767 



SAE 

peached for higli treason. Henry I. resided 
here in 1100, 1106, and 1116. The castle was 
repaired on the accession of Henry II. in 
1154. The oppressions of the castellans, or 
captains of the castle, and their disputes 
with the bishops and clergy, led to the 
removal of the cathedral to its present site 
at New Sarum, or Sahsbury (q.v.), in 1220. 
The inhabitants gradually estabhshed them- 
selves in the vicinity of the new cathedral, 
and Old Sarum began to decay. 

SAEZAifA (Italy). — This town was taken 
from the Florentines by the Genoese a.d. 
14<07, and ceded to Thomas de Campo 
Fregoso, on his abdication of the dignity of 
doge of Genoa in 1421. It was recovered 
for Florence by Lorenzo de Medici, May 22, 
1487. It is the seat of a bishopric, which 
was founded at Luna, under Bishop Habet- 
deus, who flourished a.d. 4S4. 

Sassanides, a name given to the Persian 
dynasty, founded by Artaxerxes I. about 
A.D. 226. They governed Persia untd the 
Mohammedan conquest ui 651. 

Satii^. — This variety of silt is mentioned 
in the 13th century. It was originally 
imported into Europe from China. 

Satiee, from the Latin satura, originally 
signifying a collection of various things, is 
said to have been first written by Ennius 
(B.C. 235—169). Lucihus was the "first who 
used it in a regular poetical form B.C. 148, 
and formed the model which Horace avow- 
edly followed (B.C. 65— A.D. 8). Yarro, the 
most learned of all the Eomans, vrrote his 
*'Menippean," or cynical satires, B.C. 116 — 28. 
Juvenal adopted it to lash the vices of his 
age (a.d. 59—128). Persius, who lived in 
the reign of Nero, applied it with great cir- 
cumspection to that tyrant (a.d. 34—62). 
In this country it was used by Butler to 
ridicule the Puritans in his " Hudibras," the 
first part of which appeared in 1663. Dryden ' 
(1631—1700) and Pope (1688—1744) em- 
ployed it in numerous compositions. 

Saturday, the seventh and last day of 
the week, so called from the idol Seater, wor- 
shipped on tliis day by the ancient Saxons. 
Others say it derived its name from having 
been dedicated by the Eomans to Saturn. 
4iSATTJEifALiA, festivals in honour of Satiirn, 
instituted, according to some authorities, • 
before the foundation of Eome. Others ] 
assert that the Saturnalia were first observed 
at Eome in the reign of TuUus Hostflius, i 
after a victory gained over the Sabines ; 
whilst some maintain that they were first 
celebrated b.c. 497, after a victory obtained j 
over the Latins by the dictator Posthunaius. j 

Satjgoe and Neebudda Teeeitoeies ' 
(Hindostan), conquered by Akbar and 
annexed to the empire of Delhi about a.d. 
1599. The peishwa obtained a nominal su- 
premacy when Delhi fell in 1803. The coun- ' 
try was ceded to the British in 1818. In ' 
the fort of Saugor the 42nd native regiment ! 
attempted to incite the 31st to mutiny. The ' 
latter not only remained faithful, but had a i 
regular battle with their tempters, and drove j 
them from the station July 7, 1857. i 

758 ' 



SAV 

Saumtte (France) was taken from the 
count of Blois by Fulk of Anjou, a.d. 1026, 
and was annexed to the French crown in 
1570. It was taken by the Vendeans after 
a brilliant victory over the repubhcan army, 
June 10, 1793. They were forced to abandon 
it a few days afterwards. The castle was 
constructed at diff'erent periods between the 
11th and 13th centuries. A Protestant aca- 
demy was founded by Duplessis Mornay, 
while governor of the town in the reign of 
Henry IV. It was dissolved by Louis XTV. 
in 1684. Councils were held at Saumur 
Dec. 2, 1253 ; Aug. 31, 1276 ; March 9, 
1294 ; May 9, 1315 ; and in 1342. 

Satandeoog- (Hindostan). — This strong 
fortress of Mysore, seated on the top of a 
rock, was, notwithstanding its great strength, 
taken by the Enghsh, after a siege of seven 
days, in 1791. 

Savaitnah (North America). — This town 
in Georgia was founded by General Ogle- 
thorp, A.D. 1733. It was taken by the British 
in 1776, and held by them till 1782, when it 
was abandoned. A fire, which destroyed 
463 buildings, and other property to the 
value of nearly £300,000, occurred June 10, 
1820. 

Savigliano (Battle).— The French de- 
feated the Austrians at this town, in Sar- 
dinia, Nov. 5, 1799. It is also called the 
battle of Genola. 

Savings Banks. — Defoe, in his "Giving 
Alms no Charity," pubhshedA.D. 1704, sug- 
gested a substitution of savings for poor- 
rates, by passing acts of parliament " which 
shall make drunkards take care of wife and 
children ; spendthrifts lay up for a wet day ; 
lazy fellows diligent ; and thoughtless, sot- 
tish men careful and provident." Francis 
Maseres carried a bill through the Commons, 
which was, however, rejected by the Lords, to 
enable ratepayers of parishes to receive and 
invest savings, ia 1771. A savings-bank was 
established at Hamburg in 1778, and one at 
Berne about 1787. Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield 
opened one for children at Tottenham in 
1798, and another for adults in 1804. The 
Eev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover, issued 
propositions to his parishioners on the sub- 
ject in 1799. One was founded at Bath, by 
eight ladies and gentlemen, in 1808. The 
first institution carefully organized was the 
Parish Bank Friendly Society of Euthven, 
by the Eev. Henry Duncan, in 1817. 
Savings-banks were first placed under the 
protection of government by 57 Geo. III. 
c. 105 & 130 (July 11 & 12, 1817) . By 9 Geo. 
IV. c. 92 (July 28, 1828), the laws relating to 
savings-banks in England and Ireland were 
consohdated, and aU former statutes repealed. 
This act was shghtly amended by 3 & 4 
WOl. IV. (June 10, 1833). These acts were 
extended to Scotland by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 
e. 37 (Sept. 9, 1835). Further amendments 
to the savings-banks acts were made by 
7 & 8 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 9, 1844), {See Post 
Office Satings-banks.) 

Savona (Italy) had formerly two harbours, 
but one was filled up by the Genoese, from 



SAV 

commercial jealousy, a.d. 1525. An explo- 
sion of gunpowder in the citadel destroyed 
half the houses in the town in 1648. A fleet 
of sixteen French and Spanish vessels, laden 
with munitions of war, was sunk in the har- 
bour, by a British squadron, in 1745. Savona 
was taken by the Sardinians in 1746. A corps 
of 10,000 Austrians and Piedmontese was 
defeated here by the French in 1794, and 
the town was occupied by the French in 1795. 
It was taken by the Austrians in April, 1800, 
and was surrendered by them to the French, 
June 15. Pope Pius VI. was detained here 
in 1810-11, by order of Napoleon I. The 
Sistine chapel at Savona was founded by 
Sixtus IV., and the cathedral was built in 
1604. 

Savoy (Europe). — Part of the ancient 
Sapaudia, whence the name Saboia, or Savoy, 
is derived. 



413. Savoy is annexed to Burgundy. 
561. It is made a province of France. 
888. It forms part of the duchy of Burgundy. 
1027. Death of Berthold, count of Maurienne, and 

founder of the house of Savoy. 
1034. Humbert receives large accessions of territory 

fronx the emperor Conrad II. 
1111. Amadeus II. of Maurienne receives the 

title of count of Savoy from the emperor 

Hemy Y. 
1174. Savoy and Piedmont are invaded by the 

eojperor Frederick I. 
1207. Count Thomas receives large grants of land 

in Piedmont from Philip of Germany. 
1262. Count Boniface is made prisoner by his sub- 
jects at Turin. 
1266. Peter of Savoy acquires the city of Berne, 

which he greatly improves. 
1316. Amadeus IV. , or the Grreat, receives Maulevrier 

in Normandy from Philip V., or the Long, 

of Fj-ance. 
1401. Geneva is brought under the dominion of 

the counts of Savoy. 

1417. Feb. 19. Savoy is erected into a duchy under 

Amadeus VITI. 

1418. The territory of Piedmont is added to Savoy. 

1419. Oct. 5. Nice and other territories are ceded to 

Savoy by the treaty of Chambery. 
1482. Charlotte, queen of CjTprus, confers that 

island upon the dukes of Savoy, who 

assume the title of king of Cyprus, 

though they never take possession of 

their kingdom. 
1534. The inhabitants of Geneva rebel against 

Charles III., and are assisted by Francis I. 

of France. 
1537. Feb. Francis I. claims Piedmont as part of his 

hereditary kingdom. 
1557. Aug. 10. Emanuel Philibert defeats the 

French at the important battle of St. 

Queutin. 
1559. April 2. The French conquests in Savoy are 

restored by the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis 

{q.v.). 
1601. Jan. 17. By the treaty of Lyons the mar- 

quisate of Saluces is ceded to Savoy. 
1656. Jan. 22. Death of Thomas Francis, founder 

of the house of Savoy-Carignan. 
1703. Victor Amadeus IL declares war against 

France and Spain. 

1706. Sept. 7. The French, under the duke of 

Orleans and Marshal Mai-siu, are de- 
feated by Victor Amadeus and Prince 
Eugene at the battle of Tm-in, and com- 
pelled to leave Italy. 

1707. March 13. By the treaty of Turin, Victor 

Amadeus obtains considerable territoi-y in 
Lombardy. 



SAX 



1713. April 11. Savoy is recognized as an indepen- 
dent state by the treaty of Utrecht, and 
Sicily is annexed. 

1720. By the Quadruple alliance Sicily is ex- 
changed for the island of Sardinia, and 
the duke of Savoy assumes the title of 
king of Sardinia (q.v.). 



EULEES OP SAVOY. 



A.D. 

Bei-thold 1020 

Humbert 1 1027 

Amadeus 1 1048 

Humbert II 1072 

Amadeus II 1108 

Humbert III 1148 

Thomas 1188 

Amadeus III 1233 

Boniface 1233 

Peter 12ti3 

Philip 1 1268 

Amadeus IV., the 

Great 1285 

Edward 1323 

Aimon 1329 

Amadeus V. or VI. 1343 

Amadeus VII 1383 

{See Saedinia.) 



A D. 

Amadeus VIII 1391 

Louis 1451 

Amadeus IX 14(55 

Philibert 1 1472 

Charles T. 1482 

Charles II 1489 

Philip II 1498 

Philibert II 1497 

Charles III 1504 

Emanuel Philibert 1553 
Charles Emanuell. 1-580 
Victor Amadeus I. 1630 
Francis Hyacinth 1637 
Charles Emanuel 

II 1638 

Victor Amadeus II. 1675 



Savoy Palace (London) was built by 
Peter, earl of Savoy and Eichmond, a.d. 
1245. He bestowed it upon the friars of 
Montjoy, from whom it was bought by Queen 
Eleanor, wife of Henry III., for her son 
Edmund, earl of Lancaster. John II. , king of 
France, resided here, when a prisoner in 
England, in 1357, and again in 1363. It was 
destroyed by Wat Tyler, May 24, 1381, and 
was restored by Henry VII., who endowed 
it, in 1505, as the hospital of St. John the 
Baptist, for the relief of 100 poor people. 
Henry VIII. completed the building and 
granted the hospital a charter, July 5, 
1513. Edward VI. (1547 to 1553) suppressed 
the hospital, but it was re-endowed by Queen 
Mary (1653 to 1558). The "Savoy Confer- 
ence," for the revision of the Liturgy, was 
held here from April 15 to July 25, 1661. 
The sick and wounded in the Dutch war of 
1666 were lodged in the Savoy. It was re- 
moved to make way for Waterloo Bridge and 
the Strand approaches. 

Saw. — According to Pliny, the saw was in- 
vented by DsBdalus, an Athenian, who flou- 
rished about B.C. 1000. Others say it was 
invented by Talus, the nephew of Daedalus. 
Saws to work with water-power, first in- 
troduced at Augsburg in 1322, were erected 
in Madeira in 1420, at Breslau ia 1427, and 
in Norway about 1530. The bishop of Ely, 
ambassador from Mary, queen of England, 
to the court of Rome, describes a sawmill he 
visited at Lyons ia 1555. The attempts to 
introduce them into England met with great 
opposition, and one erected near London, 
in 1663, had to be abandoned. When 
again introduced, in 1767 or 1768, the 
first mill erected at Limehouse was de- 
stroyed by the mob. The damage was 
made good by the government, and a new 
one erected. 

Saxa Eubea (Battle).— Constantine I. 
759 



SAX 

defeated his rival Maxentius at this place, 
about nine miles from Rome, Oct. 28, a.d. 
312. 

Sase-Alteitbtteg- (Germany), a small 
duchy on the northern frontiers of the Thu- 
ringfian forest, formed part of the ancient 
Osterland, and appears to have been 
governed by the margraves of Meissen 
from a very early period. After under- 
going many changes, it was formed into a 
separate p^rincipahty a.d. 1603.- The house 
of Altenburg becoming extinct in 1672, the 
greater part of the principality fell to Ernest 
the Pious, duke of Gotha, and from this 
period it remained in the Saxe-Gotha family, 
till the decease without issue of Frederick IV. 
in February, 1825, when, by a compact be- 
tween the three junior branches of the house 
of Gotha (Meiningen, Hildenburghausen, 
and Coburg), the duke of Hildenburghausen 
resigned his own territory to Meiningen, and 
received in Heu the duchy of Altenburg, 
Nov. 15, 1826. The duke of Saxe-Alten- 
burg is a member of the Germanic confede- 
ration, and has one vote. 

S AXE - Cob TIE &- Gotha (Germany), 
formerly dependent upon the emperor, 
came into possession of the house of Meissen 
A.D. 1348, and fell to the house of Saxony in 
1428. By the treaty of Leipsic m 1485, it 
was allotted to the Ernestine branch of that 
family. It was made a separate duchy in 
1542, and first became an independent state 
in 1640. Ernest left seven sons, who reigned 
jointly from 1675 tiU 1680, when they parti- 
tioned the country and formed seven new 
lines. That of Coburg expired, and the 
division was annexed to Saalfeld ia 1699. 
The liueofEisenberg having become extinct, 
its possessions were united to Gotha in 1707. 
Frederick II. introduced the right of primo- 
geniture into Gotha in 1710. Gotha was 
joined to Coburg, and Saalfeld to Meiningen, 
in 1826. The constitution of the duchy was 
reformed by Ernest II., brother of Prince 
Albert, in 1846. 

Saxe-Meinin&ew (Germany), originally a 
portion of the domains of the counts of 
Henneberg, fell to Bernhard, third son of 
Ernest the Pious of Gotha, a.d. 1680. The 
Mneof Coburg became extinct in 1699, and a 
part of its territory was adjudged to Meinin- 
gen by the Aulie council in 1723, and it 
acquired nearly the whole of the duchy of 
Hildenburghausen in 1826. 

Saxe - Weiiiae - EisEifACH (Germany) 
formerly belonged to the electorate of 
Saxony, and was apportioned to the Ernes- 
tine Hne, A.D. 1485, John Frederick I. was 
deposed in 1547, and Weimar was given to 
his eldest son, the remaining portion being 
awarded to the second son in 1566. A sub- 
division took place in 1672 ; and a reunion 
by the extinction of the hne of Jena in 1690, 
and that of Eisenach in 1741. The right of 
primogeniture was introduced in 1719. 
Charles Augustus, who took part against 
Napoleon I., received some acquisition of 
territory and the title of grand-duke from 
the congress of Vienna, June 9, 1815. Ee- 
760 



SAX 

presentative government was introduced ia 
1816. 

Saxons — the name probably derived from 
sahs or sacks, a knife, — are first mentioned 
by Ptolemy, who describes them as occu- 
pying the country now called Holstein, 
together with three islands off the coast, 
A.D. 140. Their descents upon the eastern 
shore of England became so troublesome, 
that the Eoman emperor appointed an officer, 
who afterwards received the title of " Count 
of the Saxon shore," in 286. Eutropiua 
represents them as infesting the coasts of 
Armorica and Belgica with the Franks in 
287. A horde of Saxons in one of their 
predatory excursions to the coast of Gaul, 
was almost exterminated by the Eoman 
army under Yalentinian I. in 371. Stilicho 
erected several fortifications to defend 
Britain from their attacks in 399. A large 
body under Hengist and Horsa succeeded 
in forming permanent settlements in the 
country alter the departure of the Eomans 
about 450. Some Saxons, aided by the 
Franks, conquered, but afterwards aban- 
doned, the northern part of Thuringia about 
530. The southernmost part was made tribu- 
tary to the Franks about 550. Their long 
contest with Charlemagne was brought to a 
close by the treaty of Salz on the Saale, by 
which they consented to become Christians, 
and were put on a footing of equahty with 
the Franks, 803. 

Saxony (Germany) was invaded by 
Charlemagne, who compelled the inhabitants 
to embrace Christianity, a.d. 804. Henry 
the Fowler, elected German emperor in 
918, was the first of the Saxons who obtained 
that distinction. He erected the margra- 
viate of Meissen in 922, as a bulwark against 
the Slavonians, and so formed the nucleus 
of the present kingdom. The family of 
Wettin, in whom the office has become he- 
reditary, added their own possessions to the 
margraviate in 1130. The emperor Sigis- 
mund invested Frederick the Warlike with 
the electoral title and the duchy of Saxony 
in 1422. Ernest and Albert, sons of Fre- 
derick II., by the division of the country 
at their father's death, founded the two 
hues that bear their names in 1462. Fre- 
derick III. supported the cause of the Ee- 
formation and patronized Luther (1486 — 
1525). John the Constant headed the Pro- 
testant princes at the diet of Spires in 1529. 
John Frederick the Magnanimous took a 
prominentpart in the war against Charles Y., 
and was defeated and made prisoner at the 
battle of Miihlberg, April 23, 1547. He was 
deprived of his dignities, which were trans- 
ferred to his cousin Maurice, of the Albertine 
line, in 1548. John George I., in whose reign 
the Thirty Years' war took place, remained 
on the emperor's side and obtained from him 
part of the see of Magdeburg, and the two 
Lusatian margraviates in 1635. Frederick 
the Strong brought about an invasion of his 
territory by Charies XII. of Sweden through 
turning Eoman Cathohc and obtaining the 
crown of Poland in 1697. His son Frederick 



SCA 

Augustus II. was also elected king of Poland 
in 1733. He took part with France and 
Prussia in the war of the Austrian Suc- 
cession in 1740, but sided with the empire in 
the Seven Years' war (1756—1763). A 
rising of the peasantry led to the redress 
of some of their grievances in 1790. Having 
supported Prussia against France for some 
time after the battle of Jena, Frederick 
Augustus allied himself with Napoleon I., 
taking the title of king, and becoming a 
member of the Confederacy of the Rhine in 
1806. The territory was nearly doubled by 
other cessions from Austria in 1809. It 
became the theatre of the struggles with 
Napoleon I. in 1813 ; and the king was de- 
prived of upwards of one half of his do- 
minions by the treaty of peace with Prussia 
signed May 18, 1815. A new consti- 
tution was framed in 1831. Various changes 
were made, but the old state of things 
was restored by the diet elected in 1852. 



EULEES OP SAXONT. 

DUKES. 



A.D. 

Otho 1 880 

Henry I. ,the Fowler 912 

Otho II 936 

Herman-BiUiiig . . 960 

Bernard 1 973 

Bernard II 1010 



A.D. 

Bernard III 1180 1 

Albert 1 1212 

Albert II 1260 | 

Rodolph 1 1298 I 

Eodolph'll 1356 | 



EMfESTINB UCNE. 



A.D. 

Otho III 1062 

Magnus 1073 

Lothaire 1106 

Henry IL.the Proud 1136 
Henry TIL, the Lion 1139 



A.D. 

Wenceslaus 1370 

Eodolph III 1388 

Albert III 1418 

Frederick 1 1423 

Frederick II 1428 

AXBKRTINE LTITB. 



Ernest 1464 I Albert . . 

Fi-ederiuk III 1486 | George . . 

John 1525 Mauiice 

John Frederick 1532 



Maurice 

Augustus 1553 

Chrisdan 1 1586 

Christian II 1591 

John George 1 1611 

John George II. . . 1656 
John George ILL. . . 1680 



I John George IV. .. 1691 
Frederick Augustus 

1 1694 

Frederick Augustus 

n 1733 

Frederick Augustus 

III 1763 



A.D. A.B. 

Frederick Augustus I Frederick Augustus 

1 1807 II 1836 

Antony Clement . . 1827 | John 1854 



Scalping appears to be aUuded to in 
Psalm Ixviii. 21, b.c. 1045, and according 
to Herodotus (book iv. 64) was prac- 
tised by the Scythians upon their enemies, 
B.C. 678. The custom was found to exist 
among the Indians of America on the disco- 
very of that country, a.d. 1492. 

ScANDALUM Magnaium, or Scandal 



SCH 

against peers, judges, or other officers of 
state, was defined with its penalties by 
2 Rich. 11. c. 5 (1378) . Although this statute 
is stiU in force, it has not for a long period 
been resorted to, the last instance being 
that of the duke of Richmond against Cas- 
tellom in 1710. 

ScAK"DiNAViA, or ScANDiA (Europe), the 
ancient name of the country now occupied 
by Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, is first 
mentioned by Pliny, who speaks of it as an 
island, a.d. 72. The monarchies of Sweden 
and Norway were formed by a combination 
of numerous small sovereignties in the 
12th and 13th centuries. Margaret, queen 
of Denmark, obtained Sweden by conquest 
and Norway by inheritance, and by the 
union of Calmar, concluded in June, 1397, 
they were never to be disjoined. 

ScAEBOEOUGH (Yorkshire), probably of 
Saxon origin, the name signifying a fortified 
rock, was incorporated by Henry II. The 
castle was built in the reign of Stephen. 
Tostig, earl of Northumberland, having 
failed in his attempt to efi'ect a landing on 
the isle of Thanet, arrived here a.d. 1066. 
Piers G-aveston, having been besieged by 
the barons in the castle, was obliged to sur- 
render, May 19, 1312. The town was made 
a bonding port in 1841. Christ's Church 
was erected in 1828. 

ScAELET, the oriental kermes dye, was 
known from the earliest times. The dye 
made from cochineal and tin was accident- 
ally discovered a.d. 1634. A baUifF of 
Shrewsbury, Mr. Thomas Edwards, refused, 
on religious grounds, to wear robes of that 
colour in 1599. It is recorded by Juhus 
Ferretus that soldiers commonly wore a 
short ■ red sagum to conceal the blood from 
their wounds, about 1550. 

Sceptics. — Socrates, who flourished b.c. 
468 — B.C. 399, has been called the founder 
of this sect, from his acknowledgment that 
" all he knew was, that he knew nothing;" 
although its real founder was Pyrrho of 
Elis, B.C. 340. (See Pteehonism.) The 
school, called the " later sceptics," origi- 
nated with JEnesidemus, a physician, about 
the 3rd century. Of modern sceptics, the 
most noted are Montaigne (a.d. 1533 — 1592) ; 
Grlanville, a member of the Royal Society, 
about 1660; Peter Bayle (1647—1706), and 
David Hume (1711—1776). 

Sceptre, originally a mere walking-staff, 
came to be the symbol of sovereign authority, 
and is mentioned by the patriarch Jacob — 
" the sceptre shall not depart from Judah, 
&c.," when imparting counsels to his sons 
(Gen. xlix. 10), B.C. 1689. Achilles swears 
by his staff or sceptre (Iliad, i. 246), B.C. 
1193. Cyrus, as related by Xenophon, was 
always attended by 300 sceptre-bearers, b.c. 
401. It was first assumed among the Ro- 
mans by the elder Tarqum, b.c. 621. The 
sceptre of the Merovingian kings of France 
was a golden rod as tall as the king him- 
self, A.D. 448. 

ScHAFFHATjSBif (Switzerland), the prin- 
cipal town of the canton of the same name, 
761 



SCH 

originated in the building of a large monas- I 
tery in the neighbourhood in the 11th cen- j 
tury. It was walled in and received impe- 
rial rank in the 13th century. Austria ! 
acquired possession in 1330. It recovered | 
its independence, and joined the Swiss can- j 
tons in the 15th century ; became a member j 
of the confederation in 1501, and of the ' 
new league in 1815. The fine single arch 1 
bridge across the Ehine was burned by ' 
the French in 1799. The constitution of the 
canton became democratic in 1831. 

SCHASSBUR& (Battle).— The Hungarian 
insurgents, commanded by Bern, were de- 
feated by the Eussians imder General 
Liiders, at this town, in Transylvania, July 
31, 1849. 

ScHEHALLiEW (Perthshire). — The Royal 
Society having resolved to make some expe- 
riments to determine the mean density of 
the earth, a.d. 1772, Mr. Charles Mason 
selected this mountain for the purpose in 

1773. Dr. Maskelyne effected the mea- 
surements between June 30 and Oct. 24, 

1774. The subsequent calculations intrusted 
to Dr. Charles Hatton were published in the 
Philosophical Transactions of 1778. 

ScHEMNiTZ (Hungary). — In consequence 
of the importance of its mines, yielding 300 
pounds of gold and 43,400 pounds of silver 
annually, a mining academy was founded 
here by Maria Theresa, a.d. 1760. 

Schism Act (13 Anne, c.7, 1713), requir- 
ing from those desirous of exercising the 
profession of a teacher, a hcense from the 
bishop, and a declaration of conformity 
to the established church, was repealed by 
5 Geo. I. c. 4 (1719). 

ScHONBETJBTK, (Peace,) was signed at the 
palace of Schonbrunn, near Vienna, Oct. 14, 
1809, between France and Austria. It 
consisted of six articles. France obtained 
possession of Trieste, Carniola, Friuli, and 
several other places. Russia, Saxony, and 
the Confederation of the Rhine gained some 
advantages, and the Tyrol was given up to 
Bavaria. 

Schools. (-See Education-, &c.) 

ScHUMLA (Turkey).— The Russian general 
Eudiger was driven from his intrenched 
position at this town, by the Turks under 
Hussein Pasha, August 25, 1828. 

ScHWABACH (Bavaria).— The earliest Pro- 
testant confession was drawn up here bv 
Luther, in October, 1529, and its articles 
were adopted by the Smalcald League in 
1531. The handsome fountain in the market- 
place was erected in 1716. 

ScHWAEZBrEG (Germany). — A party of 
the electors assembled here and chose Gun- 
ther emperor, in opposition to Charles IV., 
A.D. 1347. The town, originally dependent 
upon Saxony, purchased its independence 
in 1699. The two present reigning families 
of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen are descended from the 
two sons of Gunther IX., who died in 1552. 
Schwarzburg-Eudolstadt received a represen- 
tative constitution in 1816. 

ScHWEiDKiTZ (Prussia) having suffered 
762 



SCI 

several sieges during the Thirty Years' 
war, was fortified by Frederick II., a.d, 
1747 ; taken by the Austrians, after a siege 
of sixteen days, Nov. 12, 1757; recovered 
by the Prussians April 16, 1758 ; and canned 
by assault by the Austrian Marshal Laudohn, 
Oct. 1, 1761. The Austrians under Mar- 
shal Daun were attacked and defeated near 
this town by Frederick II. of Prussia, May 
16, 1762. On this occasion the Prussians 
put feathers in their caps to enable their 
wild Cossack allies to distinguish them frora 
the Austrians, an ornament since generally 
adopted in European armies. Frederick's 
campaign in Silesia was closed by the sui*- 
render of its garrison, after a siege of sixty- 
four days, Oct. 9, 1762. It was captured 
by the French in February, 1807. 

ScHWEiz, or ScHWTZ (Switzerland), which 
has given its name to the country, declared 
its independence of the house of Austria in 
January, 1303. It had a dispute with Zurich 
respecting the county of Toggenburg in 1436. 
The French defeated the Swiss here in 1799, 
and the Austrians Aug. 14, 1799. In a diet 
convoked here in 1802, the ancient demo- 
cratic constitution was re-estabhshed. It 
declared against Jfapoleon I. Dec. 31, 1813, 
and joined the Sonderbund (q.v.) in 1844. 

ScHYBEMOTES. — Covmty-courts held in 
English shires, twice every year by the 
bishop and the ealdorman or sheriff, during 
the Anglo-Saxon period. In the reign of 
Canute (a.d. 1016 to 1035) the Schyremotes 
were held thrice a year. Edward the Con- 
fessor, in 1065, appointed the Schyremote to 
be held twelve times a year. 

SciLLT Isles (Cornwall), known to the 
ancients under the name of Cassiterides, or 
Tin Islands, were used by the Eomans as a 
place of banishment. In the 10th century 
they were annexed to the English crown by 
Athelstan. They were held from the time 
of Elizabeth tiU 1830 by the family of Godol- 
phin. After the defeat of the royal cause in 
the west, in 1645, they afforded shelter to 
Prince Charles. They were fortified in 1649 
by Sir John GrenviUe, the royalist, who con- 
verted the rocks into a stronghold for pri- 
vateers, and did so much damage to the 
trade of the Channel that the parhament 
fitted out a powerful fleet under Blake, 
which compelled Sir John to surrender in 
June, 1651. Sir Cloudesley Shovel was wrecked 
with all his fleet off these islands, Oct. 22, 
1707, when upwards of 2,000 fives were lost. 

SciNDE (Hindostan) was occupied by the 
Aryan nation B.C. 1400, and they possessed 
the country when Alexander made his Indian 
expedition, B.C. 326. It was subdued by the 
Mohammedans a.d. 711, and held by the ca- 
fiphs tin conquered for Mahmoud of Ghiznee 
in 1026. The Sumna tribe acquired it about 
1200. They were supplanted by another 
native tribe, the Sammao, in 1340. Shah 
Beg Arghun reduced them in 1541, and 
Akbar brought the country under Mongol 
sway in 1590. The KaUioras threw ofl' their 
allegiance to Delhi in 1736, and that of the 
kings of Cabul, which they had previously 



! 



SCI 

acknowledged, was altogether renounced in 
1813. It was conquered by the British and 
annexed March 24, 1843. 

Scio (-iEgean Sea), the ancient Chios 
(q.v.), was taken in the early part of the 
14th century by the Turks, who massacred 
the inhabitauts. The Genoese seized it in 
1346, and kept it nearly 250 years, when it 
was again taken by the Turks. They mas- 
sacred nearly all the inhabitants, April 11, 
1822. Out of a population of 120,000, only 
900 are said to have escaped. 

Scone (Scotland). — Edward I., king of 
England, brought away from this Tillage, 
near Perth, the stone upon which for many 
ages the kings of Scotland had been crowned, 
A.D. 1296, and placed it in Westminster 
Abbey. Charles II. was crowned here, 
Jan. 1, 1651. 

ScoEPiOM', a kind of tube for firing gun- 
powder, was in use about a.d. 1440. It 
was held in the hand, and called by the 
EngMsh liand-cannon, or hand-culverine, 
and was introduced into England by the 
Flemings in 1471. 

ScoTiSTS AND Thomists. — With reference 
to these parties, who long divided the schools, 
Milman (Lat. Christ, b. xiv. ch. iii.) remarks, 
"It is not easy to define in what consisted 
their implacable, unforgiven points of dif- 
ference. If each combatant had been com- 
pelled rigidly to define every word or term 
which he employed, concord might not perhaps 
have been impossible ; but words were their 
warfare, and the war of words their business, 
their occupation, their glory. The Coneep- 
tuahsm or Eclecticism of St. Thomas (he 
cannot be called a Nominalist) admitted so 
much Kealism under other forms of speech ; 
the Eeahsm of Duns Scotuswas so absolutely 
a Eeahsm of words, reality was with him 
something so thin and unsubstantial; the 
Augustinianism of St. Thomas was so 
guarded and tempered by his high ethical 
tone, by his assertion of the loftiest Christian 
morality ; the Pelagianism charged against 
Scotus is so purely metaphysical, so balanced 
by his constant, for him vehement, vindica- 
tion of Divine grace, only with notions pecu- 
liar to his philosophy, of its mode of operation, 
and with almost untraceable distinctions as 
to its mode of influence, that nothing less than 
the inveterate pugnacity of Scholastic 
Teaching, and the rivalry of the two Orders 
could have perpetuated the strife. That 
strife was no doubt heightened and embit- 
tered by their real difierences, which touched 
themost sensitive part of the Mediaeval Creed, 
the worship of the Virgin. This was coldly 
and irreverently limited by the refusal of 
the Dominican to acknowledge her Immacu- 
late Conception and birth,; wrought to a 
height above all former height by the 
maintenance of that tenet in every Fran- 
ciscan cloister by every Franciscan Theo- 
logian." 

Scotland. — According to tradition, the 
Scots derive their origin from Gathelus, son 
of the Athenian king Cecrops, who married 
Scota, daughter of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, 



SCO 

and removed with his family into Spain in con- 
sequence of the preaching of Moses. Here 
he is said to have established a government 
over a nation whom he called Scots, in honour 
of his wife Scota. Under his descendants 
the Scots removed into Ireland, and subse- 
quently, about B.C. 600, into the northern 
part of Albion, which consequently received 
the name of Scotland. War afterwards 
broke out with the Picts (q.v.), and the 
Scots despatched an embassy to Ferquard, 
king of Ireland, who sent his son Fergus to 
their assistance. Fergus was acknowledged 
king by the Scots, and was crowned at 
Argyll, B.C. 330. 



330. Establishment of the Celtic Caledonian 

moiiai-cby by Fergus I. 
55. The Scots aasist the Britons against Julius 



84. The Caledonians, under Gulgacus, sustain a 
terrible defeat from Julius Agricola, in the 
battle of Mount Grampivis. 
360. The Scots and Picts invade Britain. 
376. Kugenius, the last sovereign of the line of 
Fergus I., is slain in battle against the 
Roiuan general Maximus. 
403. The monarchy is restored under Fergus II. 
430. Clmstiauity is introduced into Scotland by 

St. Palladius. 
562. St. ColumOa lauds in Scotland. 
845. The Picts and Scots are united into one nation 

by Kenneth II. 
933. Scotland is ravaged by Athelstan. 
1031. It is invaded by Canute, who exacts tribute. 
1040. Duncan is mui-dered by his cousin Macbeth, 

who usurps the crown. 
1054. July '27. Siward, earl of Northumberland, 
invades Scotland, and defeats Macbeth at 
the battle of Dunsiuane. 
1056. Macbeth is slain at Lauphananan. 
1061. The Scotch invade Northumberland. 
1067. Malcolm III. marries Margaret, sister of 
Edgar Atheling, the Saxon heir to the 
English throne. 

1093. Nov. 13. Malcolm III. is slain by Boger 

de Mowbray at the battle of Alnwick. 

1094. The throne is usurped by Duncan II., who is 

assassinated by his subjects after a reign of 
about six months. 

1138. Aug. 22. D/ivid I. invades Northumberland, 

and is defeated at the battle of Cuton Moor, 
or NortJBallerton {q.v.}. 

1139. By the ti-eaty of Durham the entire earldom 

of Northumberland, except Newcastle and 
Bamborough, is ceded to Scotland. 

1174. William I., or the Lion.is made prisoner by the 
English at Alnwick. Dec. By the treaty of 
Falaise, Henry II. agrees to liberate him 
on condition of his paying homage to 
Eneland for his kingdom. 

1181. ScotUnd .-, i<.ia U..UC. CO i,.,,ijal interdict. 

1389. Eichard I., on his accession to the English 
thi-one releases William I. from his feudal 
sub dotion on the receipt of 10,000 marks. 

1263. Hako iV., of Norway, invades Scot;and, and 
is defeated and compelled to resign his 
possessions in the Hebrides by Alexan- 
der III. 

1281. Margaret, daughter of Alexander III., is 
married to Ei-ic II. , king of Norway. 

129J. Sept. Margaret, the maid of Norway, dies at 
Orkney on her voyage to Scotland, and the 
question of the succession is referred to 
Edwai-d I. 

1291. June 2. Eight competitors for the Scotch 
crown assemble at Norham, and submit 
their claims to the arbitration of Edward I. 
Aug. 3. Twelve competitors appear. 

1292, Nov. 30. Edward I. decides in favour of John 
BallioU 

763 



SCO 



1293. Balliol suppoi-ts his claim in presence of the 
English parliament. 

1296. Balliol renounces his homage, in consequence 

of which he is dethroned by Edward I., who 
invades Scotland, and receives the submis- 
sion of the Scotch nobility. 

1297. Sir William Wallace opposes the English, and 

defeats them at Cambuskenneth {q.v.). 

1298. July 22. He is defeated at Falkirk (q.v). 
1302. Feb. 24. Sir John Comyn and Sir Simon 

Eraser defeat an English army of 20,000 
men near Roslin. 

1305. Aug. 24. Execution of Sir William Wallace at 

Smithfield. 

1306. Feb. Murder of Sir John Comyn by Robert 

Bruce at Dumfries. March 25. Bruce is 
crowned king, as Robert I. at Scone. 

1307. May 10. He defeats the English. 

1308. May 22. Robert I. defeats the earl of Buchan 

at Inverary. June 29. Edward Bruce expels 
the English from Galloway. 
1310. Edward II. invades Scotland without success. 

1312. Jan. 8. Robert I. takes Perth from the Eng- 

lish. 

1313. March 6. Roxburgh Castle is taken from the 

English. March 14. Sir Thomas Randolph 
takes Edinburgh Castle. 

1314 June 24. Robert I. defeats the army of Ed- 
ward II. at Bannockbui-n {q. v.). 

1318. Oct. 5. Death of Edward Bruce at Dundalk, 
in Ireland. 

1320. A conspiracy is formed against the king 
by his nephew, the earl of Brechin, 
and others, who are detected and exe- 
cuted. 

1328. March 17. Peace with England is concluded at 

Edinburgh. May 4. It is ratified at North- 
ampton. 

1329. June 7. End of the reign of Robert I. 

1332. Edward III. invades Scotland. The battle of 

Dupplin Moor (q. v.). Sept. 24. Edward 
Balliol is crowned at Scone, and young 
David Bruce is sent to France, where he 
remains for nine years, although his rival 
only enjoys the crown for three months. 

1333. The English are victorious at Halidon Hill 

1336. A grievous famine desolates Scotland. 
1341. June 4. David II. returns from France. 
1346. He is made prisoner by the English at the 

battle of Dui-ham, or Neville's Cross 

(q.v.). 
13-57. Oct. 3. He is released on payment of 100,000 

marks as ransom. 
1363. Death of Edward Balliol, the last of the 

family. Nov. 26. David II. acknowledges 

Edward III. of England as his successor in 

the event of his decease without male 

issue. 
1371. Feb. 22. Death of David IT. without an heir. 

March 26. The Stuart line commences by 

the coronation at Scone of the lord high 

steward as Robert II. 
1388. Aug. 10. The EngUsh encounter the Scotch, 

tinder Douglas, in the battle of Chevy 

Chase or Otterbm-n {q. v.). 

1402. Robert ITT. sustains a severe defeat from the 

English at Homildon HiU {q.v.). 
1405. Robert's only son, James, is made prisoner 
by the English off Flamborough Head. 

1403. April 4. Death of Robert III., who is succeeded 

by his im)prisoued son, James I., imder the 
regency of the duke of Albany. 

1411. July 24. The Highlanders, under Donald of 
the Isles, are defeated by the Lowland 
forces of the earl of Mar, at the battle of 
Harlaw, which establishes the superiority 
of the Lowlands. St. Andrew's university 
is founded. 

1426. A treaty is concluded with Denmark, by 
which James I. agrees to pay an annual sum 
of 100 marks for the sovereignty of the 
Hebrides and the Isle of Man. 

1437. Feb. 21. James I. is murdered by a band of 
conspirators, under Sir Robert Graham. 
764 



A.D. 

1452. 



1502. 
1513. 
1528. 



1532. 
1537. 



1545. 
1546. 

1547. 
1548. 
1554 
1558. 
1559. 

1560. 



1561. 
1562. 
1564 



SCO 



Shrove Tuesday. The tyrannical and over- 
powerful earl of Douglas is murdered by 
James II. at Stirling Castle, in consequence 
of which civil contests commence between 
the king and his nobles. 

James II. is killed by the accidental bursting 
of a cannon. 

James III. is killed by his rebellious subjects 
at the battle of Sauchie Burn. 

Aug. 8. Marriage of James IV, with the 
princess Margaret, daughter of Henry 
VII. 

Aug. 22. James IV. invades England. Sept. 9. 
He is slain with the flower of the Scotch 
nobility at Flodden Field {q.v.). 

James V. banishes the Douglases, in conse- 
quence of the tyrannous treatment received 
by him from his stepfather, the earl of 
Angus. 

May 17. He founds the Court of Session. 

July 17. Lady Glamis is burnt for conspiring 
to poison the kiug. 

Dec. 7. Birth of Mary, celebrated in history 
as the queen of Scots. Dec. 13. Death of 
the king, her father, whom she succeeds. 

Jan. 20. Imprisonment of Cardinal Beaton, 
on a charge of treason, in consequence of 
which the clergy refuse to perform any 
ecclesiastical ceremonies. He is soon libe- 
rated, and seuures possession of the infant 
queen's person. 

Scotland is ravaged by an English army under 
the earl of Hertford. 

March 28. Execution of George Wishart for 
heresy, by order of Cardinal Beaton. 
May 28. The cardinal is assassinated at St. 
Andrew's. 

Sept. 10. The Scots are defeated by the EngUsh 
at Piukie. 

Aug. 7. The young queen Mary is removed to 
France. 

April 2. The queen dowager, Mary of Guise, is 
made regent. 

Marriage of Queen Mary to the French 
dauphin. 

May 31. Peace is concluded with England at 
Norham. Oct. 21. Deposition of the queen- 
regent. 

June 10. Death of the queen-regent. Aug. 
An act is passed abolishing the papal 
power. Dec. 6. Death of the French king 
Francis II., husband of Queen Mary. 

Aug. 19. Queen Mary returns to Scotland. 

Revolt and death of the earl of Huntley. 

Elizabeth proposes the earl of Leicester as a 
match for Mary. 

July 29, Sunday. Mary marries her cousin, 
Henry Stuart, Lord Darn ley. 

March 9, Saturday. Murder of the queen's 
favourite, David Rizzio, by Darnley and 
others. June •■19. Birth of James VI. of 
Scotland and I. of England, in Edinburgh 
Castle. 

Feb. 10, Monday. Lord Damley, the king- 
consort, is blown up by gunpowder at Edin- 
burgh. AprU 12. James Hepburn, earl of 
BothweU, is tried for the king's murder, 
and acquitted. AprU 21. BothweU seizes 
the queen, and conveys her to Dunbar. 
May 15. They are married at Holyrood. 
June 15, Sunday. Mary is made prisoner 
by the confederate lords at Carbeny Hill. 
She is confined in Lochleven Castle, and 
compelled to abdicate in favour of her son 
James VI. July 29. He is solemnly crowned 
at Stirling. Aug. 22. James Stewart, earl 
of Mm-ray, is declared regent. Sept. Both- 
well escapes to Norway. 

May 2. Mary escapes from Lochleven Castle. 
May 13. She is defeated by MmTay at the 
battle of Langside, and flees into England, 
where she arrives May 17. 

The rebellious earls of Northimiberland 
and Westmoreland seek shelter in Scot- 
land. 



1570. 

1571. 
1572. 



1578. 
1-581. 



1594. 
1600. 



1606. 
1610. 



1617. 
1633. 



1641. 
1644. 

1645. 

1646. 
1647. 
1648. 



1649. 
1650. 



SCO 



Jan. 22. Mui-der of the regent Murray at 
Linlithgow, by James Hamilton of Both- 
wellhaugh. July 12. The regency is con- 
ferred upon the earl of Lennox. 

Sept. 4. Lennox is assassinated by Captain 
Calder. The earl of Mar is elected regent 
in his stead the following day. 

Oct. 28. Death of the regent Mar, who is suc- 
ceeded by the earl of Morton. Nov. 24. 
The earl of Morton is made regent, and 
John Knox, the Scotch reformer, expires 
at Edinburgh. 

The king dismisses the regent, and assumes 
the government in pei-son. 

June 2, Friday. Execution of the ex-regent 
Morton, for implication in the murder of 
Lord Damley. 

Aug. 23. The raid of Ruthven. James VI. 
is seized by a confederacy of the Scottish 
nobles, under the earls of Mar and Gowrie, 
at Ruthven Castle. Sept. 28. Death of 
George Buchanan. 

June. The king escapes from the Ruthven 
confederacy. 

Trial and execution of the earl of Gowrie. 

April. A treaty is concluded between James 
and Queen Elizabeth. Aug. 8. Mary queen 
of Scots is imprisoned on a charge of 
participating in Babyngton's conspiracy. 
Aug. 25. She is removed to Chartley, under 
the custody of Sir Amias Paulet. Oct. 14. 
Her trial commences at Fotheringay Castle, 
Northamptonshire, and the following day 
is adjourned. Oct. 25. It is resumed at 
"Westminster, and the queen is condemned 
to death. 

Feb. 8. Mary queen of Scots is beheaded at 
Fotheringay Castle. 

James suppresses a rebellion under the earl of 
Huntley. 

March 28. Episcopacy is established in the 
Scotch church. Aug. 5. Failure of the 
Gowrie conspiracy. 

March 24. James VI. ia proclaimed king of 
England. April 5. He leaves Edinburgh, 
and arrives in London May 26. July 25. 
He is crowned king of England at West- 



The English and Scotch parliaments reject 
a proposed union between the two nations. 

James I. establishes two courts of high com- 
mission in Scotland. 

James I. revisits Scotland. 

Charles I. visits Scotland, and is crowned at 
Edinburgh {q.v.). 

Charles I. fails in an attempt to introduce 
the church of England liturgy into Scotland. 
{See Edinbukgh.) 

March 1. The Solemn League and Covenant is 
bubscribed. 

The Scotch appeal to arms, and obtain the 
abolition of episcopacy June 7. 

Charles I. again visits Scotland. 

An army of 20,000 Scots enter England to 
assist the Parliamentarians. 

Sept. 13. The Royalists, under James Graham, 
marquis of Montrose, sustain a severe defeat 
at Philiphaugh (q.v.}. 

May 5. Charles I. takes refuge with the Scotch 
army. 

Jan. 30. He is surrendered to the Roundheads 
for £200,000. 

A Scotch force, under the duke of Hamilton, 
enters England for the liberation of Charles 
I. and is defeated by Cropiwell. 

March 9. Execution of Hamilton. 

May21. Bbcecution of themarciuis of Montrose 
at Edinburgh. June 23. Charles II. arrives 
in Scotland. July 32. Cromwell invades 
the countiy. 

Jan. 1. Charles TI. is crowned at Scone. 
Sept. 3. His Scottish adherents are defeated 
by Cromwell at Worcester (q.v.), and Scot- 
land is declared to be united with the 
English commonwealth. 



SCO 



A.D. 

1661. May 27. Execution of the marquis of Argyll. 
1666. The Scottish covenanters resort to arms and 

sustain a severe defeat from generals Dal- 

ziel and Drummond on the Pentland Hills 

iqv.). 
1669. Oct. 19. A union with England is proposed 

and abandoned. 

1678. Jan. The " Highland Host," an army of 10,000 

men, chiefly from the Highlands, is em- 
ployed by government in suppressing con- 
venticles. 

1679. May 3. Murder of James Sharpe, archbishop 

of St. Andrew's, by the covenanters. June 1. 
They defeat Claverhouse at Loudon Hill. 
{See Drumclog.) June 22. They are finally 
defeated at Both well Bridge {q.v.). 

1685. A rebellion breaks out under the earl of 
Argyll, who is executed June 30. 

1687. Feb. 12. James II. abolishes tests and penal 
laws throughout Scotland. 

1689. March 14. Meetine of the Scotch convention, 
which accepts WUliam and Maiy and abo- 
lishes episcopacy. A rebellion in favour of 
James II. breaks out under John Graham 
of Claverhouse, who is killed at Killie- 
crankie (q. v.). 

1692. The Glencoe massacre {q. v.). 

1707. May 1. The legislative union of England and 

Scotland is completed by 5 Anne, c. 8 
(1706). 

1708. A French squadron in favour of the exiled 

Stuarts is driven from the Scottish shores 

by Admiral Byng. 
1715, Sept. 6. A rebellion in favour of the Stuarts 

breaks out under the earl of Mar. Nov. 

The rebels are defeated at Preston and 

SheiTiff-muir {q.v.). The disaimament of 

the Scotch clans is ordered by 1 Geo. I. 

St. 2, c. 54. 
1719. June 11. A rebellion under earls marischal 

Seaforth and TuUibardine is crushed at 

the battle of Glensheil. 
1724. Numerous riots against the malt-tax take 

place in Scotland. 
1736. April 14. Captain Porteous is hanged by the 

mob at Edinburgh. 
1740. A Jacobite confederacy, in favour of the 

Pretender, is established in Scotland. 

1745. July 25. The Young Pretender lands at 

Moidart. {See Ks'Glank.) 

1746. The Highland costume is prohibited by 19 

Geo. II. c. 39. 

1747. Abolition of hereditary jurisdictions, by 20 

Geo. IL c. 43. 

1748. Death of James Thomson, the poet of the 

" Seasons." 
1778. Lord George Gordon forms an anti-Catholic 

association in Scotland. 
1782. The Highland costume is again permitted by 

22 Geo. IIT. c 63. 
1793. The Scotch National Convention is organized. 

1796. June 21. Death of Robert Burns. 

1797. The country is in a disturbed state on account 

of the militia act. 

1807. Aug. 31. Death of Henry Benedict Stuart, 
cardinal duke of York, and claimant of 
the English crown as Henry IX. With 
him the unfortunate family of the Stuarts 
becomes extinct. 

1822. George IV. visits Scotland. (See Edinbukch.) 

1842. Queen Victoria visits Scotland. 

1843. Establishment of the Free Church of Scot- 

land {q. v.). 

1853. The association for the vindication of Scottish 

rights is founded at Edinburgh. 

1854. July 31. The Scottish Jury Act is passed 

(17 & 18 Vict. c. 59). 

KINGS OP SCOTLAIfD OF THE SECOND EACE. 



Fergus II 403 

Eugenius II 419 

Dongardus 452 

Constantine 1 457 



Congallusl. 475 

Goranus 501 

Eugenius III 535 

Congallus II 558 

765 



SCE 



Kinatellus 

Aidanus 

Kenneth I 

Eiigeniu? IV. . 

Ferchardus I 

BonaldIV 

Ferchaidus TI. . 

MaJduinus 

Ell gen ins V. . . . 
Engenius VI. . . . 
Amberkelethus . 
Engenius VII. . 

Mordacns 

Etfinns 

Engenius VIIL . 

Fergus III 

SolTathius 

Achaius 

CongallusIII. . 

Dougal 

Alpin 

Kenneth 11. . . . 

Donald V 

Constantine II. 



Gregory 

Donald VI 

Constantine III. 

Malcolm I 

Indulphus 

Duffus 

Cullenus 

Kenneth III 



Constantine IV. .. 994 

Grinius 997 

Malcolm II 10n4 

Duncan I. 1034 

Macbeth 1040 

Malcolm III 1057 

Donald VI 1093 

Drmcanll 1094 

Donald VI., again 1095 

Edgar 1098 

Alexander 1 1107 

David 1 1124 

Malcolm IV 1153 

William I., or the 

Lion 1165 

Alexander II 1214 

Alexander III 1249 

Margaret 1286 

JohnBalliol 1292 

Interregnum 1296 

Robert 1 1306 

David II 1329 

Edward Balliol ... . 1332 
David II., again .. 1332 

Eobei-t II 1371 

Robert III 1390 

James 1 1406 

James II. 1437 

James in 1460 

James IV 1488 

James V. 1513 

Mai-y 1542 

James VI 1567 



(See England.) 



ScEEW. — Archimedes is said to have in- 
vented a screw for facilitating irrigation in 
Egypt, about b.c. 250. A screw, called by 
the Germans a water-screw, was invented 
A.D. 1746, by Andrew Wirtz, a pewterer at 
Zurich. A patent was obtained in 1800 by 
Maullin for casting screws, and in 1817 a 
patent was obtained for making wire screws. 

Screw Pkopelleb. — A screw to work in 
water on the plan of a windmill, was invented 
by Eobert Hooke, a.d. 1680. This was im- 
proved by Wm. Lyttleton, Nov. 11, 1794; 
E. Wooderoft, Sept. 26, 1832, and many 
others. F. P. Smith, a farmer at Hendon, 
took out a patent for a screw propeller, 
May 31, 1836. It was first fitted to a model 
boat which worked on a pond at Hendon, 
and a boat of six tons burden, propelled 
by a screw, was exhibited to the pubhc on 
Paddington canal, Nov. 1, 1836. The Admi- 
ralty, vrishing the invention to be tested on 
a larger scale, built the Archimedes of 237 
tons burden, which was launched Oct. 18, 
1838, and made her first trip in 1839. The 
Satfler, 888 tons, the first screw vessel 
built for the Eoyal Navy, was laid down at 
Sheemess in 1841, and launched in 1843. 

ScEOFULA. (See King-'s Evil.) 

ScuLLABOGTJE Massacee. — During the 
rebeUion in Ireland, 184 Protestants, men, 
women, and children, were forced into a 
barn by the Eoman Cathohc rebels, who 
then set fire to it, and every soul perished, 
June 5, 1798. 

ScuLPTUEE. — The inventor of this art, 
and indeed the nation where it origiuated, 
are alike unknown. Sculptured monuments 
have been discovered in Egypt at as early a 
date as B.C. 1700, and the art was brought 
to its greatest perfection in that country 



SCT 

about B.C. 1850. Next to the Egyptian 
school of sculpture, in point of antiquity, 
must be ranked the Assyrian, and after that 
the Etruscan. The Greek school became 
celebrated in the 7th century b.c, and at- 
tained its greatest perfection about the 
middle of the 5th century, when Pheidias, 
or Phidias, Myron, and Polycletus flou- 
rished. Praxiteles, who Hved b.c. 360, and 
introduced statues of the nude female figure, 
and Cleomenes, who probably flourished 
about B.C. 220, are among the most cele- 
brated Greek sculptors. The reigns of 
Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines are 
usually regarded as the golden age of Eoman 
sculpture, though it is doubtful whether the 
art was ever practised by the natives. After 
the dechne of the arts, sculpture remained 
in abeyance till the early part of the 13th 
century a.d., when it was revived by Nicolo 
Pisano. Donatetto, born in 1383 ; Michael 
Angelo, in 1474 ; Eoubillac (1695—1762) ; 
Thomas Banks, E.A. (1735—1805) ; Joseph 
Nollekens (1737—1823) ; John Bacon (1740 
—1799), and John Flaxman (1755 — 1826), are 
amongst the most celebrated of modern 
sculptors. 

ScuTAGE, or EscTJAGE, a pecuniary pay- 
ment instead of personal service, assessed 
at first only on military tenants who were 
ecclesiastics, but made general a.d. 1159. 
King John, by chapter 12 of Magna Charta 
(1215), consented that in future no scutage 
should be imposed without the consent of the 
great council of the kingdom. This clause was 
omitted by Henry III. in his confirmation 
of Magna Charta in 1225, and the 37th clause 
only provided that scutage should be taken 
as it was in the time of Henrv II. By 25 
Edw. I. c. 5 & 6 (1297), it was enacted that 
no scutage should be taken by the king with- 
out the consent of the realm. 

ScuTAEi (Asiatic Turkey), the ancient 
Chrysopohs, was the scene of the defeat of 
Licinius, by Constantine I. a.d. 323. The 
Sultan Mahmoud's barracks were occupied 
in 1854 by the British troops on their march 
to the Crimea. They were turned into an 
hospital for the wounded of the allied armies 
Sept. 24, 1854, and Miss Nightingale and 
thirty-eight nurses arrived Nov. 6. 

ScTLLA (Italy). — This town of Naples 
was almost totally destroyed bv an earth- 
quake, Feb. 5, 1783. Most of the inhabit- 
ants, who, with the aged' prince of ScyUa, 
had sought refuge on the beach, perished 
from the effects of another shock in the 
evening. 

ScTEOS (iEgean Sea).— The original inha- 
bitants of this island were Pelasgians, Ca- 
rians, and Dolopians. According to tradition, 
Theseus, driven from Athens, retired to 
Scyros, where he was at first hospitably re- 
ceived, though he was afterwards treache- 
rously cast into the sea. The Macedonians 
subsequently obtained possession of the 
island, which the Eomans compelled them 
to restore to the Athenians, B.C. 196. 

ScTTHiA (Territory) , in the eastern half of 
northern Europe, and in western and central 



SEA 

Asia, but of very uncertain extent, was in- 
habited by the Scythse, who invaded Media, 
and defeated Cyaxeres b.c. 624, but were 
driven out B.C. 596. A battle, in which they 
were engaged with Croesus, was interrupted 
by an eclipse of the sun (foretold by Thales, 
May 28, B.C. 584). Darius made an unsuc- 
cessful inroad upon the country B.C. 507. 
Xenophon and his ten thousand, in their 
retreat, had to march four days through it, 
B.C. 400. Alexander gained a success over 
the people dweUing between the Oxus and 
the Jaxartes, B.C. 329. They merged into 
tribes of various names soon after their 
attack upon the king of Bosporus, about 
B.C. 63. 

Sea. — The Venetians claimed the sove- 
reignty of the Adriatic about a.d. 1400, 
and imposed a toll on all vessels navigating 
the same. Austria resisted this claim in 
1508, and a war that lasted twenty years 
ensued. According to Selden, most of the 
maritime states of Europe admitted the 
claim of England to the sovereignty of the 
seas in the reign of Edward I. Holland ac- 
knowledged it by the treaty of Breda, July 
10, 1667 (O.S.). 

Sea-fights. (See Index.) 

Seal. — The use of seals is very ancient. 
Jezebel sealed the orders for Naboth's 
death with the king's seal (1 Kings xxi. 8), 
B.C- 899. The first sealed charter extant is 
that of Edward the Confessor for the foun- 
dation of Westminster Abbey, a.d. 1065. 
The impression upon all laymen's seals until 
1218 was a man on horseback. Only arch- 
bishops and bishops were allowed, by a 
decree dated 1237, to bear on their seals 
their title, office, dignity, and names. In 
1540 it was ordered that all deeds, writs, &c., 
should be signed as well as sealed. 

Seal Islai^ds. (See Lobos.) 

Sebastianists. — Sebastian, king of Por- 
tugal, was supposed to have perished with 
his entire army at the battle of Alcazarquiver, 
in Africa, Aug. 4, 1578 ; but as his body was 
never identified, an opinion prevailed that 
he had escaped from the field, and was living 
in captivity among the Moors or in retire- 
ment in his ovra kingdom. In consequence 
of this notion, a native of Alcazova, of low 
birth and vicious character, asserted, in 1585, 
that he was the missing monarch. He was 
arrested, convicted of gross imposture, and 
condemned to the galleys for hfe. A second 
claimant appeared the same year, in the person 
of a stonecutter, named Alvares, who was made 
prisoner and hanged. In 1594 Gabriel de 
Spinosa claimed identity with the lost Se- 
bastian. He was also seized and publicly 
executed. The most remarkable of the 
pseudo- Sebastians was a person who asserted 
his claim at Venice in 1598, and who exhibited, 
in manners and features, a most wonderful 
resemblance to the king. His age corre- 
sponded vdth that of Sebastian, his body 
exhibited moles and other marks which the 
king was known to have possessed, and he 
related circumstances connected with the 
private life of the sovereign which afforded 



SED 

the strongest confirmation of his statements. 
His story was, that after the battle he had 
returned to Portugal, with the intention of 
assuming a religious hfe, in expiation of the 
distress in which he had involved Viis coimtry ; 
but the fear of discovery had induced him to 
visit Persia, where he had long been engaged 
in the service of the shah. Notwithstanding 
the plausibUity of this person's tales, and 
the interest his appearance excited, his ulti- 
mate fate is unknown. The strangest fact 
connected with the story of the lost sovereign 
is, that the behef in his re-appearance existed 
long after he must naturally have died, and 
even as late as the present century. The 
Sebastianists have been encouraged in their 
superstition by numerous prophecies, which 
asserted that the Hidden One, or the Unco- 
berto, was concealed in an undiscovered 
island, and that his return might be expected 
about the year 1808. 

Sebastian, St. (Spain), was captured by 
the French Aug. 19, 1719, and again Aug. 4, 
1794, when the guillotine was erected, and 
the blood of many priests and nobles shed. 
It was again taken by the Erench in 1808. 
It was besieged by the British, under 
General Graham, June 29, 1813. An as- 
sault, which was repulsed, took place 
July 24. The siege was converted into a 
blockade, which was raised July 28. The 
siege was resumed Aug. 26. The town was 
captured Aug. 31, and the castle Sept. 8. 
The Carlists were defeated here by the 
queen's forces Oct. 1, 1836. 

Sebastoceatoe. — This title of honour was 
introduced by Alexius Comnenus, a.d. 1081, 
to reward the piety of his brother Isaac 
vrithout giving himself an equal. 

Sebastopol (Eussia), the Tatar Akhtiar, 
was founded by Catherine II. a.d. 1780. 
The docks and other important works, 
planned by Upton, at one time assistant 
to Telford, and carried on by him for 
nearly thirty years, were commenced about 
1826. The land defences were begun in 
1837. Its siege was commenced by the 
allies during the Eusso-Turkish war (q.v.), 
Sept. 26, 1854 ; and it was captured Sept. 9, 
1855. The fortifications having been demo- 
Ushed, the town was restored to Eussia 
July 12, 1856. 

Sebastopolis (Battle). — Justinian II., 
having broken his truce vrith the Turks, 
collected an army near this town, on the 
Phasis, where he was defeated a.d. 692. 

Seceetaet of State.— This title occurs 
for the first time a.d. 1253. By 27 Hen. VIII. 
c. 11 (1535), all grants passed under the 
king's seal were to be first dehvered to the 
principal secretary of state. In the com- 
mencement of the reign of Charles I. there 
were two secretaries of state. The number 
has varied in difierent reigns. A secretary 
of state for India was added in 1858, which 
makes the number five. 

Sedan (France), for many years the 

capital of a principality belonging to the 

dukes of Bouillon, was forfeited to the 

crovra A.D, 1642. Near this town the count 

767 



SED 



SEL 



of Soissons, who perished in the encounter, 
defeated the army of KicheMeu in 1641. 
Mazarin took up his abode here in 1652. 

SEDAif Chaihs, iuTented at Sedan, in 
France, whence their name, were first used 
in England a.d. 1581, and in London in 1634. 
They were in general use in 1649. An act 
was passed in 1711, limiting the number of 
licensed sedan chairs to 200. It was in- 
creased to 400 in 1726. 

Sedgemook (Battle). — The duke of Mon- 
mouth was defeated on this plain, near 
Bridgewater, by the royal troops, under the 
earl of Faversham, July 6, 1685. Monmouth, 
who was taken after the battle, was beheaded 
July 15. 

Seekees. — This sect arose in England 
A.B. 1645. They derived their name from 
maintaining that the true Scripture and 
ordinances for which they pretended to be 
seeking were lost. 

Segeden (Treaty) .—The celebrated treaty 
of peace between Amurath II. and Ladislaus 
IV., king of Poland and Hungary, was con- 
cluded at this town in September, 1444. A 
truce of ten years was agreed upon, but it 
only lasted ten weeks. Cardinal Julian de- 
clared the treaty nuU and Toid, because it 
had been made without the consent of the 
pope, and Christian princes were not bound 
to keep faith with infidels. 

Segestah" (Asia). — This fertile and 
flourishing country, containing many large 
cities and towns, was devastated by Tamer- 
lane A.D. 1383. The first European traveller 
to visit Segestan was George Forster, who 
penetrated into the country in 1788. Cap- 
tain Christie traversed it from north to south 
in 1810. It is now called Seistan. 

Segovia (Spain), the capital of a province 
of the same name, contains one of the finest 
cathedrals in Spain. It was commenced 
A.D. 1525. The French captured Segovia 
in 1808, and occupied it until 1814. 

Seidlice (Battle).— The Poles defeated 
the Eussians at this village, near Warsaw, 
April 10, 1831. They captured two stand- 
ards, fifteen pieces of caimon, and 6,000 
prisoners. 

Selbt, (Battle,) was fought at this town, 
in Yorkshire, between the royal troops, 
under John Bellasis, governor of York, 
and the parliamentarians, under Lord Fair- 
fax, April 11, 1644. The former was made 
prisoner, and his army defeated. 

Seieniusi. — This non-metaUic, sohd, ele- 
mentary body was discovered a.d. 1818 by 
Berzelius. 

Seleucia Pieeia (Syria), " rivers of 
water," according to Strabo, was founded 
by Seleucus Xicator, prior to B.C. 280. 
Ptolemy Euergetes, having captured it 
during his Syrian expedition, B.C. 245, held 
it by an Egyptian garrison until Antiochus 
the Great, forming a siege by sea and by 
land, compelled it to surrender about B.C. 
220. Paul and Barnabas embarked from 
this port on their first mission to Asia Minor 
in May, a.d. 44 (Acts xiii. 4). The only 
communication between the city and the sea 



was by means of an extraordinary excavation 
through the sohd rock, upwards of twenty 
feet in width and height, and nearly 1,100 
yards long, which was surveyed by Captain 
Allen in 1850. 

Seleucia Teacheotis (COicia), repre- 
sented by the modem town of SelefHeh, 
was founded by Seleucus Nicator, some 
time prior to B.C. 280. Under the Komans, 
it remamed a free city from the time of 
Augustus, A.D. 14. The Isaurians made an 
unsuccessful attack upon it in 355. It was 
the birthplace of Xenarchus, B.C. 40, and 
Athenaeus the Peripatetic, B.C. 30. 

Selettcid^.— This sera commenced with 
the estabhshment of the kingdom of Syria 
by the Seleucidae, B.C. 311. {See AiEX- 

AlfDEE, .a^EA OF.) 

Self-Dentikg OEDrN-ATTCE. — A resolu- 
tion to the eff'ect that, dui'ing the war, no 
member of either house should hold any 
ofiice or command, military or civU, con- 
ferred by either house of Parliament, or any 
authority derived from them, passed the 
House of Commons on Monday, Dec. 9, 1644 ; 
and an ordinance to this effect was ordered 
to be introduced. It was passed Dec. 19, 
and sent up to the Lords, who rejected the 
third reading, Jan. 13, 1645. After much 
controversy, the ordinance was, with certain 
amendments, agreed to by the Lords, April 3, 
1645. 

Selgae (Battle).— Tribigild the Ostrogoth, 
having rebelled against the Eastern empire, 
was attacked by the peasants of Pamphyha 
in this narrow pass and defeated, with the 
loss of his bravest troops, a.d. 399. 

Selinus (Sicily) was founded by a colony 
from Megara about B.C. 628. The inhabitants 
were engaged in war with the people of 
Segesta b.c. 580. They joined the Cartha- 
ginians B.C. 480, and assisted the Syracusans 
to eject Thrasybulus B.C. 466. They were 
again at war with the Segestans B.C. 416. 
The latter, having sought aid from the 
Carthaginians, defeated the people of Sehnus 
B.C. 410. The Carthaginians sent an army, 
under Hannibal, and, after a siege of only 
ten days, the city was taken and most of the 
inhabitants were slain, B.C. 409. Hannibal 
destroyed the walls, but allowed the surviving 
inhabitants to return and occupy it as 
tributaries to Carthage. They took part 
with Dionysius in his war against Carthage, 
B.C. 397. They submitted to Pvrrhus B.C. 
276. Before the close of the first Punic war 
the Carthaginians removed all the inha- 
bitants of Selinus to Lilybseum, and de- 
stroyed the city. 

Sellasia (Battle).— Cleomenes, king of 
Sparta, was defeated near this ancient town 
of Laconia, B.C. 221, by the Achaean League, 
under Antigonus, king of Macedon. This 
victory extinguished the power of Sparta. 

Selset (Sussex). — Wilfrid, archbishop of 
York, was wrecked on the coast near this 
town, A.D. 680, when Christianity was in- 
troduced, and a bishopric established. It was 
removed to Chichester about 1082. 

SELYiiBEiA (Turkey), the modem Si- 



SEM 

livri, is believed to have been founded by a 
colony from Megara, about B.C. 662. Alci- 
biades received pecuniary aid from the 
inhabitants B.C. 410, and took the town by 
treachery B.C. 408. Xenophon met Medo- 
sades, the envoy of Seuthes, here, B.C. 400. 
It was in alUance with the Athenians B.C. 
351, blockaded by Philip II. B.C. 343, and 
captured by the Turks, after a vigorous re- 
sistance, A.D. 1453. 

Semi-Abians.— The Arian sect separated 
into two divisions a.d. 321. The Arians 
maintained that the Son of God was unlike 
the Father ; the Semi- Arians refused to re- 
ceive the word substantially, but acknow- 
ledged the Son of God to be of a hke sub- 
stance with the Father. From this they 
were called Semi-Arians. 

Seminaba (Battles). — A body of Spani- 
ards sent to aid the king of Naples, under 
the command of Gonsalvo of Cordova, was 
completely defeated by a small body of 
French and Swiss, under Stuart d'Aubigny, 
A.D. 1495. The Spanish general, Andrades, 
defeated d'Aubigny here, and compelled 
him. to retire into the fortress of Angitola, 
April 21, 1503. 

Semi-Pelagians, at first called MassHians, 
took their rise from John Cassian, a pupil 
of Chrysostom, at Marseilles, a.d. 425. The 
monks of southern Gaul, including Vincent, 
had generally adopted the tenets by 434; 
and their doctrines were sanctioned by 
councils held at Aries and Lyons in 475. 
The council of Orange estabhshed the Au- 
gustinian doctrines in opposition to those of 
the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians, July 3, 
529 ; and Pope Boniface II. confirmed the 
decree in 530. 

Sempach (Battle). — Leopold, duke of 
Austria, in an attempt to reduce Lucerne to 
obedience, was defeated at this town in 
Switzerland, by the Swiss, July 9, 1386. 
Leopold and 2,000 of his men, a third of 
whom were nobles and knights, fell in the 
battle. 

Senate. — That of Eome, which consisted 
at first of a hundred mejnbers, was raised 
by Tarquinius Prisons to the number of 
300. Tarquinius Superbus put many to 
death, and sent some of them into exile. 
The principal plebeians of the equestrian 
order were admitted, under the name of 
" conscripti," after the expulsion of Tar- 
quin, B.C. 509. Sylla raised the number to 
600, B.C. 82, and Caesar to 900, b.c. 59. 
Augustus purified it, and reduced the 
number to 600, taking upon himself the 
title of " prince of the senate." Severus 
deprived it of all legislative, as well as exe- 
cutive power, A.D. 193. Sosemias, the 
mother of Elagabalus, having sat by the 
side of the consuls and subscribed the de- 
crees as a regular member, a law was after- 
wards enacted, excluding women for ever 
from the senate, and devoting to the infernal 
gods the head of whoever should violate 
it. Alexander Severus restored its lost 
dignity and authority in 222. They met in 
the temple of Castor, according to an 
769 



SEN" 

ancient form of secrecy, and ratified the 
election of the two Gordians, once more as- 
suming the reins of government in 238. 
On the death of the Gordians, they elected 
two of their own body, Maximus and Bal- 
binus, to be joint emperors, July 9, 238. 
A decree was issued by Gallienus prohibit- 
ing senators from holding any military em- 
ployment, or even approaching the camp of 
the legions, in 259. It regained its most 
important prerogatives in 275, refusing the 
emperor's request to nominate his brother, 
Florianus, to the consulship. Diocletian 
and Maximian took measiires to degrade 
the body and abolish its power, getting 
up imaginary plots against its most 
illustrious members, in 303. At a fuU 
meeting of the senate, the question whether 
paganism or Christianity should be the reli- 
gion of the state, was decided in favour of 
Christianity in 388. A warm discussion took 
place in 488, on the demand of Alaric the 
Goth for a ransom, which resulted in the 
payment, under the name of a subsidy, of 
four thousand pounds of gold. In the reign 
of Justinian I., about 553, it seems to have 
become altogether extinct. The institution 
was restored in 1144. 

Senegal (Africa) was partly settled by the 
French, a.d. 1626. Two forts erected by the 
Dutch were taken by the French in 1678, and 
by the EngUsh in 1692. They were retaken 
by the French in 1693. They built Fort 
Louis in 1692. Their fort commanding the 
mouth of the river surrendered to the British, 
April 22, 1758. Commodore Keppel took 
possession of the island of Goree, with its 
forts, Dec. 29, 1758. Goree was restored to 
France, the British retaining St. Louis, by 
the treaty signed at Paris Feb. 10, 1763. St. 
Louis was taken by the French, who, there- 
upon, abandoned Goree in January, 1779. 
Sir Edward Hughes seized and garrisoned 
Goree, Aug. 8, 1799. The whole of the 
settlements ceded to France by the treaty 
signed at Versailles Sept, 3, 1783, were 
retaken by the British, July 13, 1809. 
They were finally restored to France in 
1815. 

Senegambia (Africa), said to have been 
visited by Hanno, the Carthaginian general, 
about B.C. 260, was discovered by the Por- 
tuguese A.D. 1444 — 1469. Their settlements 
were neglected after the discovery of the 
route to the East Indies by the Cape in 1497. 
A settlement was formed at Senegal by the 
French in 1626, and one at Gambia by the 
English in 1686. A large portion of the 
country was, in 1817 — 1820, traversed by an 
expedition sent out by the British govern- 
ment. Explorations were made by Laing 
in 1822, and by the French travellers MoUien 
in 1813, and CaiUie in 1827. 

Senlac (Sussex), supposed to be the 
modern " Battle," near Hastings (q. v.). 

Senlis (France). — The ancient Augusto- 
magus. A treaty of peace between 
Charles VIII. of France and Maximilian I. 
was concluded here, May 23, 1493. Coun- 
cils were [held here in 873 j July, 9b8; 
.3 D 



SEN 



SEE 



Nov. 14, 1235 ; in 1310 ; October, 1315 ; 
Marcli 27, 1318 ; and AprU 11, 1326. 

Sennaae (Africa), at one time forming a 
portion of Abyssinia and subsequently of 
Nubia, was wrested from the latter by a 
family wMcli came from Soudan about the 
14th century. The vizier appointed to 
transact business possessed himself of su- 
preme power about 1650. The country was 
conquered by the pasha of Egypt and re- 
duced to a state of vassalage in 1822. The 
capital of the same name was destroyed 
during the invasion of the Egyptians in 
1822, 

Sen'os'es, a Gaulish nation settled on the 
coast of the Adriatic, laid siege to Clusium 
B.C. 390, and afterwards advancing towards 
Eome, defeated the Eomans at the con- 
fluence of the Allia and the Tiber. They 
entered Eome and besieged the Capitol, 
but, withdrawing to a distance of eight 
miles from the city, were defeated by 
Camillus. In a second attack upon Eome 
they were driven off, B.C. 367. From that 
time their attempts upon Eome were almost 
annual occurrences, until, having laid siege 
to Aretinus and gained a victory over a 
body of Eoman troops, they were utterly 
routed in a pitched battle by the consul 
Dolabella, B.C. 2S5. Greece was invaded by 
them, and Macedon plundered, B.C. 279. 
They were slaughtered by the Greeks near 
the banks of the Sperchius, B.C. 278 ; and, 
having returned with reinforcements, suf- 
fered severely in an engagement with Anti- 
gonus Gouatas, and sued for peace, B.C. 277. 
In combination with the transalpine Gauls 
they invaded the Eoman territory, and, 
quarrelling over the division of the booty, 
turned their arms against each other, B.C. 
237. On the coast of Pisse they were 
routed by the Eomans, with a loss of 40,000 
men, theii* king Congolitanus being among 
the slain, B.C. 225- Marcellus completed 
their overthrow at Clastidium, where their 
king Viridomarus fell, B.C. 223. 

SBifs (France), the ancient Agendicum, 
chief town of the Senones, formed the 
winter quarters of Julian, where he was 
besieged for thirty days by the Germans, 
A.D. 357. On payment of a ransom by 
Charles II., the Danes, who were be- 
sieging Paris, retired to this town in 886. 
Thomas Becket retired to Sens when he fled 
from England in 1164, and his canonical 
vestments are still exhibited. It was taken 
by Henry V. of England in 1420, and by the 
allies on their march to Paris in 1814. It 
was made a bishopric about 1(X). The 
country of which it was the capital was 
united to the French crown about 1031. 
Councils were held here in 601, 846, 1045 ; 
June 2, 1140 ; in 1239 ; Nov. 15, 1252 ; 
Oct. 24, 1256 ; Oct. 26, 1269 ; Sept. 25, 
1280 ; May 22, 1320 ; and June 23, 1485. 

SENTiifTJM, (Battle,) fought b.c. 295, 
during the third Samnite war, near this city 
of Umbria. In this battle the united forces 
of the Sabines and Gauls were defeated by 
the Eomans under Quintus Fabius. ' 
770 



Sepots (Hindustani sjpa^i, soldier). — The 
native troops of the East-India Company were 
so called a.d. 1708. Great alterations were 
made in their constitution, and a larger pro- 
portion of British officers introduced in 
1796. A serious mutiny broke out amongst 
them at VeUore in 1806, when eight hundred 
were executed. Another took place at Bar- 
rackpore, the troops refusing to march to 
the Burmese territory, Nov. 1 and 2, 1824. 
[See India.) 

Septa, or Septem. {See Ceuta.) 

Septembee, the seventh month of the 
Eoman year, was introduced into the ca- 
lendar by Eomulus B.C. 753. 

Septembkitzees, or SEPTEsiBEiSTS.-After 
the news of the capture of Verdun in 1792, 
arrived at Paris, an indiscriminate slaughter 
of the unfortunate nobles and priests 
confined in the Abbaye and other prisons 
of Paris commenced." It was contimied 
Sept. 2, 3, and 4, and the perpetrators of 
the massacre were called Septembritzers. 

Septennial Pabliaments were enacted 
by 1 Geo. I. st. 2, c. 38, called the Septennial 
Act (May 7, 1716). A motion for its repeal 
in the House of Commons was negatived by 
247 to 184, March 13, 1734. Mr. Tennyson 
D'Eyncourt's motion for leave to bring in a 
biU for its repeal was refused by 96 to 87, 
May 8, 1837. 

Septuagesima Sunday. — The Sundays 
previous to Lent were first set apart for the 
purposes of preparation for that solemn fast 
hy Pope Gregory the Great (1572 — 1585). 
The first Sunday in Lent was called Quadra- 
gesima Sunday, and, reckoning by decades, 
the Sunday preceding Quadragesima was 
called Quinquagesima, the second Sexa- 
gesima, and the third Septuagesima. 

Septuagint. — The Alexandrine version of 
the Old Testament in Greek was made for the 
benefit of the captive Jews in Egypt, by order, 
itissaid, of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about B.C. 
277 ; but there is much uncertainty as to the 
precise time. A splendid fac-siroile of the 
Alexandrine codex was edited by the Eev. 
H. H. Baber (1S;6— 1820). The iildine edi- 
tion was published at Venice in 1518 ; the 
Grabe edition at Oxford, 1707 — 1720 ; and 
Hohnes and Parson's edition at Oxford, 1798 
— 1827. The Septuagint version of the book 
of Daniel was supposed to have been lost 
till it was discovered and pubhshed at Eome 
in 1772. 

Sepulchee. {See Holy Septilchke.) 

SEEAPiEUM, or Seeapion, the temple of 
Serapis, erected at Alexandria by Ptolemy I., 
surpassing in beauty and magnificence all 
the temples of the world, except the Capitol 
at Eome, received the image of the god from 
Pontus, B.C. 284. It was burned a.d. 181. 
That portion of the building devoted to the 
immediate service of the god, was destroyed 
by Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria, in 
390. It was totally destroyed by the Sara- 
cens in 640. 

Seepdoji. — A capitulary of Charles the 
Bald of France permitted serfs to be re- 
deemed at an eq^uitable price, a.d. 864. 



SEE 

25,000 serfs, or one-eleventh of the popula- 
tion of England, were registered in the 
Domesday Book in 1086. The emperor 
Frederick II. emancipated all those on his 
own estates in 1230, and those in Italy- 
all became free early in the 15th century. 
In some countries of Germany the greater 
part had acquired their liberty before the 
end of the 13th century. In France, 
Louis X. emancipated the serfs on the royal 
domains, on payment of a composition, in 
1315. An edict with the same object was 
issued by Philip V. in 1318. Predial 
service was not abohshed in all parts of 
France till the revolution of 1789. A 
decree for its gradual abohtion in Denmark 
was issued in 1766. The alteration in the 
land-tax by the emperor Joseph II. of Austria 
to effect the same object, was made in 1782. 
A ukase was issued by the emperor of 
Eussia, to ameliorate the condition of the 
serfs, April 14, 1842 ; and the gradual aboli- 
tion of serfdom in that country was decreed 
by the emperor Alexander II. in 1862. 

Sekiitgapatam (Hindostan) is said to 
have been founded by a devotee of Vishnu, 
A.B. 1454, and was in the possession of Eaj 
Wadegar, a Mysore chief, in 1610. An 
ineffectual attempt was made by the Mah- 
rattas to capture it in 1697. It was again 
attacked, and the city paid a ransom of 
£150,000 in 1772. It was stormed by the 
British, under Major-General Baird, and 
Tippoo was killed, May 4, 1799. 

Serjeant-at-Law, serviens ad legem, was 
estabhshed as a legal degree, when the pro- 
fessors of law formed themselves into a 
society about a.d. 1216. 

Sekpent-wokship, Obeahism, or OpHr- 
OLATREiA. — The Eev. John Bathurst Deane, 
in his treatise on the " Worship of the 
Serpent," p. 357, states that "in every 
known country of the ancient world, the 
serpent formed a prominent feature in the 
ordinary worship, and made no incon- 
siderable figure in their hagiographia, enter- 
ing alike into legendary and astronomical 
mythology." He traces its origin from the 
traditions connecting the serpent with the 
fall of man, and asserts that it preceded 
antediluvian polytheism, and originated in 
Babylonia, whence it found its way into 
Persia, China, Phoenicia, Mexico, Britain, 
Scandinavia, Africa, and indeed over the 
entire globe. Tradition asserts that it was 
re-introduced into Egypt after the Deluge by 
Taautus Tboth, or Hermes, the great 
founder of Egyptian civilization. 

Seevants. — The apparel and diet of ser- 
vants were regulated by 37 Edw. III. c. 8 
(1363). By 5 Eliz. c. 4 (1562), they were 
protected from sudden discharge or prohi- 
bited from sudden desertion of their situ- 
ations, by the rule that a quarter's warning 
might be claimed by the master or servant ; 
and by 32 Geo. III. e. 56 (1792), penalties 
were prescribed for persons ofiering them- 
selves as servants under false representations. 
Persons employing domestic servants are 
guilty of a misdemeanour if they neglect to 
771 



SEV 

supply them with necessary food, or if they 
assault them, by 14 & 15 Vict, c, 11 (May 20, 
1851). A duty was imposed upon male ser- 
vants by 17 Geo. III. c. 39 (1777), and other 
acts, which were repealed by 25 Geo. III. c. 43 
(1785). This act altered all the existing 
duties on male servants, and also taxed the 
employers of female servants. The duties 
on female servants were abolished by 32 
Geo. III. c. 3 (1792). 

Seevia (Europe). — The Servi, a tribe of 
Slavonians, received some land south of the 
Danube from the emperor Leo VI. in the 
10th century. The Greeks failed in an at- 
tempt to take Servia under their control in 
the 11th century. The Greek army pene- 
trated into Servia in order to re-estabhsh 
their dominion, but were utterly annihilated 
A.D. 1043. Pope Honorius III. erected Servia 
into an independent kingdom in 1217. The 
Servians, Hungarians, and other Christian 
nations, were defeated in the plain of Cos- 
sova in September, 1389, by the Turks, who, 
in the next century, reduced the whole 
country under their sway, and it remained 
a province of the Turkish empire until 1717. 
Austria having conquered part of Servia in 
1718, was obhged to resign it in 1739. Mar- 
shal Landohn retook Belgrade in 1789. 
Austria restored it to the sultan in 1791. In 
1805 the Servians rose against the Turks and 
drove them out of Servia. The Turks re- 
gained what they had lost in 1814, and Ser- 
via again became a pashalic. Another 
insurrection broke out in 1815, when the 
country gained its independence. By the 
treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856, Servia was 
placed imder the protection of the Great 
Powers. 

Session, Court of, the principal tri- 
bunal of civil jurisdiction in Scotland, was 
constituted a.d. 1532, being based upon in- 
stitutions of a much earlier date. The Court 
of Session was divided into two divisions in 
1808, the lord president presiduig in one, 
and the lord justice clerk in the other. 
The practice of jury trial was united with 
that of the Court of Session in 1830. 

Settlement. {See Act oe Settlement.) 

Sevabambians. — In 1676 a work was 
printed in England, entitled "History of 
the Sevarites," and purporting to narrate 
the adventures of one Captain Siden, or 
Liden, among a people of that name, inha- 
biting an unknown country in the Southern 
Ocean. The book was, in fact, a very clever 
romance, and formed the basis of a " His- 
toire des Sev^rambes," published at Amster- 
dam, in three vols., between 1677 and 1679. 
Both works have attracted considerable at- 
tention on account of the uncei-tainty as to 
their authors, the Enghsh edition being as- 
cribed to Denis Vairasse d'Alais, Algernon 
Sidney, and Isaac Vossius, and the French, 
with much greater certainty, to Vairasse. 
The subject of the authorship was discussed 
in Notes and Queries, vols. iii. & iv. 

Seven Churches of Asia, addressed by 
the apostle John from the isle of Patmos, 
A.D. 96 (Revelation i. 4, &c.), were,— 1. at 
3 D 2 



SEV 

Ephesus, in Asia Minor, founded by St. 
Paul, A.D. 53, of which he ordained Timothy 
first bishop ; 2. Smyrna, settled by a colony 
of Ephesians, the first bishop, Polycarp, 
having been put to death in the Stadium, 
A.D. 166. 3. Pergamus, in Mysia, which 
rose into importance under Lysimachus, 
B.C. 283. 4. Thyatira, in Lydia, which ex- 
isted Tinder other names prior to receiv- 
ing this designation from Seleucus Ni- 
cator, about B.C. 321. Lydia, a seller of 
purple, converted by St. Paul, at PhUippi. 
was a native of this city (Acts xvi. 14), a.d. 
48. 5. Sardis, capital of Lydia, under 
Croesus, B.C. 560. The two Greek servants 
of a Turkish miller were the only remaining 
representatives of the church here a.d. 1826. 
6. Philadelphia, in Lydia, founded by Atta- 
lus PhUadelphus, B.C. 159. It contained 
twenty-four churches, mostly in ruins, in 
1827 ; and 7. Laodicea, in Phrygia, called 
Diospolis and Ehoas, until rebuUt by Antio- 
chus Theos, and named after his wife, B.C. 
260. St. Paul mentions the church here 
(Colossians iv. 16), a.d. 62. 

SEVEifOAKS (Kent). — The grammar-school 
was founded a.d. 1418, by Sir William de Se- 
venoke, or Sennocke. Here Jack Cade and 
his rebel army defeated the king's troops, 
under Sir Humpkrey Stafford, who fell in 
the action, Jvme 27, 1450. A school for 
poor children was founded in 1675, by 
Lady Margaret BosweU. 

Seven-shilling Pieces. — Gold coins of 
this value were first issued in England, Nov, 
29, 1797. 

Seven- Tears' Wae, carried on in Ger- 
many by Prussia against Austria, lasted 
from 1756 to 1763. It was brought to a close 
by a treaty of peace signed at Huberts- 
burg Feb. 15, 1763. 

Sevebus' Wall. {See Hadrian's Wall.) 

Seville (Spain), the capital of a pro- 
vince of the same name, was the ancient 
Hispahs. Julius Caesar made it his capital, 
B.C. 45. The Goths wrested it from the 
Eomans, and it was taken by the Moors 
A.D. 711. Abderahman made it his capital 
in 756, and it continued subject to his dy- 
nasty tiU 1031. It was besieged, Aug. 20, 
1247, by Ferdinand III., kiag of Castile, 
and taken by him Nov. 23, 1248. Fi-om 
that time it formed a part of the kingdom of 
Castile, vmtil the whole of Spain became one 
kingdom. The cathedral, occupying the 
site of a Moorish mosque, was commenced 
in 1349, and opened in 1519. The giralda, 
a lofty tower, part of the ancient mosque, 
and built in 1196, serves as a belfry to the 
cathedral. Seville was greatly injured by 
an earthquake in 1395. The university was 
founded in 1502, and the exchange erected 
by PhiKp II. in 1523. A junta was formed 
at Seville in 1808, which issued a proclama- 
tion against Napoleon I., June 6. It 
surrendered to the French, Jan. 31, 1810, 
was occupied by Soult in May, 1810, and 
again July 7, 1811. Seville was bombarded 
by Espartero, July 21, 1848. 

Sevres (France) .—The porcelain-works of 
772 



SHA 

Vincennes were transferred to this small 
town A.D. 1755. 

Sewers. — The remains of sewers have 
been discovered in the ruins of the great 
palace of the Assyrian kings at Nimroud. 
The earhest known to the classic authors 
were those at Pheax, in Sicily, which 
were constructed of freestone. The cele- 
brated cloaca maxima, the chief sewer of 
ancicDt Eome, was constructed by Tarqui- 
nius Priscus (B.C. 600), and is one of the 
most stupendous monuments of antiquity. 
It is still used in the drainage of the city. 
Commissioners of sewers were first appointed 
by 6 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1427), aud their autho- 
rity was regulated and defined by 23 Hen. 
YIII. c. 5 (1531). This act, after having 
been continued by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 8 (1549), 
and 13 Eliz. c. 9 (1570), was amended by 
3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 22 (June 28, 1833). {See 
Drainage.) 

Sewing-machines. — Thimonnier pa- 
tented a sewing-machine at Paris a.d. 1831, 
and Heilman exhibited an embroidering sew- 
ing-machine in 1834. The first machine for 
producing what is called the mail-bag stitch 
was invented by Walter Hind, of New York, 
in 1834. It was greatly improved by 
Thomas, of London, who took out a patent 
in June, 1846. Great improvements have 
been eifected of late years in the sewing, 
machine. 

Sexagesima Sunday. {See Septuagesima 
Sunday.) 

Sextant. — Newton made some improve- 
ments on the old instrument used for taking 
altitudes at sea a.d. 1699. Hadley's quad- 
rant was invented in 1730. 

Sextilis. — The month of August was 
called by the Eomans SextiUs, i. e., the 
sixth month from March, from which they 
began their computation. It was changed 
to August in honour of the emperor Augus- 
tus, B.C. 8. 

Seychelles (Indian Ocean) were disco- 
vered by Vasco de Gama a.d. 1502, and were 
explored by Lazarus Picault in 1743. A 
French colony was formed on the island of 
Mahe, the largest of the group, about 1768. 
They capitulated to the English in 1794, were 
not occupied tiU 1810, and were formally 
ceded to England by the treaty of Paris in 
1815. 

Shaetesbuey (Dorsetshire) was built 
A.D. 880 by Alfred the Great, who founded 
a monastery here in 887. Two mints were 
erected here in the reign of Athelstan. 
This town was made the see of a suffragan 
bishop by Henry VIII. , John Bradley being 
consecrated first bishop Feb. 23, 1538. The 
town-hall was built in 1578. 

Shahjehanpore (Hindostan). — The pro- 
vince and town formed part of the posses- 
sions of the Eohilla Patans previous to their 
total overthrow by the British, a.d. 1774. 
Shahjehanpore was then transferred to 
Oude, and was ceded to the East-India Com- 
pany in 1801. 

Shakespeare's Works. — William Shake- 
speare, the son of John Shakespeare, and 



SHA 

his wife, Mary Arden, was born at Strat- 
ford-upon-Avon, April 23, 1564, and bap- 
tized April 26. He married Anne Hatha- 
way in 1582, and repaired to London about 
1586. He died at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
April 23, 1616, and was buried in the chan- 
cel of Stratford church, April 25. The first 
collected edition of his works was published 
in folio in 1623 ; tue second edition appeared 
in 1632 ; the third in 1664, and the fourth in 
1685. The Shakespearian forgeries were exe- 
cuted by Samuel William Henry Ireland, 
son of a dealer in curiosities in Norfolk 
Street, Strand. He first conceived the idea 
of committing the fraud in 1795, while on a 
visit with his father at Stratford. One of 
the plays, " Vortigern," was purchased by 
Sheridan for Drury Lane, and produced, 
with John Kemble as Vortigern, in 1796, 
when it failed. Ireland acknowledged the 
fraud, and exonerated his father from any 
participation in the same, in his " Confes- 
sions," published in 1805. The first great 
festival, called the jubilee in honour of 
Shakespeare, was projected by David Gar- 
rick, and was celebrated at Stratford-upon- 
Avon, Sept. 6 to 8, 1769. The entertain- 
ment, which comprised a pubhc breakfast 
in the town-haU, a performance of the 
oratorio of Judith in the church, an as- 
sembly, a masquerade, a recitation by 
Garrick in praise of Shakespeare, a display 
of fireworks, and a horse-race, was severely 
ridiculed by many contemporary writers. 
A similar festival was celebrated in Sep- 
tember, 1770, April 23, 1830, and on other 
occasions. The house in which the poet is 
supposed to have been born was sold by 
auction, Sept. 16, 1847, and purchased for 
£3,000, by an association formed for the 
purpose. Two amateur performances were 
held at the Haymarket theatre, in aid of 
the project, in May, 1848; and it was 
proposed to establish Mr. James Sheridan 
Knowles in the office of curator; but this 
portion of the plan was abandoned. In 
May, 1856, Mr. John Shakespear, professor 
of Oriental languages at Addiscombe, sig- 
nified his wiUingness to give £2,500 for the 
purpose of purchasing and pulling down 
the contiguous houses, to remove the danger 
of fixe ; and the gift was accepted, and ap- 
plied as proposed. This gentleman, who 
was not related to the poet, died June 10, 
1858. 

DEAMATIC WOEKS. 



SHE 



Works. 


Written. 


First 
known 
edition. 


All 's Well that Ends Well . . 

Antony and Cleopatra 

As You Like It 


' A.D. 

Uncertain 
Ditto 

1599 
Uncertain 

1610 

1609 
Uncertain 

1603 


A.D. 

1623 
1623 
1623 




1623 




1623 




1623 


Hamlet 


1604 




1623 







King Henry rv., Pt. I 

King Henry IV., Pt. 11. ... 

King Henry V 

King Henry VI., Pt. I 

King Henry VI., Pt. II. . . . 
King Henry VT., Pt. III. . . . 

King Henry VIII 

King John 

King Lear 

King Richard II. . , 

King Kichard III 

Love's Labour 's Lost 

Macbeth 

Measure for Measure 

Merchant of Venice 

Merry Wives of Windsor . . . 
Midsummer Night's Dream . 
Much Ado about Nothing . . . 

OtheUo 

Pericles 

Eomeo and Juliet 

Taming of the Shrew 

Tempest 

Timon of Athens 

Titus Andi-onicus 

Troilus and Cressida 

Twelfth Night 

Two Gentlemen of Verona 
Winter's Tale 



1591 
Uncertain 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 

1606 

1593 

1593 

About 1590 

Uncertain 

Ditto 

1594 

1592 

1594 

1598 

1604 
Uncertain 

1591 
Uncei-tain 
Before 1611 

1610 

Uncertain 

Ditto 

1600 
About 1591 

1611 



First 
known 
edition. 



1598 
1600 
1600 
1623 
1623 
1623 



1597 
1597 
>598 
1623 
1623 
1600 
1602 
1600 
1600 
1622 
1609 
1597 
1623 
1623 
1623 
1594 
1609 
1623 
1623 
1623 



MISCELLANEOTTS WOEKS. 



A Lover's Complaint 
Passionate Pilgrim . 

Sonnets 

Venus and Adonis , 
Lucrece 



Fii-st 
Written, known 
edition. 



A.D. 

Uncertain 

Ditto 
/ Various ") 
(, times J 
Uncertain 

Ditto 



Shaldieam- (Battle). — Ishmael, Shah of 
Persia, was defeated in the valley of Shal- 
diran, in Persia, by Selim I., sultan of the 
Ottomans, a.d. 1515. 

Shameock, used by the Druids for curing 
diseases, and by the Irish as food, is said 
to have been employed to symbolize the 
Trinity by St. Patrick, a.d. 433. 

Shanghai, or Shanghae (China). — This 
city, captured by the British June 19, 1842, 
was restored to the Chinese in the following 
year. It was captured by the insurgents 
Sept. 7, 1853, but was soon after regained 
by the Imperialists. 

Shawxs. — The manufacture of shawls 
originated in Cashmere, whence the finest 
kinds are still imported, and it was intro- 
duced into this country by Barrow & 
Watson, of Norwich, a.d. 1784. A shawl- 
manufactory was estabMshed at Paris in 
1802, and in 1805 the Norwich makers suc- 
ceeded in producing an article entirely 
wrought at the loom, the pattern having 
been previously embroidered by hand. 

Shechem, or Sichem (Palestine), also 
called Sychar, NeapoHs, and Naplous, the 
first city in the land of Canaan visited by 
773 



SHE 



SHE 



Abraham, and the place where he received 
a renewal of the promise that his posterity- 
should inherit the land (Gen. xii. 7), b.c. 
1921, was appointed as one of the cities 
of refuge (Josh. xx. 7), B.C. 1444, and 
Joshua assembled the tribes of Israel, and 
dehvered to them his Taledictory address here 
(Josh. xxiv. 1), B.C. 1427. Abimelech was 
elected king by its inhabitants (Judges ix. 6), 
B.C. 1235, and "aU Israel" came there to 
make Rehoboam king (1 Kings xii. 1), B.C. 
975. At Jacob's weU, near this city, our 
Saviour talked with the woman of Samaria 
(John iv. 5), May 13, a.d. 27. It was the 
birthplace of Justin Martyr, about the 
beginning of the 1st century. 

Sheep. — Cotswold sheep were sent by Ed- 
ward IV. to Henry IV. of Castile and John II. 
of Aragon, a.d. 1464. Merino sheep were 
first introduced into Sweden in 1723. The 
Leicester breed of sheep first came into 
notice in 1755, and in 1780 the South Downs 
were introduced. Merino sheep were 
brought to England in 1791. 

Sheepshanks CoLLECTioif. — This fine 
collection of paintings, which embraces 
many of the best productions of Sir Edwin 
Landseer, Mulready, Leslie, and other 
leading English artists, was presented to 
the British people by John Sheepshanks, 
Eeb. 2, 1857, and has been deposited in the 
gallery erected for the purpose at South 
Kensington Museum. 

Sheeeness (Kent). — A fort was built 
here, mounting twelve guns, a.d. 1667. The 
Dutch entered the river Medway, and 
captured this fort, July 10, 1667. The 
docks were much improved in 1815. A great 
fire, which destroyed fifty houses and 
much property, occurred here, July 31, 
1827. 

Shefeield (Yorkshire). — Early in the 
reign of Henry I. the manor of Sheffield was 
in the possession of the family of De Lovetot, 
who built a bridge over the Don, and formed 
the nucleus of a town. The castle was 
built A.D. 1237, and Edward I. granted the 
town a charter to hold a weekly market 
Nov. 12, 1296. The wooden bridge was 
replaced by one of stone in 1485. Cardinal 
Wolsey was detained prisoner, Nov. 8, 
1530, and Mary Queen of Scots was brought 
to Sheffield castle in 1570. The earl of 
Shrewsbury's hospital was built in 1616, 
and in 1624 the cutlers obtained an act of 
incorporation. Sheffield castle surrendered 
to the ParHamentary army Aug. 10, 1644. 
It was demolished by order of the Long 
Pariiament, April 23, 1648. The town- 
hall was erected in 1700, and St. Paul's church 
in 1720. The first silk-miU, which proved 
a failure, was erected in 1758. The first 
bank was opened in 1770, and a cotton-miU, 
started in 1792, was soon after abandoned. 
The general infirmary was erected in 1798, 
and the town received its charter of incor- 
poration as a municipal borough, Aug. 24, 
1843. The railroad to Manchester was 
opened Dec. 22, 1845. John Arthur Roe- 
buck, whose family was connected with the 
774. 



town, was first returned as its member in 
May, 1849. 

Shelbueu-e Administeatiotj- was formed 
soon after the death of the marquis of Rock- 
ingham, which occurred Monday, July 1, 
1782. This ministry, gazetted Jvlj 10, waa 
thus constituted : — 

Treasury Earl of Shelbume. 

Lord ChanceUor Lord Thiirlow. 

i'resident of the Council. .Lord Camden. 

Privy Seal Duke of Grafton. 

Chancellor of Exchequer. .■Willianj Pitt. 

{Lord Grautham and Mr. 
Thomas Town^heiid, 
created Baron Sydney 
March 4, 1783. 
. ,„._„,i^ f Viscount, afterwards 

^^°^'*y i Earl, Keppel. 

Secretary at War Sir G. Yonge, Bart. 

Tre.-isurer of the Navy. . . .Mr. Henry Buudas. 
Ordnance Duke of Richmond. 

This ministry was dissolved in consequence 
of the vote of censure passed on the peace of 
Versailles, Feb. 21, 1783. {See Coalitiom- 
[Nobth and Fox] Admixisteation.) 

Shendt (Nubia). — Little is known of the 
history of this place, formerly of much im- 
portance. It was laid waste by the Egyptian 
forces A.D. 1822. 

Shepheed Kings. (See Htcsos.) 

Sheppet (Kent) . — This island was ravaged 
by the Danes a.d. 832. They wintered 
here in 855, and in 1052 it was plundered by 
I Earl Godwin. Queenborough Castle was 
built by Edward III. in 1340, and so named 
in honour of Philippa. It was rebuilt by 
him in 1361, William of Wickham, after- 
wards bishop of Winchester, being the archi- 
tect. The castle was repaired by Henry VIII. 
in 1536. The Long Parliament passed an 
ordinance (July 16, 1650) for the sale and 
destruction of the castle, which was soon 
afterwards demolished. 

SHEBBOEiirE (Bishopric). — This town in 
Dorsetshire was made an episcopal see a.d. 
705 by Ina, king of Wessex. The council 
of London, held in 1078, decreed that several 
bishops' sees should be removed from ob- 
scure places to more important towns. The 
bishopric of Sherborne was transferred to 
Old Sarum. 

Sheeiff, Shiee-eeve, from the Saxon rea- 
fan, to levy, to seize, was appointed by Alfred 
to assist the alderman and the bishop in the 
discharge of their judicial functions in coun- 
ties. One of the " Provisions of Oxford," 
June 11, 1258, required that the freeholders 
shovild have the privilege of electing a 
sheriff annually. This privilege appears to 
have been confirmed or renewed by 28 
Edw. I. c. 8 (1300). _ In making the period- 
ical circuit of his shire he was attended by 
the nobles until thev were reheved from the 
duty by 52 Hen. III. c. 10 (1267). By 14 
Edw. III. c. 7, it was enacted that he should 
be " ordained on the morrow of AU Souls, 
November 3, by the chancellor, treasurer, 
and chief baron of the Exchequer" (1341). 
Although the sheriffs are now nominated on 
the morrow of St. Martin's (Nov. 12), the 



SHE 

"pricking" takes place on the morrow of 
the Purification (Feb, 3). The office for 
Durham was hereditary in the bishop till 
1836. By 1 Edw. IV. c. 2, all sheriffs except 
those of London were forbidden to proceed 
judicially (1461% 

Shekiff-muir (Scotland). — The Scotch 
rebel army, under the earl of Mar, was at- 
tacked on this plain, near Diunblane, by the 
royal troops, under the duke of ArgyU, Sun- 
day, Nov. 13, 1715. The loss was nearly 
equal on both sides, and no advantage was 
gained by either. 

Shetland Isles. {See Oekn-et Isles.) 

Shibboleth, in Hebrew a stream or flood, 
was the test applied by the Gileadites to the 
fugitive Ephraimites. When required to 
utter the word, they pronounced it Sibboleth, 
and were put to death, 42,000 falling victims 
on that occasion, B.C. 1187 (Judges xii. 6). 

Shiites, the followers of Ah, cousin and 
son-in-law of Mohammed, are called by the 
Somnites, Shiites, or reprobates. Ah became 
cahph in 651, and reigned four years and 
nine months, when he was assassinated. 
The Somnites are the established sect in 
Turkey, and the Shiites in Persia and parts 
of India. Picart enumerates the various 
points of difference between them. They 
were afterwards called Fatimites. 

Shillibtg, or Testoon-, was first coined by 
Henry VII. a.d. 1503, although Pinkerton 
says coins of that name were struck at Ham- 
burg in 1407. Henry VIII. caused the pound 
of silver, one-third fine, to be coined into 
forty-eight shillings in 1547. The ministers of 
Edward VI. produced seventy-two out of 
the pound, three-fourths being alloy (1547 — 
1553). It was first completely milled in 
1651. 

Ship-building. — This art is said to have 
originated in Egypt, whence it was imported 
into Greece by Danaus, B.C. 1485. The 
Phoenicians practised it at an early date, 
and were the first people who ventured on 
long sea-voyages. Masts and sails are said 
to have been invented by the Athenian 
mechanician Daedalus, about b.c. 1240, and 
triremes, or galleys with three banks of 
oars, by the Corinthians, B.C. 786. The 
Eomans constructed three classes of ships : 
the naves longas, used in war ; the naves 
oneraricB, or ships of burden, employed in 
commerce ; and the naves liburnce, vessels 
of great speed, which served as dispatch- 
boats. Oak was first employed in marine 
architecture by the Veneti. Copper and 
brass fastenings were substituted for iron in 
the reign of Nero (a.d. 54—68), and caulking 
with flax and sheathing with metal were also 
practised at the same time. The ancient 
Britons used coracles of leather and wicker- 
work ; and the Danes and Saxons used stout 
single-masted ships, adorned at the prow 
with the sculptured head of some animal as 
an ensign. Alfred, the Great constructed a 
fleet ot long galleys, like the war-ships of 
the Eomans, in 897 ; and, owing to their 
success, they were generally adopted in the 
northern seas, and continued to be the 



SHI 

general pattern of the English navy until 
the reign of Edward III., when saihng* 
vessels became general. Fore and stern- 
castles, and top-castles at the mast-head, 
were also introduced about this time. Car- 
racks, an important class of large vessels, 
are first mentioned about 1449 ; and lateen 
sails were used in small ships in 1483. The 
Great Harry, built by Henry VII. in 1488, 
is memorable as the first ship of the 
royal navy, and had five masts. Port- 
holes were invented in France by Des- 
charges about the year 1500, and in 1572 
sprit-sails are mentioned. The first three- 
decker on record is a Spanish vessel engaged 
in an action with Sir Kichard Grenville off 
the Azores in 1591. The Shipwrights' Com- 
pany was founded in 1605, and incorporated 
by royal charter in May, 1612. The Sove- 
reign of the Seas, launched in 1637, was the 
first Enghsh three-decker ; and the Constant 
Warwick, built in 1649, the first EngHsli 
frigate. The earliest Enghsh work on ship- 
building is "The Invention of Shipping," 
published by Sir Walter Kaleigh in 1650. A 
Society for the Improvement of Naval Archi- 
tecture was instituted in 1791 ; and in 1811 a 
government school of naval architecture was 
established at Portsmouth dockyards. Steam- 
ships (q. V.) were first constructed, with suc- 
cess, in 1812 ; and in 1833 Mr. Fairbairn 
commenced the manufacture of iron ships 
{q.v.}. 

Ship-money.— Ethelred II. ordered a fleet 
to be prepared to oppose the Danes by a 
levy on all land throughout England, a.d, 
1008. The impost was also collected under 
Elizabeth in 1588. Under Charles I, a writ 
from the council ordered it to be enforced in. 
London and other seaport towns in October, 
1635. The sum thus raised being insufficient, 
writs were issued to all counties and towns 
aUke, and the judges supported it by the 
opinion that it was legal, in 1636. John 
Hampden, refusing to pay it, was cited in 
the court of Exchequer, when aU the twelve 
judges, with the exception of Croke and 
Hutton, gave judgment for the crown, 
June 12, 1637. A bill was passed in parha- 
ment, annulling this judgment and declaring 
the tax illegal, five of the judges who had 
argued in favour of it being imprisoned in 
1641 (16 Charles I. c. 14). 

Shibaz (Persia), once the capital of the 
kingdom, and residence of the Shahs, is 
said to have been founded a.d. 697. The 
principal mosque was built in 1226. It suf- 
fered from earthquakes in 1812 and 1824, 
and was nearly destroyed in April, 1853. 

Shi BE. — The division of England into 
shires or counties existed as early as the 
time of Ina, who reigned in Wessex from 
A.D. 688 to 727, 

Shiet. — This article of dress was in gene- 
ral use in the 4th century. The Anglo- 
Saxons wore shirts in the 8th century, and 
were attired in them when dead. They 
were embroidered with silk and gold and 
silver thread in the 16th, and the doublets 
were greatly shortened, so that a large por- 
775 



SHI 

tion of tlie shirt might be seen, in the 17th 
century. 

Shievan (Kussia in Asia) . — This province 
formed part of the Armenian monarchy, 
until the 6th century, when it came under 
the sway of Persia. At a subsequent period 
it recovered its independence, and in the 9th 
century passed under the sway of the cahphs. 
It was conquered by the Persians in 1580, 
and was ceded to Kussia in 1812. It was 
divided into two governments in 1847. 

Shoeblacks. — The ancient Greeks and 
Eomans cleaned shoes with a sponge, and 
the mediaeval Europeans by washing. Oil 
and other kinds of grease, and soap, were 
emploj'ed as preservatives of the leather, 
previous to the invention of blacking, which 
was originally composed of soot, and pro- 
duced no pohsh. Owing to the unpaved 
condition of the streets, shoeblacks were 
common in London during the 18th century, 
but gradually became extinct. Charles 
Knight aUudes to " the last of the shoeblacks" 
as plying his vocation in Fleet Street about 
the year 1820. The existing ragged school 
shoeblack brigade was founded in 1851, to 
provide for the foreign visitors to the Great 
Exhibition. Eive boys were sent out Mon- 
day, March 31 in that year, and by March 
31, 1854, 256 boys pUed their vocation as 
shoeblacks under the auspices of the Eagged 
School Union. 

Shoemakers, among the Eomans wrought 
in stalls, which proved so obstructive to the 
streets of the city, that an order for their 
removal was issued by Domitian (a.d. 81 — 
96). The " cobblers' wax " of. the present 
day was employed by the ancients, and 
bristles appear to have been substituted for 
needles at least as early as the 12th cen- 
tury. {See COEDWAINERS.) 

Shoes. — The ancients usually wore san- 
dals (q.v.), which are frequently mentioned 
under the title of buskins and cothurni, and 
were often of extreme magnificence. The 
crescent was employed as an ornament in 
the shoes of Eomans of exalted rank, who 
appear to have carried on the art of shoe- 
making with great taste and skUl. Only one 
instance is known of an ancient moniiment 
exhibiting shoes with separate heel-pieces. 
The custom of making shoes right and left 
was common in classical times. The earliest 
coverings for the feet used by the Britons 
were brogues of raw cow-hide, with the hairy 
side turned outward, and known as esgi- 
diau; they also wore a species of buskin, 
called the bwutais, or butis. The Saxon 
and Norman shoes mostly covered the 
ankles, and were convenient in form and 
tasteful in appearance ; but in the reign of 
WUham II. absurd boots and shoes with 
peak toes, called ocrea rostrata, were intro- 
duced. The reign of Edward III. is memo- 
rable in the annals of shoemaking, on ac- 
count of the remarkable elegance of the 
decorations employed. In the time of 
Eichard II. the peak-toed shoes were car- 
ried to such an excess that the toes were 
chained to the knees of the wearer, to en- 
776 



SHO 

able him to walk with freedom. This fashion 
gave way to the opposite extreme, towards 
the end of the reign of Edward IV., when 
shoes with extremely broad toes were intro- 
duced and worn till the reign of Ehzabeth. 
Slashed shoes with large rosettes were then 
introduced, and maintained their ground 
tin the Puritanic period of the EebeUion. 
Philip Stubbes enumerates, among the ex- 
cesses of the gentry, that " they have corked 
shoes, puisnets, pantofles, and sHppers ; 
some of them of black velvet, some of white, 
some of green, and some of yellow ; some of 
Spanish leather, and some of English, 
stitched vrith silk, and embroidered with 
gold and silver all over the foot, with other 
gewgaws innimierable." Chopines, or Chop- 
ineys, a kind of over-shoe with very 
thick soles, were introduced from the East 
in the 17th centuiy, and are mentioned by 
Thomas Coryate as forming a remarkable 
part of Venetian female attire in 1611, and 
as being " of a great height, even half a yard 
high ; and by how much the nobler a wo- 
man is, by so much the higher are her cha- 
pineys." He adds that the wearers of these 
chopines " are assisted and supported either 
by men or women when they walk abroad, 
to the end that they may not faU." They 
were discontinued in Venice in 1670. At 
the Eestoration an ugly shoe with high 
heels, square toes, and enormous stiff ties, 
which stood out on both sides for some 
inches, was introduced ; and in the reign 
of William III. small buckles were substi- 
tuted for the ties. At this period the 
fashion of colouring the high heels red be- 
came general, and continued tiU about 1790, 
when ladies ran into the other extreme, and 
adopted shoes without raised heels. Shoe- 
strings were substituted for buckles about 
1800. {See Boots.) 

SnoLAPOkE (Hindostan) is mentioned 
A.D. 1478 as one of the principal strongholds 
of the Bahmani sovereigns. Aurungzebe 
took it in 1685. In the early part of the 
ISth century it fell into the hands of the 
Mahrattas, and was taken by the British in 
January, 1818. It was formed into a sepa- 
rate coUectorate in 1838. 

Shop-tax. — ^A system of duties on all 
shops except those occupied by bakers was 
prepared by 25 Geo. III. c. 30 (1785). This 
act was explained and amended by 26 
Geo. III. c. 9 (1786), and the duties'were 
repealed by 29 Geo. III. c. 9 (1789). 

SHOKTHAifD, or Stenogkaphy. — Amoug 
the Greeks its invention was variously as- 
cribed to Pythagoras, B.C. 555, and to Xeno- 
phon, B.C. 424. Ennius, the Latin poet, also 
enjoys the distinction of being the inventor, 
B.C. 239 — 169. It is likewise ascribed to 
Cicero, B.C. 106— 43, who certainly practised 
it and taught the art to his freedjnan Tiro, 
the oration on the conspiracy of Catiline 
having been preserved by this means B.C. 
63. The first English work on the subject 
by Dr. Timothy Dwight, dedicated to Queen 
Elizabeth, appeared in 1588, Another, by 
Peter Bale, was published in 1600. The 



SHO 

first regular alphabet was published by John 
Willis in 1602. Treatises on the art, by Ed- 
mund Willis, appeared in 1618 ; by Witt in 
1630; and by Dix in 1633. One by Rich, 
which received the commendation of John 
Locke, was issued in 1654. Mason's system 
was published in 1682. The system of Mr. 
Thomas Gurney was published in 1753. 
That of Dr. Byrom was perfected in 1720. 
Fifty copies for his friends were printed in 
1749, and having been secured b;y act of par- 
liament was published after his death in 
1767. Taylor's system appeared in 1786 ; 
Mavor's in 1789 ; and Lewis's in 1815. Mr. 
Isaac Pitman's system, under the name 
of phonography, was published in 1857. 
Shoet-Lived Administeation. 

(See LONG-LlVED ADMINISTEATIOIf.) 

Shot. — Stone shot was employed in China 
as early as a.d. 757, and a cannon to fire 
square shot was tried at Bruges in 1846. 
Bullets of iron, lead, brass, and stone, are 
mentioned during the 14th century. The 
method of making shot by pouring melted 
lead from a great height into cold water was 
invented about 1782 by Watts, a plumber 
of Bristol. 

Sheewsbuet (Battle). (See Hatelet 
Field.) 

Sheewsbttet Administeatioit. — 
Two days previous to her death (July 30, 
1714), Queen Anne appointed Charles, duke 
of Shrewsbury (at that time lord chamber- 
lain and lord lieutenant of Ireland), lord 
treasurer, in place of the earl of Oxford, 
who had been compelled to resign on the 
27th. The other members of the Oxford 
ministry (see Haeley Administeat»n) re- 
mained in office. No sooner had Queen 
Anne expired (Aug. 1, 1714) than, by order 
of the elector of Brunswick, the following 
nineteen peers were appointed under the 
Eegency Bill as lords justices of the kingdom. 



The Archbishop of York. 
Duke of Shrewsbury. 
Duke of Somerset. 
Duke of Bolton. 
Duke of Devonshire. 
Duke of Kent. 
Duke of Argyll. 
Duke of Montrose. 
Duke of Roxburgh, 
Earl of Pembroke. 



Earl of Anglesey. 
Earl of Carlisle. 
Earl of Nottingham. 
Earl of Abingdon. 
Earl of Scarborough. 
Earl of Orford. 
Lord Townshend. 
Lord Halifax. 
Lord Cowper. 



By the eleventh clause of the Eegency Act 
the administration of the government until 
the sovereign arrived devolved upon the fol- 
io vdng seven great officers : — 

Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Lord Harcourt, Lord Chancellor. 
Duke of Buckingham, Lord President. 
Duke of Shrewsbury, Lord High Treasurer. 
Earl of Dartmouth, Privy Seal. , 
Earl of Strafford, First Lord of Admiralty. 
Sir Thomas Parker, afterwards Lord Parker, Lord 
Chief Justice. 

The lords of the regency appointed Joseph 
Addison their secretary Aug. 3. Lord Bo- 
lingbroke was dismissed by order of the new 
king ; and three of the lords of the regency 
went to receive his seal of office Aug. 31. 



SIA 

Lord Townshend was appointed in his place, 
Sept. 17. Lord Harcourt was removed from 
the lord chancellorship Sept. 19. George I. 
entered London Sept. 20. Other changes 
were made, and a ministry was formed by 
Lord Hahfax, Oct. 5. (See Halifax Admi- 
nisteation.) 

Sheove -Tuesday. — This day was for- 
merly known as Fasguntide, Fastingtide, 
Fastens, or Fastmass, from its having been 
a time of fasting, and Confession-Tuesday 
because it was a day on which it was cus- 
tomary for Eoman Catholics to confess 
themselves. The custom of eating pancakes 
on Shrove-Tuesday originated in the cir- 
cumstance that penitents were permitted 
to indulge in amusements after confession, 
but not to exceed any of the usual substi- 
tutes for flesh-meat in their repasts. In 
1445 Simon Eyer, lord mayor of London, 
commenced the practice of giving a pancake- 
feast to the apprentices of the city on this 
day, and the custom was continued by several 
of his successors. The Monday preceding 
Shrove-Tuesday was vulgarly known as Col-. 
lop-Monday, from a peculiar dish which was 
usually eaten on that day. 

Shitmla. (See Schxtmla.) 

SiAM (Asia). — The Portuguese, after the 
conquest of Malacca, established communi- 
cations with Siam, a.d. 1511. Having been 
subjected by the Burmese, it recovered its 
independence about the close of the 16th 
century. The Dutch obtained a footing here 
in the early part of the 17th century. The 
first English vessel visited Ayuthia in 1612. 
Phaulkon, a, native of Cephalonia, who had 
been a sailor on board English vessels, 
gained considerable influence with the king, 
and was promoted to an important ofl&ce 
about the end of the 17th century. He per- 
suaded the king to send an embassy to Louis 
XIV., which he did, and it reached France in 
1684. The embassy also visited London, 
and concluded a commercial treaty with 
the government of Charles II. in 1684. A 
French embassy was dispatched with the 
view of convertmg the king to the Eoman 
CathoMc religion, in 1685; and another, 
accompanied by a corps of 500 soldiers, 
in 1687. The French soldiers having been 
put in possession of the fort of Bangkok, 
by Phaulkon, a revolution took place. 
The king was dethroned, the ministers 
were slain, and the French driven from 
the country in 1690. It was invaded by 
the Burmese, who captured Ayuthia, the 
capital, in 1766. The king having lost his 
life, a Chinese adventurer seized upon 
supreme power, but was dispossessed in 
1782. A truce was concluded between the 
Burmese and the Siamese in 1793. The 
marquis of Hastings, while governor-general 
of India, endeavoxired to estabhsh com- 
mercial relations with Siam in 1822, but 
with little success. The EngHsh received its 
support in their war with the Burmese in 
1824, and negotiated a commercial treaty 
in 1826. A new treaty was concluded with 
England by Sir John Bovyxing, April 30, 
777 



SIB 

1855, aud it was ratified April 5, 1856. Am- 
bassadors from Siam having arrived at 
Portsmouth, Oct. 27, 1857, her Majesty 
Queen Victoria held a court for their recep- 
tion, Nov. 16, when they presented letters 
and presents from the two kings of the 
country. 

Siberia (Asia) was invaded by the Mon- 
gols, who, to the number of 15,000 families, 
settled here, a.d. 1242. Termak Timofeyew, 
a Cossack, crossed the Ural and made consi- 
derable conquests in 1580. He was drowned 
in the Irtish in 1584. The Kussian power 
gradually extended, and the city of Tomsk 
was buUt in 1604. An expedition conquered 
the Yakutes, and reached the Sea of Ok- 
hotsk in 1639. The nation of the Buriates, 
partly subdued in 1620, was conquered in 
1658. The town of Irkutsk was built by 
Iwan Pochaboff in 1661 . Disputes with the 
Chinese government respecting the eon- 
quest of Da-Uria were settled by treaty 
in 1689. It was confirmed by another, which 
fixed the boundaries between the two coun- 
tries in 1727. The Swedish prisoners taken 
in the war were exiled to Siberia by Peter I., 
in 1710. 

Sibyl. — The sibyl of Cumse is the most 
famous of these female soothsayers. Ac- 
cording to the legend, " A woman of strange 
appearance presented herself to King Tar- 
quinius, offering him nine books of the pro- 
pheciesof the Sibyl, for 300piecesof gold. The 
offer was contemptuously refused; where- 
upon the prophetess burned three of the 
books, and offering the remainder for the 
same price, these were again scornfully re- 
fused. The Sibyl then retired, and having 
burnedthree other books, again returned, ask- 
ing the same price for the remaining three. 
The king, much amazed, demanded of the 
augurs what he should do. They said that he 
had acted unwisely in refusing them, and 
commanded him by all means to purchase the 
remaining hooks. The sacred volumes were 
put into a stone chest, which was deposited 
under-ground in the Capitol, and two per- 
sons, called the guardians of the sacred 
books, were appointed in charge of them." 
A new collection of sibylline verses was made 
when the temple of Jupiter was burned 
down, B.C. 83. They were again burned and 
restored in the reign of Nero. A proposal 
was made in the senate to consult them, 
A.D. 270. The collection was burned in 363, 
and again in 395. A complete collection was 
published at Amsterdam in 1609. Some 
fragments, discovered in the Ubrary of 
Milan, were published in 1817, and some 
others by Struve in 1818. 

SiCAMBEi. — This German tribe having re- 
treated before Caesar, returned and gained 
some successes over the Romans on the left 
bank of the Rhine, B.C. 51. Driven across 
the Rhine, they again invaded GaUia Bel- 
giea, B.C. 16. Drusus compelled them to 
retire into their own country b. c. 10, 
Tiberius I. obtained considerable success 
against them B.C. 8. Marcus Vinicius, when 
holding command in Germany, was attacked 
778 



SIC 

by them a.d. 1, and they joined the Frank- 
ish confederation in 240. 

SiciLiiir Vespers. — The brother of the 
French king, Charles of Anjou, having 
seized Sicily by virtue of a grant from Pope 
Alexander IV., the natives rose against the 
French, March 30, 1282. The massacre which 
ensued commenced at Palermo, and is known 
in history as the Sicilian Vespers. 

SiciLT (Mediterranean Sea). — A tradition 
exists that this island was originally called 
Triuacria, in consequence of its triangular 
form, and that it was originally peopled by 
the Sicani, a people whom Thucydides re- 
gards as of Iberian extraction. It received 
the name Sicily from its ancient inhabitants, 
the Siculi, who crossed over from Italy 
about B.C. 1290. 



Naxos is foTirded by the Carians. 

The Corinthians found Syracuse {q. v.). 

Gela is founded by the Rhodians and Cretans. 

The syi-acusans found Camarina (q. v.). 

A colony from Gela founds Agrigentum (<?.«.). 

Gelon, of Gela, takes Syracuse, and makes it 

the most important city of Sicily. 
A general congress is held between the chief 

SiciUau cities. 
Ducetius, a Sicilian chief of the interior of 

the island, conspires against the supreinaty 

of the Greek cities, and is defeated and 

banished by the Syracusins. 
A peace is concluded between the Greek 

cities in Sicily. 
Sicily Is invaded by the Athenians, who fail 

in an attack upon Syracuse. 
The Carthaginians invade Sicily. 
Dionysius of Syracuse concludes a peace with 

the Carthaginians, on terms which leave 

them masters of the greater part of the 
^island. 

moiiyslus I. renews the war. 
Diun revolts against Dionysius II., and takes 

SyracusH. 
Assassination of Dion. 
The Corinthian general Timoleon finally 

expels Dionysius II. , and restores the Grt ek 

cities to freedom. 
Agathocles establishes a despotate at Syra- 
cuse. 
He is defeated by the Carthaginians at 

Himera. 
Death of Agathocles. 

Sicily is invaded by Pyrrhus, king of Eptrus. 
Pyrrhus is compelled to return to Italy. 
The Romans invade Sii:ily, which becomes 

the theatre of the fii-st Punic war. 
Hieron of Syracuse foiTas an alliance with 

the Romans. 
The Romans take Agrigentum, and sell the 

inhabitants into slavery. 
The Carthaginians are defeated in a sea-fight 

off the islands of the .Agates, and abandon 

their Sicilian rossessious to the Romans, 

who establish the province of Sicily, which 

embraces the entire island, except the king- 
dom of Syracuse 
Hieronymus, king of Syracuse, abandons the 

Romans, and concludes an alliance with 

the Carthaginians. 
The Piomans take Syracuse. 
The whole of Sicily is united into a Roman 

province. 
Commencement of the Servile war in Sicily, 

occasioned by the revolt of 200,000 ai-med 

slaves under Eunus. 
The insurrection is suppressed by the consul 

Fulvius Flaccus. 
The second Servile war commences, under 

Salvius and Athenion. 
They aie conquered by M. Aquilius. 



SIC 



73-70. Sicily suffers much during the praetorship 

of Verres, who is publicly accused hy 

Cicero. 
39. Sextus Pompeius receives Sicily by the treaty 

of Miseuum. 
36. Sextus is defeated by Agrippa in the great 

sea-flght of Naulochus, which restores 

Sicily to the Koman empii-e. 

A.D. 

440. The Vandals, under Crenseric, ravage Sicily. 
493. It is conquered by Theodoric, the Goth. 
635. Sicily is conquered by Behsarius, and an- 
nexed to the Eastern empire. 
827. It is invaded by the Saracens. 
878. They take Syracuse, thereby completing the 
conquest of the island. 

1061. Sicily is invaded and subdued by the 
Normans, under Roger Guiscard. 

1072. Guiscard takes the title of count of Sicily. 

1130. The governments of Sicily and Naples are 
united by Roger II. 

1139. The pope invests Roger II. with the sove- 
reignty of the Two Sicilies. 

1194. Sicily is conquered by Henry VI. of Ger- 
many. 

1266. Feb. 26. Charles of Anjou obtains the sove- 
reignty by the battle of Graudella. 

1282. Sicily shakes off the French yoke by the 
" Sicilian Vespers" (q. v.), and is seized by 
the king of Aragon. 

1302. Sicily is unsuccessfully invaded by Charles of 
Valois. 

1394. The Sicilian barons rebel against Mai-y and 
Martin I. 

1409. Sicily becomes a province of Aragon. 

1435. Alfonso 1., of Sicily and Aragon, takes 
possession of Naples. 

1S03. Sicily, Naples, and Spain form one monarchy 
under Ferdinand II. of Spain. 

1513. Paleimo (q. v.) is made the capital of the 
island. 

1654. An unsuccessful rebellion under the duke of 
Guise is suppressed. 

1672. Messina revolts against Spanish supremacy, 
and is assisted by the French. {See 
Messina.) 

1713. Aug. 13. Sicily is ceded to Victor Amadeus, 
of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht. 

1715. The pope endeavours to excite a revolt 
against Victor Amadeus on the part of his 
Sicilian subjects. 

1720. Victor Amadeus cedes Sicily to the emperor 
Charles VI. in exchange for Sai-dinia. 

1735. July 3. Don Carlos is crowned king of the 
Two Sicilies at Palermo, by the title of 
Charles HI. 

1768. The Jesuits are expelled. 

1774. An insurrection is suppressed in Sicily. 

1806. The French conquer Naples {q. v.), in conse- 
quence of which Ferdinand III. removes 
his court to Sicily. 

1808. March 24. Sicily is garrisoned by the British. 

1810. Sept 18. Joachim Murat, king of Naples, 
fails in an attempt to take Sicily. 

1812. Lord William Beutinck, the British ambas- 
sador, obtains a new constitution for 
Sicily. 

1815. June 17. Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III. of 
Sicily returns to Naples {q.v.), and abo- 
lishes the Sicilian constitution. He reigns 
as Ferdinand III. of the Two Sicilies. 

1817. Nov. Sicily is divided into iutendaucies. 

1820. The SicUians revolt against the absolute 
power of the ciowu. 

1848. Jan. 12. A revolution commences at Palermo 
and other places. Jan. 18. The king ap- 
points his brother, the count of Aquila, 
viceroy of Sicily. Jan. 29. A new consti- 
tution is promised. Feb. 10. A constitution 
is published. April 13. The Sicilian par- 
liament vote the deposition of the king. 
JuJy 11. The duke of Genoa is elected king 
of Sicily. July 15. Ferdinand II. protests 
against this election. Sept. 7. Messina is 
taken by the i\eapolitan3. 



SIC 



1849. Feb. 28. Ferdinand II. gi-ants a new con- 
stitution to the Sicilians. March 9. It is 
rejected by the Sicilian chambers, which 
order every Sicilian between the ages of 
eighteen and thirty years to join the army, 
under the leadei-ship of Mierosla»ski. 
April 2. Catania simeuders to the Neapo- 
litans. April 23. They take Syracuse. 
May 13. Paleimo falls into their power. 

1853. Feb. Numerous arrests take place in conse- 
quence of a poliiical agitation. 

1856. Nov. 22. An unsuccessful insurrection breaks 
out under Baron Bentivenga. 

1859. June 25. An amnesty is published in favour 

of the exiled Sicilians. 

1860. April 4. The Sicilian revolution commences 

at Palermo, Messina, and Catania. April 
21. The royal troops burn the port of 
Carini. May 5. Gaiibaldi embarks for 
Sicily at Genoa. May 10. He lands at 
Marsala. May 14. He assumes the dictator- 
ship of the island in the name of King 
Victor Emanuel II. May 15. He defeats 
the royalists at Calatafiiiii. May 18. Gene- 
ral Lanza is made Neapolitan viceroy in 
Sicily. May 27. Garibaldi takes Palermo. 
May 28. The bombardment of Palermo is 
commenced by the royalists. June 6. Pa- 
lermo is evacuated by the Neapolitans. 
July 18. Garibaldi leaves Palermo. July 
20 and 21. Gai-ibaldi defeats the royalists 
at Milazzo. July 25. The Neapolitan forces 
at Messina retire into the citadel. July 28. 
Garibaldi occupies Messina and concludes a 
truce with the Neapolitans, who agree to 
evacuate Sicily, with the exception of the 
castle of Messina. Aug. 3. The Sardinian 
constitution is introduced into Sicily. 
Aug. 19. Garibaldi leaves Sicily for Italy. 
Nov. 3. The results of the popular voting 
for and against annexation to Sardinia are 
published : 432,054 declare in favour, and 
667 against the proposition. Dec. 1. Victor 
Emanuel II. makes his public entry into 
Palermo. 

1861. March 13. The citadel of Messina surrenders 

to the Sardinian general Cialdini. 
(For the rulers of Sicily, see Naples.) 

SiCYON (Greece), also called .^Egialeia 
and Mecone, under which latter name it has 
been celebrated as "the dwelling-place of 
the blessed," is said to have existed long 
before the arrival of Pelops in Greece, B.C. 
1284. It was conquered by Agamemnon 
B.C. 1201, and, having become a Dorian state, 
joined the Messenians in the first Messenian 
war, B.C. 743 to b.c. 723. It became sub- 
ject to the Orthagoridse about B.C. 676. 
The Sicyons sent a large force to aid in re- 
sisting Xerxes, B.C. 480. Their territory was 
invaded by the Athenians under Tolmides, 
B.C. 456, and again under Pericles, B.C. 454. 
It assisted the Megarians in their revolt 
against Athens, b.c. 445, took part with 
Sparta in the Peloponnesian war, B.C. 431 ; 
and aided Brasidas against the Athenians, 
B.C. 424. In union with Corinth it opposed 
the erection of a fortress on the Achaean 
promontory of Rhium, B.C. 419. A revo- 
lution took place, and an oligarchy was 
formed by the Lacedaemonians, B.C. 417. It 
aided Lacedaemon in the war against Co- 
rinth, B.C. 394, and against Thebes, B.C. 371. 
Epaminondas compefled it to join the Spar- 
tan aUiance, B.C. 368; and in the Samiau 
war it took part with the Greeks against 
Macedonia, b.c 323. Alexander, the son of 
779 



SID 

Polysperchon, having obtained possession, 
was murdered B.C. 314, and his wife Crate- 
sipoUs betrayed the city to Ptolemy B.C. 308. 
Demetrius Pohoreetes took it B.C. 303. 
Demetrius removed the inhabitants to the 
site of the ancient Acropolis, giving it the 
name of Demetrias, which it soon, however, 
lost, and Aratus having dehvered it from the 
tyrant Ficocles, induced the inhabitants to 
join the Achasan league B.C. 251. It was 
invaded by Cleomenes B.C. 233, by the 
^tohans b.c. 221, and was conquered by 
Eome B.C. 146. Under the Byzantine em- 
pire it was called HeUas, and the inhabitants 
Helladici. It continued to exist till the 6th 
eentmy. 

SiDOif (Syria), the modem Saida, deriving 
its origin and name, accordiug to Josephus, 
from the first-born son of Canaan, was 
founded about B.C. 2750. In the division of 
Canaan, B.C. 1444 (Josh. xix. 24), it fell to 
the share of the tribe of Asher, although it 
was never conquered by them. The Si- 
donians were defeated by the king of 
Ascalon, and took refuge in Tyre, B.C. 1210, 
and they are mentioned as the oppressors 
of Israel (Judg. x. 12), b.c. 1187. It sepa- 
rated from Tyre and surrendered to Shal- 
manezer, b.c. 728, furnished ships for the 
fleet of Xerxes, b.c. 480 ; took a leading part 
in the revolt against Persia, B.C. 352; and 
was betrayed to Ochus by the king, Tennes, 
when the people burned the city, 40,000 
persons being consumed in the flames, B.C. 
351. Having been rebuilt, it submitted to 
Alexander the Great, B.C. 333. Ptolemy 
annexed it to his kingdom after the death 
of Alexander, B.C. 323 ; but it was taken 
from him by Antigonus, B.C. 315. With 
the rest of Syria it fell under the Koman 
power, B.C. 65; and was deprived of 
its ancient privileges by Augustus, B.C. 
20. It was invested by the Crusaders, 
A.D. 1108 ; and taken by Baldwin in 
1111. Having been captured by the 
Saracens, it was recovered in 1197 by 
the Christians, who abandoned it in 1291. 
Important commercial relations were esta- 
blished with France in 1658 ; the French 
holding a monopoly of the trade tiU they 
were driven out by Jezzar Pasha in 1791. 
It was bombarded and taken by Admiral 
]Srapier, Sept. 27, 1840. The manufacture 
of glass for which it was renowned, made 
from the fine sand on the coast near Mount 
Carmel, is spoken of by Pliny, a.d. 77. At 
D'joun, eight miles from the town. Lady 
Hester Stanhope, after a long residence there, 
died June 23, 1839. 

Sieges. — See alphabetical hst of the most 
important sieges in the Index. 

SiEif A (Italy) , the ancient Sena Julia, was 
probably founded by Caesar about b.c. 50. 
It was a bishop's see in the 6th centiuy. 
Nicholas II. was elected pope at a council 
held here, Dec. 28, 1058. It sided vrith the 
GhibeUine party in the struggle between the 
emperors and the popes, and their militia, 
vdth the aid of auxiharies, defeated the 
Guelphs from Florence at Monte Aperto, 
780 



SIG 

in 1258. The intestine dissensions which 
had harassed the repubMc for half a century 
resulted in the expidsion of the reformers, 
to the number of 4,000 in 1384. It was 
visited by the emperor Sigismund in 1432 ; 
and by Pope Pius II., who attempted to heal 
the discord, in 1460. Another revolution 
took place in 1482 ; and the exiles in returning 
recovered power in 1487. Pandolfo Petrucci 
acquired a dictatorship, which he held till 
1512. The emperor Charles V. imposed a 
Spanish garrison upon it in 1547, which was 
driven out in 1552. Duke Cosmo of Florence 
uniting his troops with those of the emperor, 
the Maremma was reduced to a wilderness, 
and the tovm was starved into a capitulation 
in April, 1555. Bestowed by Charles V. on his 
son Philip, it was given up to Cosmo, and 
united with Tuscany in 1557. The cathedral, 
vrith its rich marbles, sculptures, and paint- 
ings, was erected in the 11th, 12th, and 13th 
centuries, and consecrated by Pope Alex- 
ander III. in 1180. The university was 
founded in 1203 ; the Palazzo Pubblico, begun 
in 1295, was finished in 1327 ; the Piazzo del 
Campo, celebrated by Dante in his "Purga- 
torio," contains the Loggia di San Paolo, 
the seat of a commercial tribimal in the 
Middle Ages. 

SiEEBA Leone (Africa). — This colony, 
phUanthropically designed for the reception 
of negroes, 470 having been removed from 
London to it the first year, was settled a.d. 
1787. It was attacked and burned by a neigh- 
bouring chief in 1789 ; and 1,196 negroes were 
removed to it from Nova Scotia in 1790. It 
was plundered by a French squadron in 1794 ; 
received an addition to its population of 
550 maroons, who were transported from 
Jamaica in 1800, and was made a British 
colony in 1808. The Isles de Loss were 
added to it in 1818. On the disbanding 
of a coloured regiment in the West Indies, 
1,222 of the soldiers and their wives were 
settled here in 1819. The slaves captured 
by British cruisers have been sent here 
since 1807. Free Town was founded in 1790. 
Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the 
colony, was murdered by the Ashantees, 
at the time engaged in hostihties with the 
Fantee tribes, Jan. 21, 1824. 
Sign AL-FiBES. (See Beacons.) 
Sign-manual. — The royal sign-manual 
came into use soon after the reign of 
Eichard II., a.d. 1399, previous to which time 
the kings of England employed their seals to 
attest a document. In Germany, Maxi- 
milian I. introduced it when he abolished 
the use of monograms in 1486. Henry 
the Eighth's hands became so swollen that 
he could not write, and he granted power 
to three of his ministers Aug. 31, 1546, to sign 
all the royal commissions and acts of grace, 
in his name. A like power to some of his 
council, to seal vrith his signet, and put his 
stamp to all acts to which the king's hand 
was required, was granted Oct. 16, 1546. 
During the illness of James I. a number 
of instruments were signed by his stamp, 
which was in the keeping of the earl of 



SIX 

Annandale, Oct. 28, 1624. The same plan 
was resorted to in the last iUness of 
George IV., May 29, 1830. 

Sikhs. — Nanak, their first teacher, and 
founder of their religion, died at Kartarpur, 
A.D. 1539. His descendants continued to 
occupy the office of guru, and to disseminate 
his doctrines, till one of their nimiber. Har 
Govind, taking up the sword, transformed 
his disciples into a nation of warriors. He 
died in 1645. Govind, the tenth leader, who 
developed the martial character of his fol- 
lowers, entered upon an unsuccessful war 
with Aurungzebe, the Mongol emperor, and 
was murdered at Nadarh in 1708. After 
suffering much persecution, they figured 
prominently during the invasion of India by 
Nadir Shah, of Persia, in 1738. They cap- 
tured Lahore in 1756 ; they erected several 
forts, and were successful in operations 
against the Affghans ; but were defeated by 
Ahmad Shah, with a loss of 20,000 men, at 
the battle of Ghalu Ghara in 1762. Lahore, 
which they had lost, was recovered, coins 
were struck, and they divided themselves 
into twelve confederacies in 1764. A 
treaty between them and the British was 
formed, precluding Eunjeet Singh from ex- 
tending his territory southward, and inaugu- 
rating friendly relations, April 25, 1809. They 
took Mooltan in June, 1818, and annexed 
Cashmere and Derah Ghazi Khan in 1819. 
Having defeated the Affghans at Nau- 
shahra, they sacked Peshawar, March 14, 
1823. The tripartite treaty, which led to 
the Affghan war, was concluded June 26, 
1838. War was declared vdth the English, 
Nov. 17, 1845. The battle of Moodkee, 
Lord Gough commanding the Enghsh, was 
fought Dec. 18, 1845. The battle of So- 
braon, in which the Sikhs were defeated, 
closed the campaign, Feb, 10, 1846, and 
the treaty of Lahore was signed March 
9, 1846. The murder of Mr. Agnew and 
Lieutenant Anderson, AprU 18, 1848, led 
to the second Sikh war, which was brought 
to a close by the battle of Goojerat, which 
lasted from six in the morning tiU four in 
the afternoon, the English being victorious, 
Feb. 21, 1849. This was followed by the an- 
nexation of the Punjaub {q.v.), March 29, 
1849. 

Silesia (Prussia) became a province of 
Poland in the 10th century. It was divided 
and governed by three independent princes 
in 1163 ; invaded by the MongoUans in 1241 ; 
by John of Bohemia in 1325, and it placed 
itself under the protection of the king of 
Bohemia in 1459. Matthias Corvinus, king 
of Hungary, took possession of SUesia, and 
extended his protection to the descendants 
of John Huss, in 1478. It fell to the house 
of Austria in 1526. Banner, the Swedish 
general, entered it in 1639. After the battle 
of Moiwitz, April 10, 1741, it submitted to 
Frederick II. , who restored the greater por- 
tion to Maria Theresa by the treaty of Breslau, 
June 11, 1742. It was retaken by Frederick 
II. in 1757, and occupied by the Austrians, 
who compelled the Prussians to retire, in 



SIL 

1760. Austria refused the offer of Napoleon 
I. to receive it in exchange for her share of 
Poland in 1806. The fortresses having been 
all reduced, Jerome Bonaparte was made 
governor in 1806; and it was restored to 
Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807. 

SiLiciUM, or Sii/icoK, the principal con- 
stituent of the earth's crust, was first sepa- 
rated from sUica by Sir Humphry Davy, 
A.D. 1823. 

SiLisTEiA (Turkey) was unsuccessfully 
besieged by the Eussians, a.d. 1773, and 
threatened by Marshal Eomanzow in 1774. 
The Eussians were defeated in an engage- 
ment near the tovm, and compelled to eva- 
cuate Bulgaria, Sept. 26, 1809. General Eosh 
failed to take it, after a siege of some months' 
duration, in 1828; but the Eussians cap- 
tured it June 30, 1829. It was invested by 
the Eussians, March 28, 1854. After a 
brave defence, during which the fortifica- 
tions were nearly destroyed, the Turks com- 
pelled them to raise the siege, June 15, 
1854. 

Silk ^as cultivated and manufactured by 
the Chinese as early as b.c. 2000. It was 
woven in the island of Cos by Pamphilia 
and her maids, b.c. 1000. Aristotle is the 
first Greek vrriter who mentions it, B.C. 350. 
Two Nestorian monks of Persia brought 
some eggs of the silkworm, from China to 
Constantinople, and taught the subjects of 
Justinian I. the art of rearing them, a.d. 551. 
The art was transferred to SicUy by Eoger I. 
in 1146, and to Spain by the Saracens in 
1253. Artisans were conveyed, in 1521, from 
Milan to Lyons, by Francis I., to com- 
mence the manufacture, and when the arti- 
sans of Antwerp took refuge in England in 
1585, they introduced the art. James I. 
issued circular letters recommending the 
subject to persons of influence in 1608. The 
duty on raw and thrown silk was abolished 
by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 12 (May 8, 1845). By an 
act passed in 1542, a person whose wife 
wore a silk dress was bound to find a 
charger for government. Silk armour, 
proof against bullet or steel, was in vogue 
about 1660. 

SiLXJEES, the early inhabitants of South 
Wales, Herefordshire, and Monmouthsjiire, 
were conquered by Ostorius Scapula, and 
their king, Caractacus, was treacherously 
given up to the Eomans, a.d. 50. 

Silver. — Abraham paid four hundred 
shekels of silver for the field of Ephron for 
a burying-place (Gen. xxiii. 16), B.C. 1860. 
Silver was introduced into Attica by Erich- 
thonius, B.C. 1487. The Lydians, according 
to Herodotus, first used it for money, B.C. 
560, and it was first coiaed at Eome b.c. 
266. Mines were worked by the Egyptians 
in Nubia, producing upwards of 4, 000 pounds 
weight annually, B.C. 117. In England it 
was first coined in the time of Cunobelin, 
about B.C. 44. It was wrought into lace 
and threads for mixing with stuffs by the 
Eomans, about a.d. 170. The mines of 
Potosi were discovered in 1545 ; those of 
Kongsberg, in Norway, in 1623 ; those of 
781 



SiL 

Sierra Almagrera, Spain, which have proved 
very productive, were opened in 1839; and 
the mines of Hiendelencina in 1843. A 
mass of the native metal, weighing 154 lb., 
was found in a Chilian mine in 1850. 

Silver Coin. — Some fine specimens of 
Greek manufacture, bearing date b.c. 500, 
have been discovered. The Lydians used it 
for this purpose B.C. 560. It was fii'st 
struck at Eome about B.C. 266, and in 
Britain in the time of Cunobelin, about B.C. 
44. The Anglo-Saxon Sceattte dates from 
the 6th century, and the silver penny from 
688. 

Simkel's Conspihact. — Lambert Simnel, 
a youth of about twelve years of age, having 
been induced to personate Edward, earl of 
Warwick, was crowned in Ireland as Ed- 
ward VI., May 2, 1487. Troops were raised 
to support the pretender, who landed in 
Lancashire June 4. They were defeated by 
Henry YII. at Stoke, near Newark, Jime 16. 
Simnel himself, who was taken prisoner, was 
made a scuUion in the king's kitchen, and 
afterwards a falconer. 

SiMONiANS. — Simon Magus wished to pur- 
chase the gift of the Holy Ghost from the 
apostles with money at Samaria, a.d. 35. 
He is said to have gone to Eome in 42, and 
his followers were called Simonians. 

SiMONT had increased to such an extent 
in the church, that a council held at Eome 
in January, 1047, acknowledged that if the 
laws against it were strictly enforced, the 
church would be deprived of nearly all 
its pastors. A complete system of sale of 
ecclesiastical offices was organized by Boni- 
face IX. in 1393. By 44 Geo. III. c. 43 
(1S03), a person obtaining orders by money 
forfeits ten pounds, and is incapable of pre- 
ferment for seven years ; and the person 
gi^•ing such orders forfeits forty pounds. 

SiMPLON (Switzerland). — N"apoleon Bona- 
parte sent an agent to negotiate with the 
republic of the Valais for the establishment 
of a communication by means of the Simplon 
pass with the Cis-alpine republic, a.d. 1797. 
The Ereuch effected the passage in 1800. 
Kapoleon's engineers commenced the con- 
struction of the famous road across the 
Simplon in 1802 ; it was completed in 1807. 
The sovereignty was assumed by Napoleon I. 
when he incorporated the Valais repubHc 
with the Ereuch empire, Nov. 12, 1810. It 
was occupied by the allies in 1814. 

SiM". {See Pelusium.) 

SiSTAi (Arabia) .—The children of Israel 
arrived at this mount the third month after 
their flight from Egypt (Exod. xix. 1, 2), 
B.C. 1491, and Moses received the command- 
ments here (Exod. xx.). 

SiifECtJKES in the church are regulated 
by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 30 (Aug. 21, 1835), by 
6 & 7 Win. IV. c. 67 (Aug. 13, 1836), and by 
1 Vict. c. 71 (July 15, 1837). 

SiTfGAPOEE (Straits of Singapore). — This 
island, being the chief portion of the settle- 
ment called Singapore, was purchased by 
the Enghsh a.d. 1819. Its chief town, of 
the same name, was taken by the king of 
782 



SIR 



I 



Java A.D. 1252, and was placed under th^ 
provincial government of the Straits settle 
ment in 1826. With Malacca and Prince of 
Wales Island, it was constituted a separate 
government by the East-India Company in 
1851. The institution for instruction in 
English, Malay, and Tamil, was founded by 
Sir Stamford Baffles in 1823. 

SiNGARA (Babylonia). — At this town, the 
modern Sinjar, the Eomans, under Con- 
stantius II., met with a signal defeat from 
the Persians, commanded by Sapor II., 
A.D. 348. The town was captured and the 
fortifications were dismantled by Sapor II. 
in 360. 

SiNGiDUNUM (Servia). — This town, the 
site of which is occupied by the modern 
Belgrade, captured by the Huns a.d. 441, 
was destroyed by the Avars, and its inhabit- 
ants sold into slavery, in the 6th century. 

Sinking Fund, for the gradual reduc- 
tion of the national debt, a million ster- 
hng being devoted to that purpose, was 
proposed and carried by Pitt, March 29, 
1786. As there was no surplus to meet the 
payment, it was determined to appropriate 
part of the fund to the public exigencies, 
March 3, 1813. The plan of keeping up a 
nominal fund was abandoned in 1824, and it 
was directed that one-fourth of the actual 
surplus revenue should in future be apphed 
to the purpose, July 10, 1828. 

SiNOPE (Asia Minor), the modem Sinab, 
after various vicissitudes, was recovered by 
the Milesians, B.C. 632. The inhabitants 
assisted Xenophon and his force on their re- 
turn from Persia, B.C. 400. It was unsuc- 
cessfully besieged by Mithridates IV. of 
Pontus, B.C. 220. Pharnaces I. captured it 
B.C. 183, when it was made the chief residence 
of the kings of Pontus. After the disaster 
of Mithridates the Great at Cyzicus, Lucullus 
obtained possession of the town, and put 
the Pontian garrison to the sword, B.C. 74. 
It formed part of the empire of Trebizond, 
A.D. 1204, was captured by the sultan Azed- 
din in 1214, and was taken by the Turks in 
the reign of Mohammed II. in 1461, It was 
treacherously bombarded, and the Turkish 
fleet destroyed by the Eussians, Nov. 30, 
1853. 

Siojf College (London), organized by a 
mercer of the city, after whom it was called 
Elson's Spital, or hospital, a.d. 1329, was dis- 
solved in 1539. It was endowed as a colle- 
giate estabhshment by Dr. Thomas White, 
vicar of St. Dunstan in the West, in 1622, 
built in 1624, incorporated in 1631, and re- 
ceived a charter from Charles II. in 1664. 

SiPONTUJi, or SiPus (Italy), said to have 
been founded by Diomed, was captured by 
Alexander, king of Epirus, B.C. 330. A Eo- 
man colony was settled here B.C. 194, and 
it was deserted B.C. 184. Owing to the 
malaria from the marshes, the population 
was removed by Manfred, king of Naples, 
to a distance of a mile and a half, where he 
built the city of Manfredonia, at first called 
Novum Sipontum, a.d. 1250. 

SiEis (Magna Grsecia), said to have been 



SIE 

colonized from Troy, and inhabited by the 
Chones, the native (Enotrians of this part 
of Italy, who were dispossessed by a colony of 
lonians from Colophon between B.C. 690 and 
B.C. 660. Damasus, one of its citizens, was 
a suitor for the hand of the daughter of 
Cleisthenes of Sicyon, B.C. 580. A league 
was formed against it B.C. 550, by the 
Metapontiues, Sybarites, and Crotoniats, 
which resulted in the destruction of the city 
about B.C. 510. At the time of the Persian 
war, B.C. 480, the Athenians thought of oc- 
cupying the site and removing hither with their 
wives and families. A dispute arose regarding 
the right ofpossession, between the Athenians 
and the Tarentines, which was compromised 
by a joint settlement on the territory : the 
colony, being afterwards removed, to a dis- 
tance of three miles, founded the city of 
Heracleia, about b.c. 432. 

SiBMiuM (Illyricum) rose into importance 
during the Eoman wars against the Dacians 
and other Danubian tribes, B.C. 34 — a.d, 106. 
The emperor Probus, born here a.d. 232, 
was murdered in a mutiny of his troops, 
October, 282. An edict was issued from 
this place by Constantine I. against the 
exaction of heathen observances from Chris- 
tians, May 25, 323. The first council held 
here, in 351, deposed Photinus, the bishop, 
for Arianism. At the second council, in 357, 
Hosius was indiiced to subscribe an Arian 
confession of faith. The inhabitants ac- 
knowledged Julian as their sovereign in 361. 
It was attacked in 375 by the Quadi and 
Sarmatians, who were defeated through the 
vigilance of Probus, the praetorian prsefect. 
Having been taken by the Bulgarians in 502, 
they were dispossessed by Theodoric in 504. 
The city, after a siege of three years' dura- 
tion, capitulated in 590. 

SiSTEES OF Chaeitt, a religious asso- 
ciation of females for the assistance of the 
sick poor, was founded by Yincent de Paul, 
at ChatiUon-les-Dombes, a.d. 1617. In 
1629 he established a similar society at 
Paris, where he was shortly joined by 
Mademoiselle le Gras, who formed a staJT 
of nurses, which received the sanction of 
Cardinal de Eetz, under the title of " Ser- 
vants of the Poor," in January, 1655. This 
institution was the origin of the celebrated 
Sisters of Charity, who have distinguished 
themselves so greatly by their acts of bene- 
ficence. 

SiSTOVA (Turkey). — A treaty of peace be- 
tween Eussia and Turkey was signed here 
Aug. 4, 1791. It surrendered to the Eus- 
sians, who reduced it to a heap of ruins, 
transporting the inhabitants, 20,000 in num- 
ber, across the Danube, a.d. 1812. 

Six Acts. — A name given to six measures 
for the prevention of seditious meetings and 
the regulation of poUtical publications, passed 
A.D. 1819. 

Six Articles, or Bloodt Statute, the 
name given to an act (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14) 
passed June 23, 1539. It was enacted for 
" abohshing diversity of opinions in certain 
articles concerning the Christian rehgion." 



SLA 

The six articles enforced were transubstan- 
tiation, communion in one kind, celibacy of 
the clergy, vows of chastity, private masses, 
and auricular confession. All persons deny- 
ing the first were to be punished as heretics, 
and those who denied any of the remaining 
five as felons. This statute was repealed in 
1547. 

Six Cleeks, ofl&eers who received and filed 
proceedings in chancery, and pei'formed other 
duties, had their number limited to six by 
12 Eich. II. (1388). An order was made 
limiting the number of under-clerks in 1596. 
The office was altogether a sinecure in 1G30. 
An order was made for dividing the fees 
between them and the under-clerks in 1668. 
The office was abolished by 5 Vict. c. 5 
(Oct. 5, 1841). 

Six -mile Beidge (Clare). — An election 
riot took place here, when five persons were 
killed by the miMtary and several wounded, 
July 22, 1852. The bills of indictment 
against the soldiers were ignored by the 
grand jury, Peb. 24, 1853. 

SxijjfS. — God made coats of skins for 
Adam and Eve before they were expelled 
from Eden (Gen. iii. 21), B.C. 4003. They 
appear to have been an article of commerce 
in the time of Job, b.c 2130 (Job ii. 4). 
According to Ctesar, the ancient Britons 
were clad in skins, B.C. 55. 

Skipton- (Yorkshire) took its rise from 
the castle built by Eobert de Eomille a few 
years before a.d. 1087. It surrendered, 
after a three years' siege by the parlia- 
mentary forces, Dec= 22, 1645. The fortifi- 
cations, destroyed by order of parhament in 
1649, were afterwards rebuilt by the countess 
of Pembroke. The free grammar-school was 
founded in 1548, and Christ's Church was 
erected in 1838. 

Slateet. — The institution of slavery is 
referred to the " giants " who flourished in 
the antediluvian period. After the Deluge 
it was denounced upon Ham and Canaan by 
Noah, B.C. 2347 (Gen. ix. 25—27), and it ap- 
pears to have prevailed universally in the time 
of Abraham, b.c. 1920. The Levitical laws 
contain many regulations for the condition 
of slaves, and draw a wide distinction 
between such as were native Jews and such 
as were acquired from other nations by 
purchase or conquest. By the Eoman laws 
creditors exercised the right of ownership 
over their debtors, and Tacitus relates that 
the ancient German gamblers frequently 
staked their liberty, and became the slaves 
of the successful player. Constantine I., 
A.D. 334, passed a law prohibiting the sepa- 
ration of slave families, and made the 
murderer of a slave amenable to the same 
penalties as that of a free man. Slaves, or 
villeins, were very numerous in England 
during the Anglo-Saxon period, when they 
enjoyed some sort of legal protection. 
If a master struck out the eye or tooth of 
a slave, he recovered his freedom, and if 
he killed him, the murder was recompensed 
by a fine. Under the Normans the slaves 
exceeded the free tenants in number, and the 
783 



SLA 



oppressiTe manner in wbieli they were treated 
occasioned many of the insurrections of the 
period. 

AD. , , 

1547. By 1 Edw. VI. c. 3, any person fonnd wan- 
dering and unemployed is ordered to be 
branded with a V, and to be made a 
slave for two years. The first attempt at 
escape submits the offender to be branded 
with S, and to become a slave for Ute ; and 
the second attempt is regarded as a capital 
felony. 

1574. Queen Elizabeth abolishes serfdom on her 
own estates. . 

1660. Personal slavery is finally abolished m 
England by 12 Charles II. c. 24 

1671. Slavery is adopted in Carolina. 

1685. Louis XIV. puhlishes the Black Code, for the 
regulation of French negro slaves. 

1702. Slavei-y is partially abolished in Prussia. 

1716. Negro slavery exists in France. 

1740. The legislature of South Carolina imposes a 
penalty of £100 on any one convicted of 
teaching slaves to write. 

1766. Slavery is abolished in Denmark. 

1772. Mr. Granville Sharpe obtains a judgment in 
favour of the negro Somerset, in the English 
court of King's Bench. This decision esta- 
blishes the great principle that a slave 
attains his freedom immediately he touches 
British soil. 

1780. March 1. An act for the gradual extinction of 

slavery is adopted in Pennsylvania. 

1781. Slavery is abolished in Bohemia. 

17S2. It is partially extinguished in Germany. 

1784. The leeislatures of New Jei-sey and Con- 
necticut pass acts for the gi-adual abolition 
of slavery. 

17^5. Vassalage is abolished in Hungary. 

1787. July 13. The territory to the north-west of 
the Ohio, comprising the states of Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
Iowa, is declared free ground. 

1799. The legislature of New York commence a 
series of acts for the gradual abolition of 
slavery. 

1803. Indiana is purchased by the American 
government, and made a slave state. 

1818. Personal slavery is abolished in Corn-land. 

1820. The American congress adopts the Missouri 
Compromise {g. v.). 

1823. March. Mr. Wilberforce presents a petition 
to the House of Commons in favour of the 
abolition of sUverv. 

1833. Aug. 28. Slavery is abolished throughout the 
British empire by 3 & 4 WUl. IV. c. 73, 
which takes effect from Aug. 1, 1834. 
The slave-owners receive £20,000,000 as 
compensation. 

1838. Aug. 1. Slavery is abolished in the East 
Indies. 

1840. June. An international congress for con- 
sidering the most effectual means of abo- 
lishing slavery meets at London. 

1845. Texas is admitted into the United States as 
a slave state. 

1848. Slavery is abolished in the French colonies. 

1850. Aug. Henry Clay passes his " omnibus mea- 
sure," by which California is admitted a 
free state of the American union, and the 
Fugitive Slave Bill is passed, for recover- 
ing runaway negroes escaped into free 
states. 

1854 Nebraska and Kansas are erected into slave- 
holdiug territories by an act of the 
American congress, which ignores the Mis- 
sorul compromise.. 

1859. Oct. 17. John Brown fails in an attempted 
negro insurrection, at Harper's Ferry, 
against the United States government, 
{q. v.). 

1861. Serfdom is abolished in Russia. 

Slave Tbade. — IN'imrod is usually re- 
garded as the first dealer in slaves, and 

784 



SLA 

Babylon as the earhest slave-market. A 
writer in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" 
observes (vol. xx. p. 319), "with other abomi- 
nable customs, the traflBc in men quietly 
spread from Chaldsea into Egypt, Arabia, 
and over all the East, and by degrees found 
its way into every known region under 
heaven." The Greeks and Komans habi- 
tually sold their captives into slavery, and 
until comparatively recent times the same 
fate awaited aU prisoners of war. 



651. The king of Ethiopia undei-takes to send the 
Mohammedans of Egypt a large number of 
negi-o slaves annually. 

1103. The exportation of English slaves to the 
continent is prohibited by a council held 
at London. 

1442. The Portuguese commence the transport of 
negi'o slaves from Africa. 

1495. Feb. 24. Columbus sends a cargo of American 
Indian slaves to Spain. 

1503. Dec 20. Ferdinand and Isabella authorize 
the Spanish colonists of America to compel 
the native Indians to work for them. 

1508. African slaves are first imported iato Spanish 
America about this time. 

1562. Sir J"hn Hawkins, the first English slave- 
dealer, commences a trade between Guinea 
and Hispaniola. 

1620. African slaves are imported into Virginia by 
the Dutch. 

1701. Foundation of the Assieuto, or Guinea Com- 
pany, for the African slave-trade. {See 

ASSIEUTO.) 

1712. The importation of slaves is prohibited in 
Massachusetts. 

1762. Anthony Benezet, a Quaker, publishes a work 
on the abuses of the slave-trade. 

1776. The first motion for abolishing the trade is 
made in the English parliament. 

1787. May. The Society for the Suppression of the 
Slave-trade is founded in London, by 
William Dillwyn, Granville Sharpe, 
Thomas Clarkson, and WUliam Wilber- 
force. 

1789. May 12. Mr. Wilberforce delivers his first 
parliamentary speech against the slave- 
trade. 

1794. Feb. 5. The French Convention abolishes the 
slavertrade, which is restored during the 
Consulate. 

1807. March 25. The British slave-trade is finally 

abolished by 47 Geo. III. c. 36, which takes 
effect from May 1, 1807. 

1808. Jan. 1. The importation of Africans in 

America is prohibited by Congress. 
1811. May 14 The trade in slaves is declared 
felony; punishable by fourteen years' 
transportation, or five years' imprison- 
ment, by 51 Geo. III. c. 13. 

1814. May 30. A treaty for the extinction of the 

tiade is concluded with France, at Paris. 
Aug. 13. A similar treaty is signed with 
the Netherlands at London. 

1815. March 29. Napoleon I. abolishes the slave-trade 

in France. June 9. The representatives of 
Austria, France, Great Britain, Portugal, 
Prussia, Russia. Spnin, and Sweden, at 
the congres.s of Vienna, record their desire 
to abolish the trade. 

1817. July 28. A treaty for the suppression of the 
trade is concluded between Grt-at Britain 
and Portugal. Sept 23. A similar treaty 
U signed with Spain at Madrid. Oct. 23. 
Kadama, king of Madagascar, concludes a 
treaty with the British for the suppresbion 
of the trade, at Tamatave. 

1820. The American congress makes it a capital 
piracy to engage in the foreign slave- 
trade. 

1824. March 31. The conveyance of slaves from 
Africa is made piracy by 5 Geo. IV. c. 17. 



SIA 



1825. Nov. 6. A treaty for suppressing the trade 

is concluded with Sweden at Stockholm. 

1826. Nov. 23. An abolition treaty is signed with 

Brazil at Rio Janeiro. 

1833. A treaty for the abolition of the traflBc is 

concluded with France. 

1834. July 26. Denmark agrees to abolish the trade 

by the treaty of Copenhagen. Dec. 8. A 
similar treaty is concluded with Sardinia 
at Turin. 

1835. June 28. Spain agrees to a total abolition 

of the trade, on her part, by a treaty 
signed at Madrid. 

1837. Nov. 24. Tuscany imites with the other 

states in the efforts for its suppression by 
the treaty of Florence. 

1838. Feb. 14. An abolition treaty is signed by the 

king of Naples, at Naples. 

1839. March 15. The republic of Venezuela re- 

nounces the traffic by the treaty of Ca- 
raccas. 

1840. Sept. 25. A treaty for the suppression of the 

trade is concluded with Bolivia at Sucre. 

1841. Feb. 24. A similar treaty is concluded with 

the Mexican government at Mexico. 

1842. Aug. 9. The United States government signs 

a treaty at "Washington, for the suppression 
of the African slave-trade. 
. 1850. Sept. 4. The emperor of Brazil publishes a 
decree making the importation of slaves 
piracy. 

1852. The French government adopts a plan of free 
negro emigration, which afterwards be- 
comes a cloak for the forcible abduction of 
the negroes. 

1859. Jan. 6. The French government abandons 
the free emigration system, in consequence 
of the abuses revealed in the aifair of the 
Charles et Georges. (See PoRTUGAi.) 

Slaves to Virtue. — This order was in- 
stituted in Germany a.d. 1662. 

Si/AVONiA (Austria). — After undergoing 
numerous vicissitudes, the Avars, who ob- 
tained possession of this country a.d. 568, 
were conquered by Charlemagne, and sup- 
planted by a tribe of Slavonians from Dal- 
matia, about the end of the 8th century. 
CyrU and Methodius, from Byzantium, visited 
it as Christian missionaries in 864. A large 
portion of Slavonia was seized by the Hun- 
garians about 1100. This led to a struggle 
with the Eastern empire ; but, after a suc- 
cession of fierce contests, it was finally ceded 
to the Hungarians in 1165. The Turks made 
themselves masters of it in 1526, and it was 
restored to Hungary by the peace of Car- 
lowitz, January 26, 1699. The mUitary 
frontier was separated from Slavonia iu 1734. 
Slavonia was separated from Hungary in 
1848. 

SleswiGt (Denmark). — This seaport town, 
capital of the duchy of the same name, 
was a place of some note as early as the 9th 
century, and remained the most important 
city in the kingdom for nearly six centuries. 
It was repeatedly pillaged and devastated in 
the 12th and 13th centuries, and suffered 
much from fire and violence in the 14th cen- 
tury. The silting up of the inouth of the 
Sley in the beginning of the 15th century, 
combined with the rivalry of the Hol- 
steiners, led to its gradual dechne. It was 
taken by the Swedes Aug. 10, 1814. The 
cathedral, built in the 12th century, con- 
tains a screen before the altar, admirably 
carved in wood by Hans Briiggmann in 
785 



SMA 

1521. Councils were held here in 1061 and 
1222. (See Holstein.) 

Sliding Scale, regulating the duty 
payable upon corn, according to the average 
market price, was enacted by 9 Geo. IV. c. 
60 (July 11, 1828). With a view to imposing 
a fixed duty, the secretary of state for 
foreign affairs in 1840 addressed a circular 
to the consuls residing at the principal Bal- 
tic ports, requesting to know what amount 
of grain could be exported. The document 
embodying the replies was laid before par- 
hament in 1841. Alterations were made in 
the scale by 5 Vict. c. 14 (April 29, 1842), 
The shding scale was abohshed by 9 & 10 
Vict. c. 22 (June 26, 1846). 

Sli&o (Ireland), chief tovni of the county 
of the same name, first received distinction 
by the building of its castle by Fitzgerald, 
earl of Kildare, a.d. 1242. Having been de- 
stroyed by the natives, it was rebmlt about 
1300. A Dominican monastery was founded 
in 1252. Shgo was incorporated in 1613, and 
obtained a charter of the staple in 1621. 
The English army, commanded by Sir 
Charles Coote, captured it in the rebeUion 
of 1641. It took the side of James II., was 
occupied for William III. by the En- 
niskilleners, taken by General Sarsfield, 
and ultimatelv surrendered to the earl of 
Granard in 1688. 

Sling. — Among the Benjamites who went 
up to battle against Israel, there were 700 
men, all left-handed, who could sling stones 
with great precision (Judg. xx. 16), B.C. 
1413. With this weapon David slew the 
Philistiau champion Goliath, B.C. 1063 
(1 Sam. xvii. 49). Pliny ascribes the in- 
vention to the Phoenicians, and Vegetius to 
the Balearic islanders. The Greeks had 
mounted shngers, and sometimes shot fire- 
balls instead of stones. There is reason to 
suppose that the ancient Britons used a sling 
made of wood. It was a formidable weapon 
in the hands of the Anglo-Saxons. The 
English slingers preceded the army and 
opened the battle. 

Sloane Museitm (London) was- formed 
by the celebrated physician and naturalist 
Sir Hans Sloane, who was born at KiUy- 
leagh, in Ireland, April 16, 1660, and died 
at Chelsea Jan. 11, 1753. He bequeathed 
his museum, which had cost him £50,000, to 
the pubhc, on condition that £20,000 should 
be given to his family. The legacy and the 
conditions were accepted by 26 Geo. II. c. 22 
(1753), and from this collection the British 
Museum had its origin. 

Sluts (Holland). — Hardicanute sailed 
from this place for England, to assume the 
crown, on the death of Harold I., a.d. 1040. 
Edward III. defeated the French in a naval 
engagement off the port, with a loss to them 
of 230 ships, 30,000 men, and two admirals, 
June 24, 1340. 

Smalcald (League) was formed by the 
Protestant princes of Germany for mutual 
defence against the emperor Charles V. of 
Germany, Dec. 31, 1530. A threatened 
invasion of Hungary by the Turks, and the 
3 e 



SMA 

apprehension that France and England f 
would join the league, induced the emperor 
to sign a treaty, called the Peace of Nurem- 
berg, in Jtily, 1532, granting Mberty of 
conscience to the Protestants. 

Small-pox is supposed to have existed in 
China and Hindostan for some centuries pre- 
vious to its introduction into Europe. The 
first authentic account of its appearance in 
the West is at the siege of Mecca by the 
Abyssinians, a.d. 572, when it committed 
great ravages in the invading army. It soon 
spread to Alexandria, and was first described 
by Ahron. a physician of that city, in the 
beginning of the 7th century. The Saracens 
carried it into Europe in the 8th century. 
Inoculation for the small-pox was introduced 
into England by Lady Mary Wortley Monta- 
gue about 1721. A smaU-pox hospital was 
established in London in 1746. Dr. Jenner 
discovered and introduced cow-pox as a pre- 
ventative in 1798. 

Smithfield (London) was celebrated as 
ahorse and cattle fair as early as a.d. 117i. 
Sir WiUiam Wallace was executed here on St. 
Bartholomew's eve, 1305. Here jousts were 
held by Edward III. in 1357, at which the 
kings of Prance and Scotland, and many 
noble prisoners taken at Poitiers, were 
present. William Walworth slew Wat Tyler 
on this spot, June 15, 1381. A grand tour- 
nament was held here by Kichard II. on 
Sunday after Michaelmas, 1390, and lasted 
four days. Here Margery Jourdain was 
burnt in 1441, and John Eogers, the first 
martyr in Queen Mary's reign, Feb. 4, 1555. 
Smithfield was paved bv order of James I., 
at a cost of £1,600, in "1614. A turbulent 
meeting, presided over by Henrv Hunt, was 
held here July 22, 1819. Great military 
preparations were made, and 6,000 special 
constables sworn in to preserve the peace 
of the city on this occasion. Bartholomew 
fair, once one of the leading fairs in England, 
was held here tiU 1852. An act for closing 
the cattle-market (14 & 15 Vict. c. 61) was 
passed Aug. 1, 1851, and it was formally 
closed June 11, 1855. 

Smoke Xtjisaij-ce. — An act of parHament, 
16 & 17 Yict. c. 128, was passed Aug. 20, 
1853, to abate the nuisance arising from the 
smoke of furnaces in the metropolis, and I 
from steam-vessels above London bridge. | 
It was amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 107 | 
(July 29, 1856), which came into operation j 
Jan. 1, 1858. The act was extended to Scot- 
land by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 73 (Aug. 25, 1857), 
which came into operation Aug. 1, 1858. 

Smolewskow (Eussia), the capital of the I 
government of the same name, is mentioned ! 
in Russian annals as early as a.d. 879. It j 
subsequently became an independent prin- 
cipality, and was ravaged by the plague in 
the 12tli century, when 42,000 of its inhabit- 
ants perished. The same dreadftd scourge 
destroyed nearly the whole of the popula- 
tion in the 14th century. It was taken by 
the Lithuanians in 1413, and was afterwards 1 
alternately in the hands of the Poles and the 
Russians till finally taken by the latter in 
786 



SNE 

1654, and was formally ceded to them by 
the Poles by the treaties of 1667 and 1686. 
Smolensko was attacked by the French under 
IN'apoleon I. Aug. 16 andl7, 1812. After a 
most sanguinary contest, in which the 
French lost 15,000 and the Russians 10,000 
men, the latter remained masters of the 
city. The French, who returned to the at- 
tack on the 18th, found the city deserted and 
in ruins. The Russian general, Barclay de 
ToUy, was deprived of his command for hav- 
ing given up this holy city, as the Russians 
called it, without a pitched battle. It was 
occupied by the French, on their disastrous 
retreat from Moscow, JS'ov. 9 to 17, 1812. 
On leaving they blew up part of the ram- 
parts. Smolenskow is the see of an arch- 
bishop, and contains two cathedrals, buUt 
in the 12th century, one of which is classed 
among the most celebrated ecclesiastical 
edifices in the north of Europe. 

Smug GLEES. — Numerous statutes were 
formerly passed against smugglers. By 
19 Geo. II. c. 34 (1736), known as the 
Smugglers' Act, forcible acts of smuggling 
were made felony without benefit of clergy. 
All previous acts were repealed, and the 
laws on the subject consolidated by 
6 Geo. IV. c. 108 (1826). This and several 
subsequent acts were superseded bv 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 53 (1834), and 4 & 5 Will. IV. 
c. 13 (1835). 

Smtrxa (Turkey), according to Hero- 
dotus, was first colonized by the J5olians, 
who held it till B.C. 688, when, through the 
intrigues of some exiles from Colophon, it 
was transferred to the Ionian league, of 
which it formed the thirteenth city. It was 
taken and destroyed by Sadyattes, king of 
Lydia, about B.C. 627, and remained in 
ruins for nearly 400 years, when Antigonus 
founded a new city near the site of the old 
one, which became, according to Strabo, the 
finest in Asia. It was one of the seven 
churches mentioned in the Apocalypse. Po- 
lycarp, a disciple of the apostle John, who 
suff'ered martyrdom here about a.d. 167, is 
said to have been the first bishop. The city, 
destroyed by an earthquake a.d. 178, was 
rebuilt by the emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
Smyrna fell into the hands of a Turkish pi- 
rate at the end of the 11th century, and was 
almost destroyed by a Greek fleet. Having 
been rebuilt by the emperor Comnenus, it 
was soon afterwards taken by the Genoese, 
who retained it tiU 1364. Tamerlane took 
it in 1402, and erected within its walls a 
tower constructed of stones and the heads 
of his enemies. It was captured by the 
Turks in 1424. A massacre of several thou- 
sand Greek inhabitants of the town by the 
Mohammedans took place June 15, 1821, 
and another massacre of above 1 ,000 Christians 
occurred Nov. 2, 1826, and following days. 
A fire which destroyed 12,000 houses took 
place in July, 1841 ; and an earthquake 
caused much damage in 1846. 

SjS^eezing has been considered as an omen 
from the most ancient times. The custom 
of blessing persons when they sneeze is sup- 



SNU 

posed to have been derived from, the an- 
cients, though many vrriters affirm that it 
originated a.d. 750, under Pope Gregory 
the Great, when a pestilence occurred at 
Eome, in which those who sneezed died, 
whereupon the pope appointed a form of 
prayer to be said to persons sneezing. 

SjrxjFF-TAKiifG. — The custom of taking 
snuff appears to have originated in Ireland 
soon after the introduction of tobacco into 
this country, about a.d. 1563. Howell (born 
about 1596, died 1666) says of the custom 
in England, " The servant maid upon the 
washing-block, and the swain upon the 
plough-share, when they are tired with 
labour, take out their boxes of smutchin 
and draw it into their nostrils with a 
quiU." 

SoANE Museum (London) was formed by 
Sir John Soane, the architect, who was born 
at Eeading, Sejit. 10, 1753, and died at his 
house in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, Jan. 20, 1837. 
He obtained an act of parhament in 1833, 
vesting his museum in trustees for the use 
of the public. 

Soap. — The first express mention of soap 
occurs in Phny (born a.d. 23, died a.d. 79), 
who speaks of it as an invention of the 
Gauls. An excise duty on soap of Id. per 
pound was first imposed in Great Britain in 
1711. It was raised to l^d. in 1713, and in 
1782 hard and soft soap were first distin- 
guished, the former being rated at 246.. and 
the latter at If d. per pound. The duty on 
hard soap was increased to 3d. in 1816. It 
was reduced to l^d. per pound for hard, and 
Id. per pound for soft, May 31, 1833, and was 
totally abolished by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 39 (July 
8, 1853). 

SoBEAON" (Battle), fought on the banks 
of the Sutlej, near the vilage of Sobraon, 
between the Sikhs and the British, under 
Lord Gough, Feb. 10, 1846. The Sikhs oc- 
cupied an intrenched camp, defended by 
30,000 of their best troops and 130 pieces of 
artillery. They were attacked by the Brit- 
ish with 100 guns, and after a most obstinate 
contest were defeated with a loss of 10,000 
men. The British had 320 killed and 2,063 
wounded. 

Socialists, a name given to the followers 
of Eobert Owen, the founder of sociahsm, 
or general community of goods. Eobert 
Owen was born at Newton, in Montgomery- 
shire, A.D. 1771. He married the daughter 
of David Dale, a manufacturer of Glasgow, 
in 1801, and soon afterwards undertook the 
management of the extensive manufactory 
of New Lanark, on the Clyde. Here he 
amassed a large fortune, and first developed 
his theory of socialism in his " Book of the 
New Moral World," published subsequently 
to 1812. He introduced the system into his 
establishment at New Lanark. He relin- 
quished his connection with this place in 
1823, and proceeded to North America, 
where he founded the settlement of New 
Harmony, in Indiana, in 1824. Here he en- 
deavoured to carry out his system ; but it 
proved a failure, and he returned to England 
787 



soc 

in 1827. On the invitation of the Mexican 
government, he went to Mexico in 1828, in 
order to carry out his scheme, but nothing 
was done. He died in 1858. 
Social Science. {See National Asso- 

CIATIOM" FOB THE PfiOMOTIOIf OP SOCIAL 

Science.) 

Social Wae between the Athenians and 
some of her principal confederates, who 
wished to throw off her yoke, began vrith 
the revolt of Chios, Ehodes, and Byzantium, 
about midsummer, B.C. 357. Chares and 
Chabrias, the Athenian commanders, laid 
siege to Chios. The attack on the town was 
defeated at the end of b.c. 357, and the allies 
became masters of the sea. With a fleet of 
100 sail they ravaged Lemnos and Imbrus, 
and laid siege to Samos B.C. 356. A report 
having reached Athens that the Persian 
court was fitting out a fleet of 300 galleys to 
cooperate with the confederates, the Athe- 
nians were induced to grant a peace, ac- 
knowledging the independence of the allies, 
about midsummer, b.c 355. 

Social Wae (Eoman history). — M. Li- 
vius Drusus proposed a law for investing the 
Italian allies with the privileges of Eoman 
citizens; but it was strongly opposed by 
the senators, the knights, and the people, 
and Di'usus was assassinated B.C. 92. The 
Italians then entered into a secret confede- 
racy, which was first discovered at Asculum, 
and Q. Servilius was sent to punish the offend- 
ers ; but he was massacred with all the other 
Eoman citizens in the town, B.C. 91. The 
Marsi, the Peligni, the Samnites, the Lu- 
cani, and almost every nation in Italy, 
except the Latins, Tuscans, and Umbrians, 
now revolted, and established a repubhc in 
opposition to that of Eome. In the first 
campaign the Eomans met with some severe 
losses. Nola was taken by the Samnites; 
the consul P. Eutilius and his lieutenant 
Q. Caepio, were defeated and slain, and 
many cities were captured. On the other 
hand, Sylla and Marius obtained a great 
victory over the Marsi, and L. Cassar de- 
feated the Samnites. Towards the close of 
B.C. 91, the Umbri and the Tuscans showed 
signs of joining the alhes, but this was 
averted by the Eomans passing a law admit- 
ting all the Italians, who had continued 
faithful to Eome, to the rights of citizen- 
ship. In the second campaign, B.C. 90, the 
Eomans defeated the Marsi, and induced 
them, together with the Vestini, Pehgni, 
and Marrucini, to make a separate peace. 
Sylla, the Eoman general, destroyed the 
town of Stahae, defeated a large army near 
Nola, reduced the Hirpini to subjection, 
and defeated the Samians. The Eomans 
were now induced, hearing that Mithrida- 
tes, king of Pontus, was going to aid the 
allies, to adopt measures of conciliation, 
and one state after another submitted and 
received the gift of Eoman citizenship. 
After the close of this campaign, the war 
dwindled away, until it was brought to a 
conclusion, B.C. 88, by the remainder of the 
ItaUan states receiving the concessions they 
3 s 2 



soc 

required. During tMs war 300,000 men were 
slain . 

Societies.— By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 112 (Aug. 
11, 1854) provisions were made "to afford 
greater facilities for the establishment of 
institutions for the promotion of literature 
and science and the fine arts, and to provide 
for their better regulation." The following 
is a list of the principal institutions of the 
kind in Great Britain and Ireland. Many of 
the most important are noticed imder their 
respective titles : — 

A.D. 

Abbotsford Club 1834 

Abernetbian Society 1796 

iElfric Society 1842 

African Association 1788 

Anglia-Cbristiana Society 1847 

Antiquarian Society 1751 

Arcbseologioal Association 1843 

Archfeological Institute ... . , 1843 

Architectural Publication Society 1848 

Architectural Society 1831 

Arundel Society 1849 

Ashmolean Society, Oxford 1828 

Bannatyne Club 1823 

Belfast Literary Societies 1801 

Botanical Society of London 1836 

Bristol Philosophic and Literary Society .... 1824 

British and Foreign Bible Society 1804 

British Association 1831 

Calvin Translation Society 1843 

Cambrian Antiquarian Society 1840 

Cambrian Archaeological Association 1846 

Cambridge Antiquarian Society 1840 

Cambridge Philosophical Society 1819 

Camden Society 1838 

Cavendish Society 1846 

Celtic Society 1847 

Chemical Society 1841 

Chetham Society 1843 

Decorative Art Society 1843 

Dilettanti Society 1734 

Dublin Geological Society 1832 

Dublin Microscopical Society 1840 

Dublin Natural History Society 1838 

Dublin University Philosophical Society .... 1842 

Ecclesiological Society 1839 

Edinburgh Botanical Society 1836 

Edinbvirgh Geological Society 1834 

Edinburgh Medical Society 1734 

Edinburgh Royal Physical Society 1771 

Edinburgh Royal Society 1739 

Electrical Society 1837 

Entomological Society 1834 

Epidemiological Society 1850 

Ethnological Society 1843 

Gaelic Society 1830 

Geographical Society 1830 

Geological Society 1807 

Geological Society of the West Riding 1838 

Glasgow Philosophical Society 1802 

Hahnemann MeUical Society 1850 

Haklujt Society 1846 

Hanserd Knollys' Society 1845 

Harveian Society, Edinburgh 1752 

Homoeopathic Association 1845 

Horticultural Society 1804 

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society 1822 

Hunteriau Medical Society, Edinburgh 1824 

Incorporated Law Society 1827 

Institute of Bx-itish Architects 1834 

Institution of CivU Engineers 1818 

Irish Archaeological Society 1840 

Juridical Society, Edinburgh 1773 

Law Society 1827 

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society .... 1818 
Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society 1835 

Linnaean Society 1788 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society 1812 

Liverpool Polytechnic Society 1838 

London Institution 1800 

MaitlandClub 1828 



SOC 



Manchester Geological Society 1838 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society 1781 

Manchester Natural History Society 1821 

Medical Society 1773 

Medico-Chlrurgical Society 1805 

Meteorological Society 1851 

Microscopical Society 1839 

National School Society 1811 

Naval and MQitai-y Bible Society 1780 

Newcastle Antiquarian Society 1813 

Numismatic Society 1836 

Oxford Architectural Society 1839 

PalEeontographical Society 1847 

Palestine Association 1805 

Pai-ker Society 1840 

Pathological Society 1845 

Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian 

Society 1839 

Percy Society 1840 

Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society 1784 

Pharmaceutical Society 1841 

Philobiblon Society 1854 

Philological Society 1842 

Philomathic Institution 1807 

Philosophical Society 1810 

Phonetic Society 1843 

Photographic Society 1853 

Physico-Medical Society 1771 

Plymouth Institution 1812 

Pomological Society 1854 

Provincial Medical Association 1832 

Ray Society 1844 

Religious Tract Society 1799 

Roxburgh Club 1812 

Royal Academy of Arts 1768 

Royal Academy of Music 1822 

Royal Agricultural Society 1838 

Royal Asiatic Society 1823 

Royal Astronomical Society 1820 

Royal Botanical Society 1839 

Royal College of Chemistry 1845 

Royal College of Physicians 1518 

Royal College of Surgeons 1800 

Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society 1833 

Royal Geographical Society 1830 

Royal Geological Society, ComwaU 1814 

Royal Institution 1800 

Royal Irish Academy 1786 

Royal Scottish Society of Arts 1821 

Royal Society 1660 

Royal Society of Literature 1823 

Russell Institution 1808 

Scarborough Philosophical Society 1830 

Shakespeare Society 1840 

Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1822 
Shropshire and North Wales Natural Histoiy 

and Antiquarian Society 1835 

Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers 1771 

Society for the Diffusion of Usetul Knowledge 1825 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . . 1698 
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 

Foreign Pai-ts 1701 

Society for the Reformation of Manners 1690 

Society for the Support and Encouragement of 

Sunday Schools 1785 

Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 1780 

Society of Arts 1753 

SpaldingClub 1839 

Spottiswoode Society 1843 

Statistical Society 1834 

Surtees Society 1834 

Sussex Archaeological Society 1846 

Swedenborg Society 1810 

Sydenham Society 1843 

Syro-Egyptian Society , . 1844 

United Service Institution 1830 

Wemerian Club 1844 

Wernerian Society 1808 

Whitby Literai-y and Philosophical Society .. 1822 

Worcestershire Natural History Society 1833 

Yorkshii-e Philosophical Society 1823 

Zoological Society 1825 

{See MissioNAET Societies.) 

SociETX Islands (Pacific Ocean).— This 



soc 

froup of islands, discovered by the 
panish navigator Pedro Fernandez di 
Quiros, A.D. 1606, remained unknovra to the 
rest of the world till visited in 1767 by- 
Captain Wallis, who, thinking himself the 
fii'st discoverer, gave Tahiti the name of 
King George Island. Captain Cook visited 
the group in 1769, and after surveying the 
chief island, and discovering several others, 
he gave to the whole the name of Society 
Islands, in honour of the Eoyal Society of 
London. Cook again visited them in 1777. 
Idolatry was abolished in Tahiti in 1815, and 
in the other islands a year or two afterwards. 
Missionaries were established in these islands 
in 1817, and they have been very successful 
in educating the people, who are now all 
professing Christians. 

Society foe Peomotin& Christian 
Knowledge was founded a.d. 1698. Dr. 
Thomas Bray, who died in 1730, was instru- 
mental in estabhshing this society. 

SociNiANS, a sect of anti-Trinitarians, 
founded by Lsehus Socinus (born at 
Siena, in Tuscany, in 1525, and died at 
Zurich in 1562) and his nephew Paustus 
Socinus (born at Siena in 1539, and 
died at a village near Cracow in 1604) . The 
chief school of the Socinians was at Kakow, 
in Poland, where they obtained the grant of 
a settlement. All their first books were 
published here. In consequence of the in- 
temperate zeal against popery, of some Uni- 
tarian students in this city, a law was passed 
in Warsaw in 1638, enacting that the academy 
of Eakow should be destroyed, its professors 
banished, the printing-house of the Socinians 
destroyed, and their churches shut up. 

SocoNusco (Mexico), formerly belonging 
to Guatemala, was, with Chiapas, the de- 
partment in which it is situated, taken by 
Mexico A.D. 1843. 

SocoTKA (Indian Ocean). — This island 
was known to Ptolemy, who notices it under 
the name of Dioscoridis Insula, about the 
middle of the 2nd century. It was visited by 
the Portuguese Fernandez Perara, a.d. 1504, 
and was taken possession of by Albuquerque 
in 1507. The Portuguese are supposed to 
have evacuated the island before the close 
of the 16th century, when it came under 
the sway of the sultan of Kisseen. It re- 
mained undisturbed tiU 1801, when the 
Wahabees made a descent on the northern 
coast, and laid waste a part of it, together 
with the town of Tarmarida. Socotra stOl 
belongs to the sultan of Kisseen, but the 
government is chiefly delegated to one of 
the principal inhabitants. 

Sodium. — This metal was discovered by 
Sir Humphry Davy a.d. 1807. 

SoDOM AND GoMOKEAH (Palestine). — 
These cities were destroyed^ on account of 
their wickedness, by fire from heaven (Gen. 
xix. 24, 25), B.C. 1897. The only persons 
who escaped were Lot and his two daughters. 

SoDOE AND Man (See of).— This diocese 
originally comprised the JEbuda, or 
Western Isles, and the Isle of Man, and is 
said to have been founded by Amphibalus, 



SOL 

who sought an asylum in the Isle of Man 
from Diocletian's persecution about a.d. 
360. Other authorities state that Germanus 
was appointed the first bishop of the Isles by 
St. Patrick in 447. 

SoEST (Prussia), one of the Hanseatic 
towns, was incorporated vrith the county of 
Mark a.d. 1449. The cathedral was erected 
in the 11th and 12th centuries. The Wiesen- 
Kirche, founded in 1314, was completed in 
the 16th century, and restored in 1850. Sir 
Peter Lely, painter of the beauties of the 
court of Charles II., now in Hampton Court, 
was born here in 1617. 

SoFF ABIDES Dynastt, SO Called from the 
occupation of its founder, a brazier, sup- 
planted that of the Taherites, in Persia, a.d. 
872. It came to an end in 902. 

SoGDiANA (Asia). — This ancient coun- 
try, between the rivers Jaxartes and Oxus, 
nearly corresponded vrith the modern Bok- 
hara, in Turkestan, and was conquered by 
Alexander the Great B.C. 329. TheSogdians 
revolted the same year, and suddenly at- 
tacked the fortresses occupied by the Mace- 
donians, and massacred the garrisons. These 
fortresses were speedily retaken with great 
slaughter, and the revolt suppressed. They 
again revolted B.C. 328, and intrenched 
themselves in their mountain fastnesses. 
Alexander besieged and captured the 
strongest of these, knovm as the Sogdian 
Kock, defended by 30,000 men. Among the 
prisoners was the king of Bactria's daughter, 
whom he afterwards married. 

SoissoNS (France) is mentioned by Caesar, 
under the name of Novidunum, as the capital 
of the Suessones. Under the Eomans it 
took the name of Augusta Suessionum, 
The Roman general Syagrius was defeated 
here by Clovis, a.d. 486, when it became the 
capital of the Franks, and afterwards of the 
kingdom of Soissons in the 6th and 7th cen- 
turies. Here Childeric III., the last Mero- 
vingian king, was deposed, and Pepin the 
Short, the first Carolingian king, installed 
in 752. Charles the Simple was defeated 
here by the troops of his rival Robert, in 
922. It was taken by the faction of the 
Armagnacs, who committed dreadful ex- 
cesses in 1413, and suffered much in the 
rehgious wars of the 16th century, and in 
the troubles during the minority of Louis 
XIII. (1610 to 1643). A congress of the 
representatives of France, Spain, Germany, 
Great Britain, and the Northern Powers, 
was opened here June 19, 1728. Soissons 
was stormed by the Russians Feb. 13, 1814, 
but was evacuated from strategical motives 
the same day, and re-occupied by the 
French. It capitulated to the allies March 3, 
1814, was imsuccessfully assaulted by the 
French March 5, and was occupied by Na- 
poleon I. March 11. Councils were held 
here March 2, 744 ; April 26, 853 ; in 861, 
862; Aug. 18, 866; in 941; about 1092; 
Jan. 6, 1115 ; in 1122 ; June 10, 1155 ; in 
March, 1201 ; and July 11, 1455. 

SoLAE System, discovered and taught by 
Pythagoras of Samoa, who flourished from 
789 



SOL 



SOM 



about B.C. 586 to B.C. 506, was re-rived by Co- 
pernicus in bis great work publisbed at Nu- 
remberg A.D . 1548 . Its truth was demonstrated 
by N'ewton in Ms " Prineipia," publisbed in 
1687. 

SoLDiEEs' Datjghtees' Home (London) . — 
In August, 1857, tbe central association in 
aid of tbe wives and families of soldiers on 
active service during the Crimean war gave 
their surplus funds, amounting to nearly 
£13,000, to this institution, distinguishing 
the gift as the Powys' Endowment Fund, in 
recognition of the services of their secretary, 
Major Powys. The institution, erected at 
Hampstead, was opened by Prince Albert 
in 1859. 

Sold IN (Prussia), supposed to have 
been founded a.d. 1212, was formerly 
the capital of I^eumark, a dirision of 
Brandenburg. 

SoLEBAT, or SoiTTHWOiD Bat (Sea- 
light). — A naval engagement took place in 
this bay on the coast of Suffolk, between the 
Dutch fleet and the combined Enghsh and 
French fleets. May 28, 1672. Tbe Dutch were 
defeated, after a most sanguinary struggle, 
in the course of which the gallant earl of 
Sandwich, who commanded the English van, 
was blown up. 

Solemn League akd CovEirAifT. (See 

COTEN-AN-TEBS.) 

SoLEUEE, or SoLOTHiTEU- (Switzerland), 
the capital of a canton of the same name, 
was anciently called Castrum Solodurense, 
and was originally a Eoman station. The 
town was besieged for ten weeks without 
success by Duke Leopold, a.d. 1318, and 
was admitted into the Helvetic confederacy 
in 1481. The cathedral, reckoned the finest 
in Switzerland, commenced in 1762, was 
finished in 1772, at a cost of £80,000. 

SoLEEBiifO (Battle). — At this riUage of 
Lombardy, the emperor of the French and 
the king of Sardinia gained a rictory over 
the emperor of Austria, June 24, 1859. It 
was followed by the armistice of YiUa Franca 
which led to the termination of the war. 

Solicitoe-Geneeal. — The earliest holder 
of the office of kuig's sohcitor was Eichard 
Fowler, whose patent is dated March 12, 
1461. 

SoLiFiDiAN s. — This name was given to the 
Antinomians, a sect founded by John Agri- 
cola, of Eisleben, between a.d. 1538 and 
1540. They held that faith alone is sufficient 
for salvation. 

SoLiTABiES, a denomination of the nuns 
of St. Peter of Alcantara, instituted 
by Cardinal Barberini at Farsa, in Italy, 
A.D. 1676. The design of the institute was 
that the inmates should imitate the severe 
penitent life of St. Peter of Alcantara, keep 
continual silence, and employ their time 
solely in spiritual exercises. 

Solomon's Islands (Pacific), also called 
New Georgia, were discovered by the Spa- 
niard Mendana, a.d. 1567. They were 
visited by Bougainrille in 1768, by SurviUe 
in 1769, and by Lieutenant Shortland, of the 
British navy, in 1788. 
790 



Solomon's Temtle (Jerusalem) was com- 
menced in May, B.C. 1011, and dedicated 
B.C. 1004. It was plundered by Shishak, 
king of Egypt, B.C. 970. A collection of 
silver for itsrestoration was made by Joash, 
king of Judah, about B.C. 856. Ahaz, king 
of Judah, pUlaged it to hire the assistance 
of the king of Assyria, profaned it by the 
erection of a heathen altar, and ultimately 
closed it entirely, B.C. 742 — 726. Hezekiah, 
his son, repaired and re-opened it B.C. 726 — 
698. Manasseh practised heathen rites 
within its precincts, for which he was 
carried away captive by the king of Babylon, 
B.C. 677. It was repaired and purified by 
Josiah, B.C. 624. Nebuchadnezzar, king of 
Babylon, despoiled it of part of its sacred 
vessels, B.C. 606, of another portion B.C. 599 j 
and finally besieging Jerusalem, the re- 
mainder of the treasures of the temple were 
carried ofi", and the edifice itself destroyed 
by fire, b.c. 588. 

SoLWAT Moss (Battle).— The Scotch, to 
the number of 10,000, were routed at this 
place, in Cximberland, by a small body of 
English horse, not more than 300 in n\imber, 
under Dacre and Musgrave, Nov. 25, 1542. 
Above 1,000 prisoners were taken. 

SoMBBEBo (Battle) . — The Spaniards, under 
Morillo, were defeated at this to^Ti of Vene- 
zuela, South America, by the Yenezuelans, 
under Bolivar, Feb. 16, 1818. 

SoMBBEBO (West Indies). — Eobert Jef- 
fery, a seaman on board the ZTlt/sses, as a 
punishment for several acts of peculation, 
was put on shore on this island, Dec. 13, 
1807. Captain W. Lake, by whose orders 
this was done, was tried by court-martial 
at Plymouth, and dismissed the navy, Feb. 
10, 1810. Jeffery was rescued by an Ame- 
rican ship, and landed in America. 

SoMEBSET House (London).— Old Somer- 
set House, built by the protector Somerset, 
uncle of Ed vard VI., was commenced in 
March, 1547, and was the first specimen of 
ItaMan archite eture erected in this country. 
The architect is. supposed to have been John 
of Padua, an Itahan, who was appointed 
" deriser of his majesty's buildings " in 1544. 
On the execution of Somerset, Jan. 22, 
1552, Somerset House came into possession 
of the crown ; and Edward VI. assigned it 
to the princess Elizabeth for her use when 
she risited the court. In the reign of 
James I, it became the residence of his 
queen, Anne of Denmark, and he com- 
manded it to be called Denmark House 
in 1616. Charles I. assigned it to his queen, 
Henrietta Maria, in 1626 ; and a chapel, 
designed by Inigo Jones, was built within 
the walls in 1632, for the free use of the 
Eoman Cathohc rehgion. On the death of 
Charles II. in 1685, it became the residence 
of Catherine of Bragan9a ; and on her 
return to Portugal in 1692, it was inhabited 
by some of the nobility and poorer persona 
about the court. Buckingham House was 
settled on Queen Charlotte, in hen of So- 
merset House, April 10, 1775. The old 
palace was then demolished to make way for 



SOM 

the present edifice, which was designed 
by Sir William Chambers, and built be- 
tween the years 1776 and 1786. The whole 
of the east wing, left incomplete by Sir W . 
Chambers, was finished from designs by Sir 
R. Smirke in 1829, and now forms King's 
College. 

SoMEEs' Islands. {See Beemttdas.) 

SoMMA (Italy) . — Hannibal gained his first 
victory over the Eomans on Italian ground, 
near this town, on the Ticino, B.C. 218. 
Seipio, who conMnanded the latter, was 
wounded. 

SoMMEESHAUSES- (Battle). — The French, 
nnder Turenne, and the Swedes, under 
Wrangel, defeated Maximilian, elector of 
Bavaria, at this place, near Augsburg, 
May 7, 1648. 

Somnambulism. — Natural and artificial 
somnambulism was known to the ancients. 
Of the former, Aristotle says, "there are 
individuals who rise in their sleep and walk 
about, seeing as clear as those who are 
awake." Artificial somnambulism is said to 
have been practised by the Brahmins and 
Faquirs of India at a very early period. 
Magnetic somnambulism was discovered in 
France by the Marquis de Puyseger, May 
8, 1784, though it is asserted that Mesmer 
was acquainted with the phenomena, and 
that they were witnessed by his disciples 
in Paris in 1778. A well-authenticated 
case of a lady, aged 64, who had an 
ulcerated cancer of the right breast, of 
several years' standing, removed while in 
a state of magnetic somnambulism, was 
communicated to the French Academy 
April 16, 1829. 

Somnauth Gates were carried away from 
a Hindoo temple as a trophy by Sultan 
Mahmoud, the Mohammedan conqueror of 
India, on his invasion of Goojerat, about a.d. 
1025, and were subsequently placed over his 
tomb, in the village of Eosa, near Ghuznee. 
On the taking of Ghuznee by the British, 
under General Nott, Sept. 6, 1842, the gates 
were brought away from the tomb by order 
of Lord Ellenborough, and were conducted 
with great pomp across the whole of India, 
and restored to Goojerat. 

SoNciNO (Battle).— The Milanese, com- 
manded by Francesco Sforza, defeated the 
Venetians near this town in Italy, May 17, 
1431. 

Sondeebxtnd, a name given to the league 
formed a.d. 1846, by the seven Roman Ca- 
tholic cantons of Switzerland against the 
Federal diet, which had decreed the ex- 
pulsion of the Jesuits. The diet voted that 
the Sonderbund was illegal, July 20, 1847. 
Freiburg, their stronghold, was captured 
Nov. 13, Lucerne Nov. 24, and the Sonder- 
bund was dissolved. 

Sonnet. — The invention of the regular 
sonnet of fourteen lines has been ascribed 
to Guido d' Arezzo, the inventor of a musical 
scale, who flourished about a.d. 1024. Pe- 
trarch (1304r-1307) first raised this form of 
poetry into repute, though HaUam denies his 
right to be regarded as its inventor. Shake- 



SOR 

speare's sonnets were published in 1609, and 
Milton's about 1650. 

Sonnites. — The name given to the ortho- 
dox Mohammedans, who now possess the 
Turkish empire, as distinguished from the 
Shiites {q_.v.), or followers of the Caliph 
Ali, who was killed by three fanatics, a.d. 
660. 

SooLOO Islands (East-Indian Archi- 
pelago). — This group derives its name from 
Sooloo, the principal island. The early his- 
tory of the Sooloos is involved in obscurity. 
They assert that they once formed a part of 
an ancient Bornean empire founded by the 
Chinese ; but the inhabitants of Magindano, 
one of the Philippine islands, contend that 
they were formerly subject to them. From 
the time the Spaniards discovered the Phi- 
lippines (a.d. 1521), they have been fre- 
quently engaged in warfare with the Sooloos. 
The sultan of Sooloo ceded Balambangan, one 
of the group, to the British, in 1762. His 
subjects murdered the garrison and burned 
the settlement in 1775. It was re-established 
in 1803, and abandoned in the following year. 
The sultan and his chiefs were formerly no- 
torious for their piracy, and kept up a large 
fleet for that purpose. Their power was 
destroyed by the Spaniards in 1851. 

Sophia, St. (Constantinople) . — A church 
dedicated by Constantine I. to St. Sophia, 
for the Eternal Wisdom, was destroyed by fire 
in a popular tumult, a.d. 532. Justinian I. 
laid the foundation of a new edifice in the 
same year. The builders were Anthemius 
of Tralles and Indorus of Miletus. Ten 
thousand workmen were employed in its 
erection. Its form is that of a Greek cross 
inscribed in a quadrangle, two hundred and 
forty-three feet in breadth, by two hundred 
and sixty-nine in length. The dome, Ughted 
by four-and-twenty windows, has a diameter 
of one hundred and fifteen feet, and rises 
a hundred and eighty feet above the pave- 
ment. The walls are of brick, with a crust 
of marble. Eight columns of porphyry from 
the temple of the sun, and eight of green 
marble presented by the city of Ephesus, 
added to its splendours ; and at the lowest 
computation the whole cost is estimated at 
a million sterling. It was consecrated in 
537. An earthquake having in 558 over- 
thrown the eastern part of the dome, it was 
restored, and the church re-dedicated by 
Justinian I. in 563. It was fortified with new 
buttresses by Andronicus the elder in 1317, 
and was converted into a mosque by Moham- 
med II. in 1453. 

Sophists, a class of men who went about 
Greece discoursing and debating, and some- 
times educating the sons of noble families. 
Socrates (put to death, B.C. 396, in the 70th 
year of his age) was their great opponent. 
Protagoras (born about B.C. 470) is said to 
have been the first who adopted the name of 
sophist. 

SoPEON, or SoPEONT. (iSee Oedenbxteg, 
or Odenbueg.) 

SoKBONNE (Paris). — This celebrated col- 
lege was foxmded by Robert of Sorbonne, 
791 



SOE 



SOU 



confessor and chaplain to Louis IX., for the 
use of poor students in divinity, a.d. 1252. 
Cardinal Eicheheu rebuilt it in 1629, and 
added a chapel, which was begun in 1635, 
but not completed till 1659. Printing was 
first introduced into France, at Paris, by 
the doctors of the Sorbonne in 1469. They 
supported the faction of the Giaises in the 
religious wars of the 16th century, and 
strongly opposed the Eeformation. The col- 
lege was suppressed April 5, 1792. 

SoKCEKEKS. — The earliest case of sorcery 
in England of which any authentic details 
exist, is that of John of Nottingham, a sor- 
cerer of Coventry, who was tried for an 
attempt to compass the death of Edward II. 
by sorcery, a.d. 1324. Sorcery was fre- 
quently used as an instrument of pohtical 
intrigue in the 14th and 15th centuries. 
Pope Boniface VIII. was accused of sorcery 
by the agents of Philip IV. of France, 
in 1303, and the king called a council at 
Paris to hear witnesses and pronounce judg- 
ment, but the pope refused to acknowledge the 
council, and, it is said, died from the effects 
of the charge in the same year. Laws (33 
Hen. VIII. c. 8, 1541, and 1 James I. c. 12, 
1603) enacted against sorcerers in England 
were repealed by 9 Geo. II. c. 5 (1735). 

SoTJDAH-, or SooDAis" (Africa). — Beled El 
Sudan, " the land of the blacks," also 
caUed Nigritia, is the central region of the 
continent, unknown except from the de- 
scriptions of Arabian geographers, and of 
Leo Africanus, till entered from the west by 
Houghton, A.D. 1790. He was killed in 1791. 
Mungo Park added much to the knowledge 
of the country, having traversed the north- 
western regions in 1796 and 1797. Denham 
and Clapperton explored the central parts 
between 1822 and 1826; Caille, the south- 
western regions in 1828 ; and Eichard Lander 
the vaUey of the Quarra in 1830. 

SoTJiiA&ES Collection- of Italian art and 
workmanship, formed by M. Soulages, of 
Toulouse, in France, having been purchased 
by an EngHshman, formed part of the Art 
Treasures Exhibition at Manchester, a.d. 
1857. 

SoUKD, a narrow strait, forming one of 
the communications between the Cattegat 
and the Baltic, and separating the Danish 
island of Zealand from the coast of Sweden, 
was forced by the British fleet, under 
admirals Parker and Nelson, March 30, 
1801, and again under Gambler, in August, 
1807. 

Sound Dues, levied by the king of 
Denmark on all merchant vessels passing 
through the Sound, were first imposed a.d. 
1348, for Lighting the Sound and protect- 
ing vessels from pirates. Sweden was ex- 
empted from the toU by the treaty of 1644 ; 
but this privilege was withdrawn in 1720. 
By a treaty between Denmark, Great Bri- 
tain, Austria, Belgium, France, Hanover, 
Mecklenburg - Schwerin, Oldenburg, the 
Netherlands, Prussia, Enssia, Sweden and 
Norway, and the Hanseatic cities, Bremen, 
Lubeck, and Hamburg, the Sound duties 
792 



were abolished March 14, 1857, and a com- 
pensation of £3,386,258, of which Great 
Britain's share was £1,125,206, granted to 
Denmark in Heu, on condition of maintain- 
ing the lighthouses and superintending the 
pilotage. 

Soundings at Sea.— Peter the Great of 
Eussia constructed a deep-sea sounding ap- 
paratus, and was the first to attempt to obtain 
specimens of the bottom of the sea. Sound- 
ings taken by Sir J. C. Eoss in the Atlantic, 
near St. Helena, Jan. 3, 1840, showed a depth 
of 2,425 fathoms, and he failed to obtain 
soundings 486 miles from the island of Trini- 
dad, at 4,600 fathoms, or 27,600 feet, 
June 3, 1840. Lieutenant Dayman, of H. M.S. 
Cyclops, sounded the Atlantic between Ire- 
land and Newfoundland in 1857. The great- 
est depth was about 2,500 fathoms, and the 
pressure at that depth nearly three tons 
to the square inch. 

Southampton (Hampshire), forming a 
county of itself, anciently called Hanton, or 
Hantune. The date of its foundation is 
unknown, but it probably arose on the 
decay of the Eoman military station of 
Clausentium, situated about one mile to the 
north-east of the present town. It was at- 
tacked without success by the Danes, a.d. 
873, plundered by them in 980, and again in 
992. Canute occasionally made it his 
residence, and it is here that he is said to 
have administered his well-knovra reproof to 
his courtiers, by shovring that the sea would 
not obey his royal command. Henry II. 
and his queen landed here on their return 
from France in 1174. The town was sacked 
and destroyed by an allied force of French, 
Spanish, and Genoese, in October, 1.338, 
and in the following year the fortifications 
were repaired and strengthened. The castle 
— supposed to have been the most ancient of 
the Saxon castles in England — was rebuilt, 
and the fortifications were extended by Eich- 
ard II. (1377 to 1379). Philip II. of Spain 
landed here on his way to espouse Queen 
Mary in 1554. The fortifications were 
strengthened in the reign of Edward VI. 
(1547 to 1553). Southampton was first in- 
corporated, by charter in the reign of 
Henry I. (1100 to 1135), but the earliest 
existing charter, which is simply confirma- 
tory, is that of Henry II. (1154 to 1189). 
This was confirmed by Henry VI., who 
erected the town and surrounding district 
into a county of itself. A house of Grey 
Friars was foxmded in 1240. The almshouses 
in St. Mary's parish were bmlt in 1565, the 
charity school in 1760, and Thorner's alms- 
houses in 1789. The barracks were enlarged 
and converted into a mUitary asylum in 1816, 
and the pubhc dispensary was estabMshed in 
1823. The royal pier was opened in 1833, 
and the new docks were opened in 1842. 
Southampton was made the packet-station 
for the Madeira, West Indian, Mexican, 
and Mediterranean mails, on the 28th of 
September, 1843. 

South Australia. — Various discoveries 
were made in the southern parts of Aus- 



sou 

tralia by the Dutcli a.d. 1627, by D'Entre- 
casteaux in 1792, by Grant in 1800, by Flin- 
ders in 1805, and by Sturt and Mitchell in 
1831. A company was formed for its coloniza- 
tion in 1834, under the title of the " South 
Australian Colonization Commission," and 
an immense tract of land was vested in their 
hands, to be erected into a colony on the 
Wakefield system. The boundaries of the 
province were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 
(Aug. 15, 1834), and it was officially pro- 
claimed a colony by the first governor. 
Captain Hindmarsh, Dec. 28, 1836. After 
some years of depression, the discovery of 
the Burra-Burra copper-mines in 1842 raised 
the prosperity of the new colony to a high 
state ; but the gold discoveries of 1851 in 
Yictoria and New South Wales exerted an 
injurious, though only temporary, effect. 
The parhament was first summoned April 22, 
1857, and consists of two chambers, the 
members of which are elected by ballot, 
and enjoy a term of office of three years. 

SouTHCOTTiAK D EL Ti SIGNS. —Joanna 
Southcott, a fanatic, was born in Devonshire 
about A.D. 1750. Originally a domestic 
servant, she set up for a prophetess, and 
announced herself as the woman spoken of 
in the 12th chapter of the book of Reve- 
lations. She published her prophecies to 
the world, and her followers amounted 
to 100,000. When beyond the age of sixty, 
she announced that she would be the mother 
of a second Shiloh, Oct. 19, 1814. Her 
proselytes in great numbers assembled 
round her door day and night till the 19th 
passed away. The promised Shiloh did 
not appear, and the multitude were in- 
formed that the prophetess had fallen into 
a trance. She died Dec. 27, 1814. Her 
followers committed a breach of the peace 
in London Jan. 13, 1819. 

SouTHEEN- CoifPEDEKATiON-. — Mr. Bu- 
chanan, president of the United States, in 
his message to Congress, deprecated the 
threatened secession of the southern states, 
and recommended such changes in the con- 
stitution as might satisfy them, Dec. 4, 1860. 
South Carolina taking the lead, seceded 
Dec. 20 ; and a requisition made by a depu- 
tation to the president, that the troops 
should be withdrawn from the forts of 
Charleston harbour, was refused Jan. 3, 
1861. Fort Sumter was bombarded, and 
surrendered to the Confederates April 13. 
The Federal commissioners destroyed the 
arsenal and fifteen thousand stand of arms 
at Harper's Ferry, April 18. President 
Jefferson Davis sent a message to the south- 
ern congress, announcing the ratification of 
a permanent constitution, April 29. {See 
United States.) 



COBTFBDEEATE STATES. 



Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

Carolina, S. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Louisiana. 



Mississipi. 

Missouri. 

Tennessee. 

Texas. 

Vu-ginia. 



SOU 

SorTHEEN- CoM-TiN-ENT. — The belief in the 
existence of a continent in the antarctic re- 
gions, which has been styled the Terra Aus- 
tralis incognita, arose from the reported 
discovery of terra firma by Juan Fernan- 
dez, who sailed from the coast of ChiK 
A.D. 1576. Alvaro Mendana discovered 
Solomon's Islands in 1567, but failed to find 
them on a second voyage in 1595. His chief 
pilot, Pedro Fernandez, sailed in quest of 
the southern territory, and discovered Pit- 
cairn's Island, the New Hebrides, and other 
islands, between 1605 and 1606. A ship be- 
longing to Eotterdam, commanded by Dii-k 
Cherrits, was driven southwards as far as 
the land now known as South Shetland, in 
1599. Captain Cook undertook his second 
voyage in order to ascertain whether there 
really was another continent in those seas, 
and is the first European known to have en- 
tered the antarctic circle, having reached the 
highest latitude Jan. 30, 1774. He found 
no land, however, to the south of 60°. The 
South Shetland Islands were discovered by 
Wilham Smith in 1819, and Petra Island by 
BeUinghausen, a Eussian, in January, 1821. 
WeddeU reached three degrees farther south 
than Cook in 1823. Enderby's Land and Gra- 
ham's Land were found by Biscoe in 1831 and 
1832. A French expedition, under D'Ur- 
ville, explored some of the coasts in 1837. 
Balleny discovered Sabrina Land, and the 
islands that bear his name in 1839. The 
largest tract of coast was discovered by an 
expedition fitted out by the United States 
government, under Charles Wilkes, and one 
by the French government, under D'Urville, 
in 1840. An expedition from England, under 
Sir James Clarke Ross, in an attempt to 
reach the south magnetic pole, discovered 
Victoria Land, Jan. 12, 1841. Ross in 1843 
added in some measure to previous disco- 
veries. 

South KENsiNGTOif Museum (London), 
opened June 24, 1857, contains collections of 
sculpture and ornamental art; educational 
collections ; animal, mineral, and vegetable 
productions ; original statues and casts by 
British artists ; models of patented inven- 
tions ; and a splendid collection of pictures, 
bequeathed to the nation by Sheepshanks, 
Vernon, Turner, and others. It also con- 
tains an art library. Occasional evening 
lectures are dehvered to working men. 

South - Sea Company. — This disastrous 
speculation commenced Sept. 8, 1710. The 
company, estabhshed by 9 Anne, c. 15 
(1710), was incorporated by 3 Geo. I. c. 9 
(1716). The famous South-Sea Act for re- 
deeraing the national debt (6 Geo. I. e. 4) 
was passed April 7, 1720 ; and the directors, 
by the promise of prodigious dividends, and 
other infamous acts, raised the original £100 
shares to the enormous price of £1,050. The 
bubble lasted till Sept. 8, when the stock 
began to fall. By Sept. 29 it had sunk to 
£150, and thousands of families throughout 
the country were reduced to beggary. An 
act (7 Geo. I. c. 1 & 2) was passed in 1721 
to punish the directors. Their estates were 
793 



sou 

seized, and other measures were taken by 
the government to afford relief to the suf- 
ferers. 

SoiTTHWABK (Londou),— A perpetual 
right of magistracy was granted a. p. 
1327. A grant of its liberties was made in 
April, 1550, to the city, together with estates 
belonging to the monastery of Bermondsey, 
and property in Newington, St. George's 
Fields, and Lambeth Marsh, on payment of 
£647. 2s. per annum. An act having been 
passed to reheve all those debtors under fifty 
pounds, who had taken refuge in the Mint, 
some thousands of them left their sanctuary 
in a body, July 16, 1723. The first stone of 
the bridge was laid by Lord Keith, May 23, 
1815, and it was opened March 24, 1819. A 
committee of the House of Commons was 
appointed to inquire into the subject of 
removing the toll, April 26, 1841. 

SouTHWOLD Bat. {See Solebat.) 

SovEEEiGN. — A gold coin of this denomi 
nation was first issued of the value of 22s. 
and one twenty-fourth part of the weight of 
a pound of gold, in the reign of Henry YIII., 
about 1509. Sovereigns were coined at 20s. 
apiece, and half-sovereigns at 10s., in 1542. 
The sovereign passed for 24s. in 1550, and for 
30s. in 1552. By 56 Geo. III. (1816) it was 
provided that sovereigns coined weighing 20 
21-parts of a guinea, were to pass for 20s. 
They were issued Jiily 5, 1817. 

SozoPETRA (Syria) was besieged and 
taken by the Greek emperor Theophilus, 
A.D. 838, and although Motassem interceded 
in favour of the town, it was levelled to the 
ground. 

Spa Fields (London). — A popular meet- 
ing of the distressed manufacturers and me- 
chanics, to get up a petition to the Prince 
Eegent, was held here Xov. 15, 1816. It 
was followed by another meeting, Dec. 2, 
when, after some violent speeches, the 
mob, headed by a man named Watson, 
marched towards the city. On their way 
they broke into the shop of Mr. Beckwith, 
a gunsmith, on Snow Hill, and a Mr. Piatt, 
who interfered, was shot at and wotmded 
by Watson. The rioters spread over the 
city, broke into the gunmakers' shops search- 
ing for arms, and committed much injury 
before the military succeeded in suppressing 
the riot. £500 reward was offered by 
government, and £100 by the city, for the 
apprehension of Watson, who escaped to 
America. One of the rioters, named Cash- 
man, was hanged opposite Mr. Beckwith's 
house on Snow HiU, March 12, 1817. 

Spahis. — A succession of disastrous de- 
feats of the Turkish armies by the Aus- 
trians, produced a revolt of the Spahis, 
or cavalry, at Constantinople, a.d. 1603. 
Through the intrigues of Hassan, the grand 
vizier, the Jannissaries were induced to 
support the government, and by their aid 
the revolt was quelled. The sultan, terrified 
at the influence of Hassan over the Janissa- 
ries, deposed him from his office, and soon 
afterwards caused him to be strangled. 

Spaiis^. — The Spanish peninsula was known 
794 



SPA 

to the ancient Greeks under the name of 
Iberia, and to the Komans under that of 
Hispania. 

B.C. 9 

237. The Carthaginian general Hamilear est»-a 
blishes his authority in Spain. ■ 

229. His son-in-law, Hasdrubal, founds NewH 
Carthage, or Carthagena {q.v.). 

221. Assassination of Hasdrubal, who is succeeded 
by his SOD Hannibal. 

218. Hannibal takes the city of Sagimtum, and 
marches int" Italy, thereby commencing 
the second Punic war. A Roman force, 
under Cneius Scipio, invades Spain. 

212. Defeat and death of Publius and Cneius 
Scipio in Spain. 

210. Scipio Afi-icanus takes Carthagena. 

206. The Carthaginians ai'e finally expelled from 
Spain by the Romans. 

205. Spain is divided into the provinces of His- 
pania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, or 
Hither and Further Spain. 

179. A revolt of the Celtiberians is suppressed by 
Tiberius Gracchus, father of the celebrated 
brothers. 

145. The Lusitanian general Viriathus defeats 
the Romans in Western Spain. 

141. Viriathus obtains a treaty from the Romans, 
acknowledging the independence of the 
T/Usitanians. 

140. Vu'iathiis is murdered by the Romans. 

133. Sack of Numant.ia. and end of the Numantine 
war (q.v.). This victory secures the Ro- 
mans in the possession of central Spain. 

104 Spain is ravaged by Cimbrian invaders, who 
are compelled to retire by the Celti- 
berians. 
77. The Celtiberian chieftain, Sertorius, rebels 

against SyUa. 
72. Sertorius is defeated and assassinated. 
60. Julius Cffisar gains several victories in Spain. 
55. Pompey is invested -with the government of 

the two Spains. 
27. Augastus divides Spain into three provinces. 
25. The northern tribes of the Cantabri and 
Astures are reduced to subjection by 
Augustus. 

a.d. 

251. Christianity is said to have been introduced 
into Spain about this year. 

260. Spain is invaded by the Franks and other 
barbarians. 

409. Spain is invnded by the Alani, the Suevi, and 
the Vandals. 

411. Ataulphus, or Adolphus, obtains the pro- 
vinces of Southern Gaul and Spain, and 
establishes the kingdom of the Visigoths. i 

417. Peace is concluded with the Romans. j 

427. The Vandals cross over into Africa. 

452. Theodoric I. conquers the Suevi, and takes 
their kin?, Rechiarius, prisoner. 

466. Eui-ic establishes his authority over the 
■whole of S- pain. 

560. The Suevi in Spain renounce Arianism. 

587. Recared I. expels the Fi-anks from Spain. 

589. The Roman Catholic religion becomes the 
established faith. 

711. April 30. The Arabs, under Tarik-ben-Zeyad, 

fli'St land in Spain. July. Roderic is de- 
feated and slain by the Arabs in the battle 
of Xeres de la Frontera. The Arabs seize 
Cordova. 

712. Musa passes over into Spain. 

715. Abdelasis, son of Musa, marries Egilona, the 

widow of Roderic. 

716. The Goth, Pelayo, establishes an independent 

monarchy in Asturias (q. v.). 

733. The Spanish Saracens under Abderahman ai-e 
defeated by Charles Martel at Tours. 

742. Large numbers of Syrian and Egyptian 
Mohammedans enter Spain. 

755. Abderahman I. becomes the first Mo- 
hammedan king of Cordova. 

760. An insurrection against Abderahman I. is 
suppressed at Toledo. 



SPA 



SPA 



762. Count Eodrigo Fruelaz asserts the inde- 
pendence of Castile (q. v.). 
778. Charlemagne invades Spain, and annexes the 

Spanish march to France. 
822. A rebellion under Abdalla is suppressed at 

Cordova. 
843. Spain and Portugal are ravaged by the 

Northmen. 
864. The Saracens recover the Spanish march from 

the French. 
885. Navarre becomes an independent state. (See 

Navahre. ) 
913. The seat of the Christian government is 
transferred from Oviedo to Leon, which is 
erected into a kingdom by Ordono II. 

1019. Yah ye Ben Aly introduces a large tribe of 
Moors into Spain. {See Mooes.) 

1026. Sancho I. foimds the kingdom of Castile. 

1031. ITie newly-anivea Moors establish their 
authority in Spain. 

1035. The kingdom of Aragon commences under 
Eamiro I. {See Aragoit.) 

1037. Union of Leon and Castile. 

1091. The Almoravides establish themselves at Cor- 
dova. 

1095. Portugal is erected into a distinct princi- 
cipality. {See Portugal. ) 

1099. Death of Roririgo Diaz de Bivar, the cele- 
brated Cid Campeador. 

1139. Alfonso I. founds the kingdom of Por- 
tugal. 

1143, The Moors rebel against their rulers. 

1148. The Almohades establish their dynasty at 
Cordova. {See Almohades.) 

1238. Foundation of the Moorish kingdom of 
Granada {q. v.). 

1257. Extinction of the Almohades dynasty in 
Spain. 

1274 The Merines, under Abu Jusef, enter Spain. 
{See Merines.) 

1340. The Moors sustain a terrible defeat from the 
Christians at Tarifa. 

1388. The heir first receives the title of " Prince of 
the Asturias." 

1469. Oct. 19. Maniage of Ferdinand of Aragon and 
Isabella of Castile. 

1474. Ferdinand and Isabella ascend the throne of 
Castile. 

1478. Nov. 1. The Inqtiisition is introduced into 

Castile. 

1479. Ferdinand ascends the throne of Aragon, 

which is thus united to Castile. 
1483. Oct. 17. The Inquisition is finaUy established 

in Spain. 
1485. A conspii-acy against the Inquisition breaks 

out in Aragon, where the inquisitor Arbues 

is assassinated. 

1492. Jan. 2. Ferdinand V. and Isabella L make 

their solemn entry into Granada, and 
abolish the empire of the Moors in Spain. 
March 30. The Jews are expelled from 
Spain. April 17, Columbus is commis- 
sioned to explore the "Western ocean. 

1493. Jan. 19. An important treaty with France is 

concluded at Barcelona {g.v.). 

1495. Jan. 11. Death of Cardinal Mendoza. 

1496. Feb. 22. Organization of the Spauish militia. 
1500. A rebellion of the Moors in the Alpuxanas is 

suppressed with sireat severity. 

1502. The Spanish Moors are compelled to adopt 

Chrisiianity, aud are henceforth known as 
Moriscoes. 

1503. Naples is annexed to the Spanish crown. 

Louis XII. of France invades Spain with- 
out success 

1504. Nov. 26. Death of Queen Isabella I., whom the 

Spaniards regard " as the most truly great 

in their line of princes." 
1506. March 18. Ferdinand V. takes as his second 

wife the Princess Gerniaine of Narbonne. 

May 20. Death of Christopher Columbus 

at Valladolid. 
1509. May 16. Cai'dinal Ximenes conducts a cru- 
sading army against the African Moors, 
1512. Ferdinand "V. conquers Navarre, and annexes 

it to Spain. 



1515. Dec, 2. Gonzalvo de Cordova, the "Great 

Captain," expires at Granada. 

1516. Jan. 23. Death of Ferdinand V, 

1517. Cardinal Ximenes assumes the sole power. 

Nov. 8. He dies. 

1519. June 28, Charles I. is elected to the imperia 

throne of Germany, which he ascends as 
Charles V. 

1520. An insurrection breaks out in Castile. 

1527. An insurrection of the Moriscoes is sup- 



1554. July 25. The mamage of Pi-ince Philip of 
Spain and Queen Maiy of England is 
solemnized at Winchester. 

1556. Jan. 16. Charles V. abdicates the Spanish 

throne in favour of his son, Philip II. 
Sept. 5. The Spaniards, under the duke 
of Alva, invade the Paoal states, 

1557. June 7. War is declared against France. 

Aug. 10. The French are defeated at St. 
Quentin. Sept. 27. Alva takes Rome, and 
receives the papal absolution. 

1558. Feb. Pope Paul IV. issues a bull ordering the 

Inquisition to suppress Protestantism in 
Spain : and a teiTible persecution is the 
result. Sept, 21. Death of Charles V, at the 
monastery of St, Just {q. v.). Nov. 17. The 
death of Mary of England leaves Philip II. 
a widower. 

1559. April 2, Peace with France is restored by the 

treaty of Cateau-Cambresis {q. v. ). June 24, 
Philip II. marries the Princess Elizabeth 
or Isabella of France by proxy. 
1563. April 23. Foundation of the Escorial {q.v.). 

1566. The Dutch Protestants rebel against Spain. 

1567. Aug. The duke of Alva enters the Nether- 

lands, 

1568. Jan, 18, Arrest of Don Carlos, eldest son of 

PhUip II,, by his father. July 24. Don 
Carlos dies in prison. His father is sus- 
pected of having poisoned him. Oct. 2. 
Death of the young and beautifiil Queen 
Isabella, Dec, 26. The Moriscoes under 
Aben-Farax rebel against Philip U. 

1569. Dec, 29. Don John of Austria takes the field 

against the Moriscoes. 

1570. Nov. 11, Don John, having suppressed the 

rebellion, resigns his command. 

1571. May 24. Spain unites with Venice and the 

pope against the Turks. June 6. Don 
John of Austria takes the command of 
the Spanish forces, Oct. 7. He gains a 
splendid victory over the Turks in the 
naval battle of Lepanto. 

1576. Don John is appointed Spanish governor of 

the Netherlands. 

1577. Philip II. declares himself protector of the 

French Roman Catholic league, 

1.578. Oct. 7, Death of Don John of Austria. 

1580. The United Provinces renounce their alle- 
giance to Philip II, (See Holland,) The 
duke of Alva conquers Portugal, which is 
annexed to the Spanish crown, 

1582. Death of the duke of Alva, who is equally 
celebrated for his consummate military 
skill and for his pitiless cruelty. 

1588. Destruction of the Spanish Armada. (See 
Armada,) 

1592. Philip II, abolishes the free constitution of 
Aragon. 

1598, Sept, 13, Death of Philip II,, "a gloomy, 
jealous, haughty, vindictive, and inexorable 
tyi-ant," 

1609. April 9. A truce of twelve years is concluded 
with the Dutch. The Moriscoes are ex- 
pelled by Philip III. 

1616. Death of Miguel de Cervantes, author of 
■' Don Quixote." 

1621. Aug, War is renewed with Holland. The 
new king, Philip IV,, abandons the reins of 
government to the count of Olivajez, 

1631. April 6, Spain loses her ascendancy in Italy 
by the peace of Chierasco. 

1634, War is commenced against Fr.anee, 

1635. The Spaniards under the Cardinal Infante 

invade France without success. 

795 



SPA 



1640. The Spaniards are expelled from Portugal by 

Johu of Bragan^a. 
1643. Fall of Olivarez. 
1648. Philip IV. renounces Ms right to Holland 

by the peace of Westphalia, or Munster. 
1655. War is declared against England. 

1659. Nov. 7. Peace with France is restored by the 

treaty of the Pyrenees. 

1660. Peace is restored with England. 

1665. Kept. 17. Death of Philip IV., who is suc- 
ceeded by his infant son, Charles II., under 
the regency of his mother, the Queen- 
dowager Anne. 

1668. Feb. 13. Peace with Portugal is restored by 
the treaty of Lisbon. 

1675. The king attaius his majority, and abolishes 
the regency. 

1690. June 6. Spain joins the Grand Alliance 

against France. 

1691. The French invade Aragon. 
1694. They ravage Catalonia. 

1697. Sept. 10. Peace with France is restored by the 

treaty of Eyswick. 

1698. The first treaty for the partition of the 

Spanish mouarchy is concluded at the 
Hague by Englaud, France, and Holland. 

1700. The second partition treaty is signed by 

the same powers at London and the Hague. 
Nov. 1. Death of Charles II., the last 
sovereign of the house of Austria. He 
is succeeded by Philip V., the Bourbon, 
grandson of Louis XIV., and duke of 
Anjou. 

1701. Jan. 20. England, Holland, and Denmark 

form a coalition at Odeusee, for the pur- 
pose of placing Charles of Austria on the 
Spanish throne. Feb. 24. An alliance is 
concluded between France, Spain, andMan- 
tua, at Venice. 

1702. May 15. The war of the Spanish Succession 

is declared by the allies at London, Vienna, 
and the Hague. 

1703. May 16. Portugal joins the aUiance against 

Spain. 

1704. July 24. The English take Gibraltar {q. v.). 

1705. June 3. Lord Peterborough sails from Ports- 

mouth, to assume the English command 
in Spain. Oct. 23. Charles of Austria is 
acknowledged king at Barcelona. 
1707. March 14. Lord Peterboi-ough is recalled and 
embarks for Italy. April 25. Defeat of the 
allies by the French and Spanish, at the 
battle of Almanza (g. v.). 

1713. April 11. PhUip V. cedes Naples to Austria 

by the treaty of Utrecht. 

1714. Sept. 12. Capture of Barcelona by the Bour- 

bon forces under the duke of Berwick, 
which termiuates the war of the succes- 
sion. Nov. 5. The Cortes adopts the Salic 
law of succession. 

1715. Cardinal Alberoni is made minister. 
1719. Dec. 0. Fall of Cardinal Alberoni. 

1724. Jan. 4. Abdication of PhUip V. iu favour of 

his son Louis. Aug. 20. Death of Louis, in 
consequence of which Philip V. resumes the 
government. 

1725. AprU 30. An alliance with Austria is con- 

cluded at Vienna. 
1729. Nov. 9. An aUiauce with England and France 
is concluded at Seville. 

1735. July 3. Don Cai-los, sou of Philip V., is crowned 

kmg of the Two Sicilies. (See Naples.) 

1736. War is declared against Portugal. 

1739. Oct. 23. England declares war against Spain. 
1748. Oct. 18. Spain accedes to the treaty of AiV -la- 

ChapeUe. 
1750. Jan. 14. Peace with Portugal is restored by 

the treaty of Madrid. 

1762. Spain declares war against England and Por- 

tugal, and a Spanish force invades the latter 
country. 

1763. Feb. 10. Peace is restored by the treaty of 

Paris. 
1767. AprU 2. Expulsion of the Jesuits. 
1771. Jan. 22. Spain cedes the Falkland Isles {q. v.) 

to England. 
796 



SPA 



A.D. 

1775. War is resumed with Portugal ; but is chiefly 
caiTied on in America. 

1778. 3Iarch 31. The dispute with Portugal is ad- 
justed by the treaty of Pardo, or St. Hde- 



1779. 

1783. 

1792. 

1793. 

1794. 
1795. 



1796. 
1797. 



June 16. War is declared against Great Bri- 
tain. The Spanish and French fleets be- 
siege Gibraltar {q. v.). 

Sept. 3. Great Britain cedes the Balearic Isles 
to Spain by the ti-eaty of Versailles. 

Don Manuel Godoy, the queen's paramour, is 
made prime minister. 

May 25. Spain unites with England against 
the French republic. 

Feb. The French invade Spain. 

July 22. Peace with France is restored by 
the treaty of Basel. Godoy receives the 
title of Prince of the Peace iu consequence 
of his share in effecting this treaty. 

Oct. 11. War is commenced against England. 

Feb. 14. Sir John Jeivis defeats the Spanish 
fleet in a great naval battle off Cape St. 
Vincent (q.v.}. 

Oct. 1. By the treaty of St. Ildefonso, Spain 
cedes Parma to the French. 

March 3. War is declared against PortugaL 
June 6. It is terminated by the peace of 



1802. March 25. Peace with England is restored by 

the treaty of Amiens. 
1804 Oct. 5. The British intercept and capture four 

Spanish vessels bearing treasure. Dec. 12. 

Spain declares war against England. 

1805. Oct. 21. Sea-fight at Trafalgar (q. v.). 

1806. Oct. 5. Godoy invites the Spaniaa-ds to unite 

against Napoleon T. 

1807. Oct. 18. A French army enters Spain en 

route for Portugal. Oct. 27. A treaty for 
the partition of Portugal is signed with 
France at Foutainebleau. Oct. 29. Godoy 
accuses the prince of Asturias of a design 
against the lives of the king and queen. 
Nov. 5. The prince is recoucUed to his 
parents. 

1808. Jan. 14. The French seize the frontier forces 

of Spain. Feb. 27. Napoleon I. demands that 
the districts of Spain north of the Ebro be 
ceded to France in exchange for Portu- 
gal. March 18. A revolution breaks out 
at Aranjuez. Fall of the Priuce of 
Peace. March 19. Charles IV. abdicates in 
favour of Ferdinand VII. March 23. The 
French, under Mui'at, enter Madrid. April 
20. Godoy is sent prisoner to Bayonne. 
May 2. The Spaniards rise at Madrid and 
massacre 200 French. Mui-at suppresses 
the insui-rection with horrid barbarity. 
May 5. Charles IV. again renounces the 
crown, in favour of Napoleon I. May 6. Ab- 
dication of Ferdinand VII. May 24. A 
revolutionary junta is established in the 
Asturias. June 6. Napoleon I. confers the 
crown on his brother. July 20. Joseph 
enters Madrid. July 30. He is compelled 
to retire. Aug. 21. The battle of Vimelra 
{q.v.). Aug. 25. The Spanish army, under 
Castanos, enters Madrid. Sept. 25. A central 
junta is established at Madrid. Oct. 27. 
The patriot army is defeated by the Fiench 
at Logi-ono. Oct. 31. The Spaniards, under 
Blake, are defeated by the French, under 
Lefebvre, at Durango. Nov. 3. Napoleon L 
heads the Fi-ench army in person. Nov. 10. 
The Spaniards sustain a severe defeat from 
Soult at the battle of Burgos. Nov. 13. 
They are defeated at Reynosa. Nov. 22. 
AndatTudela (8. ?).). Dec. 4. Napoleon L 
takes Madrid. Dec. 22. Napoleon I. quits 
Madrid. Dec. 23. The inhabitants swear 
fidelity to Joseph. 

1809. Jan. 13. The Spaniards sustain a severe defeat 

at TJcles. Jan. 16. Battle of Corunna 
(q.v.). Jan. 22. Joseph Bonaparte re-enters 
Madrid. Jan. 26. Soult takes Ferrol. Feb. 
17. The Spaniards are defeated by St. Cyr, 
at Igualada. 



SPA 



SPA 



1814. 
1815. 
1817. 



Feb. 20. Saragossa surrenders to the 
French. March 28. The French defeat 
the Spanish loyalists at Medellin and 
Ciudad-Kfeal. May 5. King Joseph opens 
his council of state at Madrid. May 12. 
Wellington crosses the Douro and enters 
Spain. May 23. The French under General 
Suchet are defeated by Blake at Alcaniz. 
July 28. The battle of Talavera {q. v.). Aug. 
21. The Spaniards are defeated at Almo- 
nacid. Oct. 24. They defeat General Mar- 
chand at Tamanes. Nov. 12. Soult and 
Moi-tier totally defeat the Spaniards at 
Ocana. Dec. 12. Gerona surrenders to the 
French. Dec. 16. St. Cyr defeats the Spa- 
niai-ds at Cardaden. Dec. 21. And at Mo- 
linos del Eey. 

Jan. 27. The French seize Granada. Jan. 31. 
Seville surrenders to the French. AprU 
21. They take Astorga. May 14. Suchet 
reduces Lerida. July 10. Ciudad-Rodi-igo 
surrenders to Massena. Nov. 27. General 
Musnier defeats the Spaniards at TJldecina. 

Jan. 23. Death of the Spanish patriot Romana. 
Feb. 18. Soult defeats the Spanish force 
under Mendozabel at the Geboro. March 
5. Defeat of the French by the British at 
Barossa. May 5. Wellington defeats Mas- 
sena at the battle of Fuentes de Onoro. May 
16. The battle of Albuera {q. v. ). June 28. 
Suchet seizes Tarragona. July 15. Joseph 
Bonaparte returns to Madrid. Sept. 27. 
Suchet takes Murviedro. Dec. 12. Soult 
defeats two Spanish regiments at Lorca. 

Jan. 9. Valencia surrenders to the French. 
Jan. 19. WelUngtou takes Ciudad-Rodrigo. 
Jan. 26. Catalonia is declared an integral 
pai't of France. April 7. Wellington storms 
Badajos {q. v.). July 22. The battle of Sala- 
manca (g'. w.). Aug. 12. The British enter 
Madrid. Sept. 22. The Cortes invest Wel- 
lington with the supreme command of the 
Spanish forces. 

April 13. Defeat of the French at Castella 
{q. v.). June 21. The battle of Vittoria 
{q. V.) July 28. Wellington defeats Soult 
at the battle of the Pyrenees. Aug. 31. 
He takes St. Sebastian. Oct. 7. He forces 
the passage of the Bidasoa {q. v.), and 
enters France. Oct. 31. Fampeluna sur- 
renders to the British. 

May 14. Ferdinand "VII. is solemnly restored 
at Madrid. Sept. 26. Espoz y Mina rebels 
against his authority in Navarre. 
Sept. 18. General Porlier is convicted of an 
attempt to restore the constitution. Oct. 3. 
He is hanged. 

Sept. 23. A treaty with Great Britain for 
the suppression of the slave-trade is sigued 
at Madrid. 

Jan. 20. Death of the ex king Charles IV. 
July 8. A military insurrection is sup- 
pressed at Cadiz. 

Jati . 1. A revolution is commenced by Raphael 
y Nunez riel Riego. Feb. 21. The revolution 
breaks out at Corunna. Feb. 23. It extends 
to Ferrol. Feb. 24. And to Saragossa. 
March 8. The king swears fidelity to the 
constitution. 

Sept. 18. Riego is arrested for conspiracy at 
Saragossa. 

July 7. The royal guard is abolished by the 
Cortes. 

Jan, 18. The French ambassador leaves Madrid. 
Apiil 6. The French invade Spain. April 
17. They occupy Vittoria. May 24. They 
enter Madrid. June 11. 'The Cortes declare 
the king deposed, and compel him to retire 
with them to Cadiz. Aug. 31. The French 
obtain the entire mastery of the Peninsula 
by the battle of the Trocadero fortress. 
Sept. 28. Dissolution of The Cortes. Oct. 1. 
Restoration of Ferdinand VII. Oct. 3. 
The French occupy Cadiz. Nov. 7. Exe- 
cution of Riego. Nov. 13. The king and 
queen return to Madrid. 



1826. Nov. 28. The Spanish government disclaims 
any connection with the Portuguese revo- 
lution. 

1828. Sept. 24. The French evacuate Cadiz. 

1830. March 29. The king abolishes the Salic law. 

1832. Oct. 25. In consequence of the serious illness 

of the king, the queen is made regent, and 
a new ministry is appointed. 

1833. Jan. 4. The king reassumes the government. 

April 29. Don Carlos asserts his right to 
the throne, in the event of the death of 
his brother Ferdinand VII. without male 
issue. Sept. 29. Death of Ferdinand VII., 
who is succeeded by his young daughter 
Isabella II., under the regency of her 
mother, the queen-dowager Christina. Oct. 
4. Don Carlos is proclaimed king at Bilbao, 
in Biscay. Oct. 17. His property is con- 
fiscated and annexed to the royal treasure. 
Oct. 27. The royalist volunteers are dis- 
armed at Madrid. Nov. 9. Diplomatic re- 
lations are discontinued with Portugal. 
Nov. 30. Spain is divided into forty-three 
provinces. Dec. 30. The Carlists are de- 
feated at Los Arcos by General Lorenzo. 

1834. AprU 21. Great Britain, France, and Portugal 

form the quadruple alliance with Spain 
for establishing Isabella II. on the throne. 
June 13. Don Carlos lands in England. 
July 9, He returns to Spain. Aug. 30. 
The Spanish nobles vote his exclusion 
from the throne. Oct. 25. The queen 
issues a decree of banishment against him. 
Nov. 4. General Mina is appointed royalist 
commander-in-chief in Navarre. Dec. 12. 
He defeats the Carlists at Carascal. 

1835. Jan. 18. A militaiy insuiTection is suppressed 

at Madrid. April 22. The Carlist leader, 
Zumalacarreguy, defeats the royalists 
under Valdez at Amescoaz. June 3. Villa- 
franca surrenders to the Carlists. June 25. 
Zumalacarreguy dies of a wound received 
at Bilbao. 

1836. May 28. Passages is taken from the Carlists 

by the English under Sir De Lacy Evans. 
July 6. Oviedo surrenders to the Carlists. 
Aug. 1. Defeat of the Carlists at Inigo. 
Aug. 21. General Tribarren defeats them 
at Lodosa. SeiJt. 17. General Espartero 
is made the royalist commander-in-chief. 
Oct. 1. Sir- De Lacy Evans defeats the 
Carlists at St. Sebastian. Nov. 28. The 
Cortes declare Carlos excluded from the 
succession. Dec. 24. Espartero delivei-s 
Bilbao from the Carlists. 

1837. May 17. General Evans takes Imn. Sept. 4. 

Martial law is proclaimed in Catalonia. 

1838. Oct. 27. Carlist families are banished from 

Madrid. 

1839. Feb. 21. Don Carlos proclaims General 

Mavoto a traitor. Aug. 31. The Cai-list 
general Maroto concludes a separate peace 
with Espartero. Sept. 14. Carlos takes 
refuge in France. 

1840. May 28. The royalists take Morella. June 11. 

The queen, with the court, removes to 
Barcelona. July 6. The Carlist general 
Cabrera retires into France, where he is 
arrested. Aug. 22. The queen removes to 
Valencia. Aug. 25. The British evacuate 
St. Sebastian. Sept. 1. An insm-rection 
is suppressed at Madrid. Sept. 16. Espar- 
tero is made prime minister. Oct. 3. He 
makes his solemn entry into Madrid. 
Oct. 11. Abdication of the queen-regent. 
Oct. 28. Isabella II. returns to Madrid. 
Dec. 29. The papal nimcio is expelled by 
Espartero. 

1841. May 8. Espartero is declared sole regent 

during the queen's minority. July 19. The 
ex-regent, Christina, protests against the 
regency. Oct. 2. General O'Donnell com- 
mences an insiuTection in her favour at 
Pampeluna. Oct. 8. An insurrection 
under General Diego Leon, against Isa- 
bella II., is suppressed at Madrid. 
797 



SPA 



A.D. 

1841. Oct. 15. Execution of Leon at Madrid. Oct. 

21. O'Donnell retreats into France. Oct. 
26. Espartero abolishes the pension of the 
qneen-dowager. Oct. 29. The administra- 
tion of the Basque provinces is reorganized. 
Nov. 9. Execution of the rebels Borio and 
Gobemado, at Madrid. Dec. 13. An am- 
nesty is proclaimed in favour of the October 
insurrectionists. 

1842. Nov. 13. An insurrection breaks out at 

Barcelona. Nov. 15. The troops retire 
■within the citadel. Nov. 17. A revolu- 
tionary junta is established. Dec. 4. Bar- 
celona surrender.^ to Espartero. 

1843. May 26. A revolution breaks out at Malaga. 

June 11. Valencia revolts. June 12. Bar- 
celona again rebels, and establishes a junta. 
June 28. The junta places General Serrano 
at the head of affaii-s. June 29. Seii-ano 
declares Espartero deprived of the regency. 
July 15. The revolutionary general, Narvaez, 
enters Madrid. July. 30. The ex-regent 
Espartero embarks at Cadiz for England. 
Aug. 16. Espartero is deprived of all his 
titles. Aug. 30. An ins\UTec'ion is sup- 
pressed at Madrid. Oct. 24. Vigo rises in 
insurrection. Nov. 8. The queen is de- 
clared of age. Nov. 20. Barcelona surren- 
ders to the royalists. 
1844 March 23. The queen-dowager, Christina, 
retvu-ns to Madrid. Nov. 13. An insurrec- 
tion break -i out under Zurbano. Nov. 15. 
General Prim is sentenced to sixteen years' 
imprisonment. 

1845. Jan. 21. Execution of Zurbano. May 18. 

Don Carlos renounces his claim to the 
Spanish throne in favour of his son. 
Sept. 5. An attempted insurrection faUs at 
Madrid. 

1846. Aug. 28. The queen announces her intention 

to accept her cousin Fi-angois d'Assis, duke 
of Cadiz, as her husband. Sept. 13. Don 
Carlos escapes from France, and removes 
to London. Oct. 10. Marriage of the 
queen. Her sister, the infanta Maria 
Louisa, is married to the duke of Mont- 
peusier the same day. Oct. 17. An 
amnesty is pronounced in. favour of 
political otfenders. 

1847. May 4. The queen's life is attempted by La 

Eiva. May 31. Revocation of i-he sentence 
of exile of Don Manuel Godoy. June 23. 
Execution of La Eiva. Sept. 3. Baldomero 
Espartero, duke of Victory, is restored to 
favour. Oct. 15. The queen-dowager, 
Christina, returns to Madrid. 

1848. March 26. An insurrection breaks out at 

Madrid. May 6. A military insurrection 
is suppressed at Madrid. May 17. The 
British envoy. Sir Heni-y Lytton Bulwer, 
is ordered to quit Madrid in forty-eight 
hours. June 12. Diplomatic relations are 
suspended between the two countries. 

1850. July 12. The queeu gives birth to a son, who 

dies shortly afterwards. 

1851. Jan. 10. Resignation of General Narvaez. 

Feb. 9. Opening of the Madrid and Aran- 
juez railway. March 16. A concordat is 
signed with Rome. Oct. 4. Death of Don 
Manuel Godoy, the Prince of Peace, &c. at 
Paris. Dec. 20. Birth of a princess. 

1852. Feb. 2. The queen's life is atttempted at 

Madrid by the Franciscan Martia Merino. 
Feb. 7. He is executed. Sept. 24. Death 
of General Castanos. 

1853. May 23. The Spanish authorities impose 

cei-tain insulting regulations on the inter- 
ment of British subjects at Toledo. Nov. 1.5. 
A treaty for the protection of litei-ary 
property is concluded with France. 
1854 Jan. 5. Birth of a piincess, who dies in a 
few days. Jan. 17. Marshal O'Donnell, 
General Concha, and others, are exiled to 
the Canary islands. Feb. 20. A military 
insurrection breaks out at Saragossa. 

798 



SPA 



1854 Feb. 22. The queen declares the 

kingdom in a state of siege. March 
Death of the infant Ferdinand III., du 
of Parma. June 28. General O'Donn^ 
heads a military insun-ection, and declares' 
Madrid in a state of siege. July 13. The 
military revolt at Saragossa. July 19. The 
queen places Espartero at the head p 
afifaii-s, and thereby puts an end to the 
rebellion. July 24. She publishes an 
amnesty. July 29. Espartero enters 
Madrid. Aug. 28. The queen-mother Chria- 
tina retires into Portugal. Nov. 21. Resig- 
nation of Espartero. Nov. 30. He resumes 
office. 

1855. Jan. 13. A new constitution is proposed. Feb. 

3. The Cortes decide the i)eople are the 
sole source of power. Feb 8. Liberty of 
worship is denied. Feb. 28. The Roman 
Catholic religion is established by law, but 
all creeds are tolerated. Mii-ch 10. Death 
of Don Carlos at Trieste. Nov. 11. An in- 
surrection breaks out at Saragossa. 

1856. Jan 7. A mutiny breaks out among the 

national militia at Madrid. April 7. An 
insurrection breaks out at Valencia. 
July 14. Resignation of the Espartero 
ministry, which is succeeded by that of 
General O'Donnell. This occasions tumults 
at Madrid. July 16. Order is restored by 
O'Donnell. July 18. Revolutionary insur- 
rections break out at Barcelona. July 22. 
General Zapatero quells the insiUTection. 
Aug. 15. The national militia is abolished. 
Oct. 12. Resignation of the O'Donnell ad- 
ministration. General Narvaez, duke of 
Valencia, is placed at the head of affairs. 
Dec. 2. A treaty, defining the frontier line 
between Spain and France, ia signed at 
Bayonue. 

1857. Oct. 26. A new ministry is foi-med under 

Admiral Armero. Nov. 28. Birth of the 
prince of Asturias, heir to the crown. 

1858. Jan. 14. Xavier d' Isturitz is made prime 

minister. July 1. O'Donnell is again placed 
at the head of affiairs. Sept. 20. Barcelona 
and other provinces are delivered from the 
state of siege. Dec. 1. The queen announces 
her intention of uniting with France in an 
exjjedition to Cochin-China. 

1859. Aug. 25. A convention is concluded with the 

Holy See relative to the goods of the 
Church. Oct. 22. War is declared against 
Morocco {q. v.). Nov. 3. Spain and the 
Baleai ic Isles are divided into five military- 
districts. 

1860. March 29. The queen sanctions pea<:e with 

Morocco. April 3. General Ortega pro- 
claims the count of Mont«molin, eldest son 
of the late Don Carlos, king, at Tortosa, but 
his own troops oppose the rebellion, and 
compel him to take flight. April 19. Ortega 
is shot at Tortosa. April 21. Arrest of 
the count of Montemoliu and his brother 
Ferdinand, near Tortosa. AprU 23. The 
count renounces his right to the throne. 
Apiil 26. Peace is definitely concluded with 
Morocco. Mav 2. An amnesty is proclaimed 
in favour of political offendera. June 5. 
Don Juan of Spain, brother of the count 
of Montemolin, publishes a declaration 
repudiating his brother's renimciation 
of his royal rights. June 28. The count 
of Montemolin and Don Ferdinand annul 
their renunciation at Cologne. July 4 
The Prince Juan publishes a second de- 
claration from London. Oct. 26. Spain 
protests against the Sardinian invasion 
of the Holy See, and recalls her minister 
from Turin. 

1861. Jan. 2. Prince Ferdinand dies at Brunnsee, in 

Styria. Jan. 13. Death of Prince Charles, 
count of Montemolin, and claimant of the 
Spanish crown, at Trieste. His wife also 
dies the same day. 



SPA 



SPA 



1861. Feb. 16. In consequence of tlie death of his 
brothers, Don Juan publishes a third 
manifesto, in which he claims the crown. 
March 18. St. Domingo is declared united 
to Spain. May 20. The queen i-atifles the 
annexation of St. Domingo. June 17. 
Spain asserts her neutrality in the Ame- 
rican civil war. June 29. An insurrection 
breaks out in Murcia. July 4. It is sup- 
pressed by the government. 

EULEES OF SPAIN". 

{See Aeagon, Castile, Leon-, and Na- 

VAEEE.) 

VISIGOTHIC KINGS. 



Adolphus 

Sigeric 

Wallia 

Tbeodored 


A.D. 

.... 411 
.... 415 
.... 415 
420 


Eecared I 

Liuva II 


A.D. 

... 587 
601 


"Witteric 

Gundemar 

Sisebert 

Rpcaved II 

Swintila 

Sisenand 

Chintila 

Tulga 

Chin das wind . . 

Keceswind 

Wamba 

Ervigius 


... 603 
.... 610 
....612 
.... 621 
.... 621 
.... 631 
.... 636 
.... 640 
.... 643 
.... 649 
.... 672 
.... 680 


Thorismund 

Tbeo'loricI 


....451 
.... 452 
.... 466 






Giselic 506 

Theodoric II 511 

Amalaric 522 

Theudis 531 

Theudisel 548 

AgUan 549 

Athnagild 1 554 

Liuva 1 567 

Leovigild 570 

nSBEPENDENT 
A.D. 

Hfrmenric 409 

EechUa . . - 4.^S 


Egica 

Witiza 

Koderic 


.... 687 
.... 701 
. . . 709 


SUEVIC KIKGS. 

Maldras 

Fi-umarius 

Eemismuna 


A.D. 

.... 4.57 
.... 460 

....464 


Rechiarius 


.... 448 



Spain was united under one sceptre by Fer- 
dinand Y. in 1512. 



INBEPEinjENT VANDAUC KINGS. 



Gunderic 409 I Genseric 



KINGS OF CORDOVA. 



787 



.. 912 



Abderahman I. . . 

Hisem I 

Alhakem I 

Abderahman 11. 
Mohammed I. . , 

Almondhir 

Abdalla 

Abderahman III. 

Alhakem II 961 

Hixemll 976 

Suleyman 1012 

All ben Hamud.... 1015 
Abderahman IV. . . 1017 

Alcassim 1018 

Abderahman V. .. 1023 

Mohanmiedll 1023 

Hixem III 1026 



Gehwar 

Mohammed III. . , 

Mohammed IV. 

Mohammed V. 

Yussef 

All 

Taxfin , 

Abdelmume n 

Yussef Abu Yacub 
Yacub ben Yussef . 
Mohammed VI. . . . 

Abu Yacub 

Abulmelic 

Abdelwahid ..... 

Almamon 

AbuAii 



A.D. 

1031 
1044 
1060 
1069 
1094 
1107 
1144 
1147 
1163 
1178 
1199 
1213 
1223 
1223 
1225 
1225 



MOORISH KINGS OF GRANADA. 



A.D. 

Mohammed 1 1238 

Mohammed II 1273 

Mohammed IIL .. 1302 
Nassir AbulGiux.. 1309 

Ismail 1 1313 

Mohammed IV. 1325 

Yussef 1 1333 

Mohammed V 1354 

Ismail II 1359 

Abu Said 1360 

Yussef II 1391 

Mohammed VI 1396 

Yussef HI 1408 

Mohammed VU. .. 1423 



A.D. 

Mohammed VIII. 1427 
Mohammed VII. 

(again) 1429 

YusseflV 1432 

Mohacpmed VII. 

(again) 1432 

Mohammed IX 1445 

Aben Osmin 1445 

Mohammed X 1454 

Muley All Abul 

Hassan 1463 

Abu Abdalla 1483 

AbdaUa el Zagal .. 1484 



Ferdinand V 1512 

Charles I. (V. of 

Gennany) 1.516 

Philip II 1.556 

Philip III 1.598 

Philip IV 1621 

Charles II 1665 

Philip V 1700 

Louis 1724 



A.D. 

Philip V. (again) . . 1724 

Ferdinand VI 1746 

Charles III 1759 

Charles IV 1788 

Ferdinand VII 1808 

Joseph Bonaparte 1808 
Ferdinand VII. 

(again) 1813 

Isabella II 1833 



Spalateo, or Spalato (Dalmatia).— The 
ancient Salona, after the faU of Dalminiuin, 
B.C. 117, became the capital of Dalmatia and 
the head quarters of L. Cseeihus Metellus. 
It was besieged, and opened its gates to Cn. 
Cosconius, B.C. 7S, and was taken by Asinius 
Pollio, after Ids defeat of the Partheni, b.c. 
39. Diocletian built a palace here a.d. 303, to 
which he retired after his abdication in 305. 
It was taken by Odoacer, king of the HeruU, 
in 481. The cathedral was built about 650, 
Giovanni of Eavenna being the first bishop. 
Spalatro, taken by the Venetians in 1125, 
was wrested from them by Stephen III., 
king of Hungary, in 1171. Subsequently it 
came into the hands of the Venetians, who 
inclosed the town with regular curtains and 
bastions in 1645. A terrible plague raged at 
Spalatro in 1607. The French, by order of 
Marshal Marmont, pulled down the castle 
and walls in 1807, and Spalatro is now an 
open town. It was taken from the French 
by the Austrians Nov. 2, 1813. The ruins of 
Diocletian's palace were visited by the em- 
peror Francis II. of Austria in 1815, when 
he assigned a fund for carrying on the exca- 
vations and the formation of a museum. 
Councils were held here about 870 ; in 1059 
or 1060 ; in 1069 ; November, 1075 ; and in 
1185. 

SPANDAir, or Spandow (Prussia), — The 
citadel, which stands on an island in the Ha- 
vel, was commenced a.d. 1535 by the elector, 
Joachim II. It was taken by the Swedes in 
1631, and was restored in 1634. Spaudau 
was taken by the French in 1806; and on 
their retreat from Berlin, March 2, 1813, 
the suburbs of the town were burned, and 
3,000 troops were placed in the fortress by 
Prince Eugene. It was taken by the Prus- 
sians, April 26, 1813. The church of St. 
Nicholas was built in the 12th century. 

Spanish ^ea, founded on the Jidian ca- 
lendar, commenced Jan. 1, b.c. 38. It was 
also adopted in Portugal, Africa, and the 
south of France; was abolished in Catalonia 
in 1180, in Aragon in 1350, in Valencia in 
1358, in Castile in 1393, and in Portugal 
in 1415 or 1422. 

Spanish Aemada. (See Aemada.) 

Spanish Maeeiages.— By the 6th article 
of the treaty of Utrecht, AprH 11, 1713, 
it was stipulated that the duke of Anjou, 
grandson to Louis XIV., on taking the 
Spanish crown, should renounce all claim 
to the French crown, and that the French 

I monarch should renounce all claim to the 
Spanish crown, which was to descend to 
799 



SPA 

certain princes of the male line, the pos- 
sessor of the French throne being always 
excluded. The Salic law, excluding females, 
was, however, set aside, and France and 
England entered into the quadruple alliance, 
which placed Queen Isabella II. on the 
throne in 1834. Various projects of mar- 
riage both for the queen and the infanta 
Louisa were broached, and at length they 
were united at the same altar in the palace, 
the queen to the duke of Cadiz, and the 
infanta to the duke of Montpensier, Oct. 
10, 1846. 

SPAifiSH STTCCESsioir. — As Charles II. of 
Spain (a.d. 1665 to 1770) had no issue, nu- 
merous intrigues were formed to induce him 
to name his successor. After long hesitation, 
the French party prevailed in 1700, and 
Charles II. appointed Philip d'Anjou. Louis 
XrV. immediately acknowledged his grand- 
son as king of Spain ; but the emperor Leo- 
pold of Austria claimed the throne for his 
son, the archduke Charles ; and Wilham III. 
of England and the Stadtholder urged a par- 
tition. This led to the war of the Spanish 
Succession, which lasted from 1701 to 1713, 
and ended by leaving Philip V. in possession 
of the throne. 

Spanish-town, or St. Iago de la Fega 
(Jamaica), the capital of the island when 
captured by the EngUsh from the Spaniards, 
in May, 1665. 

Spakta (Greece). — The city of Sparta, or 
Lacedsemon, the capital of Laconia, was 
founded by Lacedsemon and his wife Sparta, 
and subsequently gave its name to the whole 
district of which it was the capital. Its early 
chronology is chiefly mythical. 



Foundation of Sparta. 

The marriage of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, 
with Leda, is placed by Grecian mjrtholo- 
gists at about this date. 

Abduction of Helen by Theseus, king of 
Attica. 

Marriage of Helen and Menelaus, king of 
Sparta. 

Abduction of Helen by Paris, son of Priam, 
kiug of Troy. 

Conimenceineut of the Trojan war. 

Menelaus and Helen return to Sparta. 

On the return of the Hei-aclidse, Sparta is 
seized by Aristodemus. 

A biarchy is established in Spai-ta, under Eu- 
rysthenes and Procles, sons of Aristodemus. 

Commencement of the legislation of Lycur^s. 

Sparta is the scene of civU wars, iu conse- 
quence of ill-feeling between the rich and 
poor classes. 

War commences between Cbarilaus, of Sparta, 
and Polymnesta, of Arcadia. 

Alcamenes, king of Sparta, wages war against 
the Messenians. 

Theopompus introduces the Ephori (j. v.). 

The Spartans declare war against the Messe- 
nians. (.SVeMESSENiAN Wau.) 

A battle is fought between 300 Argives and 
300 Spartans, and only two Argives and 
one Spartan survive. 

Emphaes, king of the Messenians, falls in 
battle against the Spartans at Ithome. 

The Spartans take Ithome, and thereby con- 
clude the first Messenian war. 

War is carried on against the Argives. 

The Parthenise and the inhabitants of Helcs 
faU in an attempt to overthrow Spartan 
freedom. 

800 



1228. 

1216. 

1214. 

1192. 
1176. 
llOi 



SPA 



700. The Spartans take Helos, and reduce the 

populace to slavery. {See Helots.) 
685. Commencement of the second of the Messe- 

nian wars (q. v.). 
676. Institution of the Carniau festival. 
669. The Argives defeat the Spartans at Hysiae. 
665. The Gymnopaedia are celebrated at Sparta. 
525. The Spartans and Samians are at war. 
513. The Spartans are supreme on the sea. 
505. War breaks out between Sparta and Athens. 
491. The Spartans refuse the Persian demand for 

earth and water. 
482. Sparta unites with the other Greek states 

against Persia. 
480. Heroii^m of Leonidas, king of Sparta, and his 

300 subjects at Theimopylae {q. v.). 
479. The Spartans, under Pausanias, defeat the 

Persians at PJatasa (q.v.). 
471. Pausanias is starved to death for aspiring to 

the sovereignty. 
464. Commencement of the third Messenian war 

(q.v.), and rebellion of the Helots {q.v.). 

The Spartans are assisted by the Athenians 

under Cimon. 
457. The Spartans defeat the Athenians in the 

battle of Tanagra. 
454. Sparta unites with Macedon against Athens. 
445. A thirty years' truce is concluded with the 

Athenians. 
432. Another congress of the Pel oponnesians takes 

place at Sparta, to consider the advisability 

of making war against Athens. 
431. Sparta engages in the Peloponnesian war 

{q.v.). 
427. Plataja {q. v. ) surrenders to the Spartans. 
425. Invasion of Attica by the Spartans. 
421. A truce of fifty years is concluded with Athens, 

and a quarrel commences with Elis. 
420. The Helots again rebel. 
418. The Spartans, under Agis, defeat the Argives 

and Mantineans at Man tinea {q. v.). 
414. The Spartans assist the Syracusans against 

Athens. 
412 The Sp-irtans conclude a treaty with Persia. 
411. Defeat of the Spartans ofl'Cjmossema {q.v.). 
410. Mindarus, the Spartan admiral, is defeated 

and slain at Cyzicus (g. v.). 
407. The Spaitans, under Lysander, defeat the 

Athenian force of Antiochus in a sea-fight 

at Notium. 
406. The Athenians defeat the Spartans in a sea- 
fight off Arginusse. 
405. The Spartans defeat the Athenians at ..Egos- 

jwtami {q. v.). 
404. The Spartan general Lysander takes Athens, 

and establishes Spartan supremacy in 

Greece. 
401. War is undertaken against Elis {q. v.), and 

the Spartans assist Cyrus in Persia {q. v.). 
396. AgesUaus, king of Sparta, invades Persia. 
395. Corintb, Athens, Argos, Bceotia, Thessaly, 

and Thebes, foi-m a confederacy against 

Sparta. {See Cownthian War.) 
394 Defeat of the allies by Sparta at Coroneia 

{q. v.). The Spartans are defeated by the 

Persians and Athenians on the Cnidus {q. v.). 
382. Spiirta engages iu the Olynthian war {q. v.). 
378. The Athenians and Thebans unite against the 

Spartans. 
374. Peace is concluded with Athens. 
373. The Spartans faU in an expedition against 

Corcyra. 
371. A congress is held at Sparta. The supremacy 

of Sparta is finally destroyed by the battle 

of liuctra {g. v.). 
369. Sparta is invaded by the Thebans, under 

Epaminondas. 
367. The Spaitans defeat the Arcadians. 
362. The Thebans defeat the Spartans at Manti- 

nea {q. v.). 
352. Sparta caiTies on war against Megalopolis. 
344. Philip II. of Macedon subdues Sparta. 
303. The Spartans seize Corcyra, or Corfu {q. v.). 
294. Pyrrhus, kiug of Epirus, fails in an attack on 

Sparta. 



SPA 



S77. An alliance is concluded with Athens and 

Egypt. 
255. The Spartans assist the Carthaginians. 
244. Agis IV. endeavours to restore the laws of Ly- 

curgus. 
243. Abdication of Leonidas II. 
240. Leonidas II. murders Agis IV., and becomes 

sole ruler of Spavta. 
226. Cleomenes III. overcomes" the Bphori, and 

restores the code of Lyeurgus. 
221. Antigonus Doson, king of Macedon, defeats 

Cleomenes III. iu the battle of Sellasia. 

The Ephori are murdered by the Si^artans. 
218. Sparta is invaded by Philip V. of Macedon. 
210. The Ephori are abolished by Mechauidas. 
208. Mechanidas is defeated and slain by Philopce- 

men. praetor of the Achsean leagues at 

Mautinea. 
206. Nabis usurps the sovereign power in Macedon. 
195. Sparta is fortified by the tyrant Nabis to pro- 
tect it against the Roman army of Quinc- 

tius Flaminius. 
192. Philopoemen attacks Sparta, and defeats 

Nabis, who is slain by the jEtolians. Sparta 

joins the Achaean league. 
188. Sparta renounces the Acbasan league, and is 

conquered by Philopoemen, who abolishes 

the laws of Lyeurgus. 
147. Sparta is subdued by the Romans, under 

Metellus. 
21. Augustus establishes the confederacy of the 

free Laconian cities. 

A.D. 

396. Sparta is taken by Alarie. 
1248. William, prince of Achat, foimds Misithra, or 

Mistra, about three miles from ancient 

Sparta. 
1263. Misithra is ceded to Michael VIII. 

Spaetacus's Insurrection'. — Spartacus, 
aThracian, having been taken prisoner by 
the Romans, was reduced to slavery and 
made a gladiator at Capua. He escaped, 
with seventy of his fellow-bondsmen, and 
took refuge in a strong position on Mount 
Vesuvius. Here he was joined by a number 
of slaves and outlaws, and defeated two Ro- 
man expeditions sent against him, b.c. 73. 
He marched into Cisalpine Gaul at the head 
of 100,000 men, B.C. 72, and after succes- 
sively defeating two Roman armies, he ra- 
vaged the greater part of the province of 
Italy, and retaliated the cruelties of the 
Romans towards the gladiators, by making 
a number of his captives fight as gladiators 
round the funeral pile of one of his com- 
manders. His successes caused such terror 
at Rome, that Crassus, the praetor, was in- 
vested with full powers to put down the 
insurrection, and he marched against him. 
Spartacus took up a position in a peninsula 
near Rhegium, where Crassus inclosed him 
by a rampart drawn from sea to sea. Spar- 
tacus, after several desperate attacks, forced 
his way through the praetor's hues, and en- 
deavoured to make his escape from Italy, 
but being foiled in this, he turned upon 
Crassus, and a desperate battle ensued, in 
which Spartacus and most of his followers 
were killed. The prisoners, to the number 
of 6,000, were hung or crucified along the 
road leading from Rome to Capua, B.C. 71. 

Speaker op the House, oe Commons.— 
Peter de Montfort exercised the functions 
of Speaker of the House of Commons a.d. 
1260, but the first speaker to whom the 
title was expressly given was Sir T. Hun- 



SPE 

gerford, in 1377. The speaker is elected by 
the Commons, subject to the royal pleasure. 
The power of rejecting the choice of the 
house has been exercised on one occasion, 
in the case of Sir Edward Seymour in 1678. 
Sir John Trevor was deprived of the speaker- 
ship, and expelled the house in 1694, for hav- 
ing accepted a gratuity of £1,000 from the city 
of London, after the passing of the Orphans 
Bin. No provisions existed for supplying 
the place of the speaker in the event of his 
unavoidable absence until Aug. 4, 1853, 
when it was resolved that in such a case his 
place should be filled by the chairman of 
ways and means. This resolution was acted 
upon for the first time May 7, 1855. 

SPEAKERS OE THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. 



A.D. 
1260. 
1326. 
1332. 
1376. 



1378. 
1380. 
1381. 
1382. 
1386. 



Peter de Montfort. 
William Trussell. 
Sir Henry Beaumont. 
Sir Peter de la Mare. 
( Sir Thomas Hungerford. 
1. Sir Peter de la Mare. 
Sir James Pickering. 
[•Sir John Goldsborough. 

Sir Richard Waldegrave. 
Sir James Pickering. 



1397. >Sir John Bushey. 

1398. ) 

1399. Sir John Cheney. 

1400. Sir Arnold Sivage. 

1403. Sir Henry Bedeford. 

1404. sir Arnold Savage. 

1405. Sir William Esturmy. 

1406. Sir John Tiptoft. 
1408.) 

1409. > Thomas Chaucer. 



1412. 
1413. 
1414. 

1415. 

1416. 
1417. 
1419. 
1421. 
1422. 
1423. 
1425. 
1426. 
1428. 
1430. 
1431. 
1432. 
1433. 
1436. 



1440. 
1445. 
1447. 
1449. 
1450. 



1455. 
1459. 

1460. 
1463. 
1467. 
1472. 
1482. 
1483. 



/William Stourton. 

( John Dorewood. 

Walter Huii gerford. 

( Thomas Chaucer. 

< Bichard Redman. 

( Sir Walter Beauchamp. 

V Roger Flower. 

Richard Baynard. 

Richard Flower. 

John Russell 

Sii- Thomas Waughton, or Wauton. 

Richard Vernon. 

John Tyrrell. 

William Allington. 

John Tyrrell. 

John RusseU. 

Roger Hunt. 

John Bowes. 

f Sir John Tyrrell. 
1 William Boerley. 

William Tresham. 

William Boerley. 

William Tresham. 

John Saye. 
/John Popham. 

I, William Ti-esham. 

Sir William Oldhall. 
/Thomas Thorpe. 
X Sir Tiiomas Charlton. 

Sir John Wenlock. 

Sir William Tresham. 
/ John Green, 
t Sir James Strangeways. 

[■John Saye. 
William Allington. 
John Wode. 
William Catesby. 



SPE 



1483. Thomas Lovel. 

1488. John Mordaimt. 

1489. Sir Thomas Fitzwilliam. 
1492. Kichard Empson. 

lAQfi / Si^ Keginald Bray. 
^*^^- \ Robert Drury. 
1497. Thomas Englefleld. 
1.504. Edmund Dudley. 
1509. Sir Thomas Englefield. 
1.512. Sir Thomas Sheffield. 
1.514. Sir Thomas Nevill. 
1523. Sir Thomas More. 
1530. Sir Thomas Audley. 
1537. Richard Rich. 
1540. Sir Nicholas Hare. 
1.542. Thomas Moyle. 
1.547. Sir John Baker. 
1553. James Dyer. 
15.54. Robert Brooke. 

1555. Clement Higham. 

1556. John Pollard. 

1558. William Cordell. 

1559. Sir Thomas Gargrave. 
-, -(..J / Thomas Williams, 
■^^'''^•t Richard Onslow. 

1571. Chi-istopher Wray. 

1572. Robert Bell. 
1577. John Popham. 
1.585. John Puckeiing. 
1589. Thomas Snagg. 
1592. Edward Coke. 

1597. Christopher Yelverton. 
1601. JohnCroke. 
1603. Edward Philipps. 
1614. Randolph Crewe. 
1620. Thomas Richardson. 
1623. Thomas Crewe. 
1626. Sir Henea^e Finch. 
1628. Sir John Finch. 

1640. John GlanvUle. 

1641. William Lenthal. 

1653. Francis Rous. 

1654. William Lenthal. 

1656. Sir Thomas Widcli-ingtou. 
( Chaloner Chute, Sen. 

1659. < Sii- Lisleborne Long. 
( Thomas Bampfield. 

1660. Six- Harbottle Grimstone, Bart. 

1661. Sir- Edward Tumor, Bai-t. 

1688. Jan. Henry Powle. 

1689. March. Sir John Trevor. 
1694. March. Paul Foley. 

1698. Aug. Sir Thomas Lyttelton. 

1700. Feb. Robert Harley. 

1702. Aug. John Smith. 

1708. July. Sir Richard Onslow. 

1710. Nov. William Bromley. 

1713. Nov. Sir Thomas Hanmer. 

1715. March. Hon. Spencer Compton. 

1727. Nov. Ai-thuT Onslow. 

1761. May. Sir John Oust. 

1770. Jan. 23. Sir Fletcher Norton. 

1780. Nov. Charles Wolfran Cornwall. 

1789. Jan. 5. Rt. Hon. William WyndhamGrenville. 

1789. May 8. Heui-y Addlngton. 

1801. Dec. 11. Sir John Mitford. 

1802. Feb. 10. Charles Abbot. 

1817. June. Charles Manners-Sutton. 
1835. Feb. James Abercromby. 
1839. May. Charles Shaw Lefevre. 
1857. April 30. John Evelyn Denison. 

SPEAKiifG - Trumpet. — The great horn 
used by Alexander the Great (b.c. 336 to 
323) to assemble his army is considered by 
some to be the oldest speaking-trumpet on 
record. A similar instrument was also 
known to the natives of Peru, in America, 
A.B. 1595. The invention of the modern 
speaking-trumpet is generally ascribed to 
Sir Samuel Morland in 1670, though Atha- 
nasius Kirchir, a Jesuit, in the preface to 
his " Phonurgia," published in 1673, claimed 



SPI 

it for himself, and asserted that he had 
described the trumpet invented in England 
in his " Musurgia," printed in 1650. 

Spectacles were first used about the end 
of the 13th century. Some authorities are 
of opinion that the first hint of their con- 
struction and use was taken, either from 
the writings of Alhagen, who lived in the 
12th century, or of Eoger Bacon, who died 
about 1292. Others affirm that they were 
invented by Salvino Armati, a Florentine, 
who died in 1317, and that the invention ^ 
was rendered common by Alexander de 
Spina, a monk of Florence, about 1285. ,; 
Jordan de Kivalto, in a sermon preached in | 
1305, calls them an invention of twenty 
years before. 

Spectatoe was commenced March 1, 1711, 
and continued to Dec. 6, 1712. It was re- 
vived June 18, 1714, and terminated Dec. 
20 in the same year, Addison and Steele 
were the principal contributors. 

Spectktjh. — The phenomenon of the pris- 
matic spectrum, although well known to 
philosophers, was first explained by Xewton 
about A.D. 1700; the colours into which he 
found the ray of hght divided by dispersion ; 
being red, orange, yeUow, green, blue, in- - 
digo, and violet. Similar phenomena are ' 
observable in the case of diffraction, the 
laws of which were investigated by Dr.> . 
Young in 1802, and by Fresnel in 1821. It 
has received an important practical apphca- • 
tion to chemical analysis, by which, amongst 
other discoveries, Professors Bunsen and 
Kirchoff showed, in 1860, that the solar at- 
mosphere contains the metals potassiiun and 
sodium. 

Spheres. — The celestial and terrestrial 
globes were invented by Anaximander, who 
was born b.c. 610 and died b.c. 546. The 
armiUary sphere is said to have been in- 
vented by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (born 
B.C. 276, died b.c. 194), and the planeta- 
rium was invented by Archimedes (born 
B.C. 287, died B.C. 212). 

Spielberg (Moravia). — This castle, for- 
merly the citadel of Briinn, has, since its 
fortifications were destroyed by the French, 
A.D. 1809, been converted into a prison for 
state prisoners. General Mack, who sur- 
rendered Ulm to the French Oct. 20, 1805, 
was imprisoned here. 

Spinning. — The ancient mode of spinning 
was by means of the spindle and distaft'. 
Areas, king of Arcadia, taught the art to hia 
subjects about b.c 1500 ; and representa- 
tions of it are found among the sculptures of 
the early Egyptian tombs. The spindle and 
distaiF were superseded in England by the 
spinning-wheel about the end of the reign of 
Henry VIII. The next improvement in the 
art was the invention of the spinning-jenny 
by James Hargraves in 1767. This was 
followed by the introduction of the spinning- 
frame by Arkwright, who obtained his first 
patent July 3, 1769. It was originally 
worked by horse-power, but this was found 
I too expensive for machinery on an extensive 
i scale } and the first water spinniiig-miU was 



SPI 



SPI 



erected in 1771 at Cromford, in Derbyshire, 
which is styled " the nursing-place of the 
factory, opulence, and power of Great 
Britain." The next great invention was the 
mule-jenny, which combined the drawing- 
roller of Arkwright with the jenny of Har- 
graves, made by Crompton in 1779 ; but it 
was not brought into general use before 
1786, owing to its interference with the 
patent of Arkwright. Parliament rewarded 
the inventor with £5,000 ; and he made a 
survey of the cotton-manufactories in Eng- 
land in 1812, when he found between four 
and five millions of spindles at work on his 
system. 

Spikes (Bavaria), called Noviomagus by 
the Komans, was the seat of the superior 
court of appeal for the Germanic empire in 
the 16th and 17th centuries. The diet of 
the empire was also frequently held here. 
The most important of these was that of 
1529, when a protest made by the Eeform- 
ers, April 19, against the proceedings of the 
emperor, procured them the name of Pro- 
testants. It was taken and almost destroyed 
by the French in 1689, previous to which the 
town had five suburbs inclosed within the 
ramparts, and thirteen gates and sixty-four 
towers protected with artillery. The ca- 
thedral, which withstood the attempts of the 
French, was founded by the emperor Conrad 
II. in 1030, and completed by Henry IV. in 
1061. Spires was rebuilt about 1699, but it 
never regained its former prosperity. It 
was taken by the French Sept. 29, 1792, and 
again Jan. 19, 1794. 

SpiEiT-EAPPiifG-. — Voltaire notices a case 
of a sentence passed upon some monks of 
Orleans, Feb. 18, 1535, for having resorted 
to spirit-rapping for the purpose of extort- 
ing money. * An account of the extra- 
ordinary case was found in a manuscript of 
1770, in the royal hbrary of the king of 
France. Sir Thomas Tresham, of Kushton 
Hall, near Kettering, Northamptonshire, 
left a letter written by himself about a.d. 
1584), in which he states that on one of his 
commitments for recusancy, being in an old 
lodge near his mansion, " I usually having 
my servants here allowed me to read nightly 
an hour to me after supper, it fortuned that 
Fulcis, my then servant, reading in the 
Christian Resolution, in the treatise of "Proof 
that there is a God, ^c, there was upon a 
wainscot table at that instant three loud 
knocks (as if it had been vrith an iron 
hammer) given, to the great amazing of me 
and my two servants, Fulchis and Nilkton ; " 
and De Foe, referring to a story of spirit- 
rapping in Eichard Baxter's " Certainty of 
the Worlds of Spirits, &c.," published in 
1691, remarks : " What in nature can be 
more trivial than for a spirit to employ 
himself in knocking on a morning at the 
wainscot by the bed's head of a man who 
got di'unk over-night, according to the way 
that such things are ordinarily explained ? 
And yet I shall give you such a relation as 
this, that not even the most devout and 
. precise Presbyterian will offer to call in 
I 803 



question." The modern spirit-rapping ori- 
ginated in America, in the family of John D 
Fox, in March, 1848. 

Spirits. — Distilled spirits were first used 
in Europe about a.d. 1150. {See Distil- 
lation.) In consequence of the excessive 
quantities of ardent spirits drunk by the Eng- 
lish working classes in the reigns of George I. 
and George II., a duty of 20s. a gallon was 
imposed on all spirits by 9 Geo. II. c. 23 
(1736) ; but as this restriction merely in- 
creased the illicit sale of contraband Mquors, 
the duty was repealed by 16 Geo. II. c. 8 
(1743). The chief acts relating to the duties 
on spirits were 4 Geo. IV. c. 94 (July 18, 
1823), regulating the duties in Ireland and 
Scotland, and 6 Geo. IV. c. 80 (June 27, 
1825), which referred to England. The dis- 
tillation of spirits from mangold wurzel was 
permitted by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 74 (Aug. 1, 
1832) ; and the scale of duties was again al- 
tered by 5 Vict. sess. 2, c. 25 (May 31, 1842). 
Spirits of wine were allowed to be used in 
the arts and manufactures free of duty by 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 38 (June 26, 1855). A uni- 
form duty of 8s. per gallon for the United 
Kingdom was imposed by 21 Vict. c. 15 (May 
11, 1858), and the excise regulations relating 
to the distiUing, rectifying, and dealing in 
spirits, were amended and consolidated into 
one act by 23 & 24 Vict. c. 114 (Aug. 28, 
1860). 

Spieititalists, called also the Zealous, or 
the Spirituals, formed a portion of the great 
order of Franciscans, who, about 1245, under 
the name of Spiritualists, advocated the 
strict observance of the rule and vow of po- 
verty, which had been one of their funda- 
mental laws. In 1282 they had become an 
influential body, and were, after the year 
1294, subjected to great persecution. 

Spitaleields (London) . — In 1235 Walter 
Brune founded the priory of St. Mary Spit- 
tle, which was dissolved by Henry VIII. in 
1534. At the north-east corner of Spital 
Square formerly stood a pulpit for open air 
preaching. Here the celebrated Spital ser- 
mons on Easter Monday, Tuesday, and 
Wednesday, were dehvered. On the revo- 
cation of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. 
in 1685, numbers of the Huguenots driven 
from France settled in Spitalfields, and com- 
menced the manufacture of silk. Eiots 
against the introduction of foreign silks 
took place in Spitalfields Oct. 14, 1767, and 
Oct. 7, 1769. 

Spithead (Hampshire) .—This famous 
roadstead is named from the Spit, a sand- 
bank about three miles long, between Ports- 
mouth and the Isle of Wight. A grand 
naval review took place here in presence 
of Queen Victoria, Aug. 11, 1853. Sir 
Charles Napier arrived at Spithead, on his 
return from the Baltic, Dec. 17, 1854 ; and 
another grand naval review took place here 
before the queen, April 23, 1856. 

Spitzbeeg-en (Arctic Ocean). — This 

group of islands, observed by Sir Hugh 

WUloughby a.d. 1553, was discovered by 

Barentz, a Dutch navigator, in 1596. The 

3 s 2 



SPO 

Dutch commenced whale-fishing in 1613. 
The king of Denmark sent a squadron to 
assert his exclusive right to the island of 
this name, the chief of the group, in 1618, 
but afterwards gave up the point. The 
South- Sea Company embarked largely in 
whale-fishing here in 1724. 

Spoleto (Italy). — The ancient Spoletium 
was colonized by the Romans B.C. 240. 
Hannibal was repulsed from its gates B.C. 
217, and it was distinguished for its fidehty 
to Eome b.c. 209. A battle was fought be- 
neath its walls between Pompey and Crassus, 
in which the latter was defeated, B.C. 82. 
About A.D. 570 it became the seat of a duchy 
which lasted till the 12th century. 

Spontaneous Combustion. — Numerous 
instances of what is called spontaneous com- 
bustion have been recorded, though pro- 
fessor Liebig contends that it is absolutely 
impossible. Dr. Lindsley has compiled a 
table from the " Dictionnaire de Medecine," 
containing nineteen cases, the first of which 
is said to have occurred at Copenhagen in 
1692. 
Spokts. (See Book of Sports.) 
Speingeield (North America). — This 
town of Massachusetts was incorporated 
A.B. 1645. 

Spues with rowels are said to have been 
invented in the reign of Henry III. (a.d. 
1216 — 1272). They were worn on foot as 
well as on horseback, anij in the last par- 
liament of Ehzabeth, in 1601, the speaker 
ordered members of the House of Commons 
not to come with spurs. 

Spues (Battle). (5'ee Guinegate.) 
Stab AT Matee Doloeosa. — This cele- 
brated Latin hymn, performed in the Romish 
churches during Holy Week, was written by 
a monk named Jacopone in the 14th century. 
The Bianchi (q.v.), or White Penitents, sang 
it as they passed through Italy in 1399. 

Stade Tolls. — These dues, levied by the 
Hanoverian government on vessels and goods 
passing up the Elbe, take their name from 
the httle town of Stade, situated on the 
Schwinge, near its junction with the Elbe ; 
and they were first levied by the archbishops 
of Bremen, according to a grant made to 
them by the emperor Conrad II., a.d. 1038. 
By the treaty of Westphalia, signed at 
Osnaburg Oct. 24, 1648, the toll was ceded 
to Sweden. In 1712 it passed, with the 
duchy of Bremen, into the possession of 
Denmark ; and subsequently it was ceded 
to Hanover, by a treaty with Deimiark, in 
1717, and a further treaty -with Sweden in 
1719. George II., as elector of Hanover, 
issued a proclamation permitting British 
vessels to proceed directly to Hamburg, 
without detention at Stade, Dec. 1, 1736 ; 
and the dues were revised and amended, 
according to a convention signed between 
Hanover and other states bordering on the 
Elbe, April 13, 1844. The British govern- 
ment proposed the abohtion of the toU, 
June 2, 1860, on terms approved by the 
Hanoverian administration, Hanover receiv- 
ing £3,000,000 as compensation. The Stade 
604, 



STA 

dues are frequently styled the Brunshausen 
tolls, from the village where the duties are 
collected. 

Staff College (Sandhurst). — The first 
stone of this college was laid by the duke of 
Cambridge, Dec. 14, 1859. The object of 
the institution is to enable military officers 
who have served a probationary course of 
regimental duties to qualify themselves for 
promotion to staff appointments. 

Staffoed (Staffordshire), the ancient 
Stadford or Stadeford, to which St. BertMn, 
son of a Mercian king, retired a.d. 705, when 
several houses were built, which formed the 
nucleus of the present town. Ethelflelda, 
countess of Mercia, erected a castle in 913. 
A priory of Black Canons was founded in 
1181. King John granted the town its first 
charter in 1207, and it has exercised the 
elective franchise since 1295. The grammar- 
school was rebuilt and endowed by Ed- 
ward VI. in 1550. Noel's Almshouses were 
founded in 1640. An indecisive battle was 
fought between the royahst and parhament- 
ary troops at Hopton Heath, near this town, 
March 19, 1643. The County Infirmary was 
instituted in 1766, and the present building 
erected in 1772. The County Lunatic Asylum 
was estabhshed in 1818. 

Stage Caeeiages, or Coaches, were 
introduced into England in the 17th centui-y, 
and the earhest pubhc document in which 
they are mentioned, is dated April 26, 1658. 
In 1678 a six-horse stage-coach was estabhshed 
between Edinburgh and Glasgow, and a 
through communication between London 
and Edinburgh was established before 1754. 
Mail-coaches {q. v.) were introduced in 1784, 
and omnibusses (q.v.), which are included 
under the legal term of stage-carriages, in 
1829. The duty on stage-carriages was 
first imposed by 5 & 6 WiU. & Mary, c. 22 
(1694). The number of passengers to be 
carried in such vehicles, and the measures ■ 
to be taken to insure their safety, were regu- 
lated by 50 Geo. IIL c. 48 (June 9, 1810). 
The old duties were repealed, and new ones 
imposed, by 55 Geo. III. c. 185 (July 11, 
1815), and the laws relating to the subject 
were consolidated by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 120 
(Aug. 16, 1832), which was amended by 3 &4 
Will. IV. c. 48 (Aug. 23, 1833) . They were 
again amended by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 79 (Aug. 5, 
1842). 

Stalimene (^gean Sea), the ancient 
Lemnos (q. v.), was taken from the Eastern 
empire by the Venetian repubhc, and erected 
into a grand-duchy in favour of Philocole 
Navagier, a.d. 1207. In 1478 it was ceded to 
the Tui'ks, from whom it was retaken by the 
Venetians in 1656. In 1657 it was again 
taken by the Turks, who still retain posses- 
sion. 

Stamfoed (Lincolnshire). — The Picts and 
Scots were defeated here by the Britons and 
Saxons, a.d. 449. Edward the Elder took it 
in 922 from the Danes, who afterwards re- 
gained possession. Edmund I. recovered it 
in 942. The Danes again obtained possession 
soon after, and held it tiU 1041. The monas- 



STA 



STA 

to be made of standard metal. The standard 
was regulated by 12 Geo. II. c. 26 (1739), 
and was reduced, as far as gold wares are 
concerned, by 38 Geo. III. c. 69 (June 21, 
1798), and by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (Aug. 10, 
1854). Wedding-rings are exempted from 
restrictions as to standard by 18 & 19 Vict, 
c. 60 (July 23, 1855). 

Standards were first used by the Egyp- 
tians, who carried some animal at the end of 
a spear. The earlier Greeks set up a piece 
of armour as a rallying signal. In later 
times each state assumed some distinctive 
badge. The earliest standard employed by 
the Eomans was a bundle of hay fixed to a 
pole ; but in after-years effigies of the gods 
and emperors, and of animals and birds, es- 
pecially of the eagle, were adopted. The bar- 
barians generally used the figure of a dragon, 
and this also was employed by the Eoman 
legions during the Empire, and was for many 
years the chief ensign of the Western em- 
pire, and of the English and Norman sove- 
reigns. {See Banner, Eagle, Flags, &c.) 

Stanfobd Bridge (Battle). — Tostig, 
with an army of Enghsh and Flemish, and 
his ally Harold Hardrada, with an army of 
Norwegians, were defeated at this place, on 
the river Derwent, in Yorkshire, by Harold 
II., king of England, Sept. 25, 1066. Tostig 
and Harold Hardrada were killed in the en- 
counter. 

Stangebbo (Battle). — The duke Charles, 
uncle of Sigismund III., king of Poland and 
Sweden, to whom the administration of af- 
fairs in the latter country had been intrusted, 
usurped sovereign power, and defeated the 
king in an engagement at this place, in Swe- 
den, A.D. 1598. 

Stanhope, or German Administration, 
under the direction of James, created Earl 
Stanhope April 7, 1718, and the earl of Sun- 
derland, was formed April 15, 1717. In the 
earlier part of its existence, Earl Stanhope 
was first lord of the Treasury and chancellor 
of the Exchequer, but he subsequently re- 
signed the leadership to the earl of Sunder- 
land. The ministry was thus constituted : — 

First Lord of the Treasury 1 

and Chancellor of the >Mr. Stanhope. 

Exchequer ) 

T„,./i r-i,„«„on«^ /Lord, afterwards Earl 

Lord Chancellor | Cowper. 

Privy Seal Duke of Kingston. 

Pi'incipal Secretaries of f Earl of Sunderland and 

State I Joseph Addison. 

Secretaiy at War Mr. Craggs. 

Admiralty Earl of Berkeley. 

Addison resigned on account of ill health, 
March 18, 1718, and the earl of Sunderland 
became first lord of the Treasury and presi- 
dent of the council March 20. (-See Sun- 
derland Administration.) 

Stanmore (Middlesex). — The manor of 
Stanmore became the property of the abbey 
of St. Albans a.d. 1221. Archbishop Boyle 
was rector of Stanmore from 1610 to 1618. 
The church, restored in 1630, was conse- 
crated by Archliishop Laud Jiily 16, 1632. 

Stannary Courts.— These courts were 



tery of Grey Friars was founded in 1206; St. ! 
Michael's church in 1230 ; the monastery of 
Black Friars in 1241 ; St. George's church 
was rebuilt in 1450, upon the site of a much 
older edifice; St. John's was founded in 1450; 
All Saints about 1465 ; and Brown's Hospital 
in 1485. Eadcliffe's School was estabhshed by 
the bequest of W. Kadcliflfe, who died in 1530; 
the grammar-school was founded in 1548, and 
in 1572 Lord Burleigh settled a number of 
Flemish Protestant refugees, who introduced 
the art of silk and serge weaving. The town- 
hall was rebuilt in 1776, and the girls' national 
schools were founded in 1815. 

Stamp Act. — The celebrated " Act for 
granting and applying certain Stamp Duties, 
and other Duties in the British Colonies and 
Plantations in America, &c.," 5 Geo. III. 
c. 12 (March 22, 1765), passed both houses 
of parliament with scarcely any discussion. 
It took eifect from Nov. 1, 1765, and was re- 
pealed by 6 Geo. III. c.ll (March 18, 1766). 
{See American Stamp Act.) 

Stamp Duties.— By 22 & 23 Charles II. 
c. 9 (1670), certain duties were imposed on 
deeds enrolled, crown grants, and law pro- 
ceedings, but they were not denoted by 
stamps. Stamp duties, properly so called, 
were introduced into this country from Hol- 
land, and were first imposed by 5 Will. & 
Mary, c. 21 (1694). By 6 & 7 Will. III. 
c. 6 (1694), they were granted on marriages, 
births, and burials, and by 8 Anne, c. 9 (1709), 
on premiums with apprentices. Newspapers 
were first taxed by 10 Anne, c. 19 (1711). 
Stamp duties were introduced into Ireland 
in 1774. Bills of exchange and notes were 
subjected to the stamp laws by 22 Geo. III. 
c. 33 (1782), and patent medicines bv 23 
Geo. III. c. 62 (1783). AH the stamp duties 
were repealed by 44 Geo. III. c. 98 (July 28, 
1804), which was amended by 48 Geo. III. 
c. 149 (July 4, 1808). Both these statutes 
were repealed by the general stamp act, 55 
Geo. III. c. 184 (July 11, 1815). By 7 & 8 
Geo. IV. c. 55 (July 2, 1827), the stamp 
offices of Great Britain and Ireland were 
consolidated, and by 4 & 5 Will. IV, c. 60 
(Aug. 13, 1834), the boards of stamps and 
taxes were united. The stamp laws were 
amended by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 97 (Aug. 14, 
1850) ; 16 & 17 Viet. c. 59 (Aug 4, 1853) ; 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 1853) ; 17 & 18 
Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 9, 1854) ; and by 23 & 24 
Vict. c. Ill (Aug. 28, 1860). 

Standard (Battle).— The battle of Cuton 
Moor, or Northallerton {q.v.), is so called 
because the Enghsh barons rallied round a 
sacred standard, consisting of a ship's mast 
fixed in a four-wheeled vehicle, and bearing 
the barmers of St. Peter of York, St. John 
of Beverley, and St. Wilfred of Ripon, sur- 
mounted by a pyx containing the consecrated 
host. 

Standard fob Gold and Silver.— The 
appointment of a fixed standard of fineness 
for the precious metals is very ancient, as the 
method of testing known as the Trial of the 
Pix, is mentioned as early as 1282 ; and by 
25 Edw. III. c. 13 (1350), aU coin is ordered 



STA 

instituted at a very remote period for the ! 
convenience of the Cornish tin -miners. They I 
are mentioned in charters of the reign of 
John, and their privileges were confirmed by 
Edward III. a.d. 1359. Their jurisdiction 
was regulated by 16 Charles I. c. 15 (1641), ! 
and the courts themselves were remodelled 
by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 106 (Aug. 20, 1836). ! 
The Stannary laws were amended by 2 & 3 | 
Viet. c. 58 (Aug. 17, 1839), and by 18 & 19 1 
Viet. c. 32 (June 15, 1855). 

Staples Inw (London). — This inn of; 
chancery was formerly a frequent resort 
of wool-merchants, in consequence of which j 
it was called Staple HaU. Dugdale states 
that it became an inn of chancery in or 
before the reign of Henry V. (1413—14=22) ; 
but it did not become the property of a law 
society until the time of Henry VIII. (1509 i 
—1547). 

Staech. — A patent was obtained, a.d. ' 
1796, by Lord Wilham Murray, for making ! 
starch from horse-chestnuts, and Wickham j 
obtained a patent in 1824 for making it from 
rice. O. Jones, in 1840, produced starch 
from rice by a new process, and in 1841 
Berger took out a patent for making rice 
starch by the action of an alkahne salt. 
James Colman obtained a patent in Decem- 
ber, 1841, for making starch from Indian j 
corn. I 

Stae Chasibee. — The etymology of the '■ 
name of this celebrated court is very un- j 
certain. Some contend that the chamber ' 
where it held its sitting received its name 
from the starry decorations of its roof, and 
others that Star Chamber is a corruption of 
" Starrs " Chamber ; and that the room was 
so called because it was used as a repository 
for contracts made with Jews — " Starrs" i 
being the old name for such contracts. 
HaUam considers that this court originated ! 
in the Consilium Ordinarium, which had 
been the subject of numerous statutes from 
the time of Edward III. ; but the usual 
opinion is that it was erected by 3 Hen. VII. | 
c. 1 (14S6). Its constitution and authority 
were defined more particularly by 21 Hen. 1 
VIII. c. 20 (1529), by which the president of } 
the council was made one of its judges, and I 
it was finally abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 10 
(1640). An attempt to restore the jurisdic- [ 
tion of the court of Star Chamber was made 
without success in 1662. j 

Stae op India (Order). — This order of! 
knighthood was instituted by Queen Vic- 
toria by letters patent dated Feb. 23, 1861. ! 
It consists of twenty knights, exclusive of the 
sovereign. The first and principal knight 
and grand master of the order, is the viceroy 
and governor- general of India for the time 
being. 

States- Islakd (United States), about 
eleven miles S.W. of New York, was occu- 
pied by the British army imder General 
Howe, July 9, 1776. 

State-Papee Office. — This office was 
established a.d. 1578, and is the depository 
of the official correspondence of the coxmtry 
from the reign of Henry VIII. An attempt 



STA 

to improve the catalogues was made in 1764 
and in 1800 the office was placed under an 
improved system of management. Thepub- 
hcation of the calendar of State Papers was 
commenced in 1857. 

States-Geneeal of Feastce. (See Pab- 
LiAMENT (French) and National Assem- 

BLT.) 

States op the Chuech. {See Papal 
States.) 

Stationees. — The company of stationers 
or text-writers were formed into a guild a.d. 
1403, and received their first charter May 4, 
1557. It was confirmed by Ehzabeth in 1558, 
The entries of copies commenced in 1558, 
and the delivery of books in 1662. The first 
haU, in Milk Street, was destroyed in the 
great fire of 1666. It was rebuilt in 1670. 

Statistical Society. — The government, 
A.D. 1793, established a Board of AgricultiTre 
in England, which collected and published 
many statistics referring to the state of 
agriculture. Nothing of a practical cha- 
racter, however, was accomplished until 
1832, when Lord Auckland and Mr. Poulett 
Thompson, who then presided over the 
Board of Trade, established a statistical 
office in that department. The Statistical 
Society of London was established March 15, 
1834. 

Statistic s. — HaUam (Literature of 
Europe, pt. iv. sec. 109) states that "the 
Itahans were the first who laid anything like 
a foundation for statistics or political arith- 
metic." They were succeeded by the Eng- 
lish, whose earliest work on the subject is 
Graunt's "Observations on the Bills of 
Mortality," pubhshed in 1661. The earhest 
attempt to comprehend aU the details of sta- 
tistical science within the limits of one work 
was made in the " Statistical Accoimt of Scot- 
land," which was published by Sir John Sin- 
clair in 1791. In 1832 Lord Auckland and 
Mr. Poulett Thompson estabUshed a statis- 
tical office in connection with the Board of 
Trade ; and in 1833 a similar department 
was instituted by the British Association. 
The Statistical Society of London was 
founded March 15, 1834, and commenced 
the pubhcation of its journal in May, 1838. 
A central statistical commission was estab- 
lished in Belgium by a royal decree, in 
October, 1841 ; and international statistical 
congresses have been since held under its 
auspices. The first of these congresses as- 
sembled at Brussels, Sept. 19, 1853 ; the 
second at Paris, in September, 1855; the 
third at Vienna, in September, 1857 ; and 
the fourth at London, July 16, 1860. 

Statues. — Phidias, the greatest sculptor 
who ever hved, was bom at Athens about 
B.C. 500. The first statue executed by an 
Englishman was that of Thomas Sutton by 
Nicholas Stone, in 1615. The first eques- 
trian statue erected in England was that of 
Charles I. by Le Seur, in 1678. Public 
statues within the metropohtan police dis- 
trict were placed under the control of the 
commissioners of public works and buUdinga 
by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 33 (July 10, 1854). 



STA 

Statutes. — The statutes of the English 
parliament were first ordered to be printed 
A.D. 1483. By 13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 (June 10, 
1850), provisions were made for shortening 
the language used in parliamentary statutes. 
A list of all the statutes referred to in this 
work is given in the Index. — {See Acts of 
Paeliamestt.) 

Steam-Caeeiag-e. — The earliest example 
of a carriage propelled by steam was one 
invented by Theophilus Cugnot, a.d. 1763, 
which proved a failure. In 1784 James 
Watt suggested a plan for a steam-carriage, 
but it was not carried into eflt'ect. In 
1786 William Symington, in Scotland, and 
Oliver Evans, in North America, both la- 
boured to introduce steam-propelled vehi- 
cles on common roads, and in 1802 Messrs. 
Trevithick and Vivian patented an engine 
which was partially successful. Julius Grif- 
fith's carriage was patented in 1821, the 
experiments of David Gordon commenced 
in 1822, and Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney's 
patent was taken out May 14, 1825. In con- 
sequence of the conflicting claims of differ- 
ent inventors, a committee of the House of 
Commons was nominated, which presented 
a report, Oct. 12, 1831, favourable to the 
introduction of steam-carriages on common 
roads. In 1860 a carriage, invented by the 
earl of Caithness, attained very satisfactory 
results. (See Eaileoads.) 

Steam, Steam-engiu-e, &c. — Hero of 
Alexandria, writing about B.C. 120, describes 
some apparatus in which motion was pro- 
duced by the force of steam. The ItaUan 
architect Branca imparted a rotatory mo- 
tion to a series of wheels by means of the 
forcible emission of steam from an orifice in 
a boiler, a.d. 1629. The first work in which 
steam is scientifically treated, was pubhshed 
at Basel by John Ziegler, in 1769. Dr. Eo- 
bison's experiments on the temperature and 
elasticity of steam were made in 1778, and 
Dr. Dalton pubhshed a valuable series of 
discoveries in 1793. The following table ex- 
hibits a chronological view of the leading 
inventions connected with the steam-en- 
gine :— 



1663. The marquis of Worcester constructs a rude 
steam-eDgine, which he describes in the 
" Century of Inventions." 

1680. Dr. Denys Papin invents the safety-valve. 

1690. He invents the cylinder and piston. 

1695. He suggests an atmospheric steam-engine. 

1698. July. Captain Thomas Savery patents an 
invention for raising water by steam 
power. 

1705. Invention of Thomas Newcomen's engine. 

1717. Henry Beighton perfects self-actiug valve- 
gear. 

1720. Leupold produces the first idea of a high- 
pressure engine. 

1759. James Watt directs his attention to the 
subject of the steam-engine. 

1765. James Watt invents the condenser. 

1769. Jan. 5. James Watt takes out his first patent. 

1770. Smeaton improves the atmospheric engine. 

1774. Watt and Boulton commence their partner- 

ship. 

1775. Watt's patent is extended for twenty-five 

years. 



STE 



1781. Mr. Steed patents the crank motion, and 
Hornblower invents the double-cylinder 
engine. 

1784. Watt invents the parallel motion. 

1785. He invents the governor and throttle-valve. 

The oscillating cylinder is invented by 
Willianx Murdock. 

1797. Dr. Edmund Cartwright patents the metallic 
piston. 

1799. Matthew Murray proposes the slide-valve. 

1802. Trevithick and Vivian Invent the high-pres- 
sure engine. 

1804. Arthur ^W oolf perfects the double-cylinder 
engine. 

1830. The Messrs. Dakeyne patent the first disc 
engine. 

1845. George Daniel Bishopp patents his disc en- 
gine. 

STEAM-Guif. — ^A gxin of large size, steam 
being used instead of gunpowder, was in- 
vented by Mr. Jacob Perkins, May 15, 1824, 
but it proved of little use. 

Steam-Hammee was invented by Mr. 
James Nasmyth, of Manchester, and pa- 
tented by him June 9, 1842. 

Steam Navigation. — The following are 
the most important dates connected with 
this important subject : — 



1543. Blasco de Gavay propels a boat at Barcelona 
by means of a "large kettle of boiling 
water." 

1736. Dec. 21. Jonathan Hulls patents a machine 
for carrying ships out of harbour against 
wind or tide, or in a calm, by means of 
steam. 

1752. Daniel Bernouilli invents a screw propeller, 
to be worked by steam. 

1770. James Watt proposes the screw propeller. 

1774. The count d'Aniiron constructs a steamer, 

which fails, on the Seine. 

1775. Mr. Ellicot proposes steam navigation in the 

United States. 
1778. The ijotorious Thomas Paine suggests steam 
as a means of propelling vessels. 

1782. A steamboat is built by the Marquis Jouffroy, 

and is tried on the Sa6ue without success. 

1783. Mr. Fitch moves a vessel by steam power on 

the Delaware, North America. 

1785. Mr. William Murdock invents the oscillating 
cylinder. 

1789. Dec. 26. Mr. William Symington constructs 
a steamer, which attains a speed of seven 
miles an hour, on the Forth of Clyde 
canal. 

1801. Symington constructs the Charlotte Dundas, 
" the first practical steamboat." 

1807. Oct. 3. Mr. Robert Fulton establishes the 
Clermont, as a regular steam - packet 
between New York and Albany. The 
engines were furnished by Watt & 
Boulton. 

1812. Jan. 18. Mr. Heni-y Bell institutes the 
steam-navigation of the Clyde, by starting 
the Comet between Glasgow and Gree- 
nock. 

1815. Jan. 23. The Margery plies between London 
and Gravesend, and is the first Thames 
steamer. Steam-packets are established 
between Glasgow and London. 

1817. Oct. 14. Mr. James Watt, Juu., crosses the 
Channel in the Caledonia, and .ascends the 
Rhine, thus making the first steam voyage 
on the sea. 

1819. The Savannah steamer crosses from America 
to Liverpool. 

1822. The Comet steamer is built for the Eoyal 
Navy. 

1829. The Cura^oa makes two voyages between 
Holland and the West Indies. 

807 



STE 



1836. The Fcrew propeller is patented by F. P. 

Smith. 
1838. April 4. The Sirius steam packet sails from 

London to New York, and completes the 

Toyage in seventeen days. April 7. The 

Great Western packet leaves Bristol for 

New York, and makes the passage in fifteen 

days. 
1840. Smith constructs the Archimedes screw 

steamer. 
1843. The Messrs. Rnthven, of Edinburgh, introduce 

the water-jet system of steam pvopuUing. 

July 19. Launch of the Great Britain. 
1845. Screw steamers are adopted in the navy. 
1851. Aug. 7. Passing of the Steam Navigation 

Act. 
1854. May 1. The buUiling of the Great Eastern 

is commenced at Mill wall. 
1857. Nov. 3. The launch of the Great Eastern 

commences. It is completed Jan 31, 1858. 

1859. Sept. 14. A terrific explosion occurs on the 

Great Eastern, and ten men are killed. The 
English government orders an immei)se 
steam valve of 1,250 horse-power to be 
built. 

1860. June. Captain CoviTper Phipps Coles proposes 

his shot-proof gun shields for iron steamei-s. 
Dec. 29. Launch of the British iron-cased 
screw steamer Warrior. 

Steaeine, a solid transparent substance, 
was first made knovFn by Chevreul a.d. 
1823. 

Stedingees, so called from a district in 
the ducby of Oldenburg where these heretics 
were most numerous. They flourished in 
the early part of the 12th century, and were 
nearly exterminated in 1234 by an army of 
40,000 crusaders. They refused to pay 
tithes, and were charged vrith holding vari- 
ous absurd notions by their papal perse- 
cutors. They were also called HaUean 
heretics, from a town of that name in 
Swabia. 

Steel. — One kind, called stomoma by the 
Greeks, and another chalybs, manufactured 
by the Chalybes, was in use in the time 
of Homer, B.C. 962. Diodorus describes 
a process followed by the Celtiberians, 
in Spain, for oxydizing the iron to make 
steel, which was afterwards forged into 
weapons, B.C. 43. Japan has long been 
famed for the quahty of this metal used in 
the manufacture of sabres. The method of 
hardening by immersion in water was 
practised in the 11th or 12th century. Oils 
and other fluids were used for the same pur- 
pose, the archduke Cosmo, of Tuscany, 
enjoying the credit of having discovered a 
valuable one a.d. 1555. The art of con- 
verting bar-iron into steel, by dipping into 
other fused iron, is described by Eeaumur, 
about 1730, although it was known much 
earlier. A costly description of the metal 
was the ferriim Indicum, a hundred talents 
of which were presented to Alexander in 
India, B.C. 327. Some pieces, under the 
name of wootz, were sent from that country 
to the Eoyal Society in 1795. Damasked 
steel, a famous quality, was early obtained 
from the Levant. Cast steel was first made 
by Huntsman, at Atterclifi^, Sheffield, in 
1770. Faraday and Stodart pubUshed a se- 
ries of experiments, showing how the quality 
might be improved by alloy with silver and 



STE 

other metals, in 1822. Heath, who spent a 
fortune on his experiments, devised a mode 
of combining carbon with manganese to pro- 
duce a carburet, by which good steel was 
made from English iron, in 1839. Besse- 
mer' s process for converting pig-iron into 
malleable iron, and that again into steel, 
without any additional consumption of fuel, 
for which he has taken out several patents, 
was announced at the meeting of the British 
Association in 1856. 

Steel Pens were first brought into use 
about 1803. They have since undergone 
various improvements, and are the subject 
of numerous patents. 

Steelyard was known to the Eomans 
under the name of statera, and frequently 
made of brass, as described by Vitruvius, 
B.C. 27. From the manner in which it is 
spoken of in a tract of the time, it seems to 
have been little known in England in 1578. 
Martins' " Index Weighing-Machine " and 
many other modifications have been devised ; 
and'M. Hanin, a Frenchman, received a 
prize from the Society of Arts for one in 
1790. 

Steeltabd, or Stilltaed. — The Ger- 
mans of the Steelyard were located in Lon- 
don A.D. 979, but the company was erected, 
according to some authors, in 1215, according 
to others, by Henry III. in 1232. Their privi- 
leges were extended in 1260, and Edward I. 
granted them a charter in 1280. It was con- 
firmed by Henry V. in 1413, and renewed by 
Edward IV. in 1466. Their privileges were 
revoked by Edward VI. in 1552, restored by 
Mary in 1554, and finally abrogated by Eli- 
zabeth in 1578. Their house was shut up in 
1597, and its German inhabitants sent away. 

Steenkiek, or Steinkiek (Battle). — At 
this village, in France, Wifliam III. of Eng- 
land was defeated by the French, under 
Marshal Luxemburg, Aug. 3, 1692. 

Stenogeapht. {See Shoethand.) 

Stephen, third son of Stephen, count of 
Blois, and Adela, daughter of Wniiam I., 
was born about a.d. 1096, and was crowned 
king of England, Thursday, Dec. 26, 1135. 
Stephen married Matilda, daughter of the 
count of Boulogne, by whom he had three 
sons and two daughters. He waged a long 
war against the empress Matilda, daughter 
of Henry I., she having claimed the crown. 
She was recognized as " Lady of England," 
at a council held at Winchester, April 7, 
1141. This was brought to a close by the 
treaty of Winchester, signed Nov. 7, 1153, 
which provided for the succession to the 
throne of her son Henry, on the death of 
Stephen, which occurred Oct. 25, 1154. 

Stephen's Chapel (London), built by 
King Stephen about a.d. 1135, and rebuilt 
by Edward III. in 1347, became the seat 
of the English parhament in September, 
1552. It was totally destroyed by fire 
Oct. 16, 1834. 

Steeeometee, an instrument for deter- 
mining the specific gravity of liquid and 
other bodies, was invented by Say, a French 
officer of engineers, a.d. 1797. 



STE 

Steeeoscop e. — Professor Wheatstone 
read a treatise before the Eoyal Society, 
on the phenomena of binocular vision, 
and illustrated his theories with what he 
called the " reflecting stereoscope," a.d. 
1838. Sir David Brewster communicated 
to the same society his lenticular, or re- 
fracting stereoscope, in 1843. M. Duboscq, 
of Paris, manufactured a very fine one, 
which, with a set of daguerreotypes, was 
presented to Queen Victoria in 1851. The 
principle on which the instrument depends 
was known to Euclid, b.c. 300, and de- 
scribed by Galen a.d. 174. 

Steeeottpe is said to have been invented 
in Holland, bibles having been printed at 
Leyden from stereotype plates a.d. 1711. 
The art was, however, brought to perfection 
in England. Books were printed from stereo- 
type plates by Ged of Edinburgh, in 1725 ; 
and plates for bibles and prayer-books were 
cast at Cambridge in 1729. Earl Stanhope 
introduced it into London in 1803. Apple- 
gath obtained a patent in 1818 for improve- 
ments in stereotype plates. 

Stethoscope, a wooden cylinder used by 
medical men to ascertain the condition of 
the lungs, was invented by M. Laennec of 
Paris, A.D. 1823. 

Stettin (Prussia) owes its origin to a 
Wendish castle, and a large village existed 
here as early as a.d. 830. A Wendish temple 
erected here was destroyed and rebuilt several 
times during the struggle between Christian- 
ity and Paganism, and was finally destroyed 
on the triumph of the former in the 13th cen- 
tury. A treaty of peace was concluded at 
Stettin, in 1570, between IS'orway and Sweden, 
the principal articles being that John III., 
king of Sweden, should restore his Norwegian 
conquests, and that Frederick II., king of 
Norway, should also restore his conquests, 
receiving, however, Elfsburg and a large 
sum of money. The ancient castle was the 
residence of the dukes of Pomerania from 
1575 to 1637, when the line became extinct. 
Stettin, with the rest of Pomerania, was con- 
quered by Kussia in 1713, and, after under- 
going various changes, was finally ceded to 
Prussia in 1814. 

Sticklastadt (Battle).— Olaf II., king of 
Norway, having been driven from his throne 
by Canute the Great, was defeated and slain 
in this battle, fought for the recovery of his 
kingdom, July 29, 1030. 

Stielikg (Scotland) . — The earliest charter 
given by Alexander I. is dated a.d. 1119. 
The castle, of the early history of which 
nothing is known, was, in the 12th and 13th 
centuries, one of the strongest fortresses in 
Scotland. It was besieged by Robert Bruce 
in 1313. James II. stabbed the earl of 
Douglas here in 1452. The church, formerly 
a Franciscan monastery, was founded by 
James IV. in 1494. James VI. was crowned 
at Stirling July 24, 1567. The earl of Len- 
nox was murdered in the castle Sept. 4, 1571. 
Gowan's hospital was erected in 1639. The 
remnant of the Scottish army having re- 
treated to Stirling after the battle of Dunbar, 



STO 

Sept. 3, 1650, surrendered to General Monk 
Aug. 14, 1651. 

Stiebups were not used before the 6th 
century. Hippocrates and Galen speak of a 
disease of the feet and ancles from suspen- 
sion without a resting-place when riding. 

Stockholm (Sweden) was founded by 
Birger Jarl about a.d. 1260. Christian I., king 
of Denmark, was crowned here in 1457, and 
John II., king of Denmark and Norway, was 
crowned king of Sweden, at Stockholm, in 
1497. It was strongly fortified and defended 
by Queen Christina of Denmark, against the 
Swedish insurgents, from Oct. 7, 1501, to 
March27, 1502 ; and a still more heroic defence 
was that made by Christina Gyllenslierna in 
1520, against Christian II. of Denmark. 
Stockholm replaced Upsala as the capital of 
Sweden in the 17th century. The palace, 
commenced in 1697, was finished in 1753. 
The royal library in the palace was destroyed 
by fire in 1697. A granite obelisk was erected 
by Gustavus IV. in 1793, to commemorate 
the zeal and fidelity of the citizens in the war 
against Eussia from 1788 to 1790. A revolu- 
tion took place at Stockholm March 13, 1809, 
when Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, was de- 
posed. — A treaty of peace with Eussia was 
signed here March 3, 1813, by which Sweden 
bound herself to employ a body of 30,000 men 
to act with the Eussian's against the French in 
North Germany. A treaty between England, 
France, and Sweden, was concluded here 
Nov. 21, 1855. 

Stockings were unknown to the Romans 
tin after the time of Hadrian, a.d. 138. 
They were used by the Anglo-Saxons in the 
8th century, and made of cloth in the 12th 
century. The ladies of the time of Edward II. 
wore them of precisely the modern form. 
Henry VIII. wore silk stockings. A Spanish 
pair, which included breeches, stockings, and 
shoes, was presented to Edward VI. A 
pair of knitted silk stockings made in Eng- 
land was presented in 1601 to Queen 
Elizabeth, who afterwards refused to wear 
any other sort. A London apprentice made 
the first worsted knitted stockings in England, 
taking the hint from a pair that were brought 
from Mantua in 1564. In France young 
men of fashion wore them of different patterns 
upon each leg in the 16th century. A com- 
pany of stocking-knitters was formed at Paris 
in 1527. 

Stock-jobbing Act. — By 7 Geo. II. e. 8 
(March 28, 1734), provisions were made 
for the prevention of stock -jobbing, and by 
10 Geo. II. c. 8 (1737), these provisions were 
rendered perpetual. 

Stockpoet (Cheshire). — The castle was 
held A.D. 1173 by Geoffrey de Costentyn 
against Henry II. The free school was 
founded in 1487. Stockport was taken by 
Prince Eupert in 1644, and retaken by the 
Parliament army, under Leshe, in 1645. It 
was occupied on two occasions in 1745 by 
Prince Charles-Edward, the Pretender. 

Stocks. — It was enacted by 7 Hen. IV. 
c. 17 (1405), that every viUage and town 
should have a pair of stocks ; and by 4 James I. 



STO 

c. 5 (1606) , that every person convicted of 
drunkenness should be fined five shillings, or 
spend six hours in the stocks. This last act 
was confirmed by 21 James I. c. 7 (1623). 

Stocktoi]" (Durham). — This town is sup- 
posed to have received its first charter from 
King John, a.d. 1201. In 1310 Bishop An- 
thony Beke granted a weekly market to 
Stockton ; and in 1322 the town was btimed 
and plundered by the Scotch. They held the 
castle in 164ri. The parhament ordered it to 
be dismantled in 1647, and it was entirely 
destroyed in 1652. The church, coromenced 
June 5, 1710, upon the site of an old chapel 
dating as far back as 1234, was finished and 
consecrated Aug. 21, 1712. The bridge over 
the Tees, commenced Aug. 23, 1764, was 
finished in April, 1771. The Stockton and 
Darlington Eailway was opened for traffic in 
Septembei-, 1825. 

Stoics. — The disciples of Zeno, a Greek 
philosopher, were called Stoics, because he 
taught in the 'S.Toa, or porch. Zeno was 
bom at Citium, a small town in the island of 
Cyprus, about b.c. 357, taught at Athens 
B.C. 299, and died about b.c. 263. 

STOKE-rpoN-TEENT (Staflfordshire) .—The 
old church of St. Peter is mentioned as early 
as A.D. 1291. Lambert Simnel was defeated 
and made prisoner in a battle fought near this 
town, June 16, 14S7. The completion of the 
Grand Junction canal to Stoke in 1777 gave 
a great increase to the trade. The first 
newspaper published in this town appeared 
Jan. 1, 1809. St. Peter's church was pulled 
down and a new one erected in 1829. 

Stolbova (Russia), celebrated for the 
peace between Eussia and Sweden, signed 
here Jan. 26, 1617. It was purchased by 
Russia on the following terms ; viz., the 
surrender to Sweden of Ingria, Careha, the 
whole country between Ingria and Xovgo- 
rod, the renunciation of Livonia and Estho- 
nia, and a large sum of money. It was re- 
newed by the treaty of Cardis {q.v.). 

Stoxe. — The Egyptians chiefly used 
granite in their buildings, the Assyrians 
alabaster, and the Greeks and Eomans 
marble. The ancient Britons used stone in 
their remarkable Druidical circles {see 
STOifEHEif&E), and stone circular towers of 
a very early date exist in Scotland and Ire- 
land. During the Eoman occupation of this 
island, numerous stone edifices were erected, 
and in a.d. 296 the British builders are 
mentioned as the most skilful masons known. 
After the departure of the Eomans, how- 
ever, the art of building in stone declined, 
and was not restored until the year 674, 
when it was revived by Wilfred, bishop of 
York, and Benedict Biscop. The first stone 
church in Scotland was erected in 710. A 
commission to inquire into the kinds of 
stone most suitable for building purposes 
was appointed in 1839, in order to insure a 
sound material for the new house of par- 
liament, but the result has not proved satis- 
factory. Frederick Eansome patented his 
artificial stone Oct. 22, 1844!. Hutchinson's 
810 



STO 

process for the preservation of stone was 
patented in 1847, Barrett's in 1851, and 
Daines's ra April, 1856. F. Eansome's 
system of coating stone with an insoluble 
sihcate was patented Sept. 27, 1856. 

Stoite. — The operation for this disease is 
mentioned by Hippocrates (b.c. 460 — 357). 
Celsus gave an exact description of it a.d. 
17. Germain Colot, a French physician, 
performed it on a criminal at Paris m 1474. 
The present method was first taught at Paris 
by Frere Jacques in 1697. The operation 
by crushing the stone, called hthotrity {q. v.), 
was first proposed in 1812. 

Stoxehenge ("Wiltshire), on Salisbury 
Plain, is beheved to be the remains of a 
Druidical temple. Owing to a rapid thaw, 
three of the large stones, the smallest weigh- 
ing about twenty tons, fell from their place, 
Jan. 3, 1797. Geoffrey of Monmouth states 
that it was erected by Aurelius Ambrosius 
in memory of 460 Britons put to death by 
Hengist. Polydore TirgU says the Britons 
erected this monument in memory of 
AureHus Ambrosius. Inigo Jones beUeved 
it to be a Eoman temple. 

Stonet Point (North America), taken 
by the English after a sharp cannonade 
June 1, 1779, was retaken by the American 
brigadier Wayne, July 15. The latter eva- 
cuated the fort after having destroyed the 
works, and it was again occupied by the 
English. 

Stoems. — The earhest attempt to arrive 
at a scientific knowledge of the law of 
storms was made by Captain Langford, who 
published a paper on the West-Indian hur- 
ricanes in the Philosophical Transactions for 
1698. In 1743 Don Juan de UUoa described 
the rotary storms of the Pacific, and in 1801 
Colonel Capper made some observations 
on the hurricanes of Malabar. William 
Eedfield, of New York, pubhshed a valuable 
paper on the management of ships in storms 
and the use of the barometer, in 1831 ; and 
in 1838 the law of storms was estabhshed on 
a deflinite scientific basis by Lieutenant- 
Colonel William Eeid, of the Eoyal En- 
gineers. Henry Piddington's publications 
on the subject commenced in 1839. 

Stoething, or Norwegian parliament, 
was first held at Bergen by Hako IV., a.d. 
1223. By an agreement made with the king 
of Sweden, the two crowns were united 
May 17, 1814. Both chambers passed a 
motion to abohsh hereditary nobfiity in 
1815. The royal assent was refused, but the 
chambers carried their point in 1821. 

Stoueeeidge (Worcestershire). — The free 
grammar-school, at which Dr. Johnson was 
a scholar, a.d. 1726, was founded by Ed- 
ward VI. in 1551. The church was bmlt by 
subscription in 1742. A riot took place 
among the colliers, Nov. 14, 1767, when they 
compelled the farmers to seU their com at 
five sh il l in gs a bushel. The railway to 
Dudley was opened in 1852. 

Stove.— The ancient Greeks and Eomans 
usually employed charcoal braziers for heat- 
ing their apartments. The first important 



STO 



STR 



scientific work on stoves was published in 
France by Cardinal Polignae, a.d. 1713. 
Dr. Neil Arnot patented his stove Nov. 14, 
1821, and Wilham Jeakes patented a 
method of applying a ventilating apparatus 
to the Arnot stoves, Oct. 22, 1838. 

Stow -OK -THE -Wold (Battle). — Lord 
Astley, with 3,000 cavaliers, marching from 
Worcester to join Charles I. at Oxford, was 
defeated at this place, in Gloucestershire, by 
Colonel Morgan. His men were killed, 
captured, or dispersed, and he was taken 
prisoner, March 22, 1646. 

Steaffokdians. — Lord Digby and fifty- 
four other members of the House of Com- 
mons voted against the bill of attainder 
against the earl of Strafford, April 21, 1641. 
Their names were posted in the streets as 
" Straffordians, who, to save a traitor, would 
betray their country." 

Stealsund (Prussia) was founded by 
Jaromar I., prince of Riigen, a.d. 1209. It 
became a free imperial town and a member 
of the Hanseatic League, and was besieged 
by Wallenstein, who, notwithstanding his 
boast that he would " take it if it were 
bound to heaven with chains," had to 
abandon the attempt, after losing 12,000 
men, in 1628. Sweden obtained possession 
at the peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648. 
It was captured, after a bombardment, by 
Frederick-William of Brandenburg in 1678, 
and was restored to Sweden in 1679. 
Charles XII., on his return to Europe, 
arrived here Nov. 22, 1714. It surrendered 
to the combined forces of Prussia, Denmark, 
and Saxony, Dec. 21, 1715, and was again 
restored to Sweden in 1720. The Prussian 
general Dohna blockaded the place, but left 
to foUow the Russian army, in February, 
1758. By a convention with Sweden, Eng- 
land paid £50,000 to put it in a state of 
defence, Oct. 3, 1805. General Essen, com- 
mander of the fortress, issued forth, and 
attacked and defeated the French blockading 
force in April, 1807. The French having 
collected an overwhelming army under its 
walls, the Swedish monarch listened to the 
entreaties of the inhabitants and surrendered 
it, Aug. 22. Colonel Schill, a Prussian 
officer, took possession in 1809. The 
French, imder General Gratien, recovered 
it by assault, SchiU falling in the defence. 
May 31. Napoleon I. seized it with aU the 
ships in the harbour, arming them as pri- 
vateers against the commerce of England, in 
January, 1812. A treaty with Sweden se- 
cured to England the right of an entrepot 
in the harbour for twenty years, March 3, 
1813, It was finally ceded to Prussia in 
1815. 

Steand (London) . — Henry III. granted 
this important thoroughfare to his uncle, 
Peter of Savoy, a.d. 1245, and the result 
was the erection of the Savoy Palace (q.v.). 
The Strand was first paved in 1532. Somerset 
House {q. v.) was commenced in 1549 ; Sahs- 
bury House was finished in 1602, and pulled 
down in 1695 ; and Northtunberland House 
was built about 1605. The Strand, or 



Waterloo Bridge (q.v.), was commenced 
in 1811, and various improvements in the 
road were authorized by the Strand Im- 
provement Act, 7 Geo. IV. c. 77 (May 31, 
1826). 

SteasbtjeGt (France), the ancient Argen- 
toratum, originally a town of the Tribocci, 
where the Romans had a manufactory of 
arms, was the scene of a victory gained by 
Julian over the Alemanni a.d. 357. It fell 
into the hands of the Alemanni in 455, and 
after the victory gained over them by Ciovis, 
in 496, a fort, called Strateburgum, was built 
on the site of the city, which had been re- 
duced to ruins. An improvement in its condi- 
tion took place after the abbey of St. Etienne 
was founded by Adelbert, duke of Alsace, in 
718. It was annexed to the German empire 
in 870. Louis II. the Germ an and Charles the 
Bald renewed their alliance here in 842, the 
oath taken by Charles on the occasion being 
the most ancient existing specimen of the 
Romance language. It obtained important 
privileges from the emperor Philip in 1205, 
and formed, with other cities on the Rhine, 
a league to protect, the navigation of the 
river in 1253. Protestantism having gained 
ground, its adherents obtained a number of 
the churches in 1523. A contest for the 
bishopric took place between the two reli- 
gious parties in 1593. With the province of 
Alsace, it was ceded to France, Louis XIV, 
making a solemn entry into the city Oct. 23, 
1681. Dreadful atrocities were perpetrated 
by the mob during the revolution in 1789, 
and still greater by the Convention, upon 
the inhabitants, on account of a royalist 
reaction in 1793. Moreau, with his army, 
crossed the Rhine near Strasburg, June 23, 
1796. Louis Napoleon was foiled in an at- 
tempt to create a revolution here, Oct. 29, 
1836, and sent off to America. The cathe- 
dral of Notre Dame was founded in 1015, 
and completed in 1439. The tower, of which 
Erwin of Steinbach was the architect, was 
carried on by his son and his daughter after 
his death in 1318, The famous clock was 
constructed in 1571. 

STEATFOED-TiPO]sr-Avo3sr (Warwickshire) 
was a place of importance as early as a.d. 
700. The long stone bridge was bmlt by Sir 
Hugh Clopton, lord mayor of London, in 1491, 
during the reign of Henry VII. The free 
grammar-school, at which Shakespeare was a 
pupU, was founded in 1482. The town-haU 
was bmlt in 1768, and the ancient church" 
was repaired at considerable cost in 1840. It 
is celebrated as the birthplace of Shake- 
speare (q. v.). 

Stbathcltttd, — This kingdom, between 
the Roman walls extending from Cumber- 
land to the Clyde, was occupied by an inde- 
pendent British tribe about a.d. 600. It 
was ravaged by Halfdane, a Northman, in 
875, and the people chose Edward the Elder 
for their king in 924. 

Steathfieldsate (Hampshire). — This 
estate, near Silchester, was purchased for 
the duke of Wellington by the British nation 
for the sum of £263,000, Nov. 6, 1817. 
811 



STE 



SUB 



Steatton (Battle). — The Cornisli-men 
who took up arms for Charles I. defeated 
Henry Grey, earl of Stamford, at this place 
in Cornwall, May 16, 1643. The parliament- 
arians suffered severely in the battle. 

Stkawbeket Hill (Surrey). — This 
house at Twickenham, near London, was 
built by Mrs. Chevenix, who let it to Horace 
Walpole, earl of Orford, in May, 1747, and 
sold it to him the following year. In 1750 
he commenced his improvements for con- 
verting the building into a miniature Gothic 
castle, and in 1757 he estabhshed the Straw- 
berry Hill private printing-press. The ex- 
tensive collection of articles of taste accu- 
mulated here by Walpole was sold by auction 
in AprU and May, 1842, the total proceeds 
amounting to £29,615. 8s. 9d. 

Steeet Kailwaxs. — Stone tramways for 
carriages were introduced in the Commercial 
Eoad, London, a.d. 1830, and subsequently 
in many other streets. Iron tramways were 
estabhshed in America, and introduced at Bir- 
kenhead in 1860. The first London hue, ex- 
tending from the Marble Arch to Bayswater, 
was opened March 23, 1861 ; the hue from 
the Victoria station to Westminster Abbey 
was first used April 15; and the Une from 
Westminster Bridge to Kennington in the 
same year. They were aU removed in 
1862. ' 

Steelitz, a miUtary body resembhng the 
Janissaries of Turkey, was instituted by 
Ivan IV., of Russia, about a.d. 1547. A 
serious revolt broke out among them in 
1682. They took up arms in favour of 
Sophia, step-sister to Peter L, in 1689. 
This revolt was suppressed, but they re- 
belled again in 1698, when Peter I. abolished 
the corps, and substituted regular troops in 
their place. 

_ Steikes. — The practice adopted by opera- 
tives of endeavouring to compel employers to 
accede to their demands by " striking," or 
refusing to work, was introduced by the 
Trades Unions {q. v.). 



1810. About 30,000 spinners remain on strike in 
Lancashire for four months, and at length 
return to work at reduced wages. 

1834. March 18. Ahout 3,000 weavers strike at 
Leeds. Nov. to March 1, 18b5. The Staf- 
fordshire potters strike for wages, and 
obtain an advance, after a loss of £27,000 
in wages alone. 

1836. Nov. 5. The operatives at Preston unite in an 

imavailing strike, which continues thii-- 
teen weeks, and occasions a total loss of 
£107,196. 

1837. AprU 8 to Aug. 5. The Glasgow cotton- 

spinners strike for an increase of wages, 
but are compelled by necessity to return to 
work without gaiuing their object. The 
strike occasioned a loss of £194,540. 

1852. A strike takes place among the operative 

engineers. 

1853. July 27 — 30. Strike of the London cabmen. 

1854. Nov. 5. to April 30. About 18,000 factory 

hands strike at Preston, which incurs a 
total loss of £628,216. 
1859. July. The London builders strike in favom- 
of the nine hours' movement. Oct. 31. 
The masons return to work. The total 
loss caused by this strike was £446,873. 
812 



I860. The Coventry ribbon-weavers remain on 
strike for a short time in the middle of the 
year, in cons-eqnence of the increased intro- 
duction of French ribbons. 

Stetchis^ia. — This poison was discovered 
A.D. 1818, by Pelletier and Caventou, in the 
seed of the stryclinus ignatia and mix vomica. 
WillJam Palmer, a surgeon of Rugeley, was 
executed at Stafford June 14, 1856, for hav- 
ing poisoned a person named Cook with 
strychnia. 

Stucco. — The Greek tombs in Asia Minor 
were embelUshed, in low rehef, with this 
composition. It was employed by the Ro- 
mans for temples, floors, waUs, and also for 
covering columns of brick to imitate marble, 
and has been found in the remains of ancient 
British settlements. 

Stuhlweissenbtjeg, or Alba Reg-ia 
(Hungary). — This town, bmlt in the 11th 
century, is the seat of a bishop, and was 
formerly the place of coronation of the kings 
of Hungar'v . Maximilian I. seized it Nov. 19, 
1490. It was taken by the Turks in 1543, 
and was dismantled in 1792. 

S T TJ E M. — Gustavus Adolphus, king of 
Sweden, gained a great victory over the 
Poles, under Sigismund, at tms town in 
Prussia, a.d. 1628. 

Stuttgaed (Wiirtemberg), the capital, 
first mentioned a. d. 1229, was besieged 
for seven weeks by the emperor Rodolph I. 
in 1286. The coimts of AViirtemberg fixed 
their residence here in 1320, and it has been 
the capital of all the possessions of the 
house of Wiirtemberg since 1482. The old 
castle, now used as government offices, was 
built in 1570. The Standehaus, where the 
parhament meet, was built in 1580, but only 
adopted to its present purpose in 1819. The 
new palace, commenced in 1746, was finished 
in 1806. Alexander II. of Russia, and ]S'a- 
poleon III., had an interview here, Sept. 25, 
1857. 

Style. {See I^Tew Style and Old Style.) 

Stylites, anchorites, who took up their 
abode on the top of various columns in Syria 
and Egypt, rose in the 2nd century. The 
most famous was St. Simeon (with whom, 
according to some authors, these anchorites 
originated) , who lived thirty-seven years on 
the tops of various columns near Antioch. 
He began the practice about 395. Some of 
these fanatics were called Pillar Saints. 

Sttbiaco (Italy), the ancient Subla- 
queum, the site of the well-known monas- 
tery of St. Benedict, to which that saint 
retired about a.d. 450. It was rebuilt in 
847. The celebrated monastery of Santa 
Scholastica was founded in the 5th century, 
and restored in 981 by the abbot Stefano. 
The lower church of the monastery of St. 
Benedict dates from 1053, the upper from 
1066, and the cloisters from 1235. 

SuBMAEiifE Telegeaph. — The first suc- 
cessful transmission of an electric discharge 
through water was effected by Dr. Watson, 
between Westminster and Lambeth, July 14, 
1747, and in 1848 successful subaqueous 



SUB 

telegraphs were laid across the Ehine, by 
Werner Siemens. Charles V. Walker at- 
tached two miles of gutta-percha covered 
wire to the hne at Folkestone, and after 
steaming out into the open sea, transmitted 
messages to London, thus proving the prac- 
ticabihty of submarine telegraphy, Jan. 10, 
184.9. Jacob Brett laid an experimental 
wire between Dover and Calais, Aug. 28, 
1850, and the permanent cable was laid 
Sept. 25, 1851. The line from Holyhead to 
Dublin was completed June 1, 1852; and 
that from the South Foreland to Ostend, 
May 4, 1853. The first hne of any length 
was from Varna to Balaclava, which was 
laid during the Crimean war in 1855, and 
established communication through a dis- 
tance of 310 miles. In 1854 Whitehouse 
commenced his researches on the possibihty 
of an Atlantic telegraph, and 2,500 miles of 
cable were prepared, and stowed in equal 
quantities on board the Enghsh screw 
steamer Agamemnon, and the American 
man-of-war Niagara. The Niagara com- 
menced paying out her cable from Valentia, 
on the west coast of Ireland, Aug. 7, 1857, 
but the cable snapped Aug. 11, and opera- 
tions had to be suspended. The two vessels 
again saUed from Queenstown, May 29, 1858, 
on an experimental trip, after which they 
returned to Plymouth, and Thursday, June 
10, they left Plymouth for the purpose of 
laying the cable. They reached the middle 
of the Atlantic June 26, and having joined 
their cables, commenced paying the mout, 
but after a series of breakages, they were 
again compelled to return to Queenstown, 
whence they once more set sail July 17. 
They reached the point of junction July 28, 
and on the following day they parted, the 
Agamemnon steering for Valentia, and the 
Niagara for Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. 
Both vessels arrived in safety at their re- 
spective ports, Aug. 6, and on the 7th, 
Cyrus W. Field announced the successful 
completion of the enterprise. The first 
public despatch, a message from the Queen 
to President Buchanan, was received Aug. 
17, and the cable continued effective until 
September 1, when the signals became unin- 
telligible. 

Subsidies, or duties imposed by parlia- 
ment on certain staple commodities in addi- 
tion to the custuma antiqua et magna, were 
first levied by Ethelred II. to defray the 
expense of the Danegelt, a.d. 991. They 
were also demanded by WUliam I. By 14 
Edw. III. Stat. 1, c. 20 (1340), the Commons 
granted liberal subsidies of wool to defray 
the expenses of the French wars, and by 
11 Hen. IV. c. 7 (1409), they are confounded 
with the ordinary customs. In 1588 the 
parliament made the unusually large grant 
of two subsidies and four-fifteenths, in con- 
sequence of the Spanish armada. The last 
acts granting subsidies to the sovereign, 
were 15 Charles II. cc. 9 & 10 (1663), 

SuccADANA, or Sacadina (Borneo). — 
The chief town of a state of the same 
name^ to which the Dutch began to trade 



SUE 

A.D. 1604. In 1623 thej abandoned their 
factory here. They jomed the sultan of 
Pontianak in fitting out an expedition against 
this place, which they took and utterly de- 
stroyed in 1786. 

Succession. {See Act of Settlement 
and Hanoveeian Succession.) 

Succession Duty.— By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 
51 (Aug. 4, 1853), real property was made 
subject to the legacy duty, paid on suc- 
cession to every kind of property. This act 
was to be taken to have come into ope- 
ration May 19, 1853. 

Succession War. — In anticipation of the 
death of Charles II. of Spain, a treaty was 
signed Aug. 19, 1698, by England, the Ger- 
man empire, Holland, France, and smaller 
states, partitioning his empire amongst the 
competitors for the crown — the prince of 
Bavaria, the dauphin of France, and the 
archduke Charles — in certain proportions. 
Charles II., however, bequeathed, by wiU, 
his empire to the prince of Bavaria. He 
died suddenly, Feb. 6, 1699, and another 
secret partition treaty was signed March 25, 
1700. Charles II., by advice of the papal 
court, declared Philip, duke of Anjou, his 
sole heir, and died Oct. 21, 1700 (O. S.). 
The new monarch having been crowned as 
Philip v., his title was generally acknow- 
ledged, except by the emperor Leopold I., 
when war commenced in Italy, and the 
French were defeated by Prince Eugene, at 
Carpi, in August, 1701. England and Hol- 
land afterwards joined the emperor, and the 
triple treaty of the Grand AUiance was 
signed Sept. 7, 1701. Marlborough was 
despatched to Holland, and war was de- 
clared against France and Spain on the 
same day. May 4, 1702, at the Hague, 
Vienna, and London. It was brought to a 
close by the treaty of Utrecht, signed by 
France, Portugal, Prussia, Savoy, the 
United Provinces, and England, March 31, 
1713 (O. S.). The emperor acknowledged 
Philip V. by the peace of Kadstadt, signed 
March 6, 1714 (O. S.). 

SuDBUEY (Suffolk). — A convent of Domi- 
nican friars was estabhshed here a.d, 1272. 
The grammar-school was founded in 1491. 
The town received its first charter of incor- 
poration from Queen Mary in 1554. It was 
confirmed by Elizabeth in 1559. Sudbury 
was disfranchised by 7 <& 8 Vict c. 53 (July 
29, 1844). 

SuEVi. — This powerful Gothic tribe, known 
to the Romans as early as B.C. 125, invaded 
Gaul B.C. 71, and were defeated and driven 
across the RWcb.c. 53. They joined Rada- 
gaisus A.D. 405, and, having been defeated, 
recrossed the Rhine in 406. They entered 
Spain in 409, and founded a kingdom. Part 
of their territory was WTested from them by 
WaUia, general of the Goths, in 417, and 
other parts were captured by the Vandals in 
429. They were almost exterminated in a 
great battle fought near Astorga by the Visi- 
goths in 456, and the remnant of the tribe 
was incorporated with them in 584. 

Suez Canal.— In 1852, M. de Lesseps, a 
813 



SUF 

Frencli engineer, formed the idea of obtaining 
funds by means of a joint-stock company for 
cutting a ship canal across the Isthmus of 
Suez . He received a firman from Mohammed 
Said in 1854, and he came to England to give 
information on the scheme in 1855. The 
charter of concession was granted by the 
viceroy of Egypt Jan. 5, 1856. The subscrip- 
tion vrks opened in ]S"ovember, 1858, and the 
company was definitely constituted Jan. 5, 
1859. 

Stjfpide, Sepi, Soofee, or Seefatean 
DxifASTT, was founded in Persia by Ismael 
Shah, descended from Ali, cousin and son-in- 
law of Mohammed, a.d. 1502. It was expelled 
by Nadir Shah in 1736. 

Suffolk (England) formed part of the 
kingdom of the East Angles a.d . 570. Alfred 
planted a colony of Danes in Suffolk in 879. 
The archdeaconry was erected in 1127. 

SuFFEAG-AN BisHOPS, before the Eefor- 
mation, consecrated to serve in the absence 
of the diocesans on embassies, were esta- 
blished by 26 Hen. YIII. c. 14, which named 
twenty-six places as their nominal seats, 
A.D. 1535. This act was repealed by 1 & 2 
Philip & Mary, c. 8 (1555), but re-enacted 
by Elizabeth. They are named as minister- 
ing holy orders in the thirty-fifth canon of 
1603; and Charles II., in his Breda declara- 
tion (1660), expressed his intention to esta- 
bhsh them in every diocese. A catalogue of 
those who had fiUed the oifices in England 
was draTvn up by "\Miarton, and pubhshed in 
Dr. Pegge's dissertation on bishops ij2 parti- 
6z<sinl784. By 52 Geo. III. c. 62 (1812), the 
consecration of coadjutors in Ireland was 
authorized. 

Sl'gab was called by the Eomans mel arun- 
dinaceum, and is spoken of by Pliny as used 
only in medicine, a.d. 72. It was not known 
in northern Europe as an article of food tiU 
about the end of the 11th century. Probably 
people were only acquainted with it in the form 
of sugar-candy, which is mentioned in the 
Alchemia of Libavius in 1595. Margraaf 
discovered it in beet-root and other plants in 
1747 ; and M. Achard for the Prussian go- 
vernment in 1799. Napoleon I. encouraged 
the cultivation of the beet-root in France, 
with a view of injuring the colonial trade of 
England, and he offered a premium for 
the manufacture of sugar from this plant, 
March 25, 1812. The fu'st tax on sugar was 
imposed by 1 James II. c. 4 (1685). The 
duties on British and foreign, and free and 
slave-grown sugar were equalized by 9 & 10 
Vict. c. 63 (Aug. 18, 1846), regulated and 
reduced by 11 & 12 Yict. c. 97 (Sept. 4, 1848), 
again increased by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 21 (May 25, 
1S55), and reduced by 20 & 21 Vict. e. 61 
(Aug. 25, 1857). 

Sttgak-cane, as flourishing in India and 
Arabia Fehx, is referred to by Dioscorides 
about A.D. 54. It was introduced from 
Asia into Cyprus, where it was much exilti- 
vated in 1148. From that island it was 
transplanted about 1420 to Madeira, whence 
it was carried to the West Indies in 1506. 
There were twenty-eight sugar -works in 
814 



SUM 

St. Domingo in 1518. It is said to have been 
cultivated in Spain before the Moorish in- 
vasion of 711. 

SuGAE-EEFrsTs-G. — The Saracens seem to 
have practised the boiling down of the juice 
of the cane, to produce sugar, in Spain, in 
the 8th century. In Europe the Venetians 
were the first to purify the raw article, the 
art being probably derived from the East. 
It was commences in England in 1544, but 
at that time sugar could be procured cheaper 
from Antwerp. Dresden had a refinery in 
1597. Loaves of sugar were sold in thia 
island in 1329. The vacuum-pan was in- 
ventedby Howard in 1812, and Dr. Scoffern 
introduced important improvements in 1849. 

SrHAEUNPOEE (Hiudostan). — On the dis- 
memberment of the Mongol empire, about 
A.D. 1757, this town was given to a EohiUa 
chief, at whose death, in 1785, it came iuto 
possession of his son, and subsequently into 
that of Scindia, from whom it was taken by 
the British in 1803. A botanic garden was 
formed here in 1817, and a medical garden 
was annexed to it in 1826. 

Suicide. — The earliest recorded examples 
of self-destruction are those of Samson, 
B.C. 1117, and Saul, b.c. 1055. The Greek 
philosophers condemned it as criminal, and 
by the laws of Thebes and Athens the bodies 
of suicides were deprived of funeral honours. 
The first instances of suicide at Rome oc- 
curred during the reign of Tarquinius 
Priscus (B.C. 618 — 578), in consequence of 
the aversion of the soldiers to labour iu the 
ccnstruction of sewers. Plutarch mentions 
an extraordinary mania for suicide that 
raged at one time among the women in 
ancient Miletus, and states that it was at 
length checked by an edict, announcing that 
in future the bodies of those who destroyed 
themselves shotildbe dragged naked through 
the streets by the rope with which the act, 
was committed. Sixty people committed 
suicide at Eouen a.d. 1506, and no fewer 
than 1,300 cases of self-destruction occurred 
at Versailles in 1793. The old practice of 
burying the bodies (with a stake through 
them) of suicides at the meeting of four 
cross-roads, was abolished by 4 Geo. IV. c. 52 
(July 8, 1823), which ordered that in such 
cases the interment should take place be- 
tween the hours of nine and twelve at night, 
in an ordinary churchyard, and without any 
rehgious ceremony. 

SuLPHUE was used by the ancients to 
purify the houses of the guilty and the un- 
forttmate ; and Pliny mentions it in the 
purification of vrine a.d. 72. The Sicihan 
government entered into a contract with 
M. Taix, a Frenchman, by which he received 
a monopoly of the extensive mines there, 
Aug. 1, 183S. Through the interference of 
the British government, this monopoly was 
abohshed in July, 1840. Compensation to 
British subjects who had been engaged in the 
trade was paid, to the amount of £65,610, in 
j January, 1842. 

SuMATEA (East -Indian Archipelago).— 
This island is first mentioned by Nicolo di 



SUM 

Conti, who visited it before a.b. 1449. The ' 
Portuguese landed here in 1509. The Por- 
tuguese shipping in the harbour of Acheen 
was destroyed by the natives in 1575, and 
the Portuguese tried to get possession of the 
town in 1582, but were defeated. The Dutch 
established themselves on the west coast va 
1600. They erected another factory at Pa- 
dang in 1649, and a third factory at Palem- 
bang iu 1664. The EngMsh established a 
colony at Bencoolen in 1683, and all the 
Dutch possessions, together with the island 
of Java, fell iuto the hands of the English in 
1811. They were restored in 1816. The Dutch 
exchanged Malacca and some settlements in 
Hindostan for the English possessions at 
Bencoolen in 1824. 

SuJiMEEHATTSEN- (Battle). — Albert of 
Brandenburg, called the Wild, was defeated 
by Duke Maurice at this place, in Germany, 
after a murderous engagement, July 9, 1553. 
Maurice died of his wounds two days after- 
wards. 

SuMPTTJAET Laws. — The codeof Lycurgus, 
B.C. 846, contained many severe enactments 
for the suppression of luxury among the 
Spartans, and the Locrian legislator Zaleu- 
cus passed several sumptuary laws, the most 
remarkable of which prohibited the use of 
purewiae, e.c. 660. The Lex Orchia, passed 
B.C. 181, limited the number of guests per- 
mitted at the feasts of the Romans, and a 
law for restraining the expense at such enter- 
tainments was passed by the consul Fannius, 
B.C. 161. Marcus ^milius Scam'us intro- 
duced a severe sumptuary law b.c. 115, for 
regulating the diet of the different classes. 
Numerous enactments were made in England 
for the suppression of extravagance, especially 
during the reigns of Edward III., Edward 
IV,, and Henry VIII. {see Luxury, &c.), 
which were repealed by 1 James I. c.25 (1604). 
A restriction upon the number of dishes al- 
lowed at dinner, imposed by 10 Edw. III. 
St. 3 (1336), was repealed by 19 & 20 Vict. 
c. 64 (July 21, 1856), which finally abolished 
the English sumptuary laws. 

Sun. — Archimedes of Syracuse, who died 
B.C. 212, endeavoured to measure the sun's 
diameter, and Hipparchus, who died B.C. 125, 
made several important discovei-ies respecting 
its motion. The solar apogee was discovered 
by Albatnegnius or Al Batani, a.d. 880. 
Copernicus adopted his system in 1507 {see 
CoPEKificAN System), and Tycho Brahe, 
who died in 1601, taught that the sun, with 
its circumrevolving planets, moves round the 
earth. The solar spots were observed by 
GalUeo in 1611, and the revolution of the 
sun round its axis was discovered in 1676. 
The phenomena known as Bailey's Beads 
were first observed at the eclipse of 1733, 
and during the eclipse of 1860 Mr. Warren 
de la Rue obtained two excellent photo- 
graphs of the sun's disc. {See AsTEOS-OiiY 
and Eclipses.) 

SuNBUEY (Middlesex) .—This small village, 
on the banks of the Thames, is supposed to 
have been the place at which the Iceni, under 
Boadicea, were defeated by Suetonius Pau- 



SUN 

linus, A.D. 61. The church was erected on 
the site of a more ancient edifice in 1752. 

SuNcioiJ- (Treaty), signed at Suncion, in 
South America, July 17, 1852. The Argen- 
tine Repubhc recognized the independence 
of Paraguay, and conceded the navigation 
of the Parana to that state. 

SuNDA Islands (Indian Archipelago). — 
Sumatra, visited by Mcolo di Conti a.d. 1449 ; 
Java, discovered by the Portuguese in 1511 ; 
Borneo, discovered by the Portuguese in 
1518 ; Celebes, occupied by the Portuguese 
in the 16th century, form what are termed 
the Greater Sunda Islands. The Lesser 
Sunda Islands consist of the chain of islands 
extending from the eastern coast of Java to 
New Guinea, or Papua. 

Sunday. — Theologians are divided in their 
opiuions whether the reservation of one day 
in seven for rest from labour dates from 
the creation of man, or whether it was insti- 
tuted by the Levitical law, b.c. 1491. The 
Jewish sabbath was held on the last day of 
the week, in commemoration of the divine 
rest after the six days of creation. The 
Christian Sunday, on the other hand, is the 
first day of the week, which was set apart 
by the primitive Christians as a day of reli- 
gious rejoicing, in memory of the Lord's 
resurrection and appearance to his disciples. 
In the ApostoHc Church both days were ob- 
served, as perfectly distinct in nature and 
origin, the Sabbath being regarded rather as 
a fast-day, and the Lord's day, or Sunday, 
as a solemn and religious festival. The 
Rev. J. A. Hessey, in his Bampton lectures 
on the Sunday, delivered in 1860, sums up 
his investigations as follows : — " I have con- 
tended that the ancient church considered it 
to be a day of obligation, quite indepen- 
dently of any connexion mth the Sabbath, 
on purely Christian grounds ; that it was not 
until after the 5th century that this view was 
materially impaired; and that it was not 
until towards the end of the 16th century 
that a Sabbatarian origin was formally pro- 
posed instead." Sunday was also known as 
Dies Dominica, or the Lord's day. Dies 
Fanis, or day of bread, and Dies Solis, or 
day of the sxm. The Saxons styled it Sun- 
nan-daeg, whence our Sunday is immediately 
derived. 



a.d. 

252. The fourth coimcil of Carthage prohibits 
fasting on the Lord's day. 

321. March 7. Coustantine I. prohibits town re- 
sidents from labour on Sunday, but sanc- 
tions it in husbandmen. This is the first 
civil legislation for the observance of the 
day. 

3S6. Theodosius the Great prohibits public shows 
on Sunday. 

517. The decision of law-causes on Sunday is 
prohibited. 

53S. The tliird council of Orleans recommends 
abstinence from rural laboiu-s on Sun- 
day. 

910. The emperor Leo VI. prohibits agricultural 
laboiu' on Sxinday. 

940. Athelstan enforces the observance of Sunday 
by severe laws. 

1448. The holding of fairs iind markets on Sunday 
is prohibited by 27 Hen. \l. c. •'i. 

815 



SUIf 



1595. Dr. Bound publishes a work reducing Sab- 
batarianism to a system. 

1618. Sunday recreations are sanctioned by the 
" Book of Sports " {g.v.). 

1625. Sports and pastimes on Sunday are prohibited 
by 1 Charles T. c. 1. 

1676. By the act for the better observation of the 
Lord's day (29 Charles II. c. 7), travelling 
and the pursuit of business are prohibited, 
and no sales are permitted except that of 
mUk. 

1699. The sale of mackerel on Sunday is allowed by 
10 & 11 Will. III. c. 24. 

1781. Fines are imposed on persons who open houses 
for entertainment or debates and charge 
money for admission, or who advertise en- 
tertatnments to take place on Sunday, by 
21 Geo. ni. c. 49. 

1793. The observance of the Lord's day is abolished 
in France. 

1802. Kestoration of the Sunday in France. 

1836. July 28. The baking and sale of bread on 
Sunday is regulated by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 37. 

1848. Aug. 14. The sale of beer during chm-ch time 
is prohibited by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 49. 

1854 Dec. 22. The Pope signs a bull for the encou- 
ragement of Sunday observance in France. 

1855. April 17. Lord Robert Grosvenor introduces 
a bill for the suppression of Sunday trading 
(see London). July 2. The bill is with- 
drawn. Aug. 14. The sale of beer on Sun- 
days is regulated by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 118 
(Aug. 14, 1855). 

Sunday Schools. — In 1699 a Sunday 
school was established by the Abbe John 
Baptist de la Salle at Paris ; but after six 
years it was abandoned. The Eev. Theo- 
philus Lindsey estabhshed a Sunday school 
at Catterick in Yorkshire in 1763, and in 
1769 Miss Ball commenced a similar esta- 
bhshment at High Wycombe, Bucks ; but the 
honour of having founded the Sunday-school 
system is awarded to Eobert Eaikes, of 
Gloucester, in 1783. The Society for the 
Support and Encoui-agement of Sunday 
Schools was formed in 1785, and the Sunday- 
School Union in 1803. 

SUNDAT-TEADING BlLL. — Lopd Eobcrt 

Grosvenor obtained leave in the House of 
Commons to bring in a biU for the preven- 
tion of Sunday trading in the metropohs, 
April 17, 1855. The second reading met 
with much opposition, but was agreed to 
without a division, May 3. A demonstration 
against the measure was made in Hyde 
Park, Sunday, June 24 ; and another, when 
it was estimated that 100,000 persons were 
present, July 1. On the same day a meeting 
was held in Greenwich park, 10,000 persons 
being present. The biU was withdrawn July2. 
SuNDEELASD (Durham). — A monastery 
founded at Monkwearmouth, a.d. 674, 
in which the venerable Bede was educated, 
was destroyed by the Danes in the 9th 
century. Sunderland is first mentioned as a 
port in a charter granted by Hugh Pudsey, 
bishop of Durham, at the close of the 12th 
century. A fresh charter of incorporation 
was granted by Bishop Morton in 1634, and 
Charles II. granted another, greatly extend- 
ing the privileges of the borough, in 1661. 
The south pier was commenced in 1723, and 
the north pier in 1786. The first Sunder- 
land life-boat was constructed in 1799. The 
816 



SUE 

church was built in 1719, and the iron 
bridge over the river Wear, commenced 
Sept. 24, 1793, was finished Aug. 9, 1796. 
The exchange was opened May 26, 1814, 
and the town was first lighted with gas 
March 9, 1824. Sunderland docks were 
opened in June, 1850, and the bridge, which 
had been widened and much strengthened 
and improved, was re-opened in 1859. The 
Orphan Asylum was opened in 1860. 

SrjfDEELAiTD Administeation. — A modi- 
fication of the Stanhope administration 
(q. V.) ensued in 1718, the earl of Sunder- 
land becoming first lord of the Treasury, 
and president of the Council, March 20. 
The cabinet consisted of — 

First Lord of the Trea- ) 

sury and President of 5-Eai'l of Sunderland. 

the Council ) 

Lord Chancellor Earl Cowper. 

Privy Seal Duke of Kingston. 

Principal Secretaries of ) Earl Stanhope and Mr. 

State J Craggs. 

Chancellor of Exchequer.. Mr. Aislabie. 

Secretary at War Lord Castlecomer. 

Admiralty Earl of Berkeley. 

Earl Cowper resigned the lord-chancellorship 
April 15, 1718, and the great seal was placed 
in commission until May 12, when Lord 
Parker was raised to the office. The earl of 
Sunderland retired from the presidency of 
the council Eeb. 6, 1719, and was succeeded 
by the duke of Kingston, who gave up the 
office of privy seal, which the duke of Kent 
received. Eotsert Walpole joined the ministry 
as paymaster-general, June 4, and Lord 
Townshend as lord-president of the council, 
June 11, 1720. The duke of Kingston, who 
gave up that office, superseded the duke of 
Kent as privy seal. Mr. Aislabie resigned 
the chancellorship of the exchequer Jan. 23, 
1721, and Earl Stanhope died Feb. 5, 1721. 
Lord Townshend became secretary of state 
in his place, Feb. 8, and, March 4, Lord 
Carteret succeeded Mr. Craggs, who died 
Feb. 16. Sir Eobert Walpole became first 
lord of the treasury April 3, 1721. {See 
Walpole AnMiNisTEATioif.) 
SrxDiAL. (See Dials.) 
SuPEEANXUATiow AcT. — By this act, 22 
Vict. c. 26 (April 19, 1859), the laws con- 
cerning superannuations and other allow- 
ances to persons having held civil offices in 
the pubhc service are amended. 

SrppEE OF THE LoED. — For a thousand 
years after the institution of this sacrament, 
common bread was used in its celebration, 
wafers being introduced about the 11th cen- 
tury. Sometimes the sacramental wine was 
mixed with the ink used for signing docu- 
ments, to add to the solemnity of the signa- 
ture. The earliest known instance of this 
custom took place in 645. (See Commtju-ion.) 
Stjpea-lapsaeians. (See CALyiNisai.) 
SiTPEEMACT. (See Act op Supeemacy.) 
SuEAT (Hindostan) is first mentioned 
A.D. 1530, when it was taken and destroyed 
by the Portuguese. The Enghsh obtained 
permission to estabhsh a factory here in 
1612, and all the possessions of the East- 



SUE 

India Company were placed under the coun- 
cil of Surat in 1657. It was plundered in 
1664 by the Mahratta chief Sevagee, when 
the English factory was defended with suc- 
cess. The seat of the presidency was trans- 
ferred to Bombay in 1686. The English 
captured the castle of Surat in 1759, and the 
nabob resigned his government to them. 
May 13, 1800. The English church was con- 
secrated by Bishop Heber in 1825. 

SuEGEOifs were separated from the bar- 
ber-surgeons iq.v.) A.D. 1745. Their privi- 
leges were confirmed, and the title changed to 
that of the Eoyal College of Surgeons in Lon- 
don, in 1800. The college received a new char- 
ter, and its name was changed to the " Eoyal 
GoUege of Surgeons of England," a.d. 1844. 
Power to hold examinations and grant certi- 
ficates was confirmed by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 90, 
Stat. 48 (Aug. 2, 1858) . This statute took 
eff'ect from Oct. 1 in that year. The hah in 
Lincoln's-Inn Fields was erected in 1800, 
and rebuilt from designs by C. Barry in 1836. 
The annual commemoratory oration is deli- 
vered Feb. 14. 

SuRGEET was practised with considerable 
skill by the ancient Egyptians. Hippocrates, 
of the school of Cos, is pre-eminent for the 
degree of advancement to which he brought 
the art, B.C. 400. The practice of dissecting 
' the human subject did much to improve it, and 
was commenced by Erasistratus, at Alex- 
andria, in the Srd century. It was long 
discountenanced among the Eomans, who 
were enjoined by pubHc edicts to follow the 

food old plan of healing, through the me- 
ium of religious incantation. Asclepiades 
made some efforts to break through the po- 
pular superstition B.C. 96. Celsus enjoyed 
considerable celebrity as an operator about 
A.D. 17. Claudius Galen, of Pergamus, in 
Asia Minor, who ultimately settled at Eome, 
attained great eminence, 130 — 200. It was 
practised by the Jews on those of their own 
nation, and also on Christians and Moham- 
medans in the 12th century; and by the 
monks, against whom Pope Innocent II. 
launched prohibitions, threatening them 
with severe penalties, in 1139. Pitard laid 
the foundation of the College of Surgeons at 
Paris in 1271. Vesalius brought the hght of 
anatomy to bear upon it in 1539, and Am- 
brose Pare, surgeon to four successive kings 
of France, exerted a potent influence upon 
his profession (1509 — 1590). Wiseman, ser- 
geant-surgeon to Charles II., wrote exten- 
sively on the art in 1676 ; and Harvey isitnown 
by his discoveries in 1628. Other distinguished 
names in England are Percival Pott (1713 — 
1788) ; John Hunter (1728—1793) ; Chesel- 
den, the successful lithotomist (1688 — 1752) ; 
Monro, his pupil (1697—1767) ; Abernethy 
(1763-1831), and Cooper (1768—1841). 

SuRiSTAM (South America). — The coast of 
Dutch Guiana, on which- the colony of 
Surinam is situated, was discovered by 
Columbus in August, 1498, and was visited 
by Sir W. Ealeigh in 1595. Surinam was 
■visited by the French in 1640, was taken by 
the EngMsh in 1650, and granted by charter 
817 



SUE 

of Charles II. to Lord Willoughby in 1652. 
The Dutch wrested it from the Enghsh in 
1667. It was shortly afterwards retaken, 
but was ceded to the Dutch in 1669. By the 
peace of Westminster, signed in 1674, it was 
allotted to the Dutch, in exchange for the 
province of New York. It was taken by the 
English in 1799 ; restored at the peace of 
Amiens, March 25, 1802 ; again taken May 5, 
1804; and finally restored to Holland in 
1814. 

Stjetj-ames, or Sieitames. — The former 
signifies names over and above Christian 
names ; and the latter, names derived 
from a sire or father. The Greeks and 
Eomans used patronymic appeUations, in 
addition to their own individual names. 
Camden states that surnames first became 
fixed in France a.d. 1000, and that the 
practice of distinguishing English families 
by them was established after the Norman 
conquest. Hallam says they originated in 
the 11th century, when " the nobility began 
to add the names of their estates to their 
own ; or, having any way acquired a dis- 
tinctive appellation, transmitted it to their 
posterity." The use of surnames in a few 
instances may be traced to the beginning of 
the 10th century, though they did not 
become general till the 13th. The ancient 
Scotch prefix Mae, signifying son, and the 
Irish O', or grandson, are still common. 
The Enghsh commoners also added the affix 
" son " to the father's Christian name, and 
thus produced a numerous class of sur- 
names. 

SuEPLiCE became an ecclesiastical vest- 
ment at an early date, and was probably 
derived from the white linen ephod of the 
Jewish priests. The custom of wearing 
white garments by priests is mentioned by 
St. Jerome as early as a.d. 376. In the 
ancient church the surplice was the same as 
the alb, which was worn during divine 
service, and by the inferior clergy, who 
were forbidden to take it off until the 
conclusion of the liturgy by the council of 
Narbonne in 589. The word surplice was 
introduced about the 12th century. By the 
twelfth canon of the council of Narbonne, 
in 589, the clergy were directed not to take 
off the alb (probably at that time the same 
with the surplice) till after mass. 

Stjepeise Plot. {See Bye, and Stjepeise 
or Stjepeisikg Plot.) 

SuEEET (England). — This county formed 
part of the kingdom of Sussex, founded by 
EUa A.D. 491. It was annexed to the king- 
dom of Wessex in 725, was subsequently 
conquered by the king of Mercia, and again 
reverted to Wessex, under Egbert, in 823. 
The archdeaconry of Surrey was founded 
about 1120, and sheriffs were first appointed 
by Henry II., Oct. 23, 1154. Thomas 
Holland, earl of Kent, was created duke of 
Surrey Sept. 29, 1397, but the title was 
forfeited in 1400. An ecclesiastical com- 
mission to inquire into all church matters in 
this county was issued by Cromwell, Dee. 7, 
1657. 

3 G 



SUE 

SuEEET Zoological Gaedens (London) 
were established a.d. 1831 by Mr. Cross, 
wlio collected the menagerie he had ex- 
hibited at Exeter Change {q. v.) at this spot. 
A company purchased the gardens in 1856, 
and erected a large building called the 
Surrey Music Hall. It was engaged by the 
friends of Charles Spurgeon for preaching. 
Upwards of 9,000 persons were attracted 
here Sunday Oct. 19, 1856, aud during the 
sejrmon a cry of fire was raised, which 
created a general panic. Seven persons lost 
their lives, and above thirty were seriously 
injured. 

SuETEES Society, for the publication of 
unedited manuscripts illustrative of the 
moral, intellectual, rehgious, and social 
condition of the inhabitants between the 
Humber and the Frith of Forth on the east, 
and the Mersey and the Clyde on the west, 
takmg its name from Eobert Surtees, of 
Mainforth, was founded a.d. 1834. 

StrsA (Persia), the capital of Susania 
{q.v.), was taken, with all its treasures, by 
Alexander, B.C. 331. The seat of govern- 
ment was transferred from Babylon to Susa 
B.C. 330. 

Susa (Piedmont). — The ancient Segusio, 
capital of the Gaulish king Cottius, became 
tributary to the Eomans about B.C. 65. It 
was incorporated with the empire and became 
a municipal town a.d. 5-1 — 68. It was burned 
by the emperor Frederick I. in 1174. A 
conference was held here by France, Savoy, 
and Venice in 1624. The pass was forced by 
Louis XIII. of France, who defeated the 
Spaniards, and, on their suing for peace, a 
treaty was signed here 1629. It was cap- 
tured by the French marshal Catinat, Nov. 
12, 1690, but was recovered by the duke of 
Savoy in 1691. The fortress of La Brunetta, 
constructed from the sohd rock by Charles- 
Emanuel III. J was destroyed by the French 
in 1796. 

SusiA>fA (Persia). — ^Alexander the Great 
entered this extensive province in southern 
Asia, and captured its chief tcsvu, Susa, B.C. 
331. 

SusPEKDiifG PowEE to nuUify the opera- 
tion of any statute was claimed by Charles 
II. as inherent in him, and was exercised with 
the professed object of mitigating the rigours 
of the Act of Uniformity, Dec. 26, 1663 ; and 
again in regard to the penal laws against 
Nonconformists, March 15, 1672, 

Suspension Beid&es of chain are found 
in China, and of rope in Bootan and South 
America. A suspension bridge was proposed 
for crossing the Ehine a.d. 1807, and one for 
the Mersey, at Euneorn Gap, in 1814. The 
Union Bridge across the Tweed, near Ber- 
wick, was constructed upon the improved 
principles of Sir Samuel Brown, and opened 
in 1820. Telford's suspension bridge across 
the Menai Strait was opened Jan. 20, 1826. 
The first erected near London was at Ham- 
mersmith, commenced in 1824. Hungerford 
suspension bridge, designed by I. K. Brunei, 
was opened May 1, 1845; Chelsea suspension 
bridge, March 23, 1S58. A suspension bridge 
818 



SWA 

of steel was erected over the Danube at 
Vienna in 1827 and 1828, and an iron one 
across the same river, constructed by Tiemey 
Clark, in 1849, is considered the finest iu the 
world. 

Sussex (England) was held by the Eegni 
at the Eoman invasion B.C. 55. Ella, with 
his three sons, landed and commenced to 
found the South Saxon kingdom a.d. 477. 
Having taken Andreds-cester, he assumed 
the title of king ia 491, and was chosen 
Bretwalda in 492. Wilfred, archbishop of 
York, introduced Christianity about 680. 

SuTLEJ (Hindostan), variously called, in 
ancient times, Hyphasis, HjTDasis, Bibasis, 
Hypanis, and in the Sanscrit, Satadru, form- 
ing the limit of Alexander's march, B.C. 327, 
when he erected twelve altars, equal to the 
highest fortifications, on its banks, as mo- 
numents of his victories, and to define the 
extent of his empire. {See Aliwal and 

SoBEAOIf.) 

SuTEi (Italy), the ancient Sutrium, at 
one time an Etruscan city, was attacked 
with uncertain success by the Eomans, B.C. 
391. It was taken by them B.C. 390, was 
besieged and taken by the Etruscans, and 
on the same day recovered by the Eomans, 
B.C. 389. It received a Eoman colony B.C. 
383. The Etruscans again besieged it, and ■ 
were defeated in an engagement under its 
walls, B.C. 311. It was occupied by Agrippa 
at the outbreak of the Perusian war, B.C. 
41. A council held here a.d. 1046 afllrmed 
the right of the emperor to nominate to the 
Holy See, and deposed three rival popes. 
The anti-pope Gregory VILE, was besieged 
here by Pope Calixtus II. in 1121, taken 
prisoner, and carried to Eome seated on a 
I camel, with his face to the tail, and a 
bristling hog -skin for a robe. Another 
council was held here in January, 1059. 

Suttee, meaning in the Sanscrit a chaste 
and virtuous wife, is a term apphed to the 
act of self-immolation on the husband's fu- 
neral pile, practised by the Hindoo women 
in India. It is spoken of by writers of the 
age of Alexander the Great. Diodorus re- 
lates an instance b.c. 300. A regulation 
passed by the governor-general. Lord W. Ben- 
tinck, in council, Dec. 14, 1829, declared 
the practice of burning the widows of Hin- 
doos illegal. 

Suzdal, or Wolodomie (Eussia). — This 
province was erected into a distinct princi- 
pality by Anrej, a.d. 1157, and was con- 
quered by the Golden Horde in 1238. 

Swab I A (Germany), originally called 
Alemannia, took its present name when 
subdued by the Franks, under Clovis, a.d. 
496. It was united to Austrasia, under 
Siegbert, son of Clotaire I., in 561. Chris- 
tianity was introduced by St. Columba, 
about 600. Charles the Fat obtained it as 
part of his kingdom of East France in 876. 
It was included in the country of Franconia 
in 890, and erected into a duchy in 916. 
The duchy was made hereditary in the fa- 
mily of Frederick of Hohenstauffen, by 
Henry IV. in lOSO. The line became extinct 



SWA 

on the execution of Conrad in 1268. Swabia 
was made one of the six circles of the em- 
pire in 1501. 

SwABiAN League, to put down private 
wars and maintain the public peace, was 
formed under the auspices of the emperor 
Frederick III. a.d. 1488, and, together with 
the troops of the empire, made such a de- 
monstration against Albert, duke of Bava- 
ria, as reduced him to submission and 
brought him into their alliance, a.d. 1492. 
The League deprived Ulrich Wiirtemberg 
of his duchy, for breach of the public 
peace in 1519, and sold the territory to 
Austria in 1520. Its army, numbering 
16,000 men, under the command of George 
Truchsess, destroyed several castles of the 
Franconian knights in 1523. The peasants 
arose in insurrection against the nobles in 
June, 1524. After several engagements they 
were finally crushed by the army of the 
League, united vdth the troops of the elec- 
tor Palatine, at Konigshofen, June 2, 1525. 
The League effected the destruction of above 
140 strongholds of nobles and banditti, from 
its establishment to its dissolution in 1533. 

SwANWic (Sea-fight). — Alfred defeated 
the Danish fleet off this place, supposed to 
be the modern Swansea, a.d. 877. 

Swan Kiyeb (Western Austraha). — The 
first settlement was made in August, 1829, 
under very unfavourable circumstances, by 
a number of English emigrants, Captain 
Stirling having arrived out in the capacity 
of lieutenant-governor. Upwards of 2,000 
settlers had reached the colony by March, 
1830, and the site of the township of Perth 
was marked out towards the close of that 
year. The condition of the colony appeared 
so hopeless that serious thoughts were en- 
tertained of abandoning it in 1848. The in- 
habitants petitioned for a supply of convict 
labour, which they received in 1849. 

Swans were only allowed to be kept by 
possessors of freehold lands and tenements 
valued at five marks per annum, free of 
charge, according to 22Edw. IV. c. 6 (1483). 
By 11 Hen. VII. c. 17 (1497), the taking of 
their eggs was prohibited. 

Swansea (Glamorganshire), called Aber- 
taw in Welsh, from its position at the 
mouth of the river Tawy, was made a cor- 
porate town A.D. 1835. The castle, built by 
Henry Beaumont, earl of Warwick, in 1100, 
was used as a debtors' prison till abohshed 
for that purpose in 1859. The first copper- 
works were established in 1719, and the 
first cargo of foreign ore arrived in 1827. 
An act was passed for improving the har- 
bour in 1791. The free grammar-school 
was founded in 1682; the town-hall was 
erected in 1827 ; the market-place, built at 
a cost of £20,000, was opened in 1830 ; the 
Wesleyan Methodist Chapel was erected in 
1846, the Unitarian Chapel in 1847, and the 
National Schools were opened in 1848. 

SwEABOEG (Finland) was built by Gus- 

tavus I. of Sweden, and burned during the 

war with Russia, a.d. 1728. Admiral Greig 

attacked the Swedes in the roads off the 

819 



SWE 

town, capturing and burning the Gustavus 
Adolphus of 68 guns, whilst the Russians 
blockading the harbour effectually prevented 
the egress of their fleet, in 1788. It was in- 
vested by the Russians in the first week of 
March, and surrendered by the Swedish 
commander, after a three weeks' siege, with 
2,000 pieces of cannon and a large flotilla, in 
1808. Admirals Dundas and Penaud brought 
their vessels into battle-array before it Aug. 8, 
1855, the bombardment commenced on the 
morning of the 9th, and, after destroying a 
great amount of property but producing small 
impression on the fortifications, the French 
and Enghsh fleets returned to Nargen Aug. 11 . 

SwEABiNG. — Swearing on the Gospels was 
introduced about a.d. 528. By 21 James I. 
c. 20 (1623), cursing and swearing are an 
offence punishable by law, and a series of 
fines may be imposed on such as practise 
them, by 19 Geo. 11. c. 21 (1746). The last- 
mentioned act contained a clause ordering 
it to be read in churches four times a year. 
This provision was abolished by 4 Geo. IV. 
c. 31 (May 30, 1823). By the second article 
of war, 22 Geo. II. c. 33 (1749), seamen in 
the royal navy guilty of this vice are liable 
to trial by court-martial. 

Sweating Sickness first appeared in the 
army of the earl of Richmond when he 
landed at Milford Haven, a.d. 1485. It 
reached London Sept. 21, and after carry- 
ing off several thousand victims, ceased its 
ravages in October. In the summers of 
1506, 1507, and 1528, it reappeared in this 
country, its final outbreak having been at 
Shrewsbury, where it raged from April to 
September, 1551. Holland, Germany, Den- 
mark, Sweden, Poland, and part of Russia, 
were visited by it between the years 1525 
and 1530. It broke out in Amsterdam, 
where it proved very fatal, Sept. 27, 1529. 

Sweden. — This country was anciently in- 
habited by the Gothones, and the people, 
Hke the other Scandinavian nations, regard 
the mythical Odin as the author of their 
civilization : — 



70. Odin arrives in the north. 

A.J). 

813. According to Swedish historians, Christianity 
is introduced this year. 

1000. The Swedes and Danes defeat Olaf I. of Nor- 

way, and divide his kingdom between 
them. 

1001. Olaf Skotkonung ascends the throne and 

establishes Chriatiauity. 
1279. Valdemar I. is compelled to abdicate. 
1319. On the death of Hako V. of Norway, the sceptre 

of that kingdom devolves on Magnus VII. 

of Sweden. 
1389. Albei-t I. is defeated and made prisoner by 

Margaret of Denmark. 
1397. June. Sweden Is united to Denmark and 

Norway by the Union of Calmar. 
1439. The Swedes depose Eric of Pomerania. 
1448. Sweden recovers her independence under 

Charles Kuutson. 
1470. Sten Sture obtains the protectorate of 



1476. The university of Upsal is founded by Sten 

Sture. 

1477. Chi-istiau I. of Denmark relinquishes his 

claim to the Swedish thi-one 

3 g2 



SWE 



A.D. 

1481. Sten Stiire, administrator of Sweden, opposes 
Johu of Deumaik. 

1497. Nov. 19. Sweden is again reduced to sub- 
mission by John of Denmark. 

1500. Feb. John invades Sweden and is defeated by 
the iaisuigents, at the battle of Meldorp, 
with the loss of 11,000 men. 

1503. Death of Sten Sture. 

1517. Sten Sture the younger heads the Swedes in 
arms for abolishing the Union of Calmar. 

1520. Christian II. of Denmark invades Sweden, 

kills Sten Stui-e in battle at BogesunU 
{q. v.), and massacres the Swedish no- 
bility. 

1521. May. Gustavns Vasa lands at Calmar and 

takes the field against the Danes at the 

head of 3,000 men. 
1523. Gustavis Vasa expels the Danes and is called 

to the throne. 
1525. Gustavus Vasa establishes the independence 

of Sweden. 
1527. Gustavus Vasa establishes Lutheranism. 
1529. The Romish worship is formally abolished. 
1532. Christian II. of Denmark makes a useless 

attempt to recover Sweden. 
1544. The Swedish crown is declared hereditary. 
1566. Eric XIV. assassinates Nils Stutre and goes 

mad from remorse. 

1667. The Swedes invade Norway. 

1568. Eric XIV. is compelled to abdicate by his 
brother John, duke of Finland. 

1576. John Ill.maii-ies the Roman Catholic Princess 
Catherine of Poland, and becomes involved 
in religious difficulties with his subjects 
in consequence. 

1592. Sigismund III. of Poland succeeds to the 
Swedish crown. 

1594 Duke Charles, brother of John III., com- 
pels Sigismund III. to quit Sweden. 

1597. Sigismund III. is restored by the diet of Ar- 
boga. 

1600. The States refuse their allegiance to Sigis- 
mund III., owing to his Roman Catholic 
tendencies. 

1628. Gustavus Adolphus is made general of the 

Protestant allies during the Thirty Years' 
war. 

1629. Gustavus Adolphus agrees to a six years' truce 

with Poland. 

1630. June 24. Giistavus Adolphus invades Ger- 

many with 15,000 men. 
1632. Nov. 16. Gustavus Adolphus is slain at the 
battle of Lutzen {q. v. ). 

1635. The truce with Poland is renewed for twenty- 

six years. 

1636. March 20. An alliance against Austria is con- 

cluded with Fiance at Wismar. 

1643. War is commenced with Germany and Den- 
mark. 

1648. Swedeu is raised to a high position by the 
peace of Westphalia. 

1654. June 16. Queen Christina abdicates in favour 

of her cousin Charles Gustavus. 

1655. Charles X. subjugates Poland. 

1658. He invades Denmark and obtains the cession 

of important territories. 
1660. May 3. Peace with Poland is restored by the 

treaty of Oliva {q. v.). 

1668. Jan. 13. Sweden unites with England and 

Holland against France. 
1672. AprU 14. Sweden withdraws from the triple 
alliance and concludes a treaty with France 
at Stockholm. 

1674. Charles XI. invades Brandenburg. 

1675. War is commenced with Denmark. 

1679. Oct. 6. Peace with Denmark is restored by 

the treaty of Lund. 

1680. The senate is deprived of its legislative power. 
1689. The ex-Queen Chiistina dies at Rome. 

1693. An act is passed declaring the king's autho- 
rity absolute. 

1699. The kings of Denmark and Poland unite with 

the Czar against Sweden. 

1700. Nov. 30. Charles XII. gains a splendid victory 

over the Russians at Narva (g. v.). 

1701. Charles XII. invades Poland, 
820- 



SWE 



1706. Sept. 24 (O. S.). Peace with Poland is restored 

by the treaty of Alt-Ranstadt. 
1709. The suiJremacy of Sweden is finally destroved 

by the battle of Pultowa (g. v.). uharles XII. 

retreats to Bender {q. r.). 
1714. Charles XII. leaves Bender and retui-na to 

Sweden. 
1716. Charles XII. fails in an invasion of Norway. 

1718. Dec. 11. Charles XII. is killed at the siege of 

Frederickshall (9 v.). He is succeeded by his 
sister Ulrica Eleanora, who restores the 
free constitution. 

1719. Jan. 26. The crown is declared elective. Nov. 

20. Bremen and Verden are ceded to Han- 
over by the treaty of Stockholm. 

1720. June 14. Tlie peace of Stockholm is concluded 

with Denmark. 

1721. Aug. 30. Peace with Russia is restored by the 

treaty of Nystadt, which establishes Russian 
superiority over Sweden. 

1738. Rise of the factious of the Caps and Hats {q. v.). 

1739. The Royal Academy of Arts is founded under 

the presidency of Liniifeus. 

1741. August. War is declared against Russia. 

1743. Aug. 18 (O. S.). Peace with Russia is restored 
by the treaty of Abo. 

1756. Execution of Count BrahS, Baron Horn, and 
six other noblemen, for conspiring to re- 
store absolute monarchy. 

1772. Aug. 1. The senate is abolished, and abso- 
lutism is restored. 

1788. War is declared against Russia and Denmark. 

1789. Most of the nobles are imprisoned, and the 

king assumes the sole arbitration of peace 
and war. 

1790. Aug. 14. Peace with Russia is restored by 

treaty. 

1792. March 16. Gustavus TIT. is shot at a mas- 
querade by Count Ankerstrom. March 29. 
Gustavus III. dies. 

1802. A censorship of the press is established in 
Sweden. 

1805. Sweden joins England and Russia against 
France. 

1807. The Swedes invade Norway without success. 

1809. March 13. Gustavus IV. is deposed by his 

uncle, the duke of Sudennania, who suc- 
ceeds as Charles XIII. Sept. 17. Peace 
with Rus-oia is restored by the treaty of 
Frederickshamm, by which Russia gains 
Finland and other territories. 

1810. June 20. The Swedish government prohibits 

intercourse with England. Aug. 21. 3Iar- 
shal Bernadott* is declared crown prince of 
Sweden. Nov. 17. Sweden declares war 
against Great Britain. 

1812. Jan. 9. Napoleon I. seizes Pomerania and 

Riigen. July 18. Sweden concludes an 
alliance with Great Britain at Orebro. 

1813. Sept. 5. Denmark declares war against 

Sweden. 

1814. Jan. 14. By the peace of Kiel Sweden re- 

ceives Norway from Denmark, in exchange 
for Riigen and Swedish Pomerania. [See 
Norway). 
1818. Feb. 5. Death of Charles XITI., who is suc- 
ceeded by Bernadotte, under the title of 
Charles John XIV. 

1826. May 18. A treaty of commerce and naviga- 

tion is concluded with Great Britain. 

1827. The government is very unpopular. 

1837. Feb. 7. Death of the ex-king Gustavus IV. 

1844. March 8. Death of Bernadotte, who is suc- 
ceeded by his son Os ar. 

1852. Sept. 5. A violent outbreak against the Jews 
is suppressed at Stockholm. 

1854 Jan. 2. Sweden announces her neutrality in 
the Eastern question. Dec. 23. The army 
is ordered to be placed on a war footing. 

1855. Nov. 21. An alliance is concluded with Eng- 
land and France. 

1857. Sept. 11. In consequence of the illness of 
King Oscar, the hereditary prince is de- 
clared regent of the kingdom. 

1859. July 8. Death of King Oscar, who is suc- 
ceeded by his son Charles XV. 



SWE 



I860. May 3. Charles XV. and his queen, Louisa, 
are solemnly crowned at Stockholm. 
May 21. The laws prohibiting secession 
from the established (Lutheran) religion 
axe abolished, 

KINGS OP SWEDEM-. 

A.D. A.n. 

Olaf Skotkonung . . 1001 Gustavus Vasa 1523 

Edmund Colbrenner 1026 Eric XIV. 1560 

Edmund Slemme . . 1051 John III 1568 

Steukie 1056 Sigismund III. , of 

Halstan 1066 Poland 1592 

lugoL, the Good.. 1090 Charles IX 1604 

Philip 1112 Gustavus Adolphus 1611 

Ingoll 1118 luteriegnum 1632 

Swerkerl 1129 Christina 1633 

EricX 1150 Charles X., Gus- 

CharlesVII 1162 tavus 1654 

Canute 1168 CharlesXI 1660 

Swerker II 1192 Charles XII 1697 

Eric XI 1210 Ulrica Leonora and 

John 1 1220 Frederick of Hesse 

EricXII 1223 Cassel 1719 

Interregnum— Bir- Frederick, alone . . 1741 

gar Jarl, regent.. 1250 Adolphus Frederick 1751 

ValdemarL ...... 1251 Gustavus III 1771 

Magnus 1 1279 Gustavus IV 1792 

Birger II 1 290 Charles XIII 1809 

Magnus IL 1320 Charles John XIV. 1 818 

Albert 1 1365 Oscar 1844 

Mariiaretof Norway Charles XV 1859 

{«ee Norway) 1389 

SwEDEKBORGiANS, named after Emanuel 
Swedenborg, born at Stockhobn, Jan. 29, 
1688, who professed to have immediate in- 
tercourse with the inhabitants of the invisi- 
ble world. He died in London, March 29, 
1772. Swedenborgians are those who beUeve 
in the mission of Emanuel Swedenborg to 
promulgate the doctrines of the New Church, 
signified by the New Jerusalem in the Apo- 
calypse. They numbered five persons in 
1783, and had increased to thirty in 1787. 
Their first public association took place in 
Great Eastcheap in 1788. The Swedenbor- 
gian Printing Society was established in 1810, 
and the Swedenborgian Missionary and 
Tract Society in 1821. 

Swedish East-Iijdia Company was 
formed at Gottenburg a.d. 1731. 

SwENKA Sound (Sea-fight). — The Eus- 
sians, under the prince of Nassau, were 
defeated in this bay with a loss of 4,500 men, 
by Gustavus III., king of Sweden, July 9 
and 10, 1790. 

Swiss Guards were created by Louis 
XL of France. A number of them were 
murdered by the mob that attacked Mar- 
seilles, Oct. 6, 1789, and they were nearly 
exterminated in their defence of the Tuile- 
ries, Oct. 10, 1792. The corps was reorgan- 
ized by Louis XVIII., Sept. 1, 1815. It was 
defeated during the three days' insurrection, 
July 28, and the last of them were dismissed 
at Valognes by Charles X. on his flight, 
Aug. 10, 1830. 

Swithin's (St.) Day. — The saint, who was 
tutor to King Ethelwulph, was ordained 
priest by Helmstan, bishop of Winchester, 
A.D. 830, and was raised to the see of Win- 
chester in 852. His death took place July 
2, 862. He was buried, by his own request, 
in the churchyard of Winchester, and having 



SWI 

been canonized within a century, the monks 
wished to transfer his remains to the cathe- 
dral, and selected July 15th for that pur- 
pose. The proceeding was delayed for forty 
days by rain, and hence the popular tradi- 
tion connected with his day. His festival in 
the Eoman martyrology is July 2, but in 
England it was July 15. 

Switzerland (Europe). — This country 
was, in ancient times, inhabited by the Hel- 
vetii, a Celtic people, and from them it 
afterwards received the name of Helvetia. 



120. Is inhabited by a confederation of four tribes 

of the Helvetii. 
107. One of the tribes, the Figurini, defeat the 

Roman consul, C. Cassius Longinus, on the 

banks of the Lake of Geneva. 
61. They set out in a body to settle in the fertile 

districts of Gaul. 
58. They are encountered by the Romans under 

Julius Caesar, who defeat them with great 

slaughter. 

A.D. 

69. Having been completely subjugated by the 
Romans, an insurrection breaks out, which 
is suppressed with great cruelty. 
450. The Bui-gundians form a settlement in one 
part, and the Alemanni in another part of 
the country, reducing the inhabitants to a 
state of serfdom. 
534. The Franks conquer the country, and establish 
Christianity, which had been introduced in 
the time of the Roman domination. 
840. It is divided between Louis of Bavaria and 

Lothaire I., emperor and king of Italy. 
889. Count Rodolph is proclaimed king of Bur- 
guudiau Helvetia. 

1016. It is bequeathed to the emperor Henry II. 'by 
Rodolph III. 

1032. The whole country is incoi-porated with the 
German empire under Conrad II. 

1097. Henry IV. appointed Berttiold of Zahi-ingen 
imperial warden. 

1264. Rodolph of Habsburg by various inheritances 
became one of the most powerful lords. 

1273. Rodolph is elected emperor, and exercises a 
tyrannical rule over the coimtry. 

1308. The cantons of Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwal- 
den, irritated by the tyranny of Gessler, 
who was killed by William Tell, throw off 
the yoke of Albert I., and form the con- 
federation of Schwyz, which afterwards 
gave its name to the whole country. 

1315. Nov. 16. They defeat the Austrians with 
great slaughter at Morgarten. 

1386. July 9. Leopold of Austria is defeated and 
slain at the battle of Sempach. 

1388. April 9. The Austrians sustain a severe defeat 

at Nafels. 

1389. A twenty years' truce is concluded with 

Austria. 

1415. The cantons invade and divide the Aareau. 

1436. A civil war breaks out between Zurich and 
the cantons. 

1444 Zurich is besieged by the cantons. A de- 
sperate engagement takes place outside the 
walls of Basel, between the troops of the 
French king, Charles VII., under the dau- 
phin Louis, and the Swiss, which resulted 
in the defeat of the latter, followed by a 
truce. 

1452. Sigismund, duke of Austria, mortgages to 
Zurich the town of Winter thur, his last 
remaining possession in the country. 

1476. Apiil 5. Charles of Burgundy is defeated at 

Granson. June 22. Charles of Bm-gundy ia 
defeated at Morat. 

1477. Jan. 4. Charles of Burgundy is defeated and 

slain at Nanci. The states of Upper Bur- 
gundy piu-chase peace by payment of 150,000 
florins. 

821 



SWI 



STC 



1480. 

1481. 
3499. 
1513. 

1531. 

1648. 
1712. 

1738. 
1793. 

1797. 

1798. 
1799. 



1800. 
1801. 



1844. 
1845. 

1846. 



Owing to the disbanding of troops, the cotmtry 
is in such a lawless condition, that nearly 
1,-500 assassins and robbers are condemned 
to death. 

The federal constitution of the Swiss cantons 
is first defined and regulated this year by 
the covenant of Stanby. 

Maximilian I., after several defeats, makes 
peace with the Swiss, and thus terminates 
their struggle for independence. 

The admission of Appenzel intn the confede- 
ration completes The number of thirteen 
cantons. The Reformed doctrines begin to 
spread. 

Some cantons adopt the Eeformed faith, and 
a war takes place. Oct. 11. The battle of 
Cappel is fought, at which the Kefonners 
are defeated, and Zwinglius is slain. 

The confederation is acknowledged as an 
independent state by the peace of West- 
phalia. 

Aug. The third and last religious war termi- 
nates by the Boman Catholics suing for 
peace, which is accordingly concluded at 
Aargau. 

A new constitution is adopted at Geneva. 

The territory of Basel is invaded and annexed 
by the Fre-nch. 

Valtelina, Chiavenna, and Bormio, a^e an- 
nexed by Napoleon Bonaparte to the Cisal- 
pine republic. 

The Bernese having been defeated by the 
French, Geneva is annexed. April. The 
Helvetian republic is established. 

The Fi-ench are driven from the central 
cantons by the Russians and Austrians. 
Massena defeats ttie Russians at Zurich. 

The Helvetian directory is suppressed. 

The French evacuate Switzerland. A gene- 
ral diet is called to re-organize the con- 
stitution. 

A general insuiTection having broken out. 
Napoleon I. offei-s his assistance to restore 
order, and the Act of Mediation is promul- 
gated Feb. 20. 

The act is repudiated by the allied powers, 
whose armies pass through the country on 
their way to France after the battle of 
Leipsic. 

March 20. The independence of the country 
is acki'owledgtd by the congress of Vienna. 
Aug. 7. A new federal compact is signed 
by all the deputies at Zuiich. 

The revision of the constitution is effected 
in most of the cantons peaceably. In others 
it is attended with popular commotion 
and bloodshed. 

Peace is disturbed by the proceedings of a 
number of Polish, German, and Italian 
refugees, who are expelled the country. 

A law of the diet comes into operation to 
establish a system of education indepen- 
dent of the clergy. It creates intense 
excitement, and caused the dissolution of 
the government at Zurich. 

A proposition from Aai-gau, for the expulsion 
of the Jesuits, is brought before the diet 
and rejected. 

The disappointed party, raising a body called 
the Free Corps, invaded Lucerne, and under 
the command of Colonel Ochsenbein, sus- 
tain a severe defeat in April. 

The Sonderbund, or separate league, is formed 
by the seven Roman Catholic cantons. Lu- 
cerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden. Freiburg, 
Zug, and Valay, to defend themselves 
against the Free Corps. 

July 20. A resolution of the diet declares the 
Sonderbund illegal. July 29. It decrees 
the expulsion of the Jesuits. Sept. 3. The 
Sonderbund resist the decree of the diet. 
Nov. 13. Its army is defeated at Freiburg. 
Nov. 24. And at Lucerne. This is fol- 
lowed by the entire submission of the 
league, the suppression of the monasteries, 
and the expulsion of the Jesuits. 



1848. Sept. 12. A new constitution is promulgated, 
the basis of which is a federal assembly, a 
federal conncU, and a federal tribunal. 
Both chambers of the federal assembly 
chose Berne as the feder.al city. 

1859. March 14. The cantons declare their neutrality 

on the Italian ques'ion. July 15. The 
fedei-al council suppresses all foreign eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction on Swiss tenitoiy. 
July 30. The Swiss are prohibited from en- 
listing under foreign governments. 

1860. March 14. The cantons protest against the 

annexation of Savoy to France. March SO. 
A band of from fifty to eighty persona, 
leaving Geneva for Chablais, are arrested 
by Swiss troops. Oct. 12. The French am- 
bassador leaves Berne. 

Sword. — This weapon, among the ancient 
Greeks, was straight, and frequently had 
both blade and hilt inlaid with gold, as 
mentioned by Herodotus, B.C. 409. It waa 
made of brass by the ancient Eomans, and 
afterwards of iron. The right to wear it 
was confined to military men and certain 
magistrates, under Augustus. The ancient 
Britons had a two-edged sword, and in 
Wales brass swords have been dug up. The 
claymore, a two-handed sword, was used by 
the ancient Highlauders. The Toledo blade 
was famed in Eoman times, but is surpassed 
by the celebrity of that of Damascus. A 
company of sword-cutlers was incorporated 
in England a.d. 1689. The London sword- 
dealers petitioned the lords of the Treasury 
for permission to import German swords^ 
duty free, on account of the bad quality of 
those of English manufacture, in 1783. This 
stigma on our skill in that branch of manu- 
facture was, however, entirely removed by 
Gill, of Birmingham, in 1786. Swords were 
used as an article of dress in England at 
the commencement of the ISth century ; and, 
after faUing somewhat into disuse, seem 
to have again come into fashion about 1790. 
An order was issued by the earl marshal, 
prohibiting footmen from wearing them, 
Dec. 30, 1701. 

Stbaris (Magna Grseeia), one of the 
oldest of the Greek colonies in this part of 
Italy, was founded by the Achaeans B.C. 720. 
It attained the height of its power about 
B.C. 580. A number of the leading citizens 
having been driven from the town, took 
refuge in Crotona, whereupon the Sybarites 
marched against the place with an army of 
300,000 men, but were totally defeated, the 
victors turning the course of the river 
Crathis through their city, and utterly de- 
stroying it, B.C. 510. An attempt made by 
the surviving inhabitants to establish them- 
selves on the site was defeated by the 
Crotoniats, B.C. 452. They were devoted to 
luxury, — hence the modem use of the term 
Sybarite. 

Stcamoee-teee. — Some botanists regard 
this tree as indigenous to Britain ; but 
others state that it is a native of the 
mountainous districts of Switzerland, Ger- 
many, and Italy. It is first mentioned as 
an object of culture in this country a.d. 
1551 ; and in 1597 Gerard alludes to it as a 
stranger, much used in gardens for its 



SYD 

umbrageous foliage. The sycamore is a 
species of maple ; and experiments for 
ascertaining the quantity and quality of the 
sugar contained in its sap were made at 
Cannon Park, StirKngshire, March 7 and 8, 
1818. It was found that 116 parts of sap 
yielded one part of sugar. The purple- 
leaved sycamore originated in Jersey about 
2188. 

SYDifET (New South Wales), capital of 
the colony, was founded and named after 
Viscount Sydney, then secretary for the 
colonies, Jan. 26, 1788. A printing-press 
and the Sydney Gazette were estabhshed by 
George Howe, March 5, 1803. The plans 
upon which the town is built were laid down 
in 1809. A legislative council was appointed 
in 1829 ; a bishopric was established in 1836 ; 
the museum was founded in 1838, and incor- 
porated in 1853 ; and its university, founded 
m 1850, was opened Oct. 11, 1852. A branch 
of the royal mint was established here in 
May, 1855. Bv 18 & 19 Vict. c. 54 (July 16, 
1855) , a new constitution was conferred, and 
it was proclaimed in November following. 
St. Phihp's, the oldest church in the colony, 
was built in 1798. 

Sybnet Sussex College (Cambridge) 
was founded by Lady Frances Sydney, 
widow of the earl of Sussex, a.d. 1598. 

Stmonds' Inn (London). — This inn of 
court, in Chancery Lane, is supposed to 
derive its name from Thomas Symonds, who 
died in June, 1621. It was formerly the 
seat of the offices of the masters in chan- 
cery. 

Sympathetic Ink. {See Ink.) 

Synagogues, or Jewish places of wor- 
ship, are of uncertain origin, ascribed, by 
some, to the period of the promulgation of 
the ceremonial law, e.g. 1491, and by others 
to the return from the Babylonish captivity, 
B.C. 536. Jerusalem is said to have con- 
tained 480. 

Syndekcombe's Plot. — John Synder- 
combe was employed by Colonel Sexby to 
assassinate Cromwell, and he made the at- 
tempt Jan. 19, 1657. He was tried and 
condemned Feb. 9, and died in prison 
Feb. 13. 

Synod. {See Council.) 

Syka (^gean Sea). — The ancient Syros 
was noticed by Homer for its agricultural 
wealth B.C. 962. 

Syracuse (Sicily), the most ancient of 
the Greek colonies in the island, was 
founded by the Corinthians, under Archias, 
B.C. 734. 

B.C. 

648. A ijarty called the Myletid?e are expelled. 

486. An oligarchy called the Geomori, or Gamori, 
who had usurped the goverument, are 
overthrown, and they withdraw to Cas- 
menK, 

485. Gelon, despot of Gela, restores them, and 
obtains for himself the supreme autho- 
rity. 

478—467. Hieron patronizes literature and the 
arts. 

466. Thrasybulus, his brother, is expelled, and a 
popular government established. 

414 The siege is commenced by the Athenians. 



STE 



413. The Athenians are compelled to lay down 
their arms, 7,000 being made prisoners, and 
not a ship of their fleet escipes. 

405. Dionysius, taking advantage of the popular 
alarm consequent, on the successes of the 
Carthaginians, raises himself to despotic 
power, and soon after concludes a peace 
with them. 

405—387. Dionysius fortifies the town, constiucta 
new harbours, and greatly increases the 
naval force. 

397. War is commenced against Carthage. Aided 
by a pestilence which broke out in the 
camp of their enemies, the Syracusaus are 
completely victorious. 

356. Dion makes himself master of Syi-acuse. 

344. Timoleon obtains possession after a severe 
struggle, and introduces 60,000 immigrants. 

275—216. Hieron II. reigns as king, ccjncludes a 
treaty with the Komans, and raises the 
city to its highest degree of wealth and 
splendour. 

214 The siege is formed by the Eoman general 
Marcellus. 

212. A portion of the city is taken by the be- 
siegers. The Carthaginians come to its 
assistance but afterwards abandon it, and 
the other portion surrenders. 'I he magni- 
ficent works of art which are carried as 
plunder to Rome give the first impulse to 
the love of Greek art among the con- 
querors. 
21. The city having fallen into decay, Au- 
gustus endeavours to restore it by 
sending a Roman colony. 

X.T>. 

535. It is taken from the Goths by Belisarius. 
669. The Saracens having captured it, accept a 

ransom. 
878. It is again taken by the Saracens after a 
siege of nine months. The inhabitants are 
put to death, and the city is burned. 
1088. Count Roger of Sicily makes himself master 

of Syracuse. 
1542. With other towns on the island it is nearly 

destroyed by an earthquake. 
1693. The eruption of Mt\ivi, accompanied by an 

earthquake, commits great havoc. 
1798. July 18. Nelson, after his unsuccessful search 
for the French fleet, puts into the port for 
water and provisions, and is joined bj aU 
his missing frigates. 

1848. The revolutionists select Sjrracuse as one of 

the seven towns in which military camps 
are to be formed. 

1849. April 8. It surrenders without resistance to 

the Neapolitan fleet. 
1860. Sept. 2. The gaiTison espouse the cause of 
Garibaldi. 

Syria (Asia), the ancient Aram, derived 
its name from the patriarch Aram (Gen. x. 
22). The appellation Syria is supposed to 
be an abbreviation of Assyria, and it is first 
employed by Herodotus. 

B.C. 

1921. Abraham, having left his home at the com- 
mand of God (Geu. xii. 1—4), ai-rives in 
Aram. 
1047. Hiram, king of lyre, sends workmen, and 
they buUd a house for King David (2 Sam. 
V. 11). 
1040. David wages war against the Syrians and 
subdues them (2 Sam. viii.). 

975. The country recovered its independence after 
the death of Solomon. 

838-836. Jehoash, or Joash, king of Israel, obtains 
three important victories over Eeuhadad 
(2 Kings xiii. 25). 

740. Resin, the last independent i-uler, having 
formed an alliance with Israel against 
Judah, Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, 
takes the field, slays Resin, and reduces 
the country to a dependency. 



SYR 



SZI 



604 Having been for some time a province of 
Assyria, and afterwards seized by Pharaoh- 
Necho, king of Egypt, it is captui-ed by 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

333. After a subjection to the Babylonian and 

Persian powere of three centuries' duraiioii, 

it falls under the rule of Alexander the 

Great by his victory at Issus. 

323. Seleucus Nicator assumes the sovereignty, 

founding the dynasty of the Seleucidas. 
301. His right, which has been disputed by 
Antigonus, is decided by the battle 
of Ipsus, and Autioch is foimded as the 
capital. 
114 The kingdom is rent by dissensions, and 
Antiochus Cyzicenus, brother of the reign- 
ing monarch, establishes a new sovereignty 
at Damascus. 

65. The descendants of the Seleucidte having con- 
tinued to occupy the throne, Antiochus 
XIII. is defeated by Pompey, and the 
country subjected to the Romans. 

63. A great number of the cities receive the gift 
of freedom from the Romans. 

57. Gabinius, proconsul, restores many of the 
cities which had been destroyed. 

47. The rights which had been granted to the 
cities are confirmed by Julius Casaa- 

.&.S. 

t>. Judah and Samaria are added to the pro- 
vince. 

117. Under the C^sars it flourishes greatly, and 
the eastern boundary is fixed by Hadrian 
at the Euphrates. 

258. It is ovenuu and nearly conquered by Sapor I 
king 01 Persia. 

261-264. Odenathus effects its deliverance. 

611. The Persian Chosroes II., having reduced 
several other towns, takes Antioch, which 
he nearJy destroys. 

614. Chosroes II. conquers Palestine. 

622. Heraclius takes the field against Chos- 
roes II. 

627. Heraclius drives him across the Tigris. 

628. Su-oes, the son of Chosroes II., makes a treaty 

of peace with HeracUus, one of its con- 
ditions being the restoration of the " true 
cross." 
630. Some of the towns of Syria are taken by Mo- 
hammed. 

632. His successor, Abu Bekr, summons the Arab 

tribes to its invasion, 

633. A large ai-my having responded to the caU. 

siege is laid to Damascus. 

634 July 30. The battle of Aizuadin is fought, in 
which the Greeks under Vardan, general 
of Heiachus, are almost annihilated by the 
Arabs. Aug. 23 Another army of Greeks 
meet a similar fate on the banks of the 
Yermak. 

635. Januaiy. Damascus is taken after an obsti- 
nate resistance. 

637. Jerusalem is allowed an honoui-able capitula- 

638. Aleppo submits, Antioch pays a ransom of 

three hundred thousand pieces of gold, and 

Heraclius flees to Constantinople, leaving 
«ci -n ^ P™"^iiice in the hands of the Sai-acens 
^S' J^i^ascus IS made the seat of government 
768. The seat of government is removed to Bagdad 

by the Abbassides. 
«68. The Tuikish usurper Ahmed Ebn e' Tooloon 

subdues the province, together with Eoypt 

and establishes the Tooloonides dynasty ' 
906. It IS recovered by Caliph Moktafee. 
936. Is subj ected byAkshed Mohammed Ebn Tu^ho- 

another usurper. " "' 

970. Moez conquers it after makiughimself master 

of Egypt, and founds the Fatimite dynasty 

with Cairo for a capital. 
1076. Syi-ia is invaded by the Turks, who established 

an independent kingdom under the princes 

of the house of Ortok. 
1096. The caliph MosUli is dispossessed of a large 

poi-tion by ihe Crusadei-s, 
824 



1099. The Christian kingdom of Jerusalem is esta- 
blished. 

1187. Saladin conquers it, and founds the Eyoobite 
dynasty. 

1250. It is partially destroyed by the revolt of the 
Baharite Memlooks. 

1260. Damascus is recovertd by Seifed Deen, who 
is afterwaids slain in an invasion of the 
Mongols. 

1400. Syria is invaded by Tamerlane. 

1401. Jan. 23. Damascus is sacked. 
1516. The Circassian Memlooks are overthrown by 

the Turks, and the country is united to the 
Ottoman emtiire by the sultan Selim I. 
1799. Feb. 6. Syria is invaded by Napoleon Bona- 
parte from Egypt. May 20. Napoleon Bo- 
napai-te abandons it after having been foiled 
in his attempt to take St. Jean d'Acre. 

1831. Dec. 9. Ibrahim Pasha having invaded it and 
taken Gaza, attacks Acre. 

1832. April 15. The sultan declares war against 
Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, who had 
refused to withdraw the forces under com- 
mand of his son Ibrahim. May 21. Ibrahim 
Pasha reduces Acre. June 13. Ibrahim 
Pasha takes Damascus. July 7. He defeats 
the sultan s army at Hems. Aug. 1. He 
takes Autioch. Dec. 21. Ibrahim routs 
the army of the sultan at Kouiah. 

1833. May 6. The sultan having claimed the assist- 
ance of Russia, France and England in- 
terpose, and peace is concluded. 

1839. May. Hostilities are renewed. June 25. The 
Turkish army i.t defeated by Ibrahim at 
Nezib. July 4. Tlie Turkish fleet desert to 
Mehemet Ali. 

1840. July 15. England, Austria, Russia, and Prus- 
sia, conclude a treaty to enforce the sub- 
mission of Mehemet to Turkey. 

1841. Jan. 11. After hostilities of some duration, 
and much negotiation, Mehemet consents 
to give up Syria, and receives from the 
sultan the hereditary govei-nment of 
Egypt. 

1860. May 28. A general attack is made upon the 
Marouites in the neighbourhood of Bey- 
rout and the Lebanon by the Druses, when 
about 1,201 1 persons are massacred, the 
Turkish soldiei-s offering no protection to 
the unfortunate victims. June 21. Through 
the treacherous conduct of the governor 
of Deir ■ el - Kammar, another shocking 
butchery of Maronites is perpetrated at that 
place. July 9. Similar atrocities are per- 
petrated at Damascus. July 14. A body of 
2,000 Turkish troops set out from Beyrout 
to Damascus ; but before they anive the 
murderous work has ceased. Aug. 3. The 
Turkish govemment, professing itself in- 
competent to put down the outbreak, a con- 
vention is entered into between England, 
Austria, Russia, France, and Prussia, to' 
restore order. Fuad Pasha is invested by 
the sultan with plenary powei-s to execute 
summary vengeance upon the assassins, and 
sets out from Constantinople. 167 persons 
are publicly executed at Damascus for being 
concerned in the massacres. It is estimated 
that about 12,000 persons lost their lives, 
200 of whom were priests. 163 villages' 
220 cnm-ches, and seven convents were also 
destroyed. 

STEo-MACEDOJTiAif ^EA, Called also the 
sera of tlie Greeks, the sera of the Seleuci- 
dae, and the sera of Alexander (q. v.), is the 
second of the two epochs adopted by the 
Greeks. 

SzENTA, or Zenta (Battle).— A victory 
was gained over the Turks, by Prince Eu- 
gene, at this town of Hungary, Sept. 11, 
1696. 

SziSTOVA. (See Sistota.) 



TAB 



TAL 



Tabasco (Mexico), the capital of the 
department of Tabasco, is celebrated as the 
scene of a great victory gained by the Spa- 
niards, under Cortes, over the Indians, 
March 25, 1519. {See Ceutla.) 

TABERifACLE. — Three sacred tabernacles 
are mentioned in the Old Testament. — 
1. The ante-Sinaitic tabernacle, which was 
probably the dwelling of Moses, and was 
placed by the camp of the Israelites in the 
desert for the transaction of public busi- 
ness, B.C. 1491. 2. The Sinaitic taber- 
nacle, which was set up on the first day 
of the first month in the second year after 
leaving Egypt, B.C. 1489. This is pre-emi- 
nently the tabernacle. 3. The Davidic ta- 
bernacle, which was erected by David, in 
Jerusalem, B.C. 1045, for the reception of 
the ark, while the old tabernacle remained 
at Gibeon, as the place where sacrifices were 
offered, until the days of Solomon. 

Table Bat (Atlantic Ocean), near the 
southern extremity of Africa, was disco- 
vered by Bartholomew Diaz, a.d. 1486. 

Table Tuening and Moving is referred 
to in a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus 
(1. xxix. c. 1), who relates that two persons 
were brought before a court of justice for 
disseminating prophecies injurious to the 
emperor Valens, a.b. 370. It was first per- 
formed in modern times by two American 
girls, Margaret and Catherine Fox, at 

village near New York, a.d. 1849. A 
German merchant at the latter place com- 
municated the mystery to his brother, in 
Bremen, and by the beginning of 1853 it 
had become a mania throughout Europe. 
The Eev. N". S. Godfrey, and other divines, 
ascribed the phenomenon to Satanic agency, 
others attributed it to elecrricity, while 
M. Arago, in France (July, 1853), and Far- 
raday, and others in England, considered it 
the resiilt of mechanical force. 

Tabokites, a violent sect of Hussites 
{q.v.), so named from their stronghold on 
Mount Tabor, in Bohemia, which they for- 
tified on being compelled to quit Prague, 
A.D. 1419. Under the command of their 
leader, John Ziska, they demolished mo- 
nasteries, burned the priests alive, and then 
returned to Prague, May 20, 1420, and de- 
stroyed all that remained of the former 
magnificence of the churches. They de- 
feated the imperiaUsts near Kolin, Jan. 1, 
1422, and again at Deutschbrod, Jan. 8, 
which town they burned, putting aUthe inha- 
bitants to the sword. Their leader, Ziska, 
died Oct. 12, 1424. A civil war broke out 
between the Taborites and Calixtines {q.v.), 
another sect of Hussites, in 1433, and the 
latter, aided by the Eoman Catholics, 
stormed and drove the Taborites out of New 
Prague in 1434, and defeated them with 
great slaughter at Boehmischgrod, May 28, 
1434. Their leaders, the two Procops, fell 
in this battle, and two days after 10,000 pri- 



soners, who had been promised safety, were 
slain in cold blood. The Taborites rose 
again, but were completely annihilated by 
the emperor Sigismund in 1436. 

Tabriz, or Tabbeez (Persia), is said to 
have been founded by the wife of Haroun-al- 
Eashid, a.d. 791. The castle, formerly a 
mosque, was built about 1250. 

Tadmoe. {See Palmyra.) 

Taffett, a fine smooth silken stuff used 
in the 16th century for various articles of 
dress, and considered as a luxury. John 
Tyce, of London, brought its manufacture 
to a high state of perfection about 1571 
or 1572. 

Taganeog (Eussia). — This seaport was 
founded by Peter the Great, a.d. 1697. It 
was given up to the Turks, by treaty, in 
1711, but was restored to the Eussians, and 
rebuilt by them, in 1769. The emperor 
Alexander I. died here Dec. 1, 1825, and it 
was bombarded by the allied fleet, June 3, 
1855. 

Tagliamento (B attle) . — The French, 
under Napoleon Bonaparte, defeated the 
Austrians, under the archduke Charles, on 
the banks of this river in Italy, March 16, 
1797. 

TAGiiiocozzo (Battle). — The French, 
under Charles of Anjou, defeated Conredin, 
the son of the emperor Conrad IV., of Ger- 
many, at this town of Naples, Aug. 23, 1268. 

Taherites. — This dynasty was founded in 
the province of Khorassan, in Persia, by 
the Mohammedan general Taher, a.d. 820. 
It was supplanted by the Soffarides dynasty 
ia872. 

Tahiti, {See Otaheite.) 

Taillebourg (Battle). — Henry III. of 
England, having passed over to France, ad- 
vanced against this town, and sustained a 
defeat from Louis IX., July 20, 1242. 

Tailors, among the Eomans, were only 
required for mending, as the toga came 
from the loom ready for use. A thimble, 
similar to that now in use, 'was found in 
Herculaneum, destroyed in the Vesuvian 
eruption of a.d. 79. Tailors worked cross- 
legged upon boards in the 14th century. A 
strike amongst the journeymen tailors in 
the metropohs, which lasted several weeks, 
was brought to a termination by their ac- 
ceptance of the masters' terms, April 27, 
1834. 

Talaveea-de-la-Eetna (Spain). — This 
ancient town of Spain, called by the Eo- 
mans Ebora Talabriga, was taken by the 
Moors A.D. 714, and again taken and de- 
stroyed by them in 1109. It was soon 
rebmlt, and became an appanage of the 
queens of Spain. Here 22,000 English, under 
Wellington, engaged and defeated about 
45,000 French, under Marshals Victor and 
Jourdain, July 27 and 28, 1809. Cuesta, the 
Spanish general, was left in command of the 
town, but he abandoned it, together with the 
English wounded, on the approach of the 
French, in August, 1809. It was evacuated 
by the French Aug. 15, 1812. 

Talbotxpe, the name given to a process 
825 



TAL 



of photography on paper, discoTered by 
Fox Talbot, a.d. 1840, and patented by Mm 
in February, 1841. 

Tally-Office.— The Tally Court in the 
Exchequer derived its name from the 
French taille, or tailler, to cut or notch. 
A tally is a piece of wood written upon both 
sides, containing an acquittance for money 
received, which, being cleft asunder by an 
officer of the exchequer, one part was deh- 
vered to the person who had paid the money, 
and the other was preserved in the exche- 
quer. The use of tallies was abolished by 
23 Geo. III. c. 82 (1782), but the old tallies 
were preserved in the exchequer, until the 
remodelhng of that office by 4 Wm. IV. 
c. 15 (May 22, 1834), when they were or- 
dered to be destroyed. They were accord- 
ingly used to heat the stoves in the House 
of Lords, and are said to have been the 
cause, from having been burned in too large 
quantities, of the fire which destroyed the 
two houses of parhament, Oct. 16, 1834. 

Talmud. — The Jews have been ac- 
customed to divide their law into written 
and unwritten — the former contained in 
the Pentateuch, the latter handed down 
orally, vmtil the restoration of Jerusa- 
lem, under Hadrian, a. d. 135. The oral law 
is an interpretation of the written, and con- 
stitutes the text of the Tahnud, which was 
first permanently composed by the rabbi 
Judah Hakkadosh, a.d. 190 or 220. A two- 
fold commentary was subsequently added 
to it, one called the Jerusalem Gemara, 
composed in the 3rd century, and the 
other the Babylonian Gemara, completed 
A.D. 500. 

TA3r5r2ir.s; (Euboea) was taten by the 
Persians when they attacked Eretria, B.C. 
490. A great victory was gained here by 
the Athenian general Phocion, over Callias 
of Chalcis, b.c. 350. 

TA?fAGE A (Greece) . — This town in Boeotia, 
also called Poemandria, from the fertihty of 
its neighbourhood, was the scene of a defeat 
of the Athenians, by the Lacedasmonians, 
B.C. 457. The Athenians invaded the coun- 
try, and gained a decisive victory over the 
Boeotians, near Tanagra, B.C. 456 {nee 
(Enophtta), and again B.C. 426. Tanagra 
continued to flourish in the 6th century. 

Taxgier (Morocco).— This seaport, on 
the site of the ancient Tingis, which became 
a Eoman colony and the capital of the 
province of Tingitana in the reign of the 
emperor Claudius (a.d. 41 — 54), was taken 
from the Moors by the Portuguese in 1471, 
and ceded by them to the Enghsh, as a gift 
to Charles II. on his marriage with Catharine 
of Bragan^a, May 20, 1662. The Enghsh 
retained possession for twenty-two years. 
It was almost destroyed by an earthquake 
April 12, 1773 ; was ravaged by the plague 
in September, 1818 ; and was bombarded by 
the French Aug. 6, 1844. 

Tanjoee (Hindostan), the capital of a 
district of the same name in the Madras 
presidency, was conquered by the Mahratta 
chief Veneajee, a.d. 1675, and from him the 



TAP 

line of rajahs was descended. The English 
were repulsed here in 1749, and the French 
in 1758. It was besieged and taken by the 
Enghsh in 1773. The nabob of Arcot, 
supported by the Madras government, 
claimed tribute from Tanjore, and the 
rajah was deposed ; but he was restored 
on consenting to pay tribute and a subsidy 
for an English force "in Tanjore in .1781. _ A 
dispute for the succession between Serfojee 
and Ameer Sing was decided by the English 
in favour of the latter in April, 1787. He 
was, however, deposed, and Serfojee elevated 
to the throne in 1798. The new rajah 
vielded Tanjore to the East-India Company 
for an annual subsidy in 1799, retaining only 
sovereign authority in the fort. He died in 
1832, and was succeeded by his son Sevajee, 
who died in 1855, when the dignity of rajah 
of Tanjore became extinct. 

Tanu-enbitbg (Battle). — Ladislaus V., 
king of Poland, defeated the Teutonic 
knights at this place, in Prussia, July 15, 
1410. The knights lost, it is said, 40,000 in 
killed and 30,000 taken prisoners. 

Tanniitg.- This art is of oriental origin, 
and is mentioned by Moses. In England 
tanners had been accustomed to keep hides 
in the tan-pit a year or more ; but owing 
to alterations in the process in the 16th 
century, complaints were made that they 
were "tanned in three weeks ; and in 
consequence an act was passed, 2 & 3 
Edw. VI. e. 11 (1548), prohibiting tanners 
from selling hides that had not been nine 
months in the tan-pit. Tanners were pro- 
hibited from carrying on the trade of shoe- 
makers by 13 Rich. II. c. 12 (1389), or that 
of curriers by 1 Hen. VII. c. 5 (1485). 
Butchers were "prevented from being tanners 
by 5 Eliz. c. 8 (1562). AH restrictions were 
removed from the trade by 11 Geo. IV. c. 16 
(May 29, 1830). Great improvements were 
introduced in the process of tanning by 
Seguin, a French chemist, in 1795 ; and the 
art was first reduced to scientific principles 
by Sir H. Davy in 1803. 

TAiTTALtrM. — This name was given to a sup- 
posed new metal discovered by Ekeberg in 
some Swedish minerals. Dr. WoUaston, in 
1809, proved it to be identical with the 
metal discovered in 1801 by Hatchett in a 
ferruginous mineral from North America, 
and called columbiTmi {q-v.). 

Tapestet. — The invention of tapestry has 
been ascribed to Attains III., king of Per- 
gamus, who died B.C. 133. The ordinary 
kind of tapestry was borrowed from the 
Saracens, and hence the early manufacturers 
in France were called Sarazinois. It was 
introduced there about the 9th century, and 
was made for the church of Auxerre prior to 
840. Poitiers was noted for its manu- 
facture as early as 1025. The Flemings 
were celebrated for tapestry from the 12th 
century, and its manufacture attained its 
highest perfection in Flanders in the 15th cen- 
tury. Tapestry was introduced into England 
as furniture by Eleanor, wife of Prince Ed- 
ward, in 1255. The supply came principally 



from the continent. Tapestry-^veaving was 
brought into England by Sheldon, late in 
the reign of Henry VIII. ; and a manu- 
factory was set up at Mortlake by Sir F. 
Crane in 1619. It was for the use of this 
establishment that Charles I. purchased the 
famous cartoons of Ealfaelle. After the 
Eestoration, Charles II. endeavoured to 
revive the manufacture, but without success. 
Henry IV. of France re-established the 
manufacture of tapestry in Paris in 1597, 
and the art made great progress in France 
in the reign of Louis XIV. The G-obelin 
tapestry dates its origin from this time. 
{See Bateux Tapesxby.) 

Tae. — Becher, a German chemist, who 
died in London a.d. 1685, was the first to 
propose the making of coal-tar. An account 
of the manufacture of tar from a blackish 
stone in Shropshire was given by the in- 
ventor, Martin Erie, in the " Philosophical 
Transactions " published in May, 1697. 
Owing to the inconvenience caused by the 
refusal of the Swedish Tar Company to 
supply it, excepting in such quantities and 
at such prices as they might choose, the 
English parliament offered bounties for its 
importation from the British colonies in 
North America in 1703. In consequence of 
the American war, some lamp-black manu- 
facturers at Bristol turned their attention 
to its manufacture from pit- coal about 1779, 
and Lord Dimdonald obtained a patent for 
improvements in these processes in 1781. 

Tara (Ireland). — At this place, in Meath, 
the Irish gained a great victory over the 
Danes, a.d. 980. The HOI of Tara was in 
ancient times the chief seat of the Irish 
kings. Here the insurgent Irish were de- 
feated by the royahsts, May 26, 1789 ; and 
here a monster meeting of the " repealers," 
computed at 1,000,000 persons, according to 
the highest calculation, and 250,000 at the 
lowest, was held by O'Connell, Aug. 15, 
1843. 

Taeanto (Italy) . — This town occupies the 
site of the acropolis or citadel of the ancient 
town of Tarentum {q.v.), and is situated on 
an island in the Gulf of Taranto. It was 
founded after the sacking of Tarentum by 
the Saracens, a.d. 830, was taken by Robert 
Guiscard in 1063, and from that time it 
formed part of the kingdom of Naples. It 
was taken by the French in April, 1801. 

Tarbes (France), anciently caUed Bigorra, 
was the capital of the country of Bigorre 
in the Middle Ages. It came into the 
possession of the English monarchs as part 
of the dowry of Queen Eleanor a.d. 1152, 
and remained under their sway for 300 
years. Edward the Black Prince occasion- 
ally resided here. The' French were de- 
feated here by the Enghsh, March 20, 1814. 

Tarentum (Italy) was founded by a 
Spartan colony, B.C. 708. Of its early 
history httle is known. The forces of 
Tarentum and Rhegium were defeated by 
the Messapians, B.C. 473. Soon after the 
Tarentines engaged in a war with the 
Thurians, to prevent them occupying the 



TAR 

district of the Siritis. The dispute was 
settled by the establishment of a joint 
colony named Heracleia in the contested 
territory. A war vdth their neighbours, the 
Lucanians, caused them to apply to Archi- 
damus, king of Sparta, for assistance. He 
landed b.c. 346, and was defeated and slain 
B.C. 338. They then sought the aid of 
Alexander of Epirus, who arrived b.c. 332, 
and, after defeating the enemies of Ta- 
rentum, turned against his allies and took 
Heracleia. They were relieved from this 
new antagonist by his death, B.C. 326, and 
again applied to Sparta for aid, B.C. 303, when 
Cleonymus came to their assistance, and 
compelled the Lucanians and Messapians to 
sue for peace. The Tarentines now made a 
treaty with Rome, by which vessels of that 
nation were not permitted to enter the Gulf 
of Tarentum. It was violated when a 
Roman fleet was sent to assist the Thurians, 
B.C. 282. The Tarentines attacked the fleet 
and destroyed and captured five vessels, and 
then took Thuria and expelled the Roman 
garrison. War was declared against them 
by the Romans B.C. 281, and the Tarentines 
applied to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for 
assistance. Though at first successful, he 
was finally defeated by Curius, and withdrew 
from Italy B.C. 274, leaving his general, 
Milo, to protect Tarentum. It surrendered 
to the Romans B.C. 272, from which time it 
remained subject to them. In the second 
Punic war, Tarentum was seized by Han- 
nibal, B.C. 212. The citadel, however, held 
out, and the Carthaginian general tried in 
vain to take it by storm. He then block- 
aded it for two years. Fabius came to the 
assistance of the Romans, took the city, and 
put the Carthaginian garrison and a large 
part of the inhabitants to the sword, B.C. 
209. Tarentum, taken by Belisarius, was 
retaken by Totila, a.d. 549, and continued in 
the hands of the Goths till captured by 
Narses in 553. The Lombards took it in 
661. The Saracens landed at Tarentum in 
830. 

Taeifa (Spain), a seaport deriving its 
name from Tarif Ibn Mahk, who landed here 
when sent by Musa, the Mussulman emir, 
to reconnoitre before his invasion from 
Africa, a.d. 712. It was taken by Sancho IV. 
in 1292, and was held by Alonzo Perez de 
Guzman against the Moors in 1294. He 
would not surrender it, though they threat- 
ened to behead his only son, and actually 
carried out the threat before his eyes. The 
kings of Castile and Portugal gained a great 
victory here over the Moors, Oct. 28, 1340, 
when the latter were besieging the town. 
It was successfully defended by 1,800 British 
and 700 Spaniards against a 'French force 
13,000 strong, from Dec. 19, 1811, to Jan. 4, 
1812, when the French raised the siege, 
having lost about 1,000 men. 

Tariff. — These duties were originally 

f ranted for the use of the king, as is shown 
y25 Edw. I. c. 7 (1296). Thev were con- 
tained in two books tiU 27 Geo. III. c. 13 
(1786), when all the duties were ordered to 



TAR 

be paid according to a new book of rates 
annexed to that statute. The Britisli tariff 
has undergone several important alterations 
during the present century. It was much 
simplified, and the duty on a great number 
of articles abolished by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47 
(July 9, 1842), and 8 Vict. c. 13 (May 8, 
1845). 

Taepeian- Eock (Eome). — According to 
the legend, Tarpeia, the daughter of the 

fovernor of the citadel of Eome, surren- 
ered it to the Sabines, who were advancing 
against Eomulus (b.c. 722) to avenge the 
abduction of the Sabine virgins — on con- 
dition of receiving the gold bracelets they 
wore upon their left arras. Tatius, the 
Sabine king, to pimish her perfidy, as he 
entered the gates, cast not only his bracelet, 
but his shield upon her. This example was 
followed by his soldiers, and Tarpeia was 
crushed to death. Tarpeia was buried in 
the Capitol, and her memory was rendered 
still more infamous by naming that rock the 
Tarpeian, from whence traitors were after- 
wards hurled. 

Taeeagoita (Spain) . — The ancient Tarraeo 
was originally settled by the Phceniciaus, 
and became a Roman colony during the se- 
cond Punic war (b.c. 218— b.c. 202), when 
the town was enlarged and fortified. It was 
made the capital of a province by the em- 
peror Augustus, was taken by the Goths 
A.D. 467, and by the Moors in 714. They 
completely destroyed it, and it remained in 
ruins for four centuries. The town, rebuilt 
in the beginning of the 12th century, was 
taken by Alfonso of Arragon in 1220. It 
■was captured by the Enghsh in 1705, but 
afterwards abandoned by them, and was 
taken by the French, June 7, 1808, and 
again June 29, 1811. The Enghsh, having 
attempted to retake it in the end of July, 
1813, raised the siege Aug. 17, on the ap- 
proach of the French, under Marshal Sachet, 
who entered the town and destroyed the 
fortifications, Aug. 18. It surrendered to 
the French in the Spanish revolutionary 
war in June, 1823. Councils were held here 
in 464 ; Nov. 6, 516 ; May 1, 1230 ; April 19, 
1239 ; May 8, 1240 ; May 13, 1242 ; in 1244 ; 
May 1, 1247 ; in 1248 ; AprH 8, 1253 ; March 
22, 1282; in 1294; Feb. 22, 1305; in 1307; 
and Feb. 22, 1317. 

Taeshish. — It is considered probable that 
the references to Tarshish in the Scriptures 
point to two distinct emporixmis, one situ- 
ated at the extremity of the Mediterranean, 
and the other in the Indian Ocean. Tartes- 
sus, in Spain, is supposed to have been the 
western, and Point de GaUe, in Ceylon, the 
eastern Tarshish. The prophet Ezekiel, 
writing in the 6th century B.C., describes 
Tarshish as the "Merchant of Tyre by 
reason of the multitude of all riches." 

Taesus (Asia Minor), the metropolis of 
Cilicia, is said to have been founded by Sar- 
danapalus, B.C. 820. It was a great and 
flourishing city when taken and plundered 
by the younger Cyrus, b.c. 401. Alexander 
the Great took it B.C. 333, and was detained 



TAS 

here some time with a dangerous fever. In 
the war between Csesar and Pompey (e.g. 
47) Tarsus sided with the former, and took 
the name of Juhopolis. It was made a free 
city by Augustus. The apostle Paul (" Saul of 
Tarsus," Acts ix. 11) was a native of the city 
(a.d. 33). It was seized by the Saracens in 
the early days of their empire, but was taken 
from them, after an obstinate resistance, in 
the second half of the 10th century. Soon 
afterwards it was restored to them, and haa 
remained under their sway ever since. Coun- 
cils were held here in November, 431 ; 435 j 
and 1177. 

Taetaeic Acid, first discovered in a se- 
parate state by the celebrated chemist 
Scheele, who was born at Stralsund, in 
Sweden, Dec. 19, 1742, and died at Kioping, 
May 24, 1786. Liebig formed tartaric acid 
by artificial means in 1859. 

Tabtaes. — According to Pritchard, the 
Tatars, or Tartars, were a tribe nearly al- 
lied to the Mongols in race, who dwelt near 
Lake Bouyir, to the eastward of Mongolia. 
They were among the first of the Mongol 
conquests, and they took afterwards so con- 
spicuous a place in the army of Zenghis Khan, 
that their name became synonymous with 
that of the Mongols. Their proper name 
was Tatars. It is said to have been changed 
into Tartar in consequence of an expression 
of St. Louis, who, when the devastations of 
Zenghis Khan were heard of with horror in 
western Europe, is reported to have ex- 
claimed, " Erigat nos, mater, cceleste sola- 
tium, quia si proveniant ipsi, vel nos ipsos 
quos vocamus Tartaros ad suas Tartareas 
sedes, unde exierunt, retrudemus, vel ipsi 
nos omnes ad ccelum advehent." 

Taetaey (Asia). — This tract of country, 
bounded on the north by Eussia, on the east 
by China, on the south by Affghanistan and ( 
Persia, and on the west by the Caspian Sea, 
was conquered by Toulun, who assumed the 
title of khan of Tartary, about a.d. 405. 
The name of Tartary has disappeared from 
geography, and the greater part of the 
country is known by the name of Turkestan. 
(See ScTTHiA.) 

Tasmania (Australia). — This island, for- 
merly called Van Diemen's Land, was dis- 
covered by Tasman, Dec. 1, 1642, and named 
after Van Diemen, the governor of the 
Dutch East-India settlements. The coast 
was explored by Marion, Fumeaux, Cook, 
Prune d'Entrecasteaux, and Kermandee, 
between 1772 and 1792, and the island was 
taken possession of by the British for a 
penal settlement, in connection with the 
penal head-quarters at Sydney, in August, 
1803. Collins landed vdth a party of con- 
victs Feb. 19, 1804, and foimded the city 
of Hobart Town, of which he was the first 
governor. He died in 1810. It became a 
distinct colony in 1825. An anti-transpor- 
tation society was formed in 1851. Their 
efforts to abolish transportation were suc- 
cessful ; and by permission of the Queen its 
name was changed from Van Diemen's Land 
to Tasmania. The present system of self- 



TAU 

gOTernment was established in 1855 and 
1856. 

Tattntow (N"orth America). — This town 
in Massachussets was founded a.d. 1637. 

TAUifTON- (Somersetshire), originally called 
Tantun, and subsequently Tawnton and 
Thoneton, from its situation on the river 
Thone, is supposed to have been a Koman 
station; but the earhest authentic account 
of the place refers to the period of the Oc- 
tarchy, when a castle was built by In a, king 
of Wessex, a.d. 700. It was destroyed by 
his queen, Ethelburga, in 722, and remained 
in ruins tiU the reign of William the Con- 
queror, when it was rebuilt by the bishops of 
Winchester, to whom the town and manor 
were granted. It was taken in 1497 by Per- 
kin Warbeck, who abandoned it on the ap- 
proach of the royal troops. Colonel, after- 
wards Admiral Blake, defended it against 
10,000 Eoyahsts until relieved by Fairfax in 
1645. James, duke of Monmouth, was pro- 
claimed king here June 21, 1685, and many 
of his followers were put to death by General 
Kirke, Aug. 27. -A charter, granted to 
the town in 1627, was taken away at the 
Eestoration (1660), and its walls were 
razed to the ground in consequennce of 
the zeal displayed by the inhabitants for the 
parhament. The charter, subsequently re- 
stored, was forfeited in 1792. Taunton has 
returned two members to parliament since 
1625. The church of St. Mary Magdalen, 
built in the 14th century, was richly decorated 
by Henry VII., in return for the support 
given by the town to the Lancastrian cause. 
The free grammar-school was founded in 
1522, and endowed in 1554. The almshouses 
at East Gate were founded in 1635 ; the hos- 
pital was founded in 1809, and opened March 
25, 1812; and the eye infirmary was esta- 
blished in 1816. The canal between Taunton 
and Bridgewater, projected in 1811, added 
much to the prosperity of the town. The 
museum, library, &c., were erected in 1821, 
and the Taunton and Somerset Institution 
was estabhshed in 1823. The railway from 
Bristol to Exeter was opened as far as Taun- 
ton in July, 1842. 

Taueomem-ixtm (Sicily), the modern Taor- 
mina, was founded by the remaining inhabit- 
ants of Naxos, who were driven into exile 
after the destruction of that town by Diony- 
sius I., B.C. 396. It was ineffectually besieged 
by Dionysius I. B.C. 394, and submitted to 
him B.C. 392. It is considered, however, to 
have first become truly a Greek city when 
Andromachus, father of the historian Ti- 
meeus, brought together the exiled Naxians 
who were scattered over the island, and 
located them here, b.c. 358. It had risen to 
a considerable degree of opulence, when 
Timoleon landed, B.C. 345', and was incor- 
porated with the kingdom of Syracuse shortly 
after b.c. 278. Having passed with the 
island under Eoman domination, it was held 
by the insurgent slaves, and suffered severely 
B.C. 134 — 132. Sextus Pompeius made it 
one of his chief strongholds of defence against 
Octavius, and gained an important naval 



TEA 

victory over him, B.C. 36. Augustus expelled 
its former inhabitants, and settled a Roman 
colony in their place, B.C. 35. 

Tauss (Battle). — The Hussites defeated 
the Imperialists near this town, in Bohemia, 
Aug. 14, 1431. 

Taveeks.— Places of entertainment so 
called, can be traced in England to the 
13th century. They were ordered to be 
closed at curfew by 13 Edw. I. c. 5 (1284). 
The oldest tavern in London is said to have 
been the " Boar's Head," in Eastcheap, where 
Shakespeare represents Prince Henry and 
his dissolute companions indulging in their 
revels, before 1413. The "White Hart" 
tavern, in Bishopsgate Street, was esta- 
blished in 1480. The number was hmited 
in London to forty, and in Westminster to 
three, by 7 Edw. VI. c. 5 (1553), in conse- 
quence of complaints having been made of 
their great increase, "to the hurt and de- 
bauching of the morals of the people." 
Taverns were first hcensed in 1752. 

TAXATioif . — The Greeks and Romans pos- 
sessed systems of taxation almost as com- 
prehensive and varied as those which exist 
at the present day ; but at the decHne of the 
Roman empire the feudal system of personal 
service was introduced. The modern insti- 
tution of taxes originated in the practice of 
compounding for feudal service by pay- 
ments of money. Immunity from arbitrary 
taxation was established by 25 Edw. I. cc, 
5 & 6 (1297), and by the BiU of Rights, 
1 WiU. & Mary, sess. 2, c. 2 (1689). (See 
Customs, Excise, Income and Propeety 
Tax, Land Tax, Stamp Duties, &c.) 

Tchad, or Tsad (Africa). — This lake, in 
the central regions of the continent, 120 miles 
in length, with an average breadth of about 
70, was discovered and partly explored by 
Clapperton and Denham, a.d. 1823. Over- 
weg and Barth made further explorations in 
1851, and Dr. Vogel in 1854. 

TcHEENATA (Battle). — The Russians, 
under General Liprandi, were defeated by 
the French and Sardinians, under Marshal 
Pelissier and General La Marmora, on the 
banks of this river, near Sebastopol, in the 
Crimea, Aug. 16, 1855. 

TcHEENiGov, or CzEENiGOF (Russia), 
capital of the province of that name, the 
oldest town in the European portion of the 
empire, was built a.d. 1024. 

TcHESME (Sea-fight).— The Turkish fleet 
was destroyed by the Russians, near this 
smaU town of Anatoha, in Asia Minor, in 
July, 1770. 

Tea. — The tea-plant, supposed to be indi- 
genous to China, according to their writers, 
was first discovered in the Sth century. An 
impost was levied on tea by the emperor 
Te-Tsang, a.d. 781. Japanese writers main- 
tain that it was brought there from China in 
the 9th century. It was introduced into 
Europe by the Dutch in 1591, and was used 
in England, on rare occasions, some years 
prior to 1657, and sold at from £6 to £10 the 
pound. Thomas Garway, the first English 
tea-dealer, retailed it in 1657, to the public. 



TEA 

in the leaf, at from 15«. to 508. the pound, 
and also in the infusion. It was first 
imported by the East-India Company in 
1677, when they received from China 4,713 
pounds, which glutted the market for seve- 
ral years. Green tea was first used in 
England in 1715. A duty of 8^. per gallon 
on all ready-made tea prepared for sale was 
imposed by 12 Charles II. c. 23 (1660), but 
the leaf was fii-st taxed by 1 Will. & Mary, 
sess. 2, e. 6 (1689), which imposed a duty of 
5s. per lb. and 5 per cent, on the value. By 
10 Geo. I. c. 10 (1723), the duty was reduced 
to 4s. per lb. ; and by 18 Geo. II. c. 26 (1745), 
it was again reduced to Is. per lb. and £25 
per cent, on the value. All previous duties 
were repealed by 24 Geo. III. sess. 2, c. 38 
(1784) , which effected an average reduction 
of 106| per cent, by imposing a window-tax. 
The dutv was nearlv doubled by 35 Geo. III. 
c, 13 (March 16, 1795) ; and by 59 Geo. III. 
c. 53 (July 2, 1819), it was raised to £96 per 
cent, on tea worth less than 2s. per lb., and 
to £100 per cent, on tea above that price. 
These ad valorem duties were repealed by 
3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 101 (Aug. 29, 1833), which 
ordered that, after April 22, 1834, rates of 
Is. &d., 2s. 2d., and d». per lb. should be 
charged on teas according to their quahties. 
This arrangement proving unsatisfactory, 
owing to the difficulty of deciding the quahty 
of the article, an equal duty of 2s. Id. on 
every lb. of tea imported was imposed by 
5 & 6 Win. IV. c. 32 (Aug. 21, 1835). An 
addition of 5 per cent, was imposed by 3 & 4 
Vict. c. 17 (June 19, 1840). By 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 106 (Aug. 20, 1853), it was arranged 
that till April 5, 1854, the duty should be 
1«. lOd. per lb. ; that it should then remain at 
Is, Qd. till Apx'il 5, 1855, when it should faU 
to Is. M. ; and that after April 5, 1856, it 
should be Is. per lb. In consequence of 
the expenses attending the Russian war, 
these provisions were repealed by 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 9 (March 16, 1855), which raised the 
duty to Is. 6d. ; and by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 21 
(May 25, 1855), it was increased to Is. 9d. 
It was reduced to Is. 5d. by 20 & 21 Vict. 
C.61 (Aug. 25, 1857). 

Teaeless Victoet.— When the news of 
a great battle, gained by the Spartan king 
Archidamus over the Arcadians, B.C. 368, 
or, as it came to be called " the tearless 
battle," reached Sparta, aU the Spartans 
who heard it burst into tears. 

Te Deum, a kind of hymn, or song of 
thanks, supposed to have been composed by 
St. Augustine and St. Ambrose, is sung in 
the Eomish church with extraordinary pomp 
and solemnity upon the gaining of a battle 
or other happy event. It was also sruig in 
Protestant churches on days of thauks- 
giving for a victory, peace, or other national 
event. A Te Deum was performed at St. 
Paul's cathedral when Queen Anne went in 
state to give thanks for the victory of Blen- 
heim, a.d. 1704; and one was performed there, 
with vocal and instrumental music, on the 
thanksgiving day for the battle of Eanuhies, 
in 1706. This was the first time an instru- 



TEI 

mental band was permitted to accompany 
the voices in St. Paxil's. Handel's Te Deum 
for the battle of Dettingen, in 1743, and 
Graun's for the king of Prussia's victory 
at Kolin, in 1757, ai-e celebrated composi- 
tions. 

Teeth. — The Mathematical Jewel, pub- 
hshed A.D. 1585, contains an account of one 
Sir John Blagrave, " who caused his teeth 
to be all drawne out, and after had a sett of 
ivory teeth in agayne." Artificial teeth 
were in common use in England in 1609. 

Teetotallee. — This term was first used 
in September, 1833, by Eichard Turner, a 
working man of Preston, in addressing 
temperance meetings, to describe his 
thorough abstiuence from intoxicating be- 
verages. 

Teflis, or TiFLis (Asia), the capital of 
Georgia, and of all the Transcaucasian pro- 
vinces of Eussia, was built by Vachtang, the 
founder of a dynasty which ruled from the 
Euxine to the Caspian, a.d. 469. It was 
taken by Tamerlane ia 1386, and by the 
Turks in 1576, and again in 1723. Kouli 
Khan retook it in 1734, and it was captured 
and destroyed by Aga Mohammed in 1795. 
The Eussians became masters of it in 1801. 
It was devastated by the cholera in 1830. 

Tegea (Greece), one of the most power- 
ful cities of Arcadia, is said to have been 
founded by Tegeates, a son of Lycaon, and 
is mentioned by Homer in connection with 
the siege of Troy, b.c. 1184. The Spartans 
were defeated in an attempt to acquire do- 
minion over it, and ChariUus, their king, and 
all the survivors of the army, made prisoners, 
B.C. 850. It submitted to Sparta B.C. 560. 
A contingent of 500 men fought at Thermo- 
pvlae B.C. 480, and one of 3,000 at the battle 
of Platsea, B.C. 479. Leotychides, king of 
Sparta, found refuge here B.C. 469, and Pau- 
sanias B.C. 394. In the Cleomenic war it was 
taken by Antigonus Doson, and annexed to 
the Achaean League B.C. 222. It was com- 
pletely destroyed by Alaric about a.d. 400. 

Tegyea (Battle). — The Thebans under 
Pelopidas gained a victory over the Lacedae- 
monians at this town of Bceotia, B.C. 375. 

Teheean, or Tehean (Persia) , the modem 
capital, was, previous to the present century, 
an insignificant town. It was made the me- 
tropohs of the empire by Aga Mohammed 
Khan about a.d. 1790. A body of French 
engineers was sent here by ]S"apoleon I. in 
1807, to organize the military resources of 
Persia. The Eussian minister was assassin- 
ated here Feb. 12, 1829. Xear the towa. are 
the ruins of the ancient Ehages, the capital 
of the Parthian kings, where Alexander halted 
for five days in his pursuit of Darius, b.c. 
330. 

Teigkhottth (Devonshire) was originally 
an insignificant village, and is said to have 
been the first landing-place of the Danes in 
England, a.d. 787. It contributed seven 
ships towards the expedition against Calais 
in 1347. The town was burned by a French 
pirate in 1350, and was plundered in July, 
1690, by the French, who also burned 116 



TEL 



TEM 



h^ouses, with a number of ships and small 
craft in the harbour. Being threatened with 
a similar attack in 1744, the inhabitants ob- 
tained permission to erect a fort on the beach 
at East Teignmouth. A market and fair were 
granted the town in the reign of Henry III. 
The school for the gratuitous instruction of 
poor children was founded in 1731. The 
quay was constructed in 1820. 

Telamon- (Italy).— This city of Etruria is 
first mentioned B.C. 225, as the scene of the 
defeat by the Eomans of the Cisalpine Gauls. 
Marius landed here on his return from exile 
B.C. 87. The town was in existence as late 
as the 4th century, but from this time all 
trace of it disappears till the 14th century, 
when a castle was built on its site. 

Tklegeaph. — The word telegraph, from 
TTjXs, at a distance, and ypa(p(jj, I write, 
signifies any method of communicating iu- 
telMgence to a distance by means of visible 
signals, and was brought into use about a.d. 
1793. The ancients employed fire and flags 
for the purpose. Polybius (b.c. 204 — 122) 
states that a rude system of telegraphy had 
been invented by Cleoxenes and Demochtus, 
and improved by himself. The marquis of 
Worcester describes some ingenious tele- 
graphic inventions of his own in the " Cen- 
tury of Inventions," 1663. Dr. Hooke 
described a clever plate telegraph May 21, 
1684 ; but no practical advantage was taken 
of the invention until 1793, when Chappe in- 
troduced a system of semaphore telegraphs 
in France. In 1801 John Boaz of Glasgow 
patented a nocturnal telegraph. In 1806 a 
new plan was adopted, and in 1816 Sir Home 
Popham introduced great improvements. 
The principle of these telegraphs was the 
same as that of the various semaphore signals 
employed on railways, (See Electeig and 
Submarine Telegraphs.) 

Telescope is said to have been invented 
by Zacharias Jansen, an optician of Mid- 
dleburg, a.d. 1590. Another account 
assigns the discovery to 1610 ; and HaUam 
states that the date of the invention, or at 
least of its publicity, is referred beyond dis- 
pute to 1609. Others ascribe the invention 
to Adrian Metius, at Alckmaar, about 1607. 
GaHleo heard of the discovery while at Venice 
in 1609, and from the description constructed 
an instrument of the kind, with which he 
discovered the four satellites of Jupiter in 
1610. The astronomical telescope was greatly 
improved by Huyghens about 1655. James 
Gregory published suggestions for forming 
a telescope on a new plan in 1663. Newton 
made one on this principle, which is known 
as the Gregorian telescope, and also com- 
pleted his reflecting telescope in 1672. This 
last was further improved, by Dr. Hooke in 
1674, and by Hadley in 1718. Achromatic 
telescopes were made by Chester More Hall 
in 1729. Sir Wilham Herschel perfected the 
reflecting telescope, and commenced one of 
the jS'ewtonian kind in the end of 1783, which 
was finished Aug. 28, 1789. Lord Kosse's 
monster reflecting telescope, erected at Birr 



Castle, near Parsonstown, Ireland,; was 

finished in 1844. 

Tellxtkium, a scarce metal, discovered by 
MiiUer, of Eeichenstein, in Germany, a.b. 
1782. Klaproth, who, about 1798, ascer- 
tained its properties more minutely, gave it 
the name it now bears. 

Temeswak (Hungary), the capital of the 
Banat, is supposed to be identical with the 
ancient Tibiscus, to which Ovid was banished 
A.B. 8. It was taken and sacked by the 
Turks in 1552, in whose possession it re- 
mained tiU 1718, when it was regained by 
Prince Eugene, and strongly fortified. 
It was incorporated with Hungary in 1778. 
The Hungarians besieged it in April, 1849 ; 
but it was bravely defended by General 
Eukawina for 107 days, when the garrison 
were reHeved by General Haynau. He de- 
feated the Hungarian army in a well-con- 
tested battle Aug. 10, and entered the town 
in the evening of the same day. 

Tempe (Greece), the ancient name of a 
beautiful valley in Thessaly, between Mounts 
Olympus and Ossa, through which the waters 
of the Peneius force their way into the sea. 
When Xerxes invaded Greece, b.c. 480, the 
Greeks sent a force of 10,000 men to Tempe, 
to defend the pass against the Persians ; but 
having learnt that there was another pass 
across Mount Olympus into Thessaly, they 
withdrew to Thermopylae. The Eomans, 
under Q. Marcius Philippus, dislodged Per- 
seus, king of Macedon, from a position here, 
and opened the pass B.C. 169. 

Tempebance Societies. — The first society 
on the principle of entire abstinence from 
spirits was estabhshed at Moreau, in North 
America, a.d. 1806. The next was the 
American Temperance Society, founded at 
Boston Feb. 13, 1826. A thousand societies 
were in existence in the United States at the 
end of 1829. A society was founded at New 
Eoss in Wexford, Ireland, in August, 1829. 
The Glasgow and West of Scotland Associa- 
tion was formed Nov. 12, 1829 ; and the 
society at Bradford, in Yorkshire, in Feb. 

1830. The British and Foreign Temperance 
Society was organized in London June 29, 

1831, and by this time societies had been 
formed in the chief towns throughout the 
kingdom. The Preston society was the first 
to adopt a pledge renouncing " all Hquors of 
an intoxicating quality" in March, 1833. The 
British Teetotal Society was formed in Lon- 
don in 1835, and this was merged into the 
New British and Foreign Society for the 
Suppression of Intemperance, Aug. 20, 1836. 
The old partial abstinence societies were 
either dissolved or joined the new move- 
ment, and the exertions of the Eev. Father 
Mathew in Ireland in 1839, 1840, and 1841, 
and in England in 1843, gave a great impetus 
to the cause. The parent societies of London 
were merged into the National Temperance 
Society in June, 1843. The Maine suppres- 
sionary law in America was passed June 2, 
1851. The London Temperance League was 
formed in Jidy, 1851, and the United King- 
dom 4Iiiance,'for the legislative sui-"-iressioii 



TEM 

of the traffic in intoxicating drinks, was 
founded at Manchester June 1, 1853. 

Templars, or Knights of the Temple, 
first called the " Poor of the Holy City," 
were instituted for the protection of pilgrims 
to the Holy Sepulchre, by Baldwin II., king 
of Jerusalem, a.d. 1118 or 1119. Their first 
systematic embodiment was made by Houo- 
rius II. in 1128. Jerusalem was the head 
province and residence of the grand master 
till 1187, Antioch tiU 1191, and Acre till 1217. 
They took refuge in the town of Limisso or 
Limasol, in Cyprus, when the Latin power 
was destroyed in Palestine in 1192. Phi- 
lip IV. of France assisted Clement V. to the 
papal chair in 1305, on the understanding 
that he would lend him his aid in destroying 
the order. Jaques de Molay, their grand 
master, was summoned to Europe to con- 
sult with the pope concerning the union of 
the Templars and Hospitallers in 1306. 
Accusations of unspeakable enormities were 
made agamst them, nearly all the knights in 
France, including De Molay, were seized, 
and their stronghold in Paris taken posses- 
sion of by the king, Sept. 13, 1307. The 
knights in England were thrown into prison 
by Edward II. in December of the same year. 
Pope Clement V. issued a bull requiring all 
authorities to aid him in discovering the guilt 
of the accused, in August, 1308, and acommis- 
sion of ecclesiastics met at Paris to try the 
case Aug. 7, 1309. Cruel tortures extracted 
so-called confessions from the accused in 
France, many of whom were condemned to 
the ilames in 1309. Fifty-four who had been 
entrapped by Philip TV. into making confes- 
sions and afterwards retracted, were 
burned in a field behind the abbey of 
St. Antoine, May 13, 1310. Clement V., 
in a secret consistory at Yienne, abohshed 
the order by his own authority, March 22, 
1312. The bull was formally published 
May 2 following. On a small island of 
the Seine, near the site occupied by the 
statue of Henry IV., De Molay, grand mas- 
ter, and Guy, grand prior of Normandy, 
were burned to death, March 18, 1314. The 
king of France seized most of their pro- 
perty. In England their landed possessions 
were transferred to the Hospitallers in 1324. 
In Portugal the society took the new name 
of the Order of Christ. In Spain their pro- 
perty was given to the knights of Our Lady 
of Montessa, a society founded in 1317. The 
chief seat of the order in England was the 
Temple, whither they removed from Holborn 
in 1185. 

Temple (London). — A house was founded 
here by the Knights Templars a.d. 1185. 
The church was built in 1240. The building 
was purchased and formed into inns of court 
after the suppression of the order in 1311. 
The outer court was founded in 1560, and 
the Middle Temple Hall was built in 1572. 
The hbrary was founded by Eobert Ashley 
in 1641. The church was repaired in 1828. 
The new library of the Middle Temple was 
erected at a cost of £14,000, from designs 
by H. E. Abraham, and was opened by the 



TEE 

prince of Wales, who was, on the occasion, 
called to the bar and admitted as bencher, 
Oct. 31, 1861. 

Temple Bae (London) was erected by 
Sir Christopher Wren a.d. 1670—1672. A 
petition for its removal was presented by 
certain merchants and others of the city of 
London to the lord mayor and corporation 
in 1853. 

Temples. — The classical authors state that 
temples originated in the sepulchres built 
for the dead, and that they were tii-st erected 
by the Egyptians. Constantine I. ordered 
the destruction of the heathen templea 
throughout the Eoman empire a.d. 331. 
{See Baalbec, Delphi, Ephesus, Oltm- 
piA, and Solomon's Temple.) 

Tenasseeim (Hindostan) came into the pos- 
session of the Burmese a.d. 1760, and was 
ceded to the British by the treaty of Tanda- 
boo, Feb. 24, 1826. 

■ Tenet (Pembrokeshire) was built by 
Flemish settlers, who sought refuge from 
the inundations of the Low Countries about 
A.D. 1108. Its fortifications were strength- 
ened on the approach of the Spanish Ar- 
mada in 1588. It was garrisoned for Charles 
I. and besieged by the parhamentarian forces 
in 1643, and again in 1648. A new fish-mar- 
ket was opened in 1847. 

Tenedos. — This island, originally called 
Leucophrys, from its white cliffs, an ^olian 
settlement, was sacked by Achilles and oc- 
cupied by the Greeks after the siege of Troy, 
B.C. 1184. It became subject to Persia B.C. 
493, and siding with Athens in the Pelopon- 
nesian war, paid an annual tribute of 3,426 
drachmae B.C. 431. The Lacedaemonians in- 
vaded it B.C. 389. The island threw off the 
Persian yoke about 331. 

Teneeiffe (Canary Isles), first dis- 
covered by a French ship, driven among the 
group by stress of weather, about a.d. 1330, 
was taken formal possession of for the 
Spanish crown in 1461. At Santa Cruz, the 
chief town. Admiral Blake destroyed six 
richly-laden Spanish galleons April 20, 1657. 
Nelson failed in an attempt to take it July 24, 
1797. 

Tennessee (North America) was first 
settled about a.d. 1750. The settlements 
were destroyed by the Cherokee Indians, 
then possessors of the country, in 1760. They 
were in great part expelled in 1780. It was 
ceded by North Carolina to the L^nited States 
and converted into a territory, Aug. 14, 1790. 
It constituted a state in 1796. The original 
constitution was amended in 1834. 

Tennis appears to have been imported 
from France about the middle of the 16th 
century. The game was revived and brought 
into fashion in England by Charles II. 

Teeeacin A (Italy) , called by the Volscians, 
its ancient inhabitants, Anxur, was a de- 
pendency of Eome B.C. 509. It was takea 
by N. Fabius Ambustus b.c. 406. The Vol- 
scians recovered it b.c. 402. It was re-cap- 
tured by the Romans b.c. 400, and a colony 
estabhshed B.C. 329. The town was occupied 
by the troops of Pompey in the civil war 



TEE 



TEX 



about B.C. 50, and by those of Vespasiani 
A.D. 69. 

Teeka del Fuego (Soutli America), "the 
land of fire," so eallea by Magelhaens, from 
the number of watch-fires on its coast by 
night, was discovered by that navigator a.d. 
1520. 

Teschen (Treaty).— Through the inter- 
vention of France and Kussia, a treaty was 
concluded at this place, in Upper Silesia, be- 
tween Austria and Prussia when on the eve 
of war, May 13, 1779. Austria renounced 
a claim she had made on the dominions of 
the elector of Saxony, receiving a tract of 
territory between the Danube, the Inn, 
and the Salza, and paying compensation to 
Saxony. 

Test Act (25 Charles II. c. 2), compeUing 
persons holding office to take the sacrament 
and subscribe a declaration against transub- 
stantiation, was passed March 29, 1673. The 
duke of York, Lord Chfford, and others 
resigned their posts. It was repealed by 
9 Geo. IV. c, 17 (May 9, 1828). A test act 
was framed for Scotland by the duke of York 
in 1681. 

Testes, Testone, or Testook. — Le Blanc 
says, this coin, struck in France hy Louis 
XII., A.D. 1513, was so called because his 
bust was engraved upon it. They were first 
coined in England by Henry VIII. in 1543, 
being of the value of twelve pence. A pro- 
clamation was issued, April 10, 154<8, caUing 
them in, on account of the great number of 
counterfeits in circulation. 

Testey (Battle). — Invited by the exiled 
nobles, Pepin of Heristal marched an army 
into the Vermandois, defeated Thierry III., 
king of Austrasia, and took him prisoner, 
A.D. 690. 

TETEAEoiiiTAW CoNFESsioiT, which dif- 
fered from the Augsburg confession in a 
word or two respecting the Lord's Supper, 
was presented to the diet of Augsburg 
A.D. 1530. It was drawn up by the four 
towns, Strasburg, Memmingen, Constance, 
and Lindau, whence its name Confessio 
Tetropolitana. 

Tetten-hall (Battle). — A force of West 
Saxons and Mercians, sent out by Edward I. 
or the Elder, against the Danes, defeated 
them at this place, in Stafibrdshire, Aug. 6, 
910. 

Tetttan (Morocco) . — ^A battle was fought 
near this town, March 23, 1860, in which, after 
an obstinate resistance, the Moors were de- 
feated by the Spaniards . Tetuan was held by 
Spain as security for payment of the indem- 
nity agreed upon by the treaty of peace 
signed June 15, 1860. The claims of Spain 
having been satisfied, the garrison was 
withdrawn in 1862. 

TETJTOBUE& (Battle). — Herman, a young 
German chief, called Arminius by Koman 
writers, attacked the legions of Eome in this 
forest, the modern Hippische Wald, b.c. 9, 
and utterly annihilated them. P. Quinti- 
lius Varus, the commander, and many of 
his officers, feU on their swords to avoid 
being made prisoners. 



Teutowes. — This powerful German tribe, 
in alliance with the Cimbri, advanced into 
Ulyria, and defeated the consul Cn. Pa- 
pirius Carbo, B.C. 113. They afterwards 
forced their way into Eoman Gaul, and de- 
feated Mahhus and Scipio, b.c, 105, and 
they invaded Spain b.c. 104. On their 
retreat from Spain, they were met by the 
Eomans, under Marius, at Aquag Sextiae, 
the modern Aix, and totally defeated, b.c. 
102. 

Teutokic Oedee took its rise about 
A.D. 1189, during the crusades. Frederick I., 
on his arrival with his army before Acre, 
in 1191, under the sanction of a bull of Pope 
Ccelestine III., named it the order of the 
German House of the Holy Virgin of Jeru- 
salem. After their return to Germany, they 
were, in 1226, invited by Conrad, duke of 
Masovia, to assist him in conquering the 
heathen Prussians. This they aceompMshed 
in 1283 ; but insurrections afterwards broke 
out, and they were defeated by the Poles and 
Lithuanians in a great battle near Tannen- 
burg, in Germany, July 15, 1410, when the 
grand master and 40,000 of his followers 
were slain. The order, dissolved by the 
peace of Cracow in 1525, was fimaUy abohshed 
by lifapoleon I. in 1809. 

Tewkesbtjet (Gloucestershire). — A mo- 
nastery was foimded here about a.d. 725. 
A charter, confirming and extending the 
privileges of the burgesses, was granted by 
Edward III., Aug. 12, 1338. The celebrated 
battle of Tewkesbury, in which the Yorkites 
gained a victory over the Lancastrians, was 
fought at the Bloody Meadow, near this 
town, Saturday, May 4, 1471. Ehzabeth 
granted a charter of incorporation in 1574, 
and the free grammar-school was founded in 
1576. This town suffered greatly in the ciril 
wars, and was captured by the ParHament- 
arians, June 5, 1644. Its present charter 
was granted by William III. in 1698. The 
town-haUwas erected in 1788, the market- 
house in 1789, and the theatre in 1823. 

Texas (North America). — A French co- 
lony that had estabhshed itself here was 
expelled by the Spaniards, a.d. 1690. The 
Americans laid claim to portions of Texas 
in 1830, and it separated from Mexico in 
1836, the first Texan congress having been 
held Oct. 3, 1836. War ensued, in which 
the Mexicans were defeated. The United 
States recognized the independence of Texas, 
March 3, 1837 ; France, Sept. 25, 1839 ; and 
England subscribed a treaty with Texas, 
Nov. 13, 1840. Texas was admitted into the 
Union in 1845. 

Texel (German Ocean). — Several naval 
engagements have taken place off" this island 
in the Zuyder Zee. The EngUsh fleet, under 
Monk, gained a victory here over the 
Dutch, under Van Tromp, who fell in the 
action, July 31, 1653. Another was fought 
vrith doubtful results between the combined 
fleets of England and France and the 
Dutch in 1673. A Dutch fleet, in a state 
of insubordination, surrendered to the 
British fleet here, Aug. 30, 1799. Part of 



TEX 

Napoleon's immense army for tlie inTasion 
of England occupied Texel in August, 1805. 
The sea broke down the dykes of the Texel, 
and laid the greater portion of the island 
under water in 1825. 

Texts.— In the early church the text was 
most commonly taken from some paragraph 
of the Psalms or Lessons. Elfric, afterwards 
archbishop of Canterbury, required the 
priest on Sunday to explain the gospel of 
the day, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer 
about A.D. 957. Preaching from a text in 
England appears to have originated in 
1204, with Stephen Langton, afterwards 
archbishop of Canterbury, though some 
continued to preach without texts as late as 
the 15th century. 

Thames (England), the Eoman Tamesa 
or Tamesis, was crossed by Caesar after he 
had routed the Britons under their king Cas- 
sivellaunus, B.C. 54. ThelSTorthmen entered 
it with 350 ships, took Canterbury and 
London by storm, and were afterwards de- 
feated at Ockley by the West Saxons, a.d. 
851. The first stone bridge across the river 
was commenced by Peter Coleman in 1176. 
Extraordinary floods occiirred in 1235, and 
Eeb. 16, 1736 (when counsel were carried out 
of Westminster Hall to their carriages in 
boats), June 4, 1767 (on which occasion 
the water reached Kenuington Common) ; 
March 5, 1828 ; 'No\. 2, 1833 ; and Jan. 29, 
1834 (requiring watermen to convey people 
from street to street). The conservancy 
from Staines to Yenlade was assured to the 
city of London in 1489. It was frozen 
over and fairs held upon the ice in the 
winters of 1683-4, 1739-40, and 1813-14. 
Much damage was sustained by the shipping 
from the breaking up of the ice, Jan. 26, 
1829. Navigation was resumed after a sus- 
pension of several weeks from the ice, Feb. 8, 
1838. A tunnel from Gravesend to Tilbury 
Eort was proposed in 1798, and an effort 
made to carry it into execution in 1801. The 
tunnel at Rotherhithe was opened for traffic 
March 25, 1843 {see Thames TuisrifEL). A 
committee of the House of Commons was 
appointed to consider the question of an em- 
bankment from London bridge to Vauxhall, 
March 27, 1840; and with that object a 
survey was made, Nov. 8, 1841. By 20 & 21 
Yict. c. 47 (Aug 17, 1857), the conservancy 
was vested in the corporation of the city of 
London. It came into operation Sept. 29, 
1857. 

Thames Embaneimeu't. — Plans for the 
embankment of the Thames at London were 
proposed by Sir Frederick Trench, a.b. 1828, 
and by John Martin, the painter, in 1856; 
but no measures were taken for carrying the 
work into effect. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 104 
(Aug. 2, 1858), the Metropohtan Board of 
Works received power to construct embank- 
ments ; and in consequence of their repre- 
sentations a parKamentary committee was 
nominated in 1860, to consider the plans 
proposed by different architects. The com- 
mittee held their first meeting April 30, 
1861, and presented their report, in which 



THA 

they approved of the design of F. W. Sheilds, 
July 2, 1861. 

Thames Tui^^kel (London) was designed 
by I. K. Brunei. By 4 & 5 Geo. TV. 
0. 156 (June 24, 1824) a company was em- 
powered to make and maintain a tunnel 
under the Thames from Wapping, Middle- 
sex, to Rotherhithe in Surrey. A shaft was 
sunk, and the first brick laid, March 2, 1825. 
The river broke in May 18, 1827, 544 feet of 
the tunnel being constructed. The second 
irruption took place Jan. 12, 1828, when 
six workmen perished, and the fifth and 
last irruption happened March 6, 1838. It 
was opened for passenger traffic March 25, 
1843. 

THAinE, or Thak^^s. — This title of honour 
among the Anglo-Saxons, indicating pro- 
bably the possession of a certain amoimt 
of landed property, gradually fell into 
disuse after the Conquest, a.d. 1066. In 
Scotland the title was recogmzed tiU near 
the end of the 15th century, A thane of 
Cawdor is mentioned in 1492. . 

THAifET (Kent), the ancient Tanatis or 
Tanatos, at which the Saxons under Hengist 
and Horsa first landed, a.d. 449. A band of 
Danes \vintered here in 851. They invaded 
the island in 853 ; in the autumn of 865 ; in 
980 ; and in 988 ; when they burnt a nun- 
nery with the nuns, the clergy, and 
people who had taken refuge there. Ethel- 
red II. levied an army to give the Danes 
battle in 1002, and some fled to the Isle of 
Thanet, where he could not follow them. 
The Danes again landed on this island in 
1009, and after committing great ravages in 
Kent, retreated here to winter. Sweyn, 
king of Denmark laid the Isle of Thanet 
waste in 1011. Edward III. ordered the 
island to be fortified in 1369. 

THAPSAcrs, or Thapsacum (Syria), pro- 
bably the Tiphsah mentioned as subject to 
Solomon, B.C. 1014 (1 Kings iv. 24). The 
Euphrates was forded here by the army of 
Cyrus the younger, the water reaching up 
to the waists of the troops, B.C. 401. It wag 
also crossed by Darius when he was advan- 
cing against Alexander, B.C. 333, and by 
Alexander in pursuit of Darius, the same 
year. 

Thasos (.3Sgean Sea). — This island was 
first inhabited by the Phcenicians, under 
Thasos, — hence its name. It was colonized 
B.C. 720 or B.C. 708 by settlers from Paros. 
The Thasians were compelled by Darius to 
puU down their fortifications and remove 
their ships of war to Abdera, B.C. 492. 
Disputes arose between the Thasians and 
the Athenians. The latter having defeated 
the Thasians at sea, B.C. 465, laid siege to 
their city, which, after a blockade of three 
years' duration, was taken, the fortifications 
raised, and the Thasians compelled to pay a 
large simi of money, B.C. 463. Thasos, 
which had submitted to Philip V., received 
its freedom from Eome B.C. 197. 

Thavie's IifN- (London) is of great an- 
tiquity. In the reign of Edward III. it 
belonged to John Thavie, from whose will it 



THE 

appears to have been an inn for law-students 
as early as 134<7. It was demised to Lin- 
coln's Inn about 1549. 

Theatines. — This religious order in the 
Roman Catholic church was founded by 
John Peter Caraffa, bishop of Theate, or 
Chieti, in N"aples, a.d. 1524. He was after- 
wards pope, under the title of Paul IV. 

Theatres. — The earliest dramatic per- 
formances took place on waggons and tempo- 
rary platforms, and there is no record of a 
permanent building until the erection of the 
stone theatre in the temple of Dionysius, at 
Athens, B.C. 500. The finest Greek theatre 
was that erected by Polycletes, at Epidaurus, 
about B.C. 436 . A temporary theatre was bmlt 
at Rome by M. -^milius Scaurus, B.C. 68, 
which contained accommodation for 80,000 
spectators, and was also remarkable for the 
splendour of its decorations ; and the first 

g3rmanent theatre at Rome was built by 
ompey, B.C. 54. The theatre of Marcellus 
was completed by Augustus B.C. 11. The 
mystery plays of the Middle Ages were 
mostly performed in temporary structures 
in the open air. The stage for this purpose 
in England was erected at Dunstable in 1119. 
Stage scenery was introduced by Baldassari 
Peruzzi, of Siena, who died in 1536. The 
earliest theatrical hcense was granted to 
Burbage and others in 1574, and the first 
public theatre in London was the Blackfriars 
theatre (q.v.), which was built ia 1576. In 
1583 Palladio built a theatre on the classic 
model at Vicenza, and in 1588 Scamozzi at- 
tempted to reyive the same system at Sab- 
bionetta. The first play-biU was issued from 
Drmy Lane theatre, April 8, 1663, and an- 
nounced the performance of the " Humour- 
ous Lieutenant," to commence at 3 o'clock. 
Theatres are regulated by 6 & 7 Yict. c. 68 
(Aug. 22, 1843) . The most important thea- 
tres are separately treated. (iSee Dkama.) 

Thebes (Italy) was founded, according to 
tradition, by a colony of Phoenicians, under 
Cadmus, B.C. 1500 or B.C. 1400. They were 
driven out by the Boeotians b . c . 1124. Platsea, 
one of the Boeotian cities, revolted from 
Thebes B.C. 510, and applied for help to 
Athens. A war ensued between Thebes and 
Athens, in which the latter was victorious. 
This caused serious animosity between 
Thebes and Athens ; and in the Persian 
war, B.C. 480, the Thebans deserted the 
cause of Greece and fought against the 
Athenians at Platsea, B.C. 479. The Athe- 
nians invaded Bceotia, and established a 
democratic government in Thebes, B.C. 456. 
The aristocratic leaders went into exile, but 
returned b.c. 447, defeated the Athenians, 
and re-established the former government. 
The Thebans were allies of the Spartans in 
the Peloponnesian war, b.c. 431 — 404. Sparta 
having claimed supremacy over the whole of 
Greece, the Thebans joined the Athenians, 
B.C. 395. The peace of Antalcidas put an 
end to the war, b.c 387, and deprived 
Thebes of her supremacy over Boeotia. The 
Spartans treacherously seized the citadel 
of Thebes B.C. 382, and were defeated at 
836 



THE 

Leuctra b.c. 371 ; and the Thebans regained 
their power in Greece. In the Sacred war, 
which lasted from b.c. 357 to B.C. 346, the 
Thebans, supported by Philip II. ot'Macedon, 
were opposed to Athens and Sparta. Thebes 
was razed to the ground by Alexander the 
Great b.c, 335, after which it never again 
formed an independent state. Cassander 
restored the city b.c. 315, and it was taken 
by Demetrius B.C. 293, and again b.c. 290. 
The Thebans were defeated in an attempt to 
expel the Bulgarians from Greece a.d. 1040, 
and their city was plundered by the ISTor- 
mans of SicHy in 1146. It was one of the 
most flourishing cities of Greece during the 
10th and 11th centuries. 

Thebes, or Luxor (Egypt), called 'No 
(Ezekiel xxx. 14, and ISTahum iii. 8), had 
its foundation ascribed by the Egyptians 
to Menes, the fii'st king of Egypt, b.c. 2717. 
It reached its greatest splendour, having 
100 gates, " as sung by Homer," and 20,000 
war-chariots, and was the residence of the 
kings, whose tombs are still extant, B.C. 
1600. It was captured by the Persians B.C. 
525. Having revolted, it was taken, after 
a three years' siege, by Ptolemy Soter II., 
or Lathyrus, about b.c 87. Strabo visited it, 
with the expedition of ^lius Gallus, B.C. 24. 
The city began to decline about b.c 890. 
The great tablet of Karnak was shown and 
expounded by the priests to Caesar Ger- 
manicus, a.d. 16. 

Theft was forbidden ■ by the eighth com- 
mandment of the decalogue, delivered to 
3Ioses by J ehovah on Mount Sinai (Exodus 
XX. 15). By the civil law the thief was re- 
quired to make restitution of stolen pro- 
perty several fold, according to the nature 
of the object, or, failing in abihty to do so, 
was to be sold into slavery (Exodus xxii. 
1—4), B.C. 1491. The second of the "Twelve 
Tables" of Roman laws treated of this 
crime, B.C. 447. At common law, in former 
times, petty theft {i. e.. not above twelve 
pence in value) was punished by whipping 
and imprisonment, and grand theft (i. e. 
over twelve pence in value) by death. Both 
were made punishable by transportation by 
4 Geo. I. e. 11 (1717). The distinction be- 
tween the two was abolished by 7 & 8 Geo, 
IV. c. 28 (1827). 

Theodolite. — The first used was in the 
surs'ey of Zealand made by Bugge, A.D. 1762-8. 
Ramsden finished his theodolite in 1787, for 
the use of General Ray, in the great trigo- 
nometrical survey of England and Wales. 

Theodosia (Crimea), the modern Caffa 
(q.v.), named by Leucon, king of the Bos- 
pborus (B.C. 393 — B.C. 353), after his wife 
Theodosia, was a flourishing colony. It was 
ruined before the beginning of the 2nd cen- 
tury. 

THEODosiAif Code. — Theodosius II., a.d. 
429, appointed a committee of eight persons, 
at the head of whom was Antiochus, to form 
a code from aU the constitutions and laws 
which had been promulgated since the time 
of Constantine the Great. This committee 
was renewed in 435, and the code, consisting 
3 h2 



THE 

of sixteen books, was published at Constan- 
tinople, Feb. 15, 438. 

Theolo&t. — The word was first employed 
in its present signification by Peter Abellard, 
who died a.d. 1142, and wrote a work entitled 
" Theologia Christiana." The scholastic theo- 
logy was founded by Eoscehn of Compiegne 
about 1100 ; and pubHc schools for the study 
of the science were estabhshed in Italy soon 
after 1360. Lord Bacon's system of natural 
theology was embodied in the "De Aug- 
mentis Scientiarum," pubHshed in 1623, and 
Dr. William Paley's "ITatural Theology" 
was published in 1802. 

Theophilantheopists. — This sect sprung 
up during the French revolution a.d. 1794. 
They opened four temples in Paris, where a 
sort of hturgy was chanted, and, instead of an 
altar, they had an immense basket of ilowers 
as an emblem of the creation. Lepaux, one 
of the first five directors in France, put him- 
self at their head in 1797. They became ex- 
tiact ia 1802. 

Theosophists, or Fiee-Psilosophees. — 
This sect of philosophers, which rose in the 
16th century, followed the teaching of Theo- 
phrastus Paracelsus. They attributed very 
little to human reason and reflection, and 
ascribed everything to experience and divine 
illumination. In the beginnmg of the 17th 
century considerable animosity prevailed 
between the Theosophists and the Peripa- 
tetics. Great numbers of the Theosophists 
joined the Eosierucians. 

Theba (JEgean Sea). — This island is said 
to have received the name of Calliste when 
it emerged from the sea, and to have been 
first inhabited by the Phcenieians. It was 
colonized by the Lacedsemonians and Minyag, 
B.C. 1074, under Theras, from whom the 
island received the name of Thera. Another 
small island was thrown up by a submarine 
volcano near Thera, a.d. 726. 

THEEAPEUT-ae.— This sect, a branch of the 
Essenes (g.v.), arose in Egypt in the 1st 
centm-y. They were more rigid in their ob- 
servances and frequented solitudes. 

Theresa (Order). — This female order was 
founded by Theresa, queen of Bavaria, Dec. 
12, 1827, for unmarried noble ladies of all 
Christian sects. 

Theemidoeians. — A name given to a large 
party in the repubhcan convention of France, 
on account of their triumph in the counter- 
revolution of the 9th Thermidor, July 27, 
1795. They chose TaUien as their chief, en- 
deavoured to put a stop to the revolutionary 
passion for bloodshed, and opposed the con- 
stitution of 1795. Their power soon declined. 

Theemometee was invented about the 
beginning of the 17th century, though some 
ascribe it to Gahleo, who is said to have 
constructed one prior to 1597. Sautorio of 
Padua, in his Commentaries on Avicenna 
(1629), also claims the invention. Sir Isaac 
Newton used an oil thermometer in 1701. 
Eomer's thermometer was known all over 
Europe in the beginning of the 18th century. 
The centigrade thermometer used in France 
was invented by Celsius, a Swedish astro- 



THE 

nomer, in 1742. A self-registering thermo- 
meter, filled with alcohol, was invented in 
1782. The scale generally used in this coun- 
try was invented by Fahrenheit in 1724. 

Theemopyt.^ (Greece). — This narrow pass, 
leading from Thessaly into Locris, is cele- 
brated as the scene of the battle in which 
Leonidas, king of Sparta, with 300 men, 
arrested the progress of the whole army of 
the Persians until they found another path 
over the mountains, Aug. 7-9, B.C. 480. 
The aUied army of the Greeks assembled at 
the pass to oppose the Gauls under Brennus, 
B.C. 279. The invaders having been con- 
ducted across the mountains by the same 
path the Persians had followed, the Greeks 
retired to their ships. Philip V. of Macedon 
forced the fortifications which had been 
made by the ^tohans, B.C. 207. Antiochua, 
when at war with the Eomans, fortified the 
pass, B.C. 181. 

Theemtjm, Theemus, orTHEEMA (Greece), 
was, on account of its strength, considered 
impregnable. It was surprised, B.C. 218, by 
Phihp V. of Macedon, who carried off the 
most valuable portion of the spoil, and de- 
stroyed the remainder, A few years later, 
the ^tohans having sided with the Eomans, 
Phihp V. again surprised Thermum B.C. 206, 
and destroyed everything that had escaped 
his former invasion. 

THESPI2E (Greece). — This city of Bceotia 
is said to have derived its name from 
Thespia, a daughter of Asopus, or from 
Thespius, a son of Erechtheus, who migrated 
from Athens. It was burnt by Xerxes, was 
rebuilt, and the Thespians fought against 
the Athenians at the battle of Dehum, B.C. 
424. In the next year the Thebans destroyed 
the walls of Thespiae. An ineffectual at- 
tempt was made to overthrow the govern- 
ment B.C. 414. The walls were again de- 
stroyed by the Thebans b.c. 372. 

THESSALoifiAirs (Epistlcs to). — These two 
epistles were written at Corinth by St. Paul 
to the chiirch and brethren at Thessalonica, 
about A.D. 52. • 

Thessalonica, (See Salom-ica.) 

Thessaly (Greece). — After the battle of 
(Enophyta, B.C. 456, the Athenians endea- 
voured to extend their power over Thessaly. 
They marched into the country under the 
command of Myrouides, B.C. 454, but were 
compelled to retreat. The Spartans under 
Brasidas marched through Thessaly B.C. 
424. The Thessalonians joined the Boeotians 
against the Spartans B.C. 395. Jason, the 
son of Lycophron, was elected Tagus of 
Thessaly b.c. 374; and, after the battle of 
Leuctra, b.c. 371, the Thebans invited him 
to join in an attack upon the Spartan camp ; 
but he declined, and was shortly afterwards 
assassinated. Pelopidas invaded Thessaly 
B.C. 369, and again in b.c. 368. Philip II. of 
Macedon marched into Thessaly B.C. 353, 
but was defeated and driven out. He re- 
turned, and Thessaly fell entirely under his 
rule. Thessaly was declared a Eoman pro- 
vince B.C. 197. 

THEiroBD (Norfolk), — ^A synod was held 



THI 

at this place, the Sitomagus of the Komans, ' 
A.D. 669. The Danes wintered here in 866, | 
and again in 870, when they sacked the town. 
Thetford was plundered and burned by the 
Danes in 1004, and again in 1010. Herfast 
removed the bishopric of the East Angles 
from Elmham to Thetford in 1078, where it 
remained till 1092, when it was removed to 
Norwich. The grammar-school was founded 
before 1328. Thetford was made the see 
of a suffragan bishopric by Henry VIII., 
March 19, 1536. Its first charter was granted 
by Elizabeth, March 12, 1573, and it was re- 
newed by Charles II. March 6, 1683. 

Thimble. — Bronze thimbles, similar to 
those stiU in use, were employed by the 
ancients, and thimbles open at the end were 
discovered among the ruins of Herculaneum, 
A.D. 79. 

Thirty-nine Aeticles.— Ten articles to 
establish Christian quietness and unity were 
adopted by the Keformed Church of Eng- 
land A.D. 1536, but owing to their unpopu- 
larity tbey were superseded, in 1537, by a 
formulary known as the " Institution of a 
Christian Man." In 1538 a series of thirteen 
articles, proposed to Henry VIII. by the 
German reformers, was declined, and the 
following year six articles were enforced 
by the statute known as the Bloody Bill, 
81 Hen. VIII. c. 14 (1539). In 1551 forty- 
two outlines were prepared, and, after seve- 
ral modifications, a mandate was published 
for their subscription, June 19, 1553. During 
the reign of Mary, G-ardiner introduced a 
series of fifteen articles in 1555, and the 
houses of Convocation four articles in 1558, 
both of which systems favoured popery. In 
1559 eleven Protestant articles were esta- 
blished, and in 1563 the forty-two articles 
of Edward VI. were revised by Convocation 
and reduced in number to thirty-nine. In 
1595 Archbishop Whitgift attempted to in- 
troduce a system of Calvinistic tenets known 
as the Lambeth articles (q.v.), but they 
were immediately suppressed in consequence 
of the royal disapprobation. A separate 
series of 104 articles was adopted in Ireland 
in 1615, and in 1635 the Irish church accepted 
the thirty-nine English articles. In 1643 the 
articles were revised by the assembly of 
divines, and in 1660 and 1689 they were the 
subject of violent popular agitation. 

Thirty Tyrants.— When Athens sur- 
rendered to Lysander, b.c. 404, the supreme 
power was vested in thirty persons chosen 
by the Lacedaemonians. Thrasybulus, who 
had been sent into exile by them, collected 
a small company of followers, and, after 
gaining several victories over the troops sent 
against him, drove the " thirty" from Athens 
B.C. 403. In the Eoman empire a series of 
usurpers rose and fell in rapid succession, 
A.D. 248 — 268, to whom this appellation has 
been appHed, although, excluding women 
and children, the number did not exceed 
nineteen. 

Thirty Years' War, between the Pro. 
testants and Eoman CalhoHcs of Germanyf 
was brought about by Matthias, king o 



THO 

Hungary and Bohemia, who, on account of 
his cruel treatment of the Protestants, caused 
a revolt of his Bohemian subjects. The first 
overt act of hostility occurred in Bohemia, 
where the two royal ministers, Slawata and 
Martinitz, with their secretary Fabricius, 
were thrown out of the window of the coun- 
cil-house at Prague, May 23, 1618. On the 
death of the emperor Matthias, the insurgents 
declared the throne vacant, and crowned 
Frederick V. elector-palatinate, son-in-law 
of James I. of England, at Prague, Nov. 4, 
1619. The cause of Frederick II., archduke 
of Austria, who had succeeded his cousin 
Matthias, and claimed the Bohemian crown, 
was espoused by the Eoman Catholic princes, 
while those of the Protestant states took the 
side of Ferdinand. The Bavarians, com- 
manded by their duke and the celebrated 
TiUy, defeated the Bohemians at Prague, 
Nov. 9, 1620. Gustavus Adolphus, king of 
Sweden, and WaUenstein figured conspicu- 
ously in the long struggle that ensued, and 
which was brought to a close by the peace 
of Westphalia, signed at Miinster Oct. 24, 
1648. 

ThistI/E (Order). — This order of knight- 
hood is said to be of ancient date, though 
little is known respecting its origin. It was 
revived by James II., who issued letters 
patent under the great seal of Scotland, 
May 29, 1687. (See Andrew, St., Order 
of.) 

Thistlewood's Conspiracy. (See Cato- 
STREET Conspiracy.) 

Thomas's (St.) Hospitad (London) was 
founded a.d. 1213, by Eichard, prior of Ber- 
mondsey. It was purchased at the dissolu- 
tion of the religious houses by the citizens 
of London, and opened as an hospital in 
November, 1552. A large part of the edifice 
was rebuilt in 1693, and additions were 
made in 1732. The north wing was com- 
pleted in 1836 and the south wing in 1842. 

Thomists. {See Scotists and Molinists.) 

Thomites. — A lunatic named John Thom, 
a native of Cornwall, who resided at Can- 
terbury, assumed the name of Sir William 
Courtenay, professed to be entitled to some 
of the finest estates in Kent, and having 
collected a number of the peasantry, per- 
suaded them that he held a divine commis- 
sion. May 23, 1838. They marched through 
several villages, and with an increased 
force returned to Bossenden farm May 31, 
where Thom shot a constable who had come 
to take him into custody. A party of mili- 
tary was thereupon brought from Canter- 
bury. They found the madman and his 
followers sheltered in a sequestered part of 
Bossenden Wood. As they advanced. Lieu- 
tenant Bennett, of the 45th regiment, was 
shot dead by the soi-disant prophet. The 
soldiers fired a volley, when Thom and ten 
of his infatuated followers were kUled, and 
the mob dispersed. 

Thorinum, or Thorina.— This metallic 
body was discovered by Berzelius a.d. 1829. 

Thorn (Prussia) was founded, a.d. 1331, 
by the Teutonic knights, who became feuda- 



THE 

tories of Poland by the peace of Thorn, eon- I 
eluded Oct. 19, 1466. A conference was held j 
here between the Pohsh Koman CathoHcs j 
and the Dissidents m 1645. Thorn was taken ! 
after a siege of four months by Charles XII, | 
of Sweden in 1703. The Protestants here | 
were massacred in 1724. Thorn fell into the 
possession of the Prussians in 1793, and was 
captured by the French under Marshal Ney 
in jS"oTember, 1806. The French garrisoned 
it in January, 1813, and it was blockaded by 
the Kussians till it siirrendered, April 17, 
1813. Thorn was finally ceded to Prussia in 
1815. 

Theace (Turkey), the modern Eoumelia, 
is said to have been peopled by a tribe of 
Pelasgians ; but there is no authentic history 
of the country imtil the formation of the 
Greek settlements in the 6tb century B.C. 



522. The Greeks colonize the Thracian Cher- 

5:3. 
493. 

480. 

479. 



Darius iuvades Thrace. 

It is reduced to subjection by the Phoenicians. 

Xerxes crosses over the Hellespont into 

Thrace by means of a bridge of boats. 
The Thracians assist the Persians at Platsea. 

478. The Athenians invade the Thracian teni- 
tory. 

437. Amphipolis is founded by the Athenians. 

429. The Thracian leaaer Sitalces, king of the 
OdrysEe, invades Macedonia. 

399. The Thracians assist the Spartans against the 
Persians. 

390. The Athenian influence is predominant in 
Thrace. 

387. By the peace of Antalcidas, Sparta acquires 
the chief power in Thrace. 

358. Philip II. of Macedon seizes Amphipolis. 

357. Cersobleptes, king of Eastern Thrace, cedes 
the Thracian Chersonese to ihe Athenians. 

343. Philip II. renders Cersobleptes tributary to 
hi.-, power, and establishes numerous colo- 
nies in Thrace. 

323. Thrace is allotted to Lysimachus. 

309. He founds Lysimachia, and makes it his 
capital. 

281. Lysimachus is defeated and slain at Coru- 
pedion by Seleucus of Syria, who seizes 
Thrace. 

279. Thrace is invaded by the Gauls under 
Brennus. 

247. Ptolemy Eurgetes annexes Lysimachia and 
other Thracian cities to Egypt. 

211. Philip V. of Macedon invades Thrace. 

20.5. Philip V. seizes Lysimachia. 

200. Philip V. makes himself master of the entire 
south coast. 

196. Philip V. is defeated by the Romans, and 
compelled to relinquish his Thi-acian con- 
quests, which are seized by Antiochus the 
Great, of Syria. 

188. Antiochus abandons Thi-ace to the Eomans. 

184. PhUip V. again invades Thrace. 

181. Philip V. ascends Mount H»mus, the mo- 
dem Balkan, and erects altai-s to Jupiter 
and the sun on its summit. 

171. "War commences between Perseus of Macedon 
and the Eomans, for the supremacy in 
Thrace. 
84 Sylla carries on war successfully against the 

Thracians. 
75. C. Sia'ibonius Curio invades Thrace and pene- 
trates to the Danube. 
14. The Thi-acians under Vologsesus rebel against 
the Romans. 

A.D. 

18. Thrace is visited by Germanicus, who reforms 

the administration. 
26. A c inscription system is introduced into 

Thrace. 



THU 



69—79. Thrace is made a Roman province be- 
tween these years. 
255. It is invaded by the Goths. 
280. Probus establishes 100,000 Bastemae in 

Thrace. 
334. Constaiitine colonizes it with Sarmatians. 
376. Valeus permits the Goths to settle in Thrace. 
395. It is ravaged by Alaric. 
447. AttUa invades Thrace. 

475. It is devastated by Theodoric the Ostrogoth. 
581. The Slavonians ravage Thi-ace. 
1356. Thrace is seized by the Turks. 
1453. After the capture of Constantiople, Thrace is 
annexed to the Ottoman empire. 

Theastmeh-e (Battle). — Hannibal defeated 
the Eomans under the consul C. Flaminius 
Nepos, on the banks of this lake, in Etruria, 
B.C. 217. 

Theeatewin-g- Lettebs. — By 8 Hen. TI. 
c. 6 (1430), the sending or dehvering of 
threatening letters was declared high trea- 
son, and by 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1723), it was 
made a capital felony. By 4 Geo. IV. c. 54 
(Julys, 1823), the sentence was commuted 
to transportation for life, or imprisonment 
not exceeding seven years. This act was 
repealed by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27 (June 21, 
1827), and further provisions were enforced 
by 10 & 11 Vict. c. 66 (July 9, 1847). 

Theeshing Machine, invented a.d. 1758 
by a farmer of Dumblane, in Perthshire, 
was improved by Meikle, a millwright of 
Haddingtonshire, in 1786. 

Thundeei:xg Legion. — During the expe- 
dition of Marcus Antoninus against the Mar- 
comanni, a.d. 174, a Christian legion in his 
army are said to have prayed for rain, 
whereupon a plentiful shower descended. 
At the same time a storm of thunder and 
hghtning threw their enemies into confusion, 
and enabled Antoninus to obtain a decisive 
victory. The legion consequently received 
the name of the thundering legion. 

Thuegait, or Thitegovia (Switzerland). 
— This canton, once governed by its ovra 
counts, came under the sway of the house 
of Habsburg a.d. 1264. It was conquered 
by the Swiss in 1460. It was admitted into 
the confederation as a distinct state in 1798, 
and received a constitution in 1831, which 
was revised in 1837. 

Thueingia (Germany). — This kingdom of 
Central Germany, founded by the Thuringi, 
or Doringi, a Gothic tribe, about a.d. 
426, was annexed to the kingdom of the 
Franks, by Thierry, in 530. In 630 it was 
erected into a duchy, and iu 843 it was in- 
corporated with the German kingdom. It 
was again made a duchy in 849, and in 1023 
it was united with Hesse into a landgraviate. 
The two countries were again separated in 
1247, and in 1439 Thuringia was added to 
Saxony. By the treaties of 1814 and 1815 it 
was annexed to Prussia. 

Thtjeium, or Thueii (Italy), was founded 
near the site of the ancient Sybaris by some 
Sybarite exiles, B.C. 443. The Thurians 
were defeated by the Lucanians in a great 
battle near Laiis, B.C. 390, when above 10,000 
were cut to pieces. Thurium joined the 
Carthaginians, and again returned to its 



THU 

alliance with Rome, B.C. 213, and received 
a Eoman garrison. Hannibal gave up the 
city to plunder B.C. 204, having first re- 
moved 3,500 of its principal citizens to Cro- 
tona. A Eoman colony was established here 
B.C. 194. It was taken by Spartacus, and 
subjected to a heavy fine, B.C. 72. 

Thueles (Ireland) . — In the 10th century a 
battle was fought here between the Irish and 
the Danes, in which the former were vic- 
torious. The castle, which is of ancient 
date, was besieged and taken, a.d. 1208, by 
Hugh de Lacey. A monastery of Carmel- 
ites was founded in 1300. St. Patrick's 
college was erected in 1836. A synod of 
the Eoman Catholic clergy was held here 
Aug. 22, 1850, under the presidency of Dr. 
Cullen. It condemned the Queen's colleges, 
and recommended the foundation of a 
Eoman Cathohc university. The statutes 
of the synod were published Jan. 1, 1852. 

Thueot's Expedition. — Thurot, an Irish 
adventurer in the French service, sailed 
from Dunkirk, Oct. 5, 1759, intending to 
make a diversion either in Scotland or Ire- 
land. He landed at Carrickfergus, Feb. 21, 
1760, took the town after a short blockade, 
and plundered it. Having sailed from Car- 
rickfergus, he was pursued by Captain 
ElMot, with three ships, who came up with 
him in the Irish Channel. An engagement 
ensued, Feb. 28, Thurot fell covered with 
wounds, and his ships were taken. 

Thursday. — Among aU the ancient na- 
tions of northern Europe, the fifth day of the 
week was consecrated to Thor, the king of 
heaven, and the thunderer. It is a remark- 
able coincidence that in the Eoman week 
the same day was known as Dies Jovis, or 
the day of Jupiter, who occupied, in classical 
mythology, the same position as was 
assigned to Thor by the Teutons. {See 
Maundy Thuesday.) 

Thyatiea (Battle). — ^Valens, the Eoman 
emperor of the East, gained a victory over 
his rival Procopius at this town of Lydia, 
A.D. 366. 

Thymbea (Battle) was gained by the Per- 
sians, under Cyrus, over Croesus, king of 
Lydia, at this town of Lydia, b.c. 548. 
This victory made Cyrus the undisputed 
master of Asia. 

TiAEA. — The first crown, or regnum, on 
the episcopal mitre of the popes, is said to 
have been the gift either of Constantine I., 
or of Clovis. The second was added, as an 
emblem of temporal power, by Boniface VIII. 
The triple crown was introduced by John 
XXII., or by Benedict XII. 

TiBEE (Italy). — An inundation of this 
river is said to have swept away all the 
houses and buildings at Eome, in the lower 
part of the city, b.c. 241. , Another took 
place B.C. 54. Augustus first instituted ma- 
gistrates whose duty it was to restrain the 
river within due bounds, and preserve the 
embankments, &c. This office was regarded 
as one of the most honourable in the state. 
An inundation caused such serious damage 
A.D. 15, that it was proposed in the senate to 



TIC 

diminish the waters by diverting some of the 
chief tributaries of the stream. In ancient 
times the Tiber was occasionally frozen, but 
this was an event of extreme rarity. Livy 
notices its having been frozen over in the 
extraordinary winter of B.C. 398. 

TiBEEiAS (Palestine).— This town of Ga- 
Ulee, on the shore of Lake Tiberias, was 
built by Herod Antipas, before B.C. 44, and 
named in honour of the emperor Tiberius. 
It was taken and destroyed by the emperor 
Vespasian, but sprung up again after the 
destruction of Jerusalem, Sept. 8, a.d. 70, 
and was the seat of a succession of Hebrew 
judges and doctors tiU the 4th century. Epi- 
phanius, bishop of Salamis, in 367, states 
that a Hebrew translation of St. John and 
of the Acts of the Apostles was kept here. 
The modern town, called Tabarieh, was 
almost destroyed by an earthquake Jan. 1, 
1837. 

Tibet, or Thibet (Central Asia). — This 
extensive region, chiefiy comprised within 
the Chinese empire, was first erected into a 
kingdom B.C. 313. Buddhism was intro- 
duced A.D. 407, and Tibet was compelled 
to pay tribute to China in 821. It was con- 
quered and ravaged by the Mongols, under 
Zenghis Khan, in 1206. The easternmost 
parts of Tibet were gradually conquered 
by the Chinese in 1125, 1362, and 1371, and 
the whole of the kingdom was made subject 
to them in 1720. The Ghoorkhas of Nepaul 
invaded it 1790, but they were repulsed with 
great loss by the emperor Keen-lung. 

TiciNO, or Tessin (Switzerland). — 
Before the time of the Eomans, this canton 
was inhabited by the Lepontii, and other 
aboriginal tribes of mountaineers, who were 
subdued by the emperor Augustus. It was 
conquered by the Longobards in the 6th 
century, and was subsequently occupied by 
the dukes of Milan, and the barons of Saxe 
and other Ehsetian lords, till the 15th cen- 
tury, when it was conquered by Switzer- 
land. Its subjection was completed in the 
16th century. It was not admitted into the 
Swiss confederation till 1815. Its govern- 
ment underwent a considerable modification 
in June, 1830. 

Tickets oe Leave. — In consequence of 
the difficulty experienced in transporting 
felons, an act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 99) was passed 
providing other punishment, Aug. 20, 1853. 
It empowered the sovereign, by an order in 
writing from the secretary of state, to grant 
Mcences — caUed tickets of leave — to convicts 
under sentence of transportation, or penal 
servitude, to be at large in the United King- 
dom. These licences can be revoked if 
necessary, and the convict apprehended and 
committed to prison for the residue of hia 
original sentence. 

Ticondeeoga (North America). — The 
fortress of Ticonderoga was built by the 
French a.d. 1755. The English, under Aber- 
cromby, assailed it unsuccessfully July 8, 
1758. It was taken by them, under Am- 
herst, July 26, 1759. The revolted Ameri- 
cans surprised it May 10, 1775, and they 



TID 

evacuated it on the approacli of the English, | 
under Burgoyne, July 6, 1777. General I 
Lincoln made a vain attempt to recover it, 
Sept. 13, 1777, and soon after the garrison 
destroyed their cannon and vrithdrew into 
Canada. 

Tides. — The earliest author who notices 
the tides is Homer, who probably flourished 
about B.C. 962, and the first who says any- 
thing of their cause is Pytheas of Mar- 
seilles, who lived about the time of Alexander 
the Great. The theory of the tides was first 
satisfactorily explained by Kepler, and a 
more complete explanation was given by 
Sir Isaac Newton in his " Principia," pub- 
lished in 1687. It was still further improved 
by Bernoulli, Maelaurin, and Euler, m their 
treatises written when the subject was pro- 
posed as a prize by the French Academy of 
Sciences in 1738. 

TiEN-TSiN (China). — A treaty was con- 
cluded at this town, with China, by Lord 
Elgin, on behalf of England, June 26, 1858, 
and at the same time separate treaties were 
made by the plenipotentiaries of France, 
Kussia, and the United States. Tien-tsin 
was occupied by the French and Enghsh, 
Aug. 21, 1860. 

TiFEENUM (Battle). — The Eomans de- 
feated the Samnites at this town of Umbria, 
B.C. 305. 

TiGEANOCEBTA (Asia), the capital of Ar- 
menia, built by Tigranes during the Mithri- 
datic war, was besieged by the Roman 
consul LucuUus, and Tigranes marched to 
its relief with an army consisting of 150,000 
infantry, 17,000 heavy and 33,000 light ca- 
valry, 20,000 archers and shngers, besides a 
multitude of pioneers, &c. Lucullus, with 
11,000 men, defeated this host with prodigious 
slaughter, and the city surrendered, B.C. 70. 

TiGEis (Asiatic Turkey). — Many famous 
cities, such as Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, 
Bagdad, and Mosul, stood upon the banks 
of this river. In ancient times dams were 
constructed across the stream to irrigate the 
country ; but these were cut through by 
Alexander to improve the navigation. The 
English steamer Euphrates ascended the 
Tigris to within twenty miles of Mosul in 
1838. 

TiiiBTJKT (Essex) . — The fort was built as 
a block-house by Henry VIII., and EUza- 
beth lodged here, formed a camp, and 
reviewed the troops, on the apprehended 
Spanish invasion, a.d. 1588. It was regu- 
larly fortified in 1677. 

Tiles. — Marble tiles were introduced by 
Byzes of Naxos, b.c. 620. Wooden tUes 
were used in Rome till b.c. 284. Tiles were 
first used in England a.d. 1246, and pantiles 
were in general use in Europe in the 
15th century. Decorative paving-tUes of 
baked pottery were much used in the Mid- 
dle Ages, but their manufacture in England 
was almost lost until revived by Minton, and 
employed in the restoration of the Temple 
Church, London, in 1842. Tiles were taxed 
in 1784. This tax was abolished by 3 Will, 
IV, c. 11 (May 17, 1833). 



TIM 

Tilsit (Prussia). — This town, on the river 
Niemen, contains a castle, built a.d. 1537. 
It was occupied by the French, June 20, 
1807, and is celebrated for the meeting of 
Napoleon I. and Alexander I. of Russia on 
the " Raft of Tilsit," June 25, 1807. A se- 
cond meeting took place in the town June 
26, at which the king of Prussia was present. 
The peace of Tilsit was signed here between 
France and Russia, July 7, and between 
France and Prussia, July 9, 1807. The 
latter treaty was ratified July 19. 

Tilts, Touewaments, Jousts, &c.— The 
origin of these warlike games has been re- 
ferred to the time of the Trojan war, and 
may be traced with certainty as far back a3 
the Roman period. They revived under the 
feudal system ; and the earliest on record is 
one held a.d. 841, at the interview between 
Louis of Germany and Charles the Bald of 
France, atStrasburg. Theemperor Henryl., 
who died in 936, was much addicted to this 
species of amusement, and made several laws 
for its regulation. Tournaments were intro- 
duced into England during the reign of Ste- 
phen. They were prohibited by Henry II., 
and were not finally established in this country 
until the reign of Richard I. Henry VIII, 
and the duke of Suffolk maintained the field 
against aU comers in May, 1513, and Henry II. 
of France lost his e^'e in a tilt with Count 
Montgomery, and died shortly afterwards of 
the wound in 1559. This incident contributed 
greatly to suppress the taste for tournaments. 

Timber. — A tax was laid on European 
timber, in order to encourage the trade of 
British America, a.d. 1809. When the tim- 
ber duties were consolidated by 59 Geo. III. 
c. 52 (July 2, 1819), European timber was 
taxed at £3. 58. per load. This duty was 
reduced to dE2. 15s. by 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 37 
(May 28, 1821), which imposed an additional 
10s. on Canadian timber. Further attempts 
at equalization were made by 5 & 6 Vict, 
c. 47 (July 9, 1842), and by 14 & 15 Vict, 
c. 62 (Aug. 7, 1851). Bethell's method of 
preserving timber by means of creosote was 
patented in 1848. 

TiMBUCTOO (Africa). — This town, near the 
border of the desert of Sahara, said to have 
been founded by Mausa Suleiman, a.d. 1213, 
became a powerful state, and was seized by 
the rulers of Morocco in 1396. It regained 
its independence about 1500, was again sub- 
dued by Morocco in 1672, and remained under 
its sway till 1727. Since that time it has been 
alternately independent and subject to the 
neighbouring states. Dr. Barth, the cele- 
brated traveller, reached Timbuctoo Sept. 7, 
1853, and remained here till July 12, 1854. 

Time. — Pythagoras, the celebrated philo- 
sopher of Samos, who flourished in the 5th 
century B.C., maintained that time was a sub- 
stance. Archytas, the famous Pythagorean, 
defiuedit as a continued and indivisible flux of 
nows or instants, B.C. 400. Locke, who per- 
haps thought more profoundly on this subject 
than any other philosopher, says, " The more 
I set myself to think of it, the less I under- 
stand it." The ancient Egyptians and other 



TIM 

eastern nations measured time by means of 
an instrument called Clepsydra (q.v.), or 
water- clock, the principle of which was a 
constant dropping of water through a small 
aperture out of one vessel into another. The 
ancients also measured time by means of the 
hour-glass and sundial. The Druids, at the 
period of the Roman invasion, B.C. 55, com- 
puted their time by nights, and not by days, 
and measured it by the motions of the moon, 
(See Clock.) 

Timothy (Epistles to) . — The first epistle 
of the apostle Paul to Timothy appears to 
have been written shortly after Paul left 
Ephesus to go into Macedonia, a.d. 57 or 58. 
The second epistle was written by Paul when 
a prisoner at Eome, according to Lardner, 
in May, 61. 

Tin. — This metal, one of the most ancient 
known to man, is mentioned by Moses 
B.C. 1451 (Num. xxxi. 22), and was imported 
into Tyre from Britain as early as b.c. 588. 
(See Cassiterides.) Spain was also a tin- 
producing country visited by the ancients. 
The Cornish tin-mines were worked by the 
ancient Britons during the Roman occupa- 
tion, but were neglected by the Saxons. The 
Norman sovereigns derived immense profit 
from exporting the metal, as during their 
reigns England was the only country in which 
it was found ; but the discovery of tin-mines 
in Bohemia A.D. 1241, tended to diminish the 
British trade. Edward III. claimed a mono- 
poly of the tin-mines of Devon and Cornwall, 
May 10, 1338, and in 1458 extensive supphes 
were discovered at Altenberg, in Saxony. In 
1640 tin-mines were discovered in Barbary, 
in consequence of which the importation of 
the metal into this country was prohibited by 
a proclamation of Charles I. The tin-mines 
of Banca were discovered in 1710, and their 
produce was first imported into England in 
1787. In 1665 an attempt was made to intro- 
duce the manufacture of tin plate into Eng- 
land from Germany, where it had been long 
estabhshed, and in 1681 some success was 
attained by Andrew Yarranton, who was 
compelled to relinquish the business by the 
interference of a courtier. The manufacture 
was permanently established about 1730, 
when Pontypool in Monmouthshire was made 
its chief seat. The composition known as 
Britannia metal, of which tin forms the 
principal ingredient, was first made at Shef- 
field about 1770. By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 120 
(Aug. 16, 1838), the duties were settled at 
10s. per hundredweight for tin ore, and 158. 
for the manufactured metal. 

TiKCHEBKAT (Battle). — Henry I. of 
England defeated his brother Robert, and 
took him prisoner before the castle of Tin- 
chebray, in Normandy, Sept. 28, 1106. 

TiNTEEif Abbey (Monmouthshire) was 
founded for Cistercian monks by Walter de 
Clare, a.d. 1131. The church was commenced 
by Roger de Bigod, earl of Norfolk, and 
mass was first celebrated within it in 1268. 
The site was granted to the earl of Worcester 
by Henry VIII. in 1536, and is now the 
property of the duke of Beaufort. . 



TIT 

TipPEEMUiE (Battle).— The marquis of 
Montrose defeated the Covenanters under 
Lord Elcho at this village near Perth, in 
Scotland, Sept. 1, 1644. 

TiRLEMONT (Belgium). — This town was 
taken by the Erench a.d. 1635. They de- 
feated the Austrians here in Nov. 1792, and 
again March 16, 1793. The Gothic church, 
founded towards the end of the 13th, was 
rebuilt in the 15th century. 

Titanium, a metal first discovered by 
Gregor in the grains of a black mineral 
found in the bed of a rivulet in Cornwall, 
A.D. 1791. Klaproth found it in some other 
minerals in 1795, and gave it the name it now 
bears. Its properties were first satisfactorily 
determined by WoUaston in 1822. 

TiTCHFiELD, or TiCHFiELD (Hampshire). 
— The marriage of Henry VI. with Mar- 
garet of Anjou is said to have taken place 
here April 18, 1445. Near the town are the 
ruins of Titchfield House, erected on the site 
and with the materials of the Premonstra- 
tensian abbey, founded in 1231. In this 
mansion Charles I. took refuge after making 
his escape from Hampton Court in 1647. 
The free school for boys and girls is sup- 
ported by a fund bequeathed by Henry, 
earl of Southampton, in 1620. 

Tithes, or Tenths. — Abraham gave 
Melchizedek tithes of all the spoil he had 
taken from the five kings, B.C. 1913 (Gen. 
xiv. 20), and the Levitical law ordered 
the Jews to set apart a tenth of all their 
goods to the service of the Lord, B.C. 
1491 (Lev. xxvii. 30 — 32) . Among the early 
Christians, the payment of tithes was re- 
garded as a matter of conscience, and no 
laws were passed for its enforcement until 
the council of Macon, Oct. 23, 585. The cus- 
tom of devoting a tenth part of all property 
to the service of the clergy is mentioned in 
the canons of Egbert, archbishop of York, in 
750, and in the ordinances of the council of 
Celchyth in 787. In 794, Offa, king of Mercia, 
endowed the church with tithes of all his 
kingdom, and Charlemagne made several 
laws regulating their payment about the 
year 800. The tithe system was sanctioned 
and amended by the general Lateran coun- 
cil of 1215. By 37 Hen. VIII. c. 12 (1545), 
the inhabitants of London were ordered to 
pay 2s. 9d. in the pound on rent as tithes. 
Numerous amendments in the tithe laws 
were made by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1548) , and 
subsequent statutes. By the Tithe Com- 
mutation Act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 71 (Aug. 13, 
1836), commissioners were appointed to 
effect a commutation of tithes for a rent- 
charge based upon the average prices of 
wheat, barley, and oats for seven years. This 
act was amended by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict, 
c. 69 (July 15, 1837), 1 & 2 Vict. c. 64 
(Aug. 4, 1838), 2 & 3 Vict. c. 62 (Aug. 17, 
1839), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 15 (June 4, 1840), 5 & 6 
Vict. c. 54 (July 30, 1842), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 73 
(Aug. 26, 1846), and 10 & 11 Vict. c. 104 
(July 22, 1847). 

Titles. (See Nobility, Peers, &e.) 

Titus (Epistle).— The date of Paul's 
841 



TIV 

epistle to Titus has been a subject of much 1 
controversy, some placing it as early as a.d. 
52, and others as late as a.d. 65. Trom the 
striking verbal resemblances between it and 
the first epistle to Timothy, it is considered 
probable that they were written about the 
same time (a.d. 57 or 58). 

TiTEEToif (Devonshire), anciently called 
Twy-ford-ton and Two-ford-ton, from its 
situation between the rivers Exe and Low- 
man, was known as the village of Twyford 
as early as a.d. 872, and had a market and 
three annual fairs in 1200. The wool trade 
was introduced in 1353. Its prosperity was 
greatly checked by the plague in 1571, and 
the town was almost destroyed by fire in 
1598. Tiverton was considered the chief 
manufacturing town in the west of England 
in 1612, about which time a second confla- 
gration destroyed nearly all the property of 
the inhabitants. A third fire destroved'300 
houses in 1731, and a twelfth part "of the 
population was cut off by an epidemic fever 
in 1741. The woollen trade was destroyed 
by the introduction of Norwich stuifs in 1745, 
and this was superseded by the patent net 
manufactui-e in 1815. The lace trade was 
introduced in 1816. The castle, erected in 
1106, was stormed by Fairfax in 1645, and 
afterwards dismantled. Almshouses were 
founded by John Greenway in 1529, by John 
Walsden in 1579, and by George Slee in 
1613. The free grammar-school was founded 
in 1604, and the free English school in 1611. 
A charitable fund for granting immunities 
to sisty-seven poor persons was estabhshed 
in 1697, and the charity school was founded 
in 1713. The town-hall and corn market 
were buQt in 1830. 

Tlemecex, or Tlemsek (Africa), is a 
place of considerable antiquity, and many 
Eomau remains are to be foimd in its vici- 
nity. The greater part of the town was 
destroyed by the dey of Algiers as a punish- 
ment for the disaifection of its inhabitants, 
about A.D. 1670. The French took it in 1836, 
and evacuated it, by treaty vrith Abd-el- 
Kader, in 1837. It was again taken by the 
French in 1842, and forms part of their 
colony of Algeria. 

Tobacco.— The use of this plant by the 
American Indians was first discovered by 
the Spaniards, at Cuba, in November, 1492", 
when two of the companions of Columbus 
observed the natives puffing smoke from 
their mouths and noses. In 1494 the Indian 
habit of snuff-taking was remarked by the 
Spaniards, and in 1503 the natives of Para- 
guay astonished them by chewing the weed 
and spitting the juice towards them as a 
mode of repeUing their invasion. Oriedo 
published an account of the use of the weed 
by the inhabitants of Hispaniola in 1526, and 
in 1560 Francesco Hernandez brought some 
plants to Europe, and presented them to 
PhiMp II. of Spain. In 1561 Jean Nieoti pre- 
sented some specimens toCatherine de Medicis 
of France, and from him the plant received 
its scientific name of Nicotiana. It was first 
brought to England by Sir John Hawkms in 
842 



TOE 

1565, and in 1586 Mr. Ealph Lane intro- 
duced the practice of smoking, which was 
adopted and rendered fashionable by Sir 
"Walter Ealeigh. In 1598 Paul Hentzner 
visited England and, speaking of the Bear 
Gardens, says, "At these spectacles, and 
everywhere else, the Enghsh are constantly 
smoking tobacco," and Decker, in his 
" Satiro-mastix," printed in 1602, mentions 
smoking as a habit of his lady contempora- 
ries. Li 1603 James I. pubhshed his cele- 
brated " Counterblast to Tobacco," and in 
1604 he issued a proclamation against its 
use, and charged a duty of 6s. lOd. per lb. 
on all that was sold. In 1624 he pubhshed 
a second document, prohibiting its impor- 
tation except from British colonies, and 
forbidding its culture in England or Ireland, 
and Urban VIII. the same year denounced 
excommunication against such as should 
smoke in church. Tobacco was introduced 
into Java by the Dutch in 1601, was con- 
veyed from Brazil to India in 1617, and 
it is now universally used in the eastern 
hemisphere. In 1634 Charles I. repeated 
the prohibitions of his father, and extended 
them to the importation of tobacco seed, 
and in 1652 the Long Parliament passed an 
act embodving these regulations, which were 
finally confirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 34 (1660) . 
Cigars are first mentioned as a form of to- 
bacco used by the Indians in 1699, and in 
1796 they became fashionable at Hamburg, 
and thence were difi'used throughout Europe, 
The growth of tobacco in Ireland was per- 
mitted by 19 Geo. III. c. 35 (1779), but it was 
again prohibited by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 13 
(Aug. 23, 1831). The first duties imposed on 
tobacco by act of parhament were levied by 
1 James II. c. 4 (1685), and after many 
changes, the duties on foreign and British 
colonial tobacco were equalized at 3s. per lb. 
by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47 (July 9, 1842). 

Tobago (Atlantic Ocean), one of the 
West-Indian islands belonging to Great 
Britain, was discovered by Columbus a.d. 
1496, and was first colonized by the Dutch 
in 1632. They were expelled by the Span- 
iards, and having returned to the island, 
abandoned it in 1683. By the treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1743, Tobago was de- 
clared neutral, and by the peace of Paris, 
Feb. 10, 1763, it was assigned to Great Bri- 
tain. It was taken by the French in 1781, 
and was ceded to them by the treaty of 
Versailles in 1783. The English captured it 
in 1793, and again July 17, 1803, and it was 
finally ceded to them by the congress of 
Vienna in 1814. 

Tobolsk (Asiatic Eussia), the capital of 
a government of the same name, was 
founded by the Eussians a.d. 1587. Many 
of the Swedish officers who had been taken 
prisoners at the battle of Pultavain 1709 were 
sent here. Louis XV. of France sent the 
Abbe Chappe d'Auteroche here to observe 
the transit of Venus in 1756. The town was 
almost destroyed by fire in 1786. 

ToKAT (Hungary). — This town of upper 
Hungary, on the river Theiss, celebrated for 



TOK 



TON 



its wine3, is situated at the foot of the Heg- 
yalla hills. They are planted with vines 
which Bela IV. (a.d. 1235 to 1270) had 
brought into Hungary by Italian colonists. 
Tokay was taken from the Turks in 1685. 
The town was formerly defended by a castle, 
which was demolished in 1705. The Mag- 
yars were driven from their position here, 
on the Theiss, by the Cossacks, in July, 
1849. 

TOKEN'S. — The use of private tokens to 
supply the want of small coin, prevailed in 
England at the beginning of the reign of 
Henry VIII. The issue of tokens for money, 
by inferior traders, caused many complaints 
A.D. 1574. They were made of lead, tin, latten, 
and leather, and caused great loss to the poor, 
as they were only taken at the shops where 
first issued. Private traders struck farthing 
tokens in lead for some years prior to 1613, 
in which year they were abolished. Silver 
tokens of the value of 5s. were issued by the 
Bank of England Jan. 1, 1798, and from the 
scarcity of small coin, the bank again issued 
a large quantity of silver tokens at 5s. 6d., 
8s., and U. 6d., in 1811. The issue of gold 
and silver tokens, except by the banks of 
England and Ireland, was prohibited by 
52 Geo. III. c. 157 (July 29, 1812). 

ToLBiAC (Battle). — On this plain of Ger- 
many, in the neighbourhood of Cologne, 
Clovis, king of the Franks, totally defeated 
the Alemanni, a.d. 496. 

Toledo (Spain) is said to have been 
founded by some Jews who migrated to 
Spain during the period of the second tem- 
ple in Jerusalem (finished B.C. 515). The 
Komans took it B.C. 193. Leovigild, king of 
the Visigoths, made it the seat of his empire 
A.D. 577. It was enlarged and surrounded 
by walls by King Wamba in the 7th century, 
and was taken by the Arabs in April, 712. 
Alphonso VI., of Castile and Leon, captured 
it, after a siege of three years. May 25, 1085, 
and bunt an outer wall to the town in 1109. 
During the civil wars between Peter the 
Cruel and his bastard brothers (1354 to 1369) 
the town was frequently taken and retaken, 
and the inhabitants — chiefly Jews — were ill- 
treated, Toledo was celebrated for the 
manufacture of sword-blades in the 15th and 
16th centuries. The cathedral, standing on 
the site of an old Moorish mosque, was 
founded by Ferdinand III. of Castile, in 
1258, and completed in 1492. The chapel, 
called Capilla Muzarabe, because mass is 
still said daily according to the Muzarabic 
ritual, was founded by Cardinal Ximenes in 
1510. The royal palace, originally built by 
King Wamba in the 7th century, was 
almost entirely rebuilt by the emperor 
Charles V. (1519 to 1556). The con- 
vent and church of San Juan de los Eeyes 
was erected by Ferdinand and Isabella in 
1476, and the manacles and fetters worn 
by the Christian captives of Granada — ^libe- 
rated at the taking of that city in 1492 
— suspended to the outside of the walls of 
this building, remain there to the present 
time. The foundling hospital of Santa Cruz 



was founded by Cardinal Mendoza in 1304, 
and La Iglesia del Transito, formerly a 
Jewish synagogue, built in the reign of 
Peter the Cruel (1350 to 1369), is a curious 
specimen of Saracenic architecture. Toledo 
was taken by the French in Dec. 1808, and 
evacuated by them in 1813. Councils were 
held here, Sept. 7, 400 ; in 447 ; May 17, 
527 ; in 581 or 582 ; 589 ; May 17, 597 ; Oct. 
23, 610 ; Dec. 9, 633 ; Jan. 9, 636 ; Jan. 9, 
638 ; in 646 ; Jan. 653 ; Nov. 2, 655 ; 
Dec. 1, 656; Nov. 7, 675; Jan. 9 to 25, 
681 ; Nov. 4, 683 ; Nov. 14 to 20, 684 ; May 

II, 688 ; May 2, 693 ; Nov. 9, 694 ; in 701 ; 
Nov. 21, 1324 ; Mav 19, 1339 ; in April, 1347 ; 
and Oct. 1, 1355. 

ToLEJfTisro (Italy). — Alarmed at the pro- 
gress of the French arms in the papal states, 
Pius VI. despatched Cardinal Mattel, who, 
at this place, concluded a treaty of neu- 
trality, which granted to the conquerors a 
cession of territory, money contributions, 
together with some of the finest works of 
art in the world, Feb. 19, 1797. Murat, king 
of Naples, having taken up arms in the 
cause of Napoleon I., was totally defeated 
here by the Austrians, May 3, 1815. 

Toleration. {See Act oe Toleeation.) 

ToLEA (Italy). — John di Castro, convinced 
that a mineral, fit to yield alum, was to be 
had at this place, instituted experiments 
which proved successful, and he established 
the weU-known manufactory about a.d. 
1459. 

Tolls. — A grant of a penny for every 
waggon passing through a manor in Glou- 
cestershire was made a.d. 1267. Edward 

III. granted permission to levy a toll on 
vehicles passing along the road from the hos- 
pital of St. Giles's in the Fields to Temple 
Bar in 1346, and another on all goods con- 
veyed by land or water to the market at 
Westminster in 1353. {See EebeccaEiots.) 

ToLOSA (Spain). — On the plains of Tolosa, 
Mohammed, cahph of Spain, was defeated 
by the Christians, July 16, 1212. The 
French gained a victory over the Spaniards 
here in July, 1794. The town, occupied 
by the French from 1808 to 1813, was cap- 
tured by the English, tmder Sir Thomas 
Graham, in July, 1813. 

ToN&A (Pacific Ocean), the chief of the 
Friendly Isles (q.v.), was discovered by 
Tasman, a.d. 1643. An excellent roadstead 
was discovered by Cook, on the north side, 
when he visited it in 1773. Ten English 
missionaries, sent out by the London so- 
ciety, landed here in 1797. 

ToNGEES (Belgimn). — ^A mineral spring 
in the neighbourhood was known in the 
time of Phny, a.d. 72. A bishop's see, es- 
I tablished here in 97, was transferred to 
I Maastricht in 383. The church, said to be 
the first dedicated to the Virgin north of 
the Alps, was bmlt in 1240. The town was 
wrested from the French by the archduke 
Charles in March, 1793, and evacuated by 
the allies July 15, 1794. On the road be- 
tween Hasselt and this town the Belgians 
were defeated by the Dutch troops, under 
jS43 



T01<f 



TOTT 



the command of General Greorges, Aug. 8, 
1831. 

ToimiifGEiT (Denmark) was surrendered 
by Steenbock, the Swedish general, to the 
Danes, a.d. 1712. The Holsteiners in an 
attempt to take it were repulsed, Sept. 30, 
1850. 

ToNQriN (Anam). — This northern pro- 
vince of the kingdom of Anam was con- 
quered by the Chinese a.d. 1406, and by 
the Ananiese in 1790. 

Tontine was so called from Lorenzo 
Tonti, a ]yeapolitan, who professed to raise 
loans on Hfe annuities, with benefit of sur- 
vivorship. The first was opened in Trance 
in 1653, another was tried in 1689, and the 
last in that country was opened in 1789. 

ToEDESiLLAS (Treaty), by which the line of 
demarcation drawn by Pope Alexander VI., 
dividing the territories in the New World 
between Portugal and Spain, was removed 
three hundred and seventy miles to the 
west of Cape Verde islands. This was 
concluded June 7, 1494. 

ToEGAU (Prussia). — Here the landgrave 
of Hesse and the elector of Hesse entered 
into an agreement to support the reformed 
rehgion, a.d. 1526, and Luther presented 
the elector of Saxony with the leading ar- 
ticles of the faith in 1530. The "Book of 
Torgau," designed to end the crypto-Calvi- 
nistic controversy, was issued in 1576. An 
ejectment of divines took place for refusing 
subscription to the Visitation articles in 
1592. Torgau was taken by the Austrians 
in 1760. They were defeated in the neigh- 
bourhood by the Prussians, commanded by 
Frederick it., Nov. 3, in the same year. 

Toronto (Canada), formerly called York, 
was surveyed by Governor Simcoe, a.d. 1793. 
The first houses were built in 1794, and it 
was raised to the rank of a city by Sir John 
Colbome, when it took its present name, in 
1834. An insurrection which broke out was 
suppressed by the militia under Sir Francis 
Head, Jan. 5, 1838. The seat of government 
was transferred here from Kingston in 1844. 
The cathedral church of St. George was 
burned down in 1849. 

ToREES Vedeas (Portugal).— Wellington 
commenced his famous "lines" here in 
December, 1809, and the whole army was 
collected within them Oct. 15, 1810. 

ToETOLA (West Indies). — The group 
(Virgin Islands) to which the island belongs 
was discovered by Columbus a.d. 1494. 
A band of Dutch bucaneers settled here in 
1648, and were expelled in 1666 by the Eng- 
lish, who have since kept possession. 

ToBTONA (Italy), the ancient Dertona, a 
Eoman colony, is mentioned by Strabo as 
one of the chief towns in that part, a.d. 14. 
It was taken by Frederick I. of Germany in 
1155, and its fortifications were repaired 
in 1156. The papal legate captured it in 
1323, the French and Piedmontese in 1734, 
and the Spaniards July 24, 1745. The cita- 
del, built by Victor Amadeus III., was 
handed over to the French general Meynier 
in June, 1796. The town, after a lengthened 
841 



siege, surrendered to the Eussians, Aug. 25, 
1799. West of the town is the plain of 
Marengo, where the Austrians were defeated 
by Napoleon Bonaparte, June 14, 1800. 

ToETOSA (Spain), the ancient Dertosa, is 
shown to have been a Eoman colony by its 
coins, some of which bear the head of Julina 
Caesar, b.c. 45. Ten large barks filled with 
Mohammedan troops arrived here a.d. 768. 
The Wah of the town having rebelled, issued 
forth to meet the royal troops that were 
sent against him and defeated them with 
great slaughter in 788. It was besieged by 
the Christians, who were attacked by the 
Mohammedans under Prince Abderahman, 
and routed in 809. The harbour was re- 
paired in 944. Tortosa was captured by 
the Genoese in 1148 ; by the French under 
the duke of Orleans, July 11, 1708 ; and 
again under Marshal Suchet, Jan. 2, 1811. 
It was held by the French tiU April 23, 
1814. 

ToETTiEE was practised upon slaves at 
Athens B.C. 364, and among the Eomans 
earlier than the time of Cicero, who speaks 
of it as an established practice, B.C. 70. It 
first received ecclesiastical sanction by a de- 
cree of Innocent IV. a.d. 1252. Through the 
influence of Clement V. a number of Templars, 
charged with heresy and other oft'ences, were 
put to the torture in London in 1310. In the 
cities of Germany it was introduced about 
15(X), and continued till about 1750. In 
France it was abolished in 1789. It waa 
abolished in Scotland by 7 Anne, c, 21, 8. 5 
(1709). 

Tort. — Various derivations are given for 
the terms Tory and Whig, first applied to 
political parties in England about a.d. 1679. 
The court party reproached their antagonists 
with affinity to the fanatics in Scotland, 
known by the name of Whigs. They in re- 
turn, pretending to find some resemblance 
between the court party and the popish ban- 
ditti in Ireland, called them Tories. 

Total Abstinence. (See Temperance.) 

TouLON (France), anciently known by the 
name of Telo Martius, was taken by the 
constable of Bourbon a.d. 1536; AdmiralPar- 
ker blockaded the French fleet in the harbour 
in 1694. The siege commenced by the duke of 
Savoy and Prince Eugene, was abandoned 
Aug. 25, 1707. A Spanish squadron left the 
harbour to attack the British Mediterranean 
fleet, under admirals Matthews and Lestock, 
when an engagement took place without any 
decisive results, Feb. 11, 1744. An unsuc- 
cessful attempt was made upon it by Admiral 
Boscawen in 1759. During the Eevolution 
its inhabitants handed it over with the port 
to the Enghsh admiral Hood, to be held for 
the French monarchy, Aug. 27, 1793. It was 
taken by the repubhcan army Dec. 19, 
when the artiUery was directed by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. The Grosse-Tour, com- 
menced by Louis XII., to protect it from the 
Barbary pirates, was completed by Francis I. 
Toulon was fortified after the plans of Vauban 
by Louis XIV. 

TouiousE (France), the ancient Tolosa,. 



TOU 

an old town of the Volcae Tectosages, ex- 
isted many centuries before it was con- 
quered by the Komans, and appears to have 
had some kind of alliance with them when 
it was plundered of a vast amoimt of trea- 
sure by Q. Servilius Caepio, B.C. 106. Made 
the capital of the empire by the Visigoths, 
A.D. 418, it was captured by the Franks, 
under Clovis, in 508. Zama, the Saracen, 
was defeated here by the duke of Aquitaine 
in 721, and Charlemagne made it the capital 
of the new kingdom of Aquitaine in 781. 
Henry II., claiming the county, laid siege 
to the town, but without success, in 1159. 
The inhabitants revolted, refused to admit 
Simon de Montfort, and recalled Coimt 
Kaymond in 1217. De Montford, killed 
under the walls in 1218, was succeeded by 
his son Amaiiry, who ceded his claims on 
the city to Louis VIII. in 1224. Another 
crusade against the Albigenses of the town, 
to continue for five years, was decreed by 
the council of Bourges and accepted by 
Louis VIII. in 1225. A council held here pro- 
hibited laymen from reading the Scriptures, 
and firmly established the inquisition. A 
French garrison occupied it in 1229. Count 
Alfonso having died childless, the county, at 
that time the richest in France, fell to his 
nephew, Philip III., in 1271. A court of 
minstrels was held here by the duke of Lan- 
caster in 1381. Jean Calas, a Protestant 
merchant, charged with murdering his son, 
who had committed suicide, was broken 
alive upon the wheel, and his body burnt to 
ashes March 9, 1762. The duke of Wel- 
lington defeated the French, imder Marshal 
Soult, and compelled them to evacuate the 
town, April 10, 1814. The bridge across 
the Garonne was opened in 1600. In the 
court of the Capitole the d'oke of Montmo- 
rency was beheaded Oct. 30, 1632. The aca- 
demy of the Floral Games was instituted in 
1323. Councils were held here Sept. 13, 
1056; about 1060; in 1068; 1079; 1090; 
about February, 1118 ; July 8, 1119 ; m 
1161 ; and November, 1229. 
TouKNAMENTS. {See Tilts and Eglih"- 

TON ToUENAMElirT.) 

TouBN-AT (Belgium). — This city, the 
ancient capital of the Nervii, and known 
under the name of Tornacus, was seized a. d. 
438 by the Frankish chieftain Clodion. In 
880 it was pillaged by the Norsemen, and 
in 1192 it was placed under the protection 
of Philip Augustus. It was fortified by 
Philip the Fair in 1295, and was seized by 
Henry VIII. of England, Sept. 29, 1513. 
The proper administration of justice in the 
conquered towns of Terouanne and Tournay 
was duly provided for by 5 Hen. VIII. c. 1 
(1514) . Francis I. purchased it from Henry 
VIII. by a treaty concluded at London in 
October, 1518. It was taken by the count 
of Nassau, the general of Charles V., in 
December, 1521, and annexed to Spanish 
Flanders. In 1581 the duke of Parma 
suppressed a rebellion of the inhabitants 
against the Spaniards. Louis XIV. captured 
Tournay in 1667, and reunited it to France, 



TOW 

but in 1709 it was taken by the allies under 
Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. 
By the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, 
Tournay was ceded to Austria. The Barrier 
treaty, signed at Antwerp Nov. 15, 1715, 
confided the custody of it to the Dutch, 
who were soon compelled to evacuate it. 
Louis XV. seized it in 1745, and demolished 
the fortifications, and the treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1748, restored it to 
Austria. It was again seized by the French, 
Nov. 8, 1792, but was retaken by the 
Austrians April 30, 1793. The French, 
under Generals Souham and Daendels, de- 
feated the Austrians in a series of engage- 
ments before this city. May 11, 12, and 13, 
1794. The aUies won a battle May 23 (see 
Pont-a-chik). General Pichegru seized 
it June 30, and annexed it to the French 
department of Jemmape. It was finally 
relinquished by France by the treaty of 
Paris, May 30, 1814. 

TauES (France), the capital of the de- 
partment of Indre-et-Loire, was anciently 
the principal town of the Tur ones, conquered 
by Caesar B.C. 55. It was included in the 
kingdom of the Visigoths, from whom it 
was taken by Clovis, a.d. 507. The Sara- 
cens were defeated here by Charles Martel, 
Oct. 10, 732. It fell into the hands 
of the count of Blois about the middle 
of the 10th century. One of his suc- 
cessors ceded it to the count of Anjou in 
the 11th century, from whom it passed by 
inheritance to Henry II., and remained in 
the hands of the EngUsh, tiU. finally ceded to 
France in 1259. It lost half of its inhabi- 
tants, and nearly all its trade, by the revo- 
cation of the edict of Nantes, Oct. 22, 1685, 
and from this blow it never completely re- 
covered. The cathedral, said to have been 
foimded in the 4th century, was burned down 
in the 6th, rebuilt by Gregory of Toura 
(born 544, died 595), and again burned in the 
12th century. The present building, the 
west front of which was erected by Henry V. 
of England, was completed in 1550. The 
abbey of St. Martin, after flourishing for 
twelve centuries, was destroyed during the 
Eevolution in 1793. The tovm suffered 
severely from an inundation in 1856. 

TowcESTEB (Northamptonshire) . — This 
town, anciently styled Tosseter, is very 
ancient, and was a place of great strength in 
the time of the Saxons. The Danes failed 
in an attack on Towcester in 917, and in 921 
it was re-fortified by Edward the Elder. The 
grammar-school was founded in 1552. 

TowEE OF London. — According to a tra- 
dition, for which there is httle authority, 
Julius Csesar founded this famous citadel, 
but no part of the existing structure is of 
earKer date than the White I'ower, which was 
founded by Wfiliam the Conqueror about a.d. 
1078. The Tower was first used as a royal 
palace by Stephen in 1140. In 1235, Frederick 
II. of Germany presented Henry III. with 
threeleopardsjwluehweredeposited here, and 
formed the basis of the celebrated menagerie. 
The regalia were also removed here during 
S4a 



TOW 

the reign of Henry III. Colonel Blood's [ 
unsuccessful attempt to steal the crown i 
jewels took place May 9,1671.' The last 
execution on Tower Hill, and the last de- 
capitation in England, was that of L/ord 
Lovat, April 9, 1747. The Horse Armoury 
was built in 1826, the menagerie was re- 
moved in November, 1834!, and the Grand 
Storehouse, which had been founded by 
James II., was destroyed by fire Oct. 30, 
1841. The moat was drained and converted 
into a garden in 1843, and the first stone of 
the "Waterloo barracks was laid by the duke 
of Wellington June 14, 1845. 

TowEES. — The most ancient tower on 
record is that of Babel, built soon after 
the Flood (b.c. 2247), and generally con- 
sidered to be identical with the tower of 
Belus at Babylon, which was in existence 
in the time of Xerxes (b.c. 485 — 165), who 
plundered, and then laid it in ruins. Towers 
to churches were first introduced in the age 
of Charlemagne (a.d. 768—814). A church 
is mentioned as having a tower in 837, and 
a chapel was built for the emperor having 
two towers for bells, in 873. The round 
towers of Ireland were erected at various 
periods between the 5th and the 13th cen- 
turies. 

TowjS". — The ancient Britons had no walled 
towns before the invasion of the Komans, 
B.C. 55. Towns were answerable for felons' 
goods ; but by 31 Edw. III. c. 3 (1357), if a 
town could allege anything in discharge of 
itself, and by which another became charge- 
able, it could be heard, and right adminis- 
tered. ■V\T2en a murderer escaped from a 
town, it was Hable to a penalty by 3 Hen. VII. 
0. 1 (1487). 

TowNLET Maebles, a collection of Greek 
andEoman sculpture, &e., formed by Charles 
Townley in Eome between 1765 and 1772. 
After his death, which occurred in January, 
1805, the collection of marbles and terra- 
cottas was exhibited to the public in the 
Townley Gallery in 1807. The trustees of 
the British Museum were authorized to pur- 
chase them for £20,000 by 45 Geo. III. c. 127 
(July 12, 1805). 

_ TowTON (Battle) .—This decisive battle was 
fought at the township of Towton, near Tad- 
caster, in the West Biding of Yorkshire, 
between 4^,000 Yorkists under the great earl 
of Warwick, and 60,000 Lancastrians, under 
the duke of Somerset, on Palm Sunday, 
March 29, 1461, and resulted in the complete 
defeat of the latter, and the establishment of 
Edward IV. on the Enghsh throne. It is 
calculated that no less than 37,000 men fell 
in this great battle, which lasted from nine in 
the morning till seven in the evening. 

ToxopHiLiTES. — The ToxophUite Society 
was first established at Leicester House, Lon- 
don, A.D. 1781 ; and their archery meetings 
were held in Bloomsbury Fields. They re- 
moved to Highbury Barn about 1826, and 
thence to Bayswater. 

Teactaeiaks, {See Pxtsetism.) 

Teade Museums axd Schools. — Bacon 
and Descartes propounded the idea of form- 



TEA 

ing museums of industrial produce, &c. ; but 
the first estabhshment of such institutions 
was effected by Jacques Vaucanson, who died 
Nov. 21, 1782. In 1795 the French Covser' 
vatoire des Jrts et Metiers was established, 
and in 1833 the system of trade museums 
was introduced with most satisfactory results 
into Germany. The first efforts to estabhsh 
anything of the kind in England were made 
in 1837, and resulted in the formation of the 
Museum of Economic Geology. The Museum 
of Economic Botany at Kew was founded in 
1848, and the Museum of Practical Geology 
and the School of Mines in 1851. The 
balance remaining on hand after the final 
settlement of the cash account of the Great 
Exhibition of 1851 was devoted to the esta- 
bhshment of a general museum of manufac- 
tures, &c., which was placed under the con- 
trol of the department of Science and Art, 
and incorporated with the museum at South 
Kensington. A Museum of Irish Industry 
was established at Dublin in 1845, and the 
Edinburgh Scottish Industrial Museum was 
founded in 1853. Facilities for the establish- 
ment of these institutions were offered by 
the Public Libraries and Museums Act, 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 70 (July 30, 1855) , 

Teades' Unions were illegal untU the 
passing of 6 Geo. IV. c. 129 (a.d. 1825). 
The arrest of two members of a trades 
union caused a riot at Oldham, April 15, 
1834, when the prisoners were rescued, and 
one rioter was shot. A meeting of 25,000 
trades unionists took place in Copenhagen- 
fields, London, to petition for the pardon 
of the Dorchester labourers, April 21, 1834. 

Teaf ALGAE (Sea-fight).— Lord Nelson's 
last and greatest victory over the combined 
fleets of France and Spain was gained off 
this cape of southern Spain, Oct. 21, 1805. 
The British fleet nimibered thirty-three ships 
of the line and four frigates, and was di- 
vided into two squadrons headed by Nelson 
in the Victory, and CoUingwood in the Soyal 
Sovereign. The French fleet consisted of 
eighteen ships of the fine, headed by Admi- 
ral Villeneuve, and the Spanish force of 
Admirals Alava and Gravina amounted to 
fifteen vessels of the fine. The enemy had 
also five frigates. Immediately before the 
action Nelson exhibited the ever-memorable 
signal, "England expects that every man 
will do his duty," which was no sooner per- 
ceived than an enthusiastic cheer rose from 
the entire fleet. The Victory came into 
action at one o'clock, and was engaging the 
Redoutable, when a ball from the mizen-top 
struck Nelson in the left shoulder and occa- 
sioned the wound of which he died, at half- 
past four in the afternoon. Nineteen of the 
enemy's ships surrendered during the battle, 
and one was sunk. The remnant of their 
fleet was encountered by Sir Eichard 
Strachan, who took four more prizes, 
Nov, 4. 

Teafalgae Squaee (London), com- 
menced A.D. 1829, and finished in 1850, cost 
in granite-work alone upwards of £10,000. 
The Nelson column was erected Nov. 4, 1843, 



TEA 

Chartist riots commenced in this square with 
the destruction of the hoarding round the base 
of Nelson's monument, March 6, 1848. 

Tragedy.— The origin of tragedy may be 
traced to the choral songs chanted in honour 
of Bacchus at the convivial meetings of the 
Greeks, which were first reduced to order 
by Arion, about B.C. 620, and which are 
mentioned as describing the sorrows of the 
god, and hence as partaking of the tragic 
element, as early as b.c. 600. Thespis added 
a single actor to the chorus, B.C. 536, and 
from this introduction of tragic dialogue is 
regarded as the founder of dramatic tragedy. 
iEschylus (B.C. 525—456) gained the first 
prize awarded by the Greeks for this species 
of composition, b.c. 484, and added a second 
actor to the one introduced by Thespis. So- 
phocles (B.C. 495 — 405) made his first public 
appearance in the competition of B.C. 468, 
in which he strove successfully with the 
veteran dramatist ^schylus, and B.C. 440 he 
produced his "Antigone," which is regarded 
as one of the finest monuments of the Greek 
tragic muse. He also introduced a third 
speaker, and one of his dramas, the " CEdipus 
in Colonus," which was not performed till 
after its author's death, required a company 
of four actors, besides the chorus. This, we 
are told, was regarded as a most daring inno- 
vation. Euripides (b.c. 480 — 406) introduced 
the prologue, and concluded most of his 
plays by the intervention of the gods, who 
appeared in the sky supported by machines, 
and arranged the plot by supernatural 
agency. This expedient was known as the 
deus ex machind, and was made the vehicle 
for exhibiting considerable ingenuity of stage 
eflfect. His grandest performance, the 
"Medea," was first produced B.C. 431. After 
the death of Euripides, tragedy declined in 
Greece, and in Rome it never enjoyed a 
flourishing existence. Livius Andronicus, 
who flourished B.C. 240; Nsevius, b.c. 235; 
and Ennius, b.c. 239—169, are the most ce- 
lebrated Roman authors vrho attempted 
tragedy. Ten tragedies have been ascribed 
to Seneca, the philosopher (a.d. 25 — 65), 
and although their authorship is disputed, 
and the works are very defective as dramas, 
internal evidence strongly supports the sup- 
position. The earliest modern tragedy was 
the "Rosmunda" of RuceUai, written in 
Italian, and performed before Leo X. at 
Elorence in 1515. It was the earhest example 
of blank verse, although the first drama of 
the kind performed or published, was sug- 
gested by Trissino's MS. tragedy of " Sopho- 
nisba," which was published in 1524. Jodelle's 
"Cleopatre" was performed in 15.52, and is 
the first French tragedy, and Sackville's 
•' Gorbodue," which was performed at White- 
hall, in the presence of Elizabeth, in 1562, is 
the earliest tragic drama in English, (See 
Drama, Shakespeare's Works, &c.) 

Trainim-g Schools. — The first training 
school was established by the Church of 
England National Society a.d. 1811. An 
active movement for the formation of these 
schools was made by that society in 1838, 



TEA 

and forty- one were founded throughout the 
country by 1854. 

Trajan's Pillar was erected on the 
Forum Trajani at Rome, by the architect 
ApoUodorus, a.d. 114, to commemorate the 
tnumph of the emperor Trajan over the 
Dacians. The column, 144 Roman feet high, 
is considered one of the finest monuments of 
ancient art that has descended to modern 
times. 

Tranqttebab (Hindostan). — The Danes 
formed a settlement in this part of the Co- 
romandel coast a.d. 1617. It was pur- 
chased by the English Feb. 22, 1845. 

Trak-salpine Gauls entered Italy to 
assist the Cisalpine Gauls, B.C. 327, and 
were repulsed. The Romans invaded their 
country, and founded a colony, b.c. 122, 
and finally conquered them b.c. 51. 

Transeiguration.— This miraculous 
event in the life of our Saviour, when 
he took Peter, James, and John up into 
an high mountain, supposed to be Mount 
Tabor, and was transfigured before them, 
appearing in his glory in company with 
Moses and Elias (Matt. xvii. 1—3 ; Mark 
ix. 2 — 4, &c. &c.), is supposed to have 
occurred May 26, a.d. 29. 

Teau-slation-.— The patriarch Enoch 
was translated to heaven for his piety 
(Gen. V. 24), B.C. 3017; and the prophet 
Elijah was translated to heaven in a chariot 
of fire (2 Kings ii. 11), b.c. 895. 

Teanspadane Republic . — Lombardy 
was formed into a republic with this name 
a.d. 1796. _ It was merged by Napoleon 
Bonaparte in the Cispadane republic, organ- 
ized by him, early in 1797. 

Tran-sportation derived its origin from 
banishment, which was first introduced by 
39 Ehz. c. 4 (1596), and enacted that such 
rogues as were dangerous to the inferior 
people should be banished the realm. The 
first statute in which the word transporta- 
tion is used is 13 & 14 Charles II. s. 23 
(1662), by which justices were authorized 
to transport such rogues, vagabonds, and 
sturdy beggars as should be duly convicted 
and adjudged incorrigible, to any of the 
English plantations beyond the seas. It 
was followed by 18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666), 
vvhich gave a power to the judges, at their 
discretion, either to execute or transport 
to America for life the moss-troopers of 
Cumberland and Northumberland. Until 
after the passing of 4 Geo. I. c. 2 (1717), 
continued b;^ 6 Geo. I. c. 23 (1719), this 
mode of punishment was not brought into 
common operation. By these statutes the 
courts were allowed a discretionary power 
to order felons to be transported to America. 
The system of transportation to the Ame- 
rican colonies lasted from 1718 to the com- 
mencement of the war in 1775. The great 
accumulation of convicts in 1776 led to the 
establishment of the system of the hulks, 
by 16 Geo. III. c. 43. This was followed 
by 19 Geo. III. e. 74 (1778), ordering the 
erection of penitentiaries. Transportation 
was resumed, and George III., by two 



TEA 

orders in council, dated Dec. 6, 1786, fixed 
upon the eastern coast of Australia and the 
adjacent islands. The first band of conTicts 
left England in May, 1787, and in the suc- 
ceeding year founded the colony of New 
South Wales. Eetum from transporta- 
tion was punishable with death, until 4 & 5 
Will. IV. (1834) reduced the penalty to 
transportation for life. The discontinuance 
of transportation to Australia was announced 
by Lord John EusseU in parhament, as de- 
termined upon by government, Peb. 10, 
1853. By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 20, 
1853), penal servitude was substituted for 
transportation, except for fourteen years or 
for Hfe. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 3 (June 26, 
1857), persons under sentence of penal ser- 
vitude may be transported. 

TEAsrsuBSTANTiATioN, the supposed 
change of the substance of the bread and 
wine iQ the eucharist into the body and blood 
of Jesus Christ, was maintained by Pascha- 
sius Eadbert in the 9th century, but was 
opposed by Eabanus Maurus, Eatranum or 
Bertram, and Scotus Erigena. It was sup- 
ported by Pope Sylvester II. (999—1003). 
The doctrine was estabhshed under the term 
transubstantiation at the Lateran council in 
1215, and this was confirmed by the council 
of Trent, Jan. 18, 1562. It was one of the 
articles of the Eomish church rejected at 
the Eeformation. 

TsAif STLVANIA (Austria), the most 
eastern province of the Austrian empire, 
known to the Eomans under the name of 
Dacia, was conquered by the Hungarians 
under Stephen I. a.d. 1004. Having been 
almost depopulated, it was colonized by 
German emigrants in 1143. Protestant 
refugees from all parts of Germany settled 
here after the Eeformation, and these 
were augmented when the archbishop of 
Salzburg expelled aU his Protestant subjects 
in 1773, John Zapolya, with the assistance 
of the Turks, made it an independent princi- 
pality in 1541, and Leopold I. conquered it 
in 1687. The Porte was compelled to re- 
nounce its supremacy over it by the peace 
of Cai-lowitz, Jan. 26, 1699, when it was 
united to Austi'ia. It was erected into a 
grand principahty by the empress Maria 
Theresa in 1765. 

Thappists. — The first abbey of La Trappe 
in Normandy was founded by Eotrou, covmt 
of Perche, a.d. 1140. Its revenues were 
greatly increased in 1214, and it continued 
to grow in wealth and reputation tUl the 
15th century, when it was given to be held 
in commendam, andfrom that time its domains 
were neglected, and the discipline of the 
monks relaxed. They had acquired the 
title of the brigands of La Trappe in the 
middle of the 17th century. The abbey was 
bestowed in 1636 on BouthiUier de la Eance, 
who, after leading a most luxurious fife, 
suddenly, in 1662, renounced the world, 
gave up his rich benefices, and retired to La 
Trappe. He established a new rule, which 
bound the community to strict silence, hard 
labour, and total abstinence from wine, eggs. 



TEE 

fish, and aU seasoning to their simple diet 
of bread and vegetables. Eanc^ died Oct. 27, 
1700, and the abbey continued to flourish 
tiU the Eevolution, when it was suppressed. 
Some of the Trappists sought refuge in 
Switzerland, but returned to their mlapi- 
dated monastery on the restoration of the 
Bourbons in 1815. A new church and mon- 
astery were built and consecrated with great 
pomp, Aug. 30, 1833. 

Teavancobe (Hindostan). — The East- 
India Company estabhshed a factory at An- 
jengo, on the sea-coast of Travancore, a.d. 
1673. Travancore was included as an ally of 
the Enghsh in the treaty with the sultan of 
Mysore in 1784, and was invaded and devas- 
tated in 1790 by Tippoo Sultan, who was com- 
pelled by the English to restore aU that he 
had taken from the rajah. Treaties of aUiance 
between the English and the rajah were made 
in 1795 and 1805. In consequence of some 
disputes, the English subdued the province in 
1809, and at the request of the rajah left a 
resident to manage it. An unsuccessful at- 
tempt to destroy English authority was made 
in 1812, and their subsidiary force was with- 
drawn in 1832. 

TEAVELLIN& was generally performed, in 
England, on horseback, tiU the reign of Mary, 
when a kind of waggon was introduced. 
Elizabeth frequently travelled on state oc- 
casions seated on a pillion behind the chan- 
cellor. A vehicle, described as the " Flying 
Coach," commenced running from 0:d:bra 
to London, in one day, in 1669, and this 
was considered a most extraordinary per- 
formance. Flying coaches ran three times 
a week from London to the chief towns at 
the close of the reign of Charles II. (1685). 
They journeyed about fifty miles a day in 
summer, and thirty in winter. The pas- 
sengers were seated inside the coach, it 
being too perilous, from the frequent acci- 
dents, to ride on the roof. The ordinary 
fares were 2^^. the mile in summer, and 
more in winter. The coach between Edin- 
burgh and London occupied from twelve to 
fourteen days on the journey in 1763. The 
greater part of the carrying trade of the 
country was performed by packhorses until 
the middle of the 18th century. Travel- 
ling was completely revolutionized by the 
introduction of railways in 1830. 

Teeadmiii,, invented by Sir WiUiam 
Cubitt, was introduced into our prisons 
A.D. 1817. 

Teeason. — This crime was first defined 
A.D. 1350, by the act known as the Statute 
of Treasons (25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 2). Two 
kinds of treason were designated in it — 
viz. petit treason and high treason. The 
former was the murder of a husband by his 
wife, or a master by his servant, or a bishop 
by his subordinate in the church; and the 
latter consisted in an attack upon the sove- 
reign as the pohtical head of the state. 
Petit treason was abolished by 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 81, s. 2 (June 27, 1828). {See High 
Teeason.) 

Tbeastjbee op ihe Chambee, an officer 



TEE 

of the king's household, first appointed 
A.D. 1541. The office was abolished in 1782. 
{See LoED High Treastjkeb.) 

Teeaties. — The celebrated commercial 
treaty concluded between Kome and Car- 
thage, B.C. 508, is the earliest example of a 
formal international treaty extant. The first 
treaty concluded by England was signed 
with the dauphin, Louis of France, at 
Kingston-on-Thames, Sept. 11, 1217. The 
first commercial treaty was concluded be- 
tween Edward I. and Guy, earl of Flanders, 
in 1274. The most important treaties are 
mentioned under their title, or under the 
name of the places where they were con- 
cluded. A list is given in the Index, under 
" Treaties." 

Teebia, or Teebbia (Italy). — ]S"ear this 
river Hannibal gained his first decisive vic- 
tory over the Eomans, B.C. 218 ; and the 
French, under Macdonald, fought a despe- 
rate battle with the Austrians and Eussians, 
under Suwarrow, June 17, 18, and 19, 1799. 
Though the first day's conflict was indecisive, 
the allies were ultimately victorious. 

Teebizond (Asia Minor) , anciently called 
Trapezus, existed in the time of Xenophon, 
who halted here for thirty days during the 
memorable retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, 
B.C. 400. It was taken by the Eomans during 
the Mithridatic war (b.c. 88 to 63), and was 
a large and flourishing town in the reign of 
Valerian (a.d. 253 to 259). Having been 
partially destroyed by the Goths, it recovered 
in the reign of Justinian I., who restored 
the pubhc buildings. Alexius Comnenus made 
it the capital of an independent principality 
in 1204 ; and it remained in the hands of his 
descendants till it was taken by the Turks 
in 1460. 

Teeceitto, a flourishing period of Italian 
art and literature, which dates from the 
birth of Dante, a.d. 1265, to the death of 
Boccacio, in 1378. These two authors, with 
Petrarch, are termed " the Triimivirate of 
the Trecento." 

Teent (Austria), in the Tyrol, anciently 
called Tridentum, was a Eoman colony, and 
became an important city in the Middle Ages, 
when the bishops were independent princes, 
and it was united to the Tyrol in 1363. The 
cathedral was buUt in 1212, and the church of 
St. Maria Maggiore occupies the site of the 
council-chamber, where the celebrated coun- 
cil of Trent sat (Dec. 13, 1545 to 1563), and has 
a painting, with portraits of aU the members. 
Trent was taken by the French, under Na- 
poleon Bonaparte, Sept. 5, 1796, and again 
under Macdonald, in January, 1801. It was 
evacuated by them in April, 1809, and they 
were repulsed in an attempt upon it June 
9, 1809. The Bavarians took Trent Oct. 17, 
1809, and it was retaken by the Austrians 
Oct. 31, 1813. 

Teentschin- (Battle). — The Hungarians 
were defeated at this place, the capital of 
a county of the same name in Hungary, 
by the Austrians, a.d. 1708. 

Teeves, or Teiees (Prussia), the capital 
of a government of the same name, is con- 



TEI 

' sidered the oldest city in Germany. An in- 
j scription on the Eed-house, formerly the 
I town-haU, states that it was built 1,300 years 
j before Eome (b.c. 2053). It was a large 
I and important town, and the capital of the 
! Treviri, at the time of Csesar's expedition 
; into Gaul, B.C. 58, and was made a Eoman 
colony by Augustus, and named Augusta. 
The emperor Gallienus held his court here 
A.D. 255. It was stormed and pillaged by 
the Alemanni in 355, by the Franks in 420, 
and by Attila in 451. It recovered its an- 
cient splendour under the archbishop of 
Treves. The English, under the duke of 
Marlborough, took it in 1704, and it was 
seized Aug. 9, 1794, by the French to whom it 
was ceded by the peace of LuneviUe, Feb. 9, 
1801. It was occupied by the allies in 1814, 
and was ceded to Prussia by the congress 
of Vienna, June 9, 1815. The church of St. 
Simeon, the most important Eoman monu- 
ment in Germany, was probably buUt be- 
tween 314 and 322, and was consecrated and 
dedicated to St. Simeon in the 11th century. 
It was restored by the Prussians, and opened 
July 23, 1817. The university, founded in 
1454, greatly enlarged in 1722, was sup- 
pressed in 1794, and converted by the French 
into a central school. The church of Our 
Lady was buUt between 1227 and 1248, and 
the ancient electoral palace stands on the 
site of an immense Eoman edifice, of which 
some fragments stiU remain, said to have 
been the residence of Constantine the Great. 
The exhibition of the " Holy Coat " in the 
cathedral attracted 1,000,000 pilgrims here 
in 1844, and caused serious rehgious dis- 
putes, two of the leaders in which were for- 
mally excommunicated in 1845. Councils 
were held here m 385 ; 927 ; Sept. 6, 948 ; 
Oct. 20, 1037; March 1, 1227; in 1238; 
April 28, 1310 ; in 1337 ; and April 26, 1423. 
Teeviso (Italy), anciently called Tarvi- 
sium, an important town under the Goths 
and Longobards, was the native place of 
Totila, the last king of the Goths, who was 
killed A.D. 552. When the neighbouring 
town of Spitergium was destroyed by Eo- 
taris, king of the Longobards, in 641, the 
inhabitants took refuge here. It was the capi- 
tal of a border province which extended from 
the Alps to the Adige, under Charlemagne 
and his successors, became an independent 
municipal community in the 11th century, 
and voluntarily submitted to the repubhc of 
Venice ia 1344. The Austrians were de- 
feated here by the French in January, 1797, 
and the town revolted against Venice in 
April of the same year. An armistice was 
concluded here between the French and 
Austrians, Jan. 10, 1801. It was invested by 
the Austrians June 10, 1848, and capitulated 
to them with its garrison of 4,185 men, 
June 13. 

Teia juncta in Uno, the motto of the 
knights of the military order of the Bath, 
adopted on the institution of the order by 
Henry IV. in 1399, and continued when the 
order was revived by George I., May 18, 
1725. 

3l 



TEI 



TRI 



Tbibtjij-es op the People. — Magistrates 
of Eome chosen from among the commons 
to represent the people, b.c. 493. C. Liei- 
nius and L. Albinus were the first two, and 
they created three colleagues. The number 
was raised to ten b.c. 457. 

Teichinopolt (Hindostan), the capital 
of a district of the same name in the pre- 
sidency of Madras, was the capital of a 
Hindoo principality until a.d. 1732, when it 
was acquired by the nabob of Arcot, who 
rehnquished it to the Mahrattas in 1741. It 
was taken from them by Mzam-ool-MooUv 
in 1743, and was besieged by the French in 
1757. It was relicTed by the rapid march of 
an Enghsh. force, under Captain Calliaud, 
May 26. 

Trienjtiai, PAELiAiiEifTS Were first esta- 
blished by 16 Charles I. c. 1 (Feb. 16, 1641). 
The actwas passed for the purpose of prevent- 
the sovereign from postponing at will, and 
frequently indefinitely, the assembUng of the 
parliament. A statute of Edward III., pro- 
viding that one should be held every year, or 
oftener if need be, had long fallen into neglect. 
Thechief i^rovisionsof the Triennial Act were, 
that a parliament was to be ipso facto dis- 
solved when it had lasted three years, and, 
if actually sitting at the time, on the first 
adjournment or prorogation ; that writs for 
a new parliament were to be issued by the 
chancellor or keeper of the great seal 
within three years after the dissolution of 
the last ; in case of his failure to perform 
this duty, the peers were enjoined to meet 
and issue wi-its to the sheriff's; in case of 
non-compliance with the law on the part of 
the peers, the duty devolved iipon the she- 
riffs themselves ; and in case of their failure, 
the electors, after a certain interval, had 
the right of choosing their representatives ; 
and that no parhament was to be dissolved 
or adjourned, save by its own consent, in 
less than fifty days from the commencement 
of the session. It was violated by Crom- 
well and the Long Parliament, and was 
repealed by 16 Charles II. c. 1, April 6, 1664. 
Another act of a similar character, providing 
that a pai'liament should be held at least once 
every three years, and that no parhament 
should last longer than three years, was as- I 
sented to with great reluctance by William 
III., Dee. 22, 1694; and it was repealed, 
on the passing of the Septennial Act, May 7, 
1716. 

. Trieste (Elyria), the principal seaport 
of the Austrian empire on the Adriatic, ex- 
isted in the time of the Eomans, and is 
called by Pliny, Tergeste. It was a place of 
no importance till it was made a free port, 
A.D. 1719. Its privileges were greatly ex- 
tended by the empress Maria Theresa in the 
middle of the 18th century. The town was 
captured by the French, March 22, 1797 ; 
again May 22, 1809 ; and was ceded to Italy 
by the treaty of Vienna, Oct. 14,1809. The 
Enghsh and Austrians took it Oct. 31, 1813 ; [ 
and it returned to the dominion of Austria I 
in 1814. 

Teipas-um (Battle). — The Eomans de- 
95Q 



feated the Latins at this ancient town of 
central Italy, B.C. 339. 

Teigois^ometkicai SrETET. — The first 
application of trigonometiy to surveying 
was made by Willebrod Snell, in his survey 
of Holland, commenced a.d. 1617. The first 
government survey in Great Britain was 
commenced in the Highlands of Scotland 
in 1747. It was stopped by the war of 1755, 
and the map was never published. The 
next undertaking was begun at Hounslow 
Heath in July, 1784. The triangulation 
was commenced in 1792. A base of verifi- 
cation was measui'ed at Salisbury Plain in 
1794; at King's Sedgmoor, in Somerset- 
shire, in 1798 ; at Misterton Carr, in North 
Lincolnshire, in 1801 ; at Ehuddlan Marsh, 
near St. Asaph, North Wales, in 1806 ; and 
the survey of nearly all England, South 
Wales, and part of Scotland, was completed 
by 1809. The survey was stopped by the 
war from 1811 to 1816. It was recom- 
menced in Scotland in 1817 ; and was trans- 
ferred to Ireland in 1824, the principal tri- 
angulation of which was completed by 
1S3S, and then Great Britain was again taken 
up. England, with the exception of the six 
northern counties and a small part of Scot- 
land, had been survej'ed on a scale of two 
inches, and engraved on a scale of one inch, 
to the mile ; but the survey of the remainder 
of England, and the whole of Scotland, 
was ordered to be taken on the Irish scale 
of six inches to the mile, by a Treasury mi- 
nute, Oct. 5, 1840. A royal commission was 
appointed to inquire into the progress, &c., 
of the survey, Dec. 24, 1857. By their 
report the sums expended in the survey up 
to March 31, 1858, were : — England and 
Wales, £1,051,678; Scotland, £374,746; and 
Ireland, £979,166. In the estimatesf or 1860- 
61, £90,000 were required for the survey, 
and the number of persons employed upon it 
was 1,627. 

Tbimmees. — A political party, of which 
Viscount Hahfax was the chief, contemptu- 
ously called trimmers by the Whigs and 
Tories, arose in the reign of Charles II. 

TEIXC03IALEE (Ccylou). — This town came 
into the possession of the Portuguese in the 
beginning of the 16th century, and was 
taken from them in 1639, by the Dutch, 
who retained it tiU 1782, when it was cap- 
tured by the British. It was retaken by the 
French admiral Suff'rein, Aug. 31. Having 
been restored to the Dutch by the treaty of 
Versailles, the British retook {t, after a siege 
of three weeks, in 1795 ; and it was finally 
ceded to them by the treaty of Amiens, 
March 25, 1802. 

Teinidad (Atlantic Ocean), one of the 
West -India islands, discovered by Co- 
lumbus in July, 1498, was first colonized by 
the Spaniards in 1588. It was captured by 
the French in 1676, but almost immediately 
restored ; and it was taken by the Enghsh, 
under Abercromby, Feb. 13, 1797, and ceded 
to them by the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 
1802. 

TEIlflTAEIAlfS, or BbETHEEN of IHB 



TRI 

Holt Trinity. — This order, principally for 
the redemption of captives, was founded by 
John of Matha and Fehxof Yalois a.d. 1198, 
and approved the same year by Pope In- 
nocent III. They were also called Ma- 
thurini (because their church in Paris had 
for its tutelar saint St. Mathurinus) and 
Brethren of the Eedemption of Captives. 

Teinitt. — This term was first used by 
TheophUus, bishop of Antioch, to express 
the three sacred persons in the Godhead, 
about A.B. 180. The first statement of the 
doctrine of the Trinity was made in the 
Nicene creed, adopted in 325, and completed 
at the second general council held at Constan- 
tinople in 381. The doctrine was more mi- 
nutely set forth in the creed of Athanasius, 
framed in the 5th century, and so named 
before 670, which was the one adopted by the 
Protestants in general at the Eeformation. 
Penalties were imposed on persons denying 
the doctrine of the Trinity by 9 & 10 WiU. III. 
e. 32 (1698), but these were removed by 53 
jBep. III. c. 160 (1812). 

Tein-itt (Order of). — This religious so- 
ciety was founded at Eome by St. Philip 
Neri, A.D. 1548. They had charge of the 
pilgrims who resorted thither from all parts 
of the world. 

Trinity College (Cambridge). — This 
college was formed of several smaller col- 
legiate establishments, the chief of which 
were Michael House, dedicated to Michael 
the Archangel, founded by Hervey de 
Staunton, chancellor of the Exchequer to 
Edward II., a.d. 1324; King's Hall, founded 
by Edward III. in 1337 ; and Phisvsricke's 
Hostle, founded by William Phiswicke, or 
Eishwick, in 1393. Out of these three in- 
stitutions, and the other smaller ones. 
Trinity College was founded by Henry VIII., 
by charter dated Dec. 19, 1546. He en- 
dowed it with lands, &c., of the annual value 
of £1,300, to maintain a master, sixty fellows, 
forty scholars, and ten almoners, reserving 
to the crown the right of choosing the 
piaster. Queen Mary commenced the build- 
ing of the chapel, and added to the en- 
dowment lands to the value of £338 per 
annum. Elizabeth provided for the com- 
pletion of the works commenced by her 
sister, by letters - patent dated Dec. 14, 
1560. 

Trinity Colle&e (Oxford) was originally 
founded by Richard de Hoton, prior of 
Durham, about a.d. 1290 ; rebuilt by Bi- 
shop Hatfield, of the same see ; and dis- 
solved by Henry VIII. about 1541. Sir 
Thomas Pope purchased the site and build- 
ings from Dr. George Owen and William 
Martyn, to whom they had been granted by 
Edward VI. in 1553, and founded the present 
college for a president, twelve fellows, and 
eight scholars, in 1554. Hje founded four 
additional scholarships Sept. 10, 1557. There 
is also a scholarship nearly coeval with Sir 
T. Pope's foundation, which was founded by 
his relative, Richard Blount, of London, An 
exhibition, called the Unton Pension, was 
given by Thomas Unton in 1693 ; another, 
851 



TRI 

called the Tylney Exhibition, was given by 
Frederick Tylney in 1720 ; and a third, for 
the advantage of superannuate scholars of 
Winchester College, was founded by the 
Rev. Edward Cobden in 1784. The hall was 
rebuilt in 1618. The library; though altered 
at various times, is in substance the most 
ancient part of the college, having been 
built in 1370. The chapel was founded 
July 9, 1691. The coui-t was erected from 
the designs of Sir C. Wren, the north side 
being completed in 1667, the west side in 
1682, and the south side in 1728. 

Trinity Hall (Cambridge) was founded 
for the study of the canon and the civU law 
by WiUiam Bateman, bishop of K^orwich, 
A.D. 1350, for a master, three fellows, and 
three scholars. The foundation was aug- 
mented by Simon Dalling in 1443, by Dr. 
Hewke in 1517, Dr. Harvey in 1584, Dr.- 
Mouse in 1586, and by other benefactors. 
The college was further incorporated in the 
reign of Elizabeth, and was governed by the 
statutes of the founder tiU 1860, when new 
statutes were enacted. The old hall, one of 
the most ancient in the university, was 
demolished in 1742. 

Trinity House (London). — This society 
was founded by Sir Thomas Spert, comp- 
troller of the navy to Henry VIII., a.d. 
1515, and incorporated by that king in the 
same year, for the promotion of commerce 
and navigation, by licensing and regulating 
pilots, and ordering and erecting beacons, 
light-houses, buoys, &c. The corporation 
was confirmed in the enjoyment of its privi- 
leges and possessions by letters patent of 
James II. (1685). At first it seems to 
have consisted of seamen only, but now 
noblemen and gentlemen are amongst its 
members or elder brethren. It is governed 
by a master, four wardens, eight assistants, 
and thirty- one elder brothers. By 52 Geo. 
III. c. 39 (April 20, 1812), the jurisdiction of 
the Trinity House was extended to light- 
houses round the coast of Ireland. The an- 
cient hall of the corporation at Deptfordwas 
pulled down in 1787, and the present edifice, 
near the Tower, was commenced Sept. 12, 
1793, and finished two years afterwards. 

Trinity Sunday is the Sunday next fol- 
lowing the festival of Whitsuntide. The 
festival of the Holy Trinity was first or- 
dained to be held on this day by Pope John 
XXII. A.D. 1334. 

Teinob ANTES, a British tribe which inhabi- 
tedthe counties of Essex and Middlesex at the 
time of Caesar's invasion of Britain, e.g. 55. 
Their prince, Cassivelaunus, unsuccessfully 
opposed Csesar's passage of the river Stour, 
B.C. 54 ; and, his chief town being afterwards 
taken, the tribe submitted to the Romans. 
They joined the Iceni under Boadieea in 
revolt, and destroyed the Roman colonies in 
their ovni country, but were defeated by 
Suetonius Pauhnus, near Sunbury, on the 
Thames, a.d. 61. 

Triple Alliance between the States- 
General and England, against France, for the 
protection of the Spanish Netherlands, was 



TEI 

ratified Jan. 28, 1668. Sweden joined the 
league April 25, and it then became kno-s\m 
as the Triple Alliance. Another triple al- 
liance between England, France, and Hol- 
land, to oppose the designs of Cardinal Albe- 
roni, the Spanish minister, was signed by 
the EngHsh and French Nov. 28, 1716, and 
by the Dutch Jan. 4, 1717. 

Tripoli (Airica) , the most easterly of the 
Barbary states, became a Eoman province 
after the destruction of Carthage, B.C. 146; 
and the three cities of CEa, Leptis, and 
Sabrate, constituted a kind of federal union, 
under the name of Tripolis. The present 
capital, TripoK, is identical with the ancient 
city of (Ea. It suffered greatly from the 
tyranny of Count Eomanus a.d. 366; was 
conquered by the Vandals in the 5th cen- 
tury, and rescued by Belisarius in 534. 
Tripoli was taken by the Saracens in 638 ; 
besieged by the Egyptians in 877 and 1054 ; 
seized by Eoger, king of Sicily, iu 1146 ; and 
retaken in 1184 by the Saracens, who retained 
it till it was conquered by the Spaniards in 
1510. It was ceded by Charles V. to the 
knights of St. John of Jerusalem in 1530 ; 
and was conquered by Simon, basha for the 
sultan Soliman II., in 1551, and became a 
Turkish pashahc. Dragut, the famous corsair, 
was appointed governor ; and from this time 
it became one of those piratical powers which 
for centuries attacked the ships of Christian 
nations, and made slaves of their prisoners. 
The first treaty between Tripoli and England 
was concluded Oct. 18, 1662. Tripoh was 
bombarded by a French fleet in 1683. Hamet 
Caramandi, a Moorish chief, treacherously 
caused 300 Turkish officers to be strangled, 
and the garrison to be destroyed, in 1703, 
and thus threw off the Turkish yoke. Yus- 
suf, the last basha of this family, was com- 
pelled by his subjects to abdicate in 1832 ; 
and a civil war ensued, which was put an 
end to by a Turkish force in 1835, and Tri- 
poh was restored to the nominal sovereignty 
of the Turks. Piracy and slavery were abo- 
lished in 1816. Near the sea-gate of the town 
stands a magnificent triumphal arch erected 
to the emperors M. AureMus Antoninus and 
L. Aurehus Verus, a.d. 164. 

Teipoli, or Taeabltjs (Asia Minor). — 
This seaport of Syria, the capital of the 
pashalic of the same name, was taken a.d. 
1108 by the Crusaders, who destroyed the 
rare and valuable hbrary of Persian and 
Arabic works, said to amount to 100,000 
volumes. The Egyptians, under Ibrahim 
Pasha, defeated the Turks here April 7, 
1832, and the government was granted to 
Mehemet Ali May 6, 1833. It was captured 
by the EngHsh in September, 1840. 

Teipolitza (Greece) is said to derive its 
name from the three towns of Tegea, Man- 
tinea, and Mukhh, and was probably built 
soon after the capture of the last-named 
city by the Turks, a.d. 1458. Before the 
Eevolution, Tripolitza was the capital of the 
Morea and the seat of a pasha. It was 
stormed by the Greeks Oct. 5, 1821, and i 
nine thousand of the inhabitants of all ages I 



TEG 

and sexes were massacred on that and the 
following day. Ibrahim Pasha retook it in 
1825, and razed it to the ground, in retahation 
for the cruelties perpetrated by the Greeks- 
It has since been rebuilt. 

Teieemes, ancient Greek and Eoman 
vessels of war invented by Ameinocles the 
Corinthian, B.C. 700. They were first built 
by the Athenians at the instance of Themis- 
tocles B.C. 481, and by the EomansB.c. 260. 

Teiumphs. — The triumph was a public and 
solemn honour conferred by the ancient 
Eomans on a victorious general, by allowing 
him a magnificent entry into the city, and 
it dates from the reign of Eomulus. The 
triumph of the consuls Valerius and Hora- 
tius, B.C. 449, refused by the senate but 
granted by a vote of the people, was the 
first instance of a triumph without the au- 
thority of the senate. The triumph of Ca- 
miUus, for the taking of Veii after a siege 
of ten years, was celebrated with great pomp 
B.C. 395 . There were two kinds of triumphs : 
the great, called the triumph; and the lesser, 
called the ovation (q.v.). 

Teiumvieates, so called from the number 
of men, three, constituting a board for the 
management of some pubUc business among 
the Eomans, one of which, the triumviri 
capitales, for inquiring into capital offences, 
was instituted about b.c. 292. Caesar, 
Pompey, and Crassus, formed a triumvirate 
B.C. 60. Another was estabUshed at Metina 
by Octavianus, Antonius, and Lepidus, 
and afterwards sanctioned by a senatus con- 
sultum, B.C. 43. At the expiration of five 
years it was prolonged for five years more, 
B.C. 38. Augustus deprived Lepidus of his 
power B.C. 35. It legally expired on the 
last day of the year B.C. 33. One was 
appointed at Eome, consisting of Mazzini, 
ArmeUini, and Saffi, vrith the entire execu- 
tive power placed in their hands, Feb, 27, 
1849. 

Teoja (Battle) . — John, duke of Anjou, was 
defeated in an engagement near this town 
in Italy, by Ferdinand, king of Naples, 
Aug. 18, 1462. 

Teok, or Teoitd, St. (Battles).— The 
Austrians were defeated at this town in 
Belgium, by the French, a.d. 1793. A 
division of General Maison's force was also 
defeated here, after an obstinate engagement, 
by the Eussians imder Benkendorf and 
Chernicheff, in 1814. 

Teondhjem. {See Deontheim.) 

Teoppau (Austria). — A congress to con- 
sider the revolutionary excitement in 
Europe — the emperors of Austria and 
Eussia, and the king of Prussia, being pre- 
sent, together with representatives from 
France and England — was opened here 
Oct. 20, and transferred to Laybach, in 
Styria, Nov. 20, 1820. 

Teotjbadotjes, the poets of the Eomance 
language, or Langue d'Oc, are represented 
in the earliest extant specimens of that hte- 
rature by the songs of WiUiam, duke of 
Guienne, written about a.d. 1096. "We 
do not," ^says Hallam, " meet with any 



TRO 

other troubadour till after the middle 
of the 12th century." From that time they 
became numerous. Having turned their 
powers of satire against the hierarchy 
during the persecutions of the Albigenses, 
many of them perished, or were compelled 
to make their escape, and the art fell into 
decay about the end of the 13th century. 
The magistrates of Toulouse established an 
academy called Del G-ai Saber, — of the gay 
science, with the object of reviving it, and 
held the first meeting of an annual festival, 
"Floral Games," which was attended by 
many poets from various parts of Languedoc, 
May 1, 1324. 

Teouvekbs. — The writers of romance and 
poetry in the French provinces north of the 
Loire began the production of those short 
tales known as the " Fabliaux " in the latter 
half of the 12th century. They continued to 
make their appearance down to the 14th cen- 
tury. The period most prolific in this litera- 
ture was, however, from a.d. 1226 to 1270. 

Tkot. {See Ilium, or iLioif.) 

Teotes (France), the ancient Augusto- 
bona, was saved from Attila through the 
address of its bishop, St. Loup, a.d. 441. 
The Normans plundered and burned it in 889. 
It was taken by the duke of B urgundy in 1415. 
The marriage of Henry V. of England with 
Catherine of France, and the treaty securing 
the succession of Henry to the crown of 
Charles VI., were arranged here May 21, 
1420. It was surrendered by the English to 
Joan of Arc in 1429. By a royal edict the 
French parliament was banished here Aug. 
15, 1787, and recalled Sept. 20. Napoleon I. 
fell back upon Troyes after his defeat by the 
allies, Feb. 2, 1814, but withdrew on the 6th, 
and the allies entering on the 7th, established 
their head-quarters. Napoleon I. again 
obtained possession of the town Feb. 23, 
and it was recaptured by the allies March 4. 
Councils were held here m 429 ; April 2, 1104 ; 
in 1107 ; and Jan. 13, 1128. 

Trot Weight, so called from Troyes, in 
France, whence it was introduced into Eng- 
land, is mentioned as a known standard in 
1414. The pound did not take the name till 
1495. It was established in Scotland in 1618. 

Teuce, or Peace of God. — This celebrated 
instrument for the suspension of hostihties 
between the feudal lords of the Middle Ages 
remounts as far back as a.d. 988. It provided 
that no conflicts should occur between Wed- 
nesday evening and Monday morning, or 
from Advent to Epiphany, or Quinquagesima 
Sunday to Easter. This truce received 
great authority from a vision stated to have 
been seen by a bishop of Aquitaine in 1032, 
when an angel was said to have appeared and 
delivered a writing enjoining men to cease 
from their hostilities, and become reconciled. 
It was confirmed by the council of Tuluje 
June 1, 1047, and by the tenth general council 
in 1139 ; but in consequence of its inefficiency, 
an association for carrying it into effect was 
formed about the end of the 12th century, 
under the title of the Brotherhood of God. 
Louis IX. of France published an ordinance in 



TUD 

1245, prohibiting any one from commencing a 
quarrel until forty days after the commission 
of the offence he wished to retaliate. This 
law, which was known as the Royal Truce, was 
confirmed by Philip IV., or the Fair, in 1296. 

Teumpets. — The invention is variously 
ascribed to the Tyrrhenians and to the 
Egyptians, but they were not used at the 
siege of Troy, B.C. 1184, although spoken of 
by Homer B.C. 962. Those used by the 
Israelites at the siege of Jericho, b.c. 1451, 
were made of rams' horns (Joshua vi. 20) . 
The speaking-trumpet appears to have been 
known to the ancient Greeks, and was in use 
among the Peruvians a.d. 1595. Matthew 
Paris says that trumpeters preceded King 
Offa of Mercia in aU his progresses (757 — 
796). 

TuAM (Bishopric). — This Irish diocese was 
founded by St. Jarlatto, at Cluain-fois, near 
Tuam, about a.d. 501. In 1150 it was made 
archiepiscopal, under Edan O'Hoisin ; and 
in 1559 it was enlarged by the addition of 
Mayo. The see of Enachdune was annexed 
to Tuam in 1573, and Kilfenora formed part 
of the archbishopric from 1661 to 1742. 
Ardagh was incorporated with Tuam in 
1742, but was separated in 1839, when Tuam 
ceased to be a metropolitan diocese. By 
the Church TemporaKties Act, 3 & 4 WiU. IV. 
c. 37 (Aug. 14, 1833), the sees of Killala and 
Achonry were ordered to be annexed to 
Tuam on their next voidanee, which oc- 
curred in 1834. 

Tubingen- (Germany). — The imiversity 
was founded a.d. 1477. From the Refor- 
mation tiU 1803, Roman Catholics were ex- 
cluded. The town-hall was built in 1435 ; 
and the church of St. George, -with monu- 
ments of the princes of the house of Wiir- 
temberg, was erected in the 15th century. 
In order to conciliate the aristocracy, Ulric, 
duke of Wiirtemberg, agreed to a treaty 
here in July, 1514, which may be called the 
first German constitution, and continued to 
be the fundamental law of the duchy tOI 
1819. 

TuBuiAE Bridges. — The first tube of the 
Britannia bridge, across the Menai Straits, 
was floated and raised June 20, 1849. It 
was completed at a cost of £621,865, and 
opened March 6, 1850. The tubular bridge 
at Conway, also on the line of the Chester 
and Holyhead railway, constructed at a cost 
of £110,000, was finished in 1848. One at 
Chepstow, across the Wye, was opened in 
1852. Two upon the line of the Egyptian 
railway,— one crossing the Nile, near Benha, 
the other the Karrimeen canal, — were com- 
menced in May, 1853, and completed in 
October, 1855. 

TuDELA (Battle).— The French, under 
Marshal Lannes, defeated the Spanish forces 
of Castanos and Palafox, near this town of 
Spain, Nov. 23, 1808. The loss of the Span- 
iards amounted to 5,000 men killed and 
wounded, and but for the delay of Marshal 
Ney in quitting Soria, their entire army 
would have been cut off". This battle is 
sometimes referred to as the battle of the 
853 



TUE 

Ebro, because it was fouglit on the banks of 
that river. 

Tuesday.— The third day of the week was 
dedicated by the Saxons to their god Tuisco, 
respecting whose 'attributes little is known 
with precision. The Eomans held it sacred 
to Mars, and called it Dies MaHis. {See 
Seeove Tuesday.) 

TuiLEEiES (Paris) takes its name from the 
tne-fields on which it stands, was founded as 
a royal residence by Catherine de Medici, 
A.D. 1564., and completed by Louis XIII. 
It was captured and sacked by the Paris 
mob, Aug. 10, 1792, and again in 1830. The 
insurrectionists sacked it, and threw the 
furniture from the windows, Feb. 25, 1848. 
- Tula (Eussia), capital of a government of 
that name, the seat of the imperial manu- 
factory of arms, established by Peter the 
Great a.d. 1712. A fire, which reduced a 
large portion of the inhabitants to beggary, 
occurred in 1834. 

Tulip, which grows wild in the Levant, 
was brought in seed from Constantinople, or 
Cappadocia, to Augsburg, a.d. 1559. It had 
spread all over Germany by 1564 or 1565. 
It was first planted in Provence, on the 
ground of Peyresc, in 1611. Prom Vienna it 
was introduced into England about the end 
of the 16th century. The tulip-tree was 
brought from IS^orth America to Europe 
about 1663. 

TuNBHiDGE, orTo^-BRiD&E Wells (Kent), 
was first brought into notice by Dudley, Lord 
North, who received much benefit from 
drinking the waters in the reign of James I. 

Tungsten, from the Swedjsh tung sten, 
heavy stone, was first obtained in a pure 
metallic state by M. d'Elhuiart, a.d. 1781. 

Tuxis (Africa) , known at different periods 
as Tunes and Tuneta, capital of the regency 
of that name, founded either by the Phoeui- 
cians or by native Africans, was taken by 
the Koman consul Kegulus B.C. 256, and 
before it the mutinous Carthaginian army 
encamped when it left Sicca, B.C. 241. 
The Vandals, who acquired it a.d. 439, were 
dispossessed by Behsarius in 533. It was 
taken from the Greek emperors by the Mos- 
lems about the end of the 7th century, and 
after having been governed by viceroys, was 
made the capital of an independent state by 
Abu-Perez in 1206. An expedition to put 
down the pirates that infested it was under- 
taken by Louis IX. of Prance in 1270. The 
noted pirate Barbarossa, whom the Turkish 
sultan had acknowledged chief of the coun- 
try, deprived the ruler of his throne in 1531. 
He was, however, restored, on condition of 
being a tributary prince, by Charles V. in 
1535. A large expedition, fitted out at 
Constantinople, reduced it in 1574. Admiral 
Blake destroyed two of the castles with artil- 
lery in 1655, and extorted a promise that 
Enghsh vessels should be exempt from at- 
tack; and with a similar object it was be- 
sieged by a Prench fleet in 1685. A bey 
was instituted in 1574, and he was replaced 
by a dey towards the end of the 17th cen- 
tury. The European powers enforced from 
8oi, 



Tunis the abolition, for ever, of Christian 
slavery, in 1816. 

Tuif KAGE ASD Poundage. — Tunnage was 
a duty of so much per tun on all wines im- 
ported ; and poundage was a duty imposed 
ad valorem, at the rate of twelve pence in 
the poimd on all merchandise. The origin 
of this tax, the first of our customs duties, 
raised, according to the old statutes, " for the 
defence of the reahn and the safeguard of 
the seas," is unknown. It was imposed with 
the consent of the Lords, but against that of 
the Commons, by Edward III., a.d. 134-8, 
and was granted for a term of two years to 
Richard II. in 1381. It was first granted 
by statute 12 Edw. IV. c. 3 (1473). Origi- 
nally granted for a few years, it was given 
to Henry VI. in 1453 for the term of his life. 
It formed a constant subject of dissension 
between Charles I. and his parliaments, and 
was granted to his son Charles II. for life, 
June 24, 1660. The impost was made per- 
petual by 9 Anne, c. 6 (1711) ; 1 Geo. I. c. 12 
(1715) ; and 3 Geo. I. c. 7 (1717). 

Tunnel. — Two tunnels, constructed as 
outlets for the drainage of Lake Copais in 
Greece, by the Minyae of Orchomenus before 
historic times, were cleared of obstructions 
about B.C. 330. The tunnel at Samos, by 
Eupalinus of Megara, nearly a mile in length, 
eight feet in height and breadth, with an 
aqueduct in the middle thirty feet deep, was 
cut through a mountain 900 feet high, about 
B.C. 540. The Posilij)0, near Naples, three 
quarters of a mile in length, was executed 
about A.D. 14. A tunnel three miles long, 
thirty feet in height, and twenty-eight feet 
wide, connecting Lake Pucinus with the river 
Siris, formed by the emperor Claudius, has 
been lately cleared out by the Neapolitan 
government. The Harecastle tunnel, on the 
Grand Trunk canal, 2,880 yards in length, 
twelve feet wide, and nine high, was com- 
menced by Brindley in 1766. It proved too 
small for the traffic, and a new one, running 
parallel with the old, was constructed by 
Telford in 1822. 

TuBCOPOLiEB, of the order of the knights 
of St. John of Jerusalem, and third dignity 
in the convent, taking its name from the 
Turcopoles, a light horse used by the Chris- 
tians in Palestine, is mentioned in a diploma 
of the Hospitallers, a.d. 1180. One was 
estabhshed in the convent at Ehodes, Gio- 
vanni de Buibralk being the first known 
English knight who held the dignity in 
1328. The last Turcopoher of England was 
Sir Eichard SheUey, who died probably at 
Venice about 1582. 

TuKiN (Italy), the ancient Augusta Tauri- 
norum, was burned by the soldiers of Vitel- 
hus dui'ing the civil war, a.d. 69. On a plain 
near this city Constantine I. defeated Maxen- 
tius in 312. By an edict of Lothaire I., 
schools were ordered to be established here 
in 829. Philip of Savoy fixed his residence 
at Turin in 1280. Charles VIII. of France 
arrived here, after breaking through the allied 
forces, in 1495. It was captured by Francis I., 
who had, without a shadow of cause, declared 



TUE 

war against the duke of Savoy in 1536. Prince 
Thomas, in asserting his claim to the regency, 
made himself master of the town in 1639 ; 
but the French, under Count d'Harcourt, 
compelled him, after a short siege, to capitu- 
late in 1640. The duke de la Feuillade in- 
vested it with 100 battalions and 140 pieces 
of cannon in the month of May. Prince 
Eugene came to its relief, and an engagement 
took place, in which the French were defeated, 
with a loss of 5,000 killed and 7,000 pri- 
soners, Sept. 7, 1706. The allies took it 
from the French by surprise in. 1799. It was 
again given up to them June 24, 1800. It 
was surrendered by the French May 30, 1814. 
An insurrection took place, and the Spanish 
constitution was proclaimed, March 12, 1821 ; 
the royal authority was, however, restored 
April 12. La Gran Madre de Dio, an imita- 
tion of the Pantheon at Rome, was erected 
to commemorate the restoration of the royal 
family in 1814. The university, with a library 
ofabove 100,000 volumes, was foundedin 1412; 
the Eoyal Academy of Sciences in 1783 ; and 
the Waldensean church Dec. 15, 1853. 

Turkestan-, or Independeij-t Tartaey 
(Asia), "the country of the Turks," was 
traversed by Alexander the Great, b.c. 331. 
The Grecian dynasty of Bactria obtained 
supreme power over the greater portion 
about B.C. 323. They were subverted b.c. 
120 by the Scythians, who were in turn 
subdued by the Parthians about a.d. 1. It 
was visited by ambassadors from Justinian I. 
in 559, and subdued by Timour in 1383. 

Turkey, and Turks. — Dr. William Smith, 
who states that almost aU the nomad Asiatic 
tribes that devastated Europe from the 4th 
to the 12th century, belonged to this race, 
gives, in a note to Gibbon, the following as 
the principal' divisions of the Turks : — " 1. 
The Ouigours, on the west of the Mongol 
frontier, the most anciently civilized tribe 
of the Turkish race. 2. Turks of the Sandy 
Desert, conterminous with Mongoha and 
Tibet. 3. Turks of Khoten, Kashgar, and 
Tarkend, conterminous with Tibet. 4. The 
Kirghis, in Independent Tartarv. 5. The 
Uzbeks, the Turks of Bokhara. 6. The 
Turkomans, inhabiting the Persian frontier 
of Independent Tartary, from Balk to the 
Caspian. 7. The OsmanU, or Ottoman 
Turks, the Turks of the Turkish empire. 
8. The Nogays, dwelling north of the Cau- 
casus, between the lower Don and the lower 
Volga. 9. The Turks of the Eussian empire. 
10. The isolated Yakuts of the Lena." The 
history of the country, which derives its 
name from the people, is given under 
Ottoman Empire. 

Turkeys were introduced into England 
from America about a.d. 1524, and served 
up at a great banquet in 1555. When 
Charles IX. passed through Amiens, the 
authorities of the town made him a 
present of a dozen in 1566, and the first 
served up in France was at the wedding 
dinner of that monarch in 1570. They were 
introduced into Germany about 1530. 

TuENHOUT (Battle). — Prince Maurice of 



TTJS 

Nassau, assisted by English auxiliaries under 
Sir Francis Vere, gained a decided victory 
over the Spaniards at this place in Brabant 
A.D. 1597. 

TuRNiJTG. — This art is very ancient, as 
the lathe was in use as early as b.c. 600, and 
probably much earlier. (/S/?!? Lathe.) Sir 
Mark Isambard Brunei's block machinery 
for turning ships' blocks was completed in 
1806, and occasioned a saving of £24,000 the 
first year it was brought into operation. 

Turnpikes. — The turnpike system was 
established in England by 15 Charles II. c. 1 
(1663), which ordered places for the col- 
lection of toU to be established on the roads 
of Hertfordshire, Cambridge, and Hunting- 
don. It was afterwards extended to the 
whole kingdom by 7 Geo. III. c. 40 (1767). 
Twenty-seven turnpikes in London and its 
neighbourhood were abolished in one day 
by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 24 (June 14, 1827). 

Turpentine -TREE was introduced into 
England from Barbary before a.d. 1656. 

Turtle was introduced into England as 
an article of food between a.d. 1740 and 
1750. It had been long in use in the West 
Indies before that period. 

Tuscan Order. — This, the simplest of 
the five orders of classical architecture, was 
unknown to the Greeks, and was invented 
by Ihe Eomans or the Etruscans ; whence its 
name. It is regarded as an ItaUan modifica- 
tion of the Doric order. 

Tuscany (Italy), the ancient Etruria 
(q.v.), was called by the later Latin writers 
Tuscia, and its inhabitants Tusci, which 
were gradually corrupted into Toscana, or 
Tuscany, and Tuscans. During the Middle 
Ages its most important cities, such, as 
Florence, Lucca, Pisa, Pistoja, and Siena 
(q.v.), became independent republics; but 
the majority were absorbed in the republic 
of Florence, which was made the capital of 
the grand duchy of Tuscany by Cosmo de 
Medici a.d. 1569. 



December. Alaric establishes his winter quar- 
ters in Tuscany. 

Tuscany is annexed to the Lombard kingdom 
of Alboin. 

It is incorporated with the empire of Charle- 
magne. 

Tuscany is erected into a marquisate under 
Boniface I. 

Matilda, countess of Tuscany, dies and be- 
queaths her territories to the pope. 

Tuscany is ceded by the Guelphs to Fre- 

^ derick I, 

Florence (q. v.) becomes an independent re- 
public. 

Nov. 8. Pisa is annexed to Tuscany. 

Aug. 12. Florence surrenders to Charles V. 

Alexander de Medici is made duke of Florence. 

Siena {g. v.) is annexed to Tuscany. 

Sept. 1. Cosmo de Medici is made grand duke 
of Tuscany. 

The Medici family becomes extinct, and 
Tuscany is conferred upon Francis of 
Lorraine. 

Tuscany is occupied by the French. 

Ferdinand III. is deposed by the French, who 
erect Tuscany into the khigdom of Etruria 
{q.v.). 

It is annexed to the French kingdom of 
Italy. 

853 



1198. 

1406. 
1530. 
1531. 
1557. 



1796. 
1801. 



TUS 



1814. Restoration of Ferdinand III. 

1847. Oct. 11. Lucca (g.v.) is annexed to Tuscany. 

1848. Feb. 1.5. Leopold JI. grants a tree constitution. 

1849. Feb. 7. The grand duke flees from Siena. 

April 12. He is recalled by his subjects. 
Sept. 24. A commercial treaty is concluded 
with Sardinia. 

1850. Sept. 21. The constitution of 1848 is suspended. 

1851. April 25. A concordat is signed with Eome. 

1852. May 6. The constitution of 1848 is finally 

abolished. June 8; Francesco and Rosa 
Madiai are condemned to four and a half 
and three and a half years' imprisonment 
respectively, for the crime of adopting 
Protestantism and endeavouring to make 
converts. Oct. 25. A deputation consisting 
of the earl of Roden and other English and 
European Protestants is refused an audience 
■with the grand duke. 

1853. March 17. The Madiai are set at liberty. 

1859. April 27. In consequence of the refusal of the 

graiid duke to conclude an alliance with 
Snrdinia, a revolution breaks out at 
Florence, and he is compelled to retreat 
to Bologna. Victor Emanuel II. is declared 
dictator of Tuscany. April 28. The Aus- 
trian ambassador quits Florence. April 30. 
Victor Emanuel II. accepts the command 
of the Tuscan forces, but declines the dic- 
tatorship. May 11. The government is 
vested in the Sardinian commissary Buon- 
compagni. May 20. The French land at 
Leghorn. Blay 23. Prince Napoleon assumes 
the command of the French at Leghorn. 
May 25. Tuscany luiites with France and 
Sardinia against Austria. July 13. The Tus- 
can ministry protests against the treaty of 
Villafranca. July 21. The grand duke 
Leopold II. abdicates in favour of his son 
Ferdinand IV. Aug. 1. Buoncompagni 
resigns his functions to the couucU of 
ministers. Aug. 11. The Tuscan national 
constituent assembly meets at Florence. 
Aug. 16. The assembly declares the Austro- 
Lon-aine dynasty abolished, and resolves 
in favour of the annexation of Tuscany 
to the kingdom of Italy. Aug. 20. An 
alliance is concluded between Tuscany, 
Parma, Modena, and the Legations. Sept. 3. 
The Tuscans petition Victor Emanuel II. 
in favour of the annexation of Tuscany 
to his kingdom. Nov. 9. The assembly 
nominates Prince Eugene of Savoy-Ca- 
lignan regent of Tuscany. Nov. 14 He 
declines the office, and on his recommenda- 
tion it is com erred upon Buoncompagni. 
Dec. 5. Buoncompagni assumes the govern- 
ment. 

1860. Jan. 27. The concordat with Rome is annulled. 

March 16. The results of the voting in 
favotir of annexation to Sardinia are pub- 
lished as follows : 366,571 for annexation ; 
14,925 for a separate kingdom. March 22. 
The annexation is effected. March 24. 
Ferdinand IV. protests from Dresden 
against the annexation of his states to 
Sardinia. March 26. The prince of Savoy- 
Carignan is appointed governor. 

1861. Feb. 14. Victor Emanuel II. abolishes the ad- 

ministrative autonomy of Tuscany. March 
26. The ex-duke Ferdinand protests against 
Victor Emanuel's assumption of the title 
of king of Italy. 



UtTLBBS OF TUSCANT. 
MAKQUISES OP TUSCIA. 



A.D. 

Boniface 1 828 

AdalbertI 845 

Adalbei-tIL 890 

Guy 917 

Lambert 929 

Boson 931 

Humbert 936 

856 



A.D. 

Hugh the Great .. 961 

Adalbert ni 1001 

Eegnier 1014 

Boniface II 1027 

Frederick 1052 

Beatrice 1054 

MatUda 1076 



TUT 

Tuscany is bequeathed to the Holy See in 
1115, and is spht up into numerous small 
independent republics. 

DXIKIS OF TUSCAiry. 
A.J). 



GRAiTD DTIKES OF TUSCANY. 



Cosmo 1 1.569 I 

Francis 1 1574 

Ferdinand 1 1587 

Cosmo II 1608 I 

Ferdinand II 1621 

Cosmo in 1670 



A.D. 

John Gaston 1723 

Francis II. of Lor- 
raine 1737 

Leopold 1765 

Ferdinand in 1790 



KINGS OF ETRmiA. 

A.D. 

Louis I. of Parma 1801 

LouisII 1803 



Eliza Bonaparte. 



GRAND DITKES. 

A.D. 

Ferdinand m. (again) 1814 

Leopold II 1824 

Ferdinand IV 1859 

Tuscany is incorporated in the Italian king- 
dom of Victor Emanuel II., March 22, 1860. 

TuscTTLim (Italy) was founded, according 
to tradition, by Telegonus, about B.C. 1200. 
Having become a dependency of Alba, it 
recovered its liberty, and adopted a re- 
publican form of government about B.C. 641. 
It supplied a contingent to the confederated 
army of the Latin cities, which was defeated 
by the Eomans B.C. 497. It was attacked 
by the Volsci and ^qui B.C. 461, and 
received assistance from Eome against its 
assailants, in return for which the Tusculans 
aided the Komans in recovering the Capitol 
from the Sabines, B.C. 458. War having 
been declared against it by the Eomans, an 
army was despatched, which, entering the 
city, found the people engaged in their 
ordinary occupations, and received a most 
friendly welcome (a proceeding that led to 
a closer alliance between the two powers), 
B.C. 378. With Eoman aid, the Latins, who 
had besieged it, were defeated, B.C. 374. It 
suifered severely from the Gauls b.c. 357 ; 
and although it took part with the Latins 
against the Eomans, at the close of the war 
was treated with great indulgence by the 
victors, B.C. 335. For several centuries its 
counts held so much power in Eome that 
they could almost insure the elevation of 
their own nominee to the papal chair. Con- 
tinued contests between the two cities in the 
12th century led to the destruction of Tus- 
culum, according to Eomualdus, in 1168, 
during the pontificate of Alexander III. ; 
or, following the account of Eichard de S. 
Germano, by the German emperor in 1191. 
(See Feascati.) 

TuTBTJEx (Staffordshire) was the place of 
imprisonment selected for Mary Queen of 
Scots, A.D. 1568, after her remoTal from 



TWE 



TYE 



Bolton. She was placed under charge of 
the earl of Shrewsbury, in the castle. 

Twelfth-Day. — The feast of the Epi- 
phany {q. V.) is so termed because it is cele- 
brated twelve days after Christmas. The 
custom of holding feasts on this day, pre- 
sided over by a king and queen, who are 
chosen by lot, is of great antiquity, and is 
regarded by some as a rehc of the classical 
custom of appointing a rex convivii. Others 
state that it is derived from a practice 
among the Eoman children of drawing lots 
with beans, to see who would be king ; and 
as an old manner of deciding the question 
was for a cake to be made containing a bean 
and a pea, which, on the division of the cake, 
indicated the persons selected as king and 
queen, this supposition receives some con- 
firmation. The festival of Twelfth-day and 
the appointment of a king and queen is 
common over nearly all Europe. In 1792 
the French National Assembly ordered the 
name of the day to be changed from " La 
fetedeEois" to "La fete de Sans-Culottes." 

Twelve Tables. — The laws of the Twelve 
Tables, characterized by Cicero as containing 
the substance of aU legislative vnsdom, were 
completed by the decemvirate of Eome 
B.C. 451. 

Ttana (Asia Minor), also called Thiana 
and Thoana, said to have been founded by 
a Thracian king, became a Eoman colony 
under Caracalla, a.d. 211 — 217. Having been 
incorporated with the empire of Palmyra, it 
was taken by Aurehan in 272. It was cap- 
tured by the Turks in 709. 

Tyburn (London). — This locality, at the 
west end of London, the site of which is 
said to be occupied by No. 49, Connaught 
Square, was the old place of execution for 
felons. It was used for this purpose as early 
as the reign of Henry IV. The first dying 
speeches, &c., printed in England were 
speeches of malefactors executed here in 
1624. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, 
and Bradshaw, were exposed at Tyburn 
Jan. 30, 1661, and the last execution here 
took place Nov. 7, 1783. Tyburn Eoad is 
first mentioned in 1679, and in 1686 it is re- 
ferred to as Tyburn Lane. It is the modern 
Oxford Street. {See Executions.) 

Tylee's Insubeection. {See Watt Ty- 
ier's Insueeection.) 

Tyndaeis (Sicily), founded by Dionysius, 
B.C. 395, was one of the first cities that de- 
clared for Timoleon, after his landing in the 
island, B.C. 344. A naval engagement took 
place off the coast, b.c. 257, between the in- 
nabitants and the Eomans, under C. Atilius, 
without any decided advantage to either 
side. A Carthaginian garrison, which had 
been forced upon it, was expelled, and an 
alliance formed with Eome,, b.c. 254. It 
took a conspicuous part in the war between 
Sextus Pompeius and Octavius, B.C. 36. 
Although its site is now deserted, it was 
a considerable place as late as the 4th cen- 
tury. 

Tynbdale was annexed to Northumber- 
land by 11 Hen. TII. c. 9 (1497), on ac- 



count of the marauding practices of the 
inha,bitauts in company with the Scots. 

Tynemouth (Northumberland) was de- 
stroyed in an inroad of the Danes, under 
Healfedene, a.d. 875. The peninsula was 
inclosed by a wall and ditch, and the castle 
was erected under "Wilham I. The castle 
was taken from the royalists by the Scotch 
forces in 1644. 

Tyke (^Era of). — This sera commenced 
Oct. 19, B.C. 125. 

Tybe (Phoenicia), the Tsor of the Israel- 
ites, was called by its own populace Sor, or 
Sur. It is said to have been founded as 
early as B.C. 2750, and is mentioned ia the 
book of Joshua as one of the boundaries of 
the tribe of Asher, B.C. 1443 (Josh. xix. 29). 
Tyre received a large accession of population 
in consequence of the expulsion of the Sido- 
nians from their own city by the king of 
Ascalon, B.C. 1210, and some authorities even 
regard this circumstance as the origin of Tyre. 
Hiram, king of Tyre, assisced Solomon in 
the construction of his temple, B.C. 1014 
(1 Kings V. 1 to 12), and the city successfully 
resisted a five years' siege by Shalmanaser, 
king of Assyria, B.C. 721 to 716. Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of Babylon, laid siege to Tyre 
B.C. 585, and maintained the attack for 
thirteen years, during which the Tyrians 
are said to have abandoned their old city, 
and removed to this island opposite, where 
they founded insular Tyre. The precise 
period at which this portion of the city was 
established, is, however, mere matter of 
conjecture. Alexander the Great took Tyre 
after a seven months' siege of extraordinary 
difficulty, during which he constructed a 
mole connecting the insular city with the 
mainland, in July, 332 B.C. Antigonus, of 
Syria, besieged Tyre B.C. 315, and took it 
after a siege of fifteen months, and it was 
treacherously surrendered to Antiochus the 
Great by Theodotus, heutenant of Ptolemy 
Philopater, B.C. 218. Tyre was taken from 
the Saracens by the Crusaders, after a siege 
of five months and a half, a.d. 1124, when a 
third part of the city was bestowed upon the 
Venetian repubUc for its assistance in the 
capture. Saladin sought in vain to retake it 
in 1187, and it was at length seized by 
Chalil, sultan of Cairo, in 1291. The pros- 
perity of Tyre was not finally destroyed 
untU the conquest of Syria by the Turks in 
1516. In 1766 the Metalwilch, a sect of 
Shiites, settled here, and estabhshed a trade 
in grain and tobacco. Tyre surrendered to 
the allied fleet in 1841. A bishop of Tyre was 
ordained by St. Peter. Councils were held 
here in 335 and 518. 

Tyeol (Austria) . — This province of Austria 
was originally peopled by the Ehaetians, and 
after many changes, passed iato the posses- 
sion of Coimt Berthold, of Andechs, a.d. 
1180, and was ceded to the house of Habs- 
burg in 1363. In 1602 it was conferred upon 
the archduke Maximilian, and in 1665 it 
became au integral part of the Austrian 
empire. By the peace of Presburg, Dec. 
26, 1805, the Tyrol was ceded to Bavaria. 
857 



UBE 

The population being dissatisfied witli tlieir 
change of rulers, an insurrection broke out 
in April, 1809, headed by the patriotic inn- 
keeper Andrew Hofer. Under his leader- 
ship the Tyrolese expelled the Bavarians, 
and defeated the French in several engage- 
ments, especially in the two battles of Berg 
and Isel, or Innspriick, May 29 and Aug. 12, 
1809. The last-mentioned victory resulted 
in the expulsion of the Prench from the 
Tyrol, and the occupation of Innspriick by 
Hofer, Aug. 15. Austria resigned all the 
advantages gained by the insurgents, by the 
treaty of Schoubrunn, or Vienna, Oct. 14, 
1809, by which Bavaria regained her ascend- 
ancy. The Tyrolese refused to lay down 
their arms, from an impression that the 
treaty was invaUd, and the war continued 
tiU December, when they were finally sub- 
dued. Hofer was made prisoner by the 
French, Jan. 20, 1810, and was shot at 
Mantua Feb. 20. The Tyrol was retaken by 
Austria in 1814, and in 1848 an insurrection 
of the inhabitants was suppressed by Mar- 
shal Kadetzky. 

TJ- 

TIbeda (Spain) was btult by the Moors 
from the materials of the Eoman town Bse- 
tula, A.D. 886. It was destroyed in 1212 by 
Alfonso VIII., "who," says the Moorish 
Chronicler, " did not leave a Moslem ahve 
therein. May the curse of AHah rest upon 
him ! " Having been rebuilt, it was taken by 
Ferdinand III. in 1235. 

TJbiquaeians, or Ubiquitaeians, so 
named from their distinguishing doctrine, 
that the body of Christ is everywhere, were 
the followers of Brentius, a Lutheran, who 
first disseminated his views in his " Sententia 
de LibeUo BulUugeri," pubhshed at Tubin- 
gen A.D. 1561. James Andrese held the same 
opinion, and Brentius pubhshed other works 
in which it was maintained. 

Uddetalla (Battle). — The Danes de- 
feated the Swedes at tlds town of Sweden, 
A.B. 1678. 

Ukeaine (Eussia), denoting, in Polish, a 
frontier, was in possession of the Goths a.d. 
268. After undergoing various changes, it 
was ceded by Poland to the Cossacks in 
1672. Turkey having asserted some claim 
to the territory, abandoned it in favour of 
Eussia in 1632. Charles XII., on his invasion 
of Eussia, traversed it in order to eifect a 
junction A\ith Mazeppa in 1708. It was 
crossed by the emperor Alexander I., when 
he left Warsaw on his southern journey, 
April 30, 1818. An insurrection which broke 
out in the Ukraine April 25, 1831, was sup- 
pressed May 26. 

Uleaboe& (Finland) was foxmded a.d. 
] 610, and ceded by Sweden to Eussia Sept. 
17, 1809. The town was destroyed by fire 
in 1822. 

Ulloa, St. Juan d' (Mexico), the last 
forti'ess held by the Spaniards during the 
war of independence, was taken by the 
Mexicans Nov. 13, 1825. The fort was 



UMB 

bombarded N"ov. 27, 1838, by the French 
admiral Baudin with three Hne-of-battle 
ships, one frigate, and two bomb-vessels, and 
in four hours the white flag was hoisted, the 
walls hadug been reduced to ruins. 

Ulm (Wiirtemberg). — An imperial diet was 
held here to terminate the wars of the Ger- 
man nobles, a.d. 1165. It was sui-prised 
during a fog, in June, 1702, and taken 
by Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, 
who then declared in favour of the house 
of Bourbon. The Gallo-Bavarian garrison 
surrendered to General Thomgen in 1704, 
before the trenches for its siege were opened. 
Moreau fell back upon Ulm in his retreat, 
Sept. 27, 1796. It capitulated to Napoleon I. 
with its Austrian garrison of 28,000 men 
under General Mack, Oct. 20, 1805. The 
fortifications were restored by the confedera- 
tion in 1842. The cathedral, commenced in 
1377, was completed in 1494. 

Ulstee (Ireland), one ofthe five provinces, 
was partly conquered in the Anglo-Norman 
invasion by John de Courcey, who assumed 
the title of earl of Ulster, a.d. 1177. Edward, 
brother of Eobert Bruce of Scotland, landed 
in Ulster with an army in 1315. 

Ulster King op Akms was appointed for 
Ireland Feb. 2, 1552. 

Ulster Eebellion. — Eoger More, a gen- 
tleman of Kildare, Sir Phehm O'Neal, Lord 
Enniskillen, and other native Irish chieftains, 
formed a conspiracy for the purpose of sur- 
prising Dubhn castle, and causing a general 
rising in Ulster, both of which were to be 
eff"ected Oct. 23, 1641. Though the former 
miscarried, the rising in Ulster took place on 
the appointed day. The country was devas- 
tated, the towns captured, and many of the 
new settlers were put to death. The revolt, 
in the course of which many thousands of 
fives were sacrificed, was not finally quelled 
untU 1649. 

Ulster Settlement. — James I. formed a 
scheme for the colonization of Ulster, a.d. 
1611. The lands were divided into lots of 
1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 acres, and only Eng- 
lish settlers were admitted. The order of 
baronets was estabhshed in the same year, 
to provide a fund for the defence of the 
new EngUsh settlement of Ulster. The first 
patent to Nicholas Bacon bears date July 
22, 1611. 

Umbeellas were used among the ancient 
Greeks, being considered an evidence of rank; 
and also by the Eomans. Michael Drayton, 
in one of his poems written a.d. 1630, men- 
tions them as a fashionable article in England. 
Dr. Jamieson, who purchased one at Paris, 
is said to have first introduced it into notice 
in Glasgow in 1780. The first carried in the 
streets of Bristol was in 1782. Jonas Han- 
way, the eastern traveller, did much to ren- 
der the umbrella fashionable, as he carried 
one in the streets of London about 1750, 
though it was considered eifeminate to do so. 

Umbeia (Battle).— In a battle fought in 
Umbria, the Eomans gained an important 
victory over the Gauls and Samnites ; 
25,000 of whom were left dead on the field. 



UMM 

and 80,000 made prisoners, B.C. 298. The 
Romans were inspirited in the contest by 
the example of the younger Decius, who, 
devoting himself to the infernal gods, plunged 
into the thickest of the fight. 

Ummerapooea, or Amaeapuha (Burmah) , 
" the city of the immortals," founded 
A.D. 1783, was destroyed by lire in March, 
1810. The court was removed from this 
city to Ava in 1819, and an earthquake laid 
it in ruins in 1839. Its celebrated temple, 
with 250 columns, contains a colossal bronze 
image of Guadama, said to be the last 
earthly representative of Buddha. 

UifCTioN'. {See Exteeme Unction.) 

Undertakees.— Certain members of 
parhament who professed to understand 
the temper of the House of Commons, and 
to facilitate the king's dealings with it, 
received this name in the reign of James I., 
about A.D. 1610. In opening parliament, 
James I. refers to them as "a strange 
kind of beast called undertaker." Sir 
Henry IfeviUe was their leader. 

Unicobn-. — Ctesias, the Greek historian, 
describes it as a native of India, B.C. 398. 
Aristotle speaks of it under the appellation 
of the Indian ass, B.C. 334. Since then the 
myth has been repeated, and embeUished 
by writers innumerable. When James I. 
came to the throne of England in 1603, he 
adopted the figure of a unicorn to support 
with the lion the royal arms, the supporters 
of the Scottish arms being two unicorns. 

Unifoemitt. {See Act oe Unifoemitt.) 

Uniforms. — Harold II. clothed his 
soldiers in leather, a.d. 1066. Louis XIV. 
of France gave a uniform to his troops 
about 1662. In the Enghsh navy, uniforms 
are said to have originated with Admiral 
Mostyn before 1767. 

Unigenitus. — The bull condemning the 
doctrines of the Jansenists, so called because 
it commences with this word, was issued by 
Pope Clement XI., at the instance of 
Louis XIV., in September, 1713. Beaumont, 
archbishop of Paris in 1752, ordained that 
no dying person should receive the eucharist 
unless it could be shown that he adhered to 
this principles of this buU. 

Union.— Commissioners were appointed 
(1 James I. c. 2) to treat with Scotland for 
the union of the two countries, a.d. 1004. 
Queen Anne, in her first speech to pai'lia- 
ment, recommended it, March 11, 1702. 
The queen was empowered to appoint com- 
missioners to effect the object by 1 Anne, 
c. 8. They came to terms July 22, 1706, 
and twenty-five articles were drawn up 
and agreed to. The Scottish parliament 
passed the act Jan. 16, 1707, and in the 
English parliament a biU (6 Anne, c. 11), 
embodyiug the treaty, was passed, and re- 
ceived the royal assent March 6, 1707. It 
took effect May 1. The united kingdoms 
were named Great Britain. 

Union (Repeal of the). (/See Eepeal 
OF THE Union.) 

Union Jack, a national flag for Great 
■Britain, composed of the cross of St. George 



UNI 

and the saltire of St. Andrew, was an- 
nounced by royal proclamation, April 12, 
1606. Having fallen into disuse, it was re- 
vived by another proclamation, July 28, 1707. 
The saltire of St. Patrick was added Jan. 1, 
1801. 

Union of Caiiiae. {See Calmae.) 

Union of Great Britain and Ireland 
was alluded to by George III. in his speech 
at the opening of parliament Jan. 22, 1800. 
A biU (39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 47), embodying 
articles of union, was introduced by Pitt, 
and received the royal assent July 2, 1800. 
The statute (40 Geo. III. c. 38) passed the 
Irish parliament June 13, 1800, and the 
union took effect from Jan. 1, 1801. 

Unitarians, received the name of Soci- 
nians from Lsehus Socinus, who founded a 
sect in Italy, a.d. 1546. They were estab- 
Mshed as distinct bodies at Piukzow, Eacow, 
and in several parts of Transylvania, in 1565. 
They condemned their own bishop, Davidis, 
as a heretic, and cast him into prison, a.d. 
1578. Eaustus Socinus settled their dis- 
putes, and introduced uniformity of worship 
amongst those in Poland in 1592. An edict, 
compelling them to quit Poland within three 
years, was issued in 1658. Theophilus Lindsey 
left the Church of England and advocated 
their tenets in 1774. In the presbyterian 
churches their doctrines spread considerably 
about 1795. Numerous societies were formed 
in England and America for the propagation 
of their doctrines in 1808. An act was passed 
for their relief iu 1813. 

United Beethee n. — This religious 
body, maintaining the principle of non- 
resistance against persecution, sprung from 
a schism amongst the Bohemian followers 
of John Huss many years after his death, 
July 6, 1415. Eleeing from the into- 
lerance of the popish clergy, a number of 
them found refuge in Saxony, where they 
received a grant of waste land from Count 
Zinzendorf, and built the village of Herrn- 
hut, " the watch of the Lord," in 1722. 
The count entered the clerical profession, 
and was ordained bishop of the church at 
Lissa in 1737. Some of its members came 
to England iu 1738 ; and Archbishop Potter, 
interesting himself in their behalf, obtained 
the passing of two acts (20 Geo. II. c. 44 
[1747], and 22 Geo. II. c. 30 [1748]) to 
relieve them from taking oaths, and from 
certain poHtical disabilities. In these mea- 
sures they were acknowledged to be " an 
ancient Protestant episcopal church, which 
had been countenanced and reheved by the 
kings of England, his majesty's predeces- 
sors." They are also called Moravians. 

United Ieishmen, who had a project for 
establishing an independent repubhc, were 
formed into a society by a barrister named 
Theobald Wolfe Tone, a.d. 1791. An in- 
vasion of Ireland by the French was ar- 
ranged imder their auspices in December, 
1796. An elaborate report of their proceed- 
ings was prepared by a secret committee of 
the House of Commons, and printed March 
15, 1799. 

859 



United Peoviij-ces. — The deputies of 
Guelderland, Zutphen, Holland, Zealand, 
Utrecht, and the Frisian proTinees, assem- 
bled at Utrecht Jan. 23, 1579, and signed the 
celebrated treaty or union of Utrecht, which 
forms the basis of the Dutch republic. 
Count Eenneberg, stadtholder of Triesland, 
Overyssel, Groningen, &c., assented to the 
union June 11, 1579. Owing to his treason- 
able practices, the final incorporation of 
Groningen was delayed till 1594. Besides 
these provinces, some cities were admitted, 
of which the chief were Ghent, Feb. 4, 1579 ; 
Antwerp, July 25, 1579 ; and Bruges, Feb. 6, 
1580. (See Holland.) 

United States (North America). — Thir- 
teen states, forming part of the colonial 
empire of England, effected a separation, 
under the name of the United States, a.d. 
1776. 



1765. March 22. Passing of the American Stamp 

Act (q.v.). Oct. 7. A congress, composed of 
delegates from the colonies, assembles at 
Kew York. Oct. 25. The delegates from 
Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ehode Island, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland, 
sign a declaration of union. Nov. 1. The 
Stamp Act comes into operation, and is 
resisted by the colonists. 

1766. March 18. The Stamp Act is repealed. 

1767. June 29. Charles Townshend obtains an act 

(7 Geo. III. c. 46) for taxing tea, glass, 
papc, &c. , in the American colonies. 

1768. Jan. 20. The Massachusetts assembly pe- 

titions the king against Townshend's mea- 
sure. Oct. 1. An Euglibh force lands at 
Boston. 

1770. March 5. A fatal affray takes place between 

the English soldiery and the people of 
Boston. 

1771. May 16. A force of about 1,500 North Caro- 

linian rebels are defeated by Governor 
Tryon in a battle at Almausee. 

1773. Dec. 16. The inhabitjints of Boston throw 342 
chests of the taxed tea into the sea. 

1774 March. Boston is deprived of it? n^hts as a port 
by the Boston Port Bill (14 Geo. III. c 19). 
May 13. General Gage ai-rives at Boston 
as governor. Sept. 5. The fiist American 
continental congress assembles at Phila- 
delphia. 

1775. April 18. The first action in the war of Inde- 

pendence takes iJlace at Lexington {q. v.). 
May 10. The colonists seize Ticonderoga. 
May 25. Reinforcements from Englaud, 
under generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clin- 
ton, arrive at Boston. Juue 15. George 
■Washington is appointed commander-in- 
chief of the American continental army. 
June 17. The battle of Bunker's Hill {g. v.). 
Sept 10. The Americanforoes invade Canada 
{q. v.). Sept. 14. A blue flag, with a crescent 
in the right corner, is adopted, as the 
republican flag in South Carolina. 

1776. March 17. The English evacuate Boston, which 

is occupied by Washington. June 18. The 
Americans evacuate Canada. July 4. Con- 
gress adopts the "Declaration of Inde- 
pendence," which is signed by the re- 
presentatives of the following thirteen 
states :— New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
Ehode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, 
Maryland, Virginia, JSorth Carolina, South 
Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, and Georgia. Aug. 27. The 
English are victorious in the battle of 
Brooklyn, or Long Island {q. v.). Sept. 15. 
The English occupy New York. Oct. 13. 
The English captm-e an American squadron 
on Lake Champlain (q.v.). 



A.D. 

1776. 



1779. 
1780. 



1785. 

1786. 
1787. 
1789. 
1791. 

1792. 
1794 

1796. 
1797. 



VSl 



Oct. 28. The English are victorious at thebattJe 
of White Plains. Nov. 16. Fort Washington 
is seized by the Euglish. Dec. 8. They 
take Rhode Island. Dec. 13. The American 
general Lee is made prisoner by the Eng- 
lish. Dec. 26. Washington defeats, and 
makes prisoners, a detachment of Hessians 
at the battle of Ti-enton. 

Jan. 3. Washington is victorious at Princeton. 
July 31. The Marquis La Fayette having 
arrived in America, with other Fi-ench 
officers, is appointed major-general in the 
republican ai-my. Sept. 11. Lord Comwallis 
is victorious at Brandywine {g. v.). Sept. 
26. He takes Philadelphia. Oct. 4. The 
English are victorious at Gennantown. 
Oct. 7. They are defeated at Stillwater. 
Oct. 17. General Bm-goyne surrenders with 
his army to General Gates, at Swratoga. 
Nov. 15. Articles of confederation are 
adopted by the congress. Nov. 22. Congress 
refuses all proposals of peace inconsistent 
with the independence of the states. Dec. 
16. France acknowledges the independence 
of the United States. 

Feb. 6. Ti-eaties of amity and commerce are 
concluded with France at Paris. June 18. 
The English evacuate Philadelphia. June 
28. Wa-ohington is victorious at Monmouth 
or Freehold. Dec. 29. Savannah is seized 
by the English. 

March 3. Defeat of the Americans at Briar 
Creek {q.v.). 

May 11. Charlestown sun-enders to the Bri- 
tish. Aug. 16. Victory of Gates over Com- 
wallis, at Camden. Sept. General Benedict 
Arnold carries on treacherous intercourse 
with the English. Sept. 23. Arrest of Major 
Andr6. Oct. 2. He is executed by sentence 
of court-martial as a spy. 

Jan. 17. Colonel Tarleton is defeated by th« 
Americans at Cowpens. March 15. Com- 
wallis defeats the Americans at Guildford. 
Sept. 8 Victoiy of the English at Eutaw 
Springs {q.v. I. Oct. 19. Lord ComwaUis, 
•with a force of 7,073 men, sun-enders to 
Washington at Yorktown. 

March 4. The House of Commons resolves — 
"That the advisers of the further prose- 
cution of offensive war in America are 
enemies to the king and country." Out. 8. 
Holland acknowledges the indeijendence of 
the United States by a treaty concluded at 
the Hague. 

Jan. 20. An armistice is concluded with Great 
Britain. Feb. 5. The independence of the 
states is acknowledged by Sweden ; Feb. 
25, by Denmark ; March 24, by Spain. 
April 19. Peace is proclaimed in the 
American army, exactly eight years from 
the commencement of the war. Sept. 3. 
Peace with England is definitively con- 
cluded by the treaty of Paris. Nov. 25. 
The English evacuate New York. 

June 1. John Adams is introduced to Geor^ 
III. as the first accredited minister from the 
United States to the couit of London. 

Insurrections against the government break 
out in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 

Sept. 17. A federal constitution is proposed 
by a national couveution. 

April 14. George Washington is declared first 
president of the United States. 

Feb. 18. Vermont is admitted into the Union. 
The United States Bank is established at 
Philadelphia. 

June 1. Kentucky (q. v.) is admitted into the 
Union. 

Insurrectionary movements occur in Penn- 
sylvania. Nov. 19. A treaty of amity, com- 
merce, and navigation is concluded with 
Great Britain at London. 

Dec. 7. Washington resigns the presidency. 
Tennessee {q.v.) is admitted into the Union. 

July 7. The treaties with France are annulled. 



UNI 



1799. Dec. 14. Death of George Washington at 

Mount Vernon, in Virginia. 

1800. The seat of government is removed from 

Philadelphia to Washington. Sept. 30. A 
convention with France is concluded at 
Paris. 

1801. The American general Benedict Arnold dies 

at London. 

1802. Ohio [q. v.) is admitted into the Union. 

1803. April 30. Louisiana (g. v.) is piu'chased from 

the French government. 

1804. The district of Mobile is established. 

1807. Feb. 19. Aaron Burr is arrested on a charge 

of conspiracy, and is acquitted. July 2. 
Entry of American ports is denied to 
English armed vessels. Dec. 22. A general 
embargo is imposed by the American 
government. 

1808. Jan. 1. The importation of African slaves is 

prohibited by Congress. 

1809. March 1. The general embargo is repealed. 

1810. March 23. Napoleon I. promulgates the Eam- 

bouillet decree, -which prohibits French 
vessels from entering the ports of the 
United States, and orders the seizure of 
all American vessels arriving in French 
■waters. Nov. 2. Intercourse recommences 
between the two powers. 

1812. June 18. War is declared agalast Great Bri- 

tain. Aug. 16. General Hull, having in- 
vaded Canada with about 2,500 men, sur- 
renders to the English. Aug. 19. The 
Guerriere frigate is captured by the 
U.S. frigate Constitution. Oct. 13. Victory 
of the English at Queenstown (q. v.). Oct, 
18. Captain Jones, of the American sloop 
Wasp, takes the English sloop Frolic. Oct. 
25. The English frigate Macedonia is taken 
by the U.S. frigate dnited States. Dec. 29. 
The Java frigate surrenders to the U.S. 
frigate Constitution. Louisiana is ad- 
mitted into the Union this year. 

1813. Jan. 24. The English defeat General Win- 

chester at Frenchtown (q.v.). Feb. 25. 
Capture of the English sloop Peacock by 
the U. S. ship Hornet. April 27. York, 
Upper Canada, suiTenders to the Ame- 
ricans. May 2. The English are repulsed 
at Fort Stephenson. June 1. Capture of 
the U. S. frigate Chesapeake by Captain 
Broke of the Shannon. (See Chesapeake.) 
June 3. The Euglish take the U. S. vessels 
Growler and Eagle. June 6. The American 
generals Chandler and Winder are made 
prisoners by the English at the battle of 
Stony Creek, and the Americans sustain a 
severe defeat at Burlington Heights {q.v.). 
June 22. The English are defeated on Craney 
Island. Aug. 14. Seizure of the U. S. sloop 
Argus by H. M. ship Pelican. Sept. 10. 
Commodore Perry, U. 8. navy, captures an 
English squadron on Lake Erie. Oct. 5. 
The English are defeated in the battle of 
the Thames, in which their Indian ally 
Tecumseh perishes. Nov. 11. The Ameri- 
cans are defeated at Williamsburg. Dec. 30. 
The English are victorious at Blackrock 
{q. V.) and bum Buffalo (q. v.). 
1814 March 4. The English are defeated at Long- 
wood. March 28. Surrender of the U. S. 
frigate Ussex to H. M. ships Phcehe and 
Cherub. April 25. Admiral Cochrane de- 
clares the United States ports in a state of 
strict blockade. May 6. The English seize 
Fort Oswego. July 3. Fort Erie is seized 
by the Americans. July 5. Victory of the 
Americans at Chippewa ' (q. v.). July 25. 
An indecisive action takes place at Bridge- 
water. Aug. 14. The English fail in an 
attempt to recover Fort Erie. Aug. 24. 
The English are victorious at Bladensburg 
(q.v.), and seize Washington, where they 
bui-n the Capitol and other public build- 
ings. Aug. 29. Alexandria capitulates to 
the English. 



1815. 

1816. 

1817. 
1818. 
1819. 



1822. 

1824. 
1825. 



UNI 



Sept. 11. Capture of an English squadron by 
the Americans on Lake Champlain (q. f .). 
Sept. 12. Defeat of the American army at 
Baltimore. Dec. 24. Peace with Great Bri- 
tain is concluded at Ghent. 

Jan. 8. The English are defeated at New 
Orleans. Feb. 17. Katification of the treaty 
of Ghent by the president. 

Dec. Indiana (q.v.) is admitted into the 
Union. 

Mississippi (q. v.) is admitted into the Union. 

Illinois (q. v.) is admitted into the Union. 

March 3. Alabama (q. v.) is admitted into the 
Union. Arkansas (q.v.) is erected into a 
separate territory this year. 

Oct. 20. Spain cedes Florida (q. v.) to the 
United States. Maine (q. v.) is admitted 
into the Union this year ; and the crime 
of conveying negi-oes from Africa to Ame- 
rica is declared a capital piracy. 

Missouri (q.v.) is admitted into the Union. 
(See MissoTJKi Compromise.) 

March 19. The United States government 
acknowledges the independence of the 
South American governments. 

Aug. 13. General La Fayette visits the United 



May 28. A treaty of friendship and commerce 
is concluded with Colombia. Sept. 7. The 
venerable La Fayette returns to France. 

Api-il 26. A treaty of amity and commerce is 
concluded with Denmark. July 4. Death of 
the ex-presidents John Adams and Thomas 
Jefferson, on the fiftieth anniversary of 
American independence. Nov. 3. A con- 
vention is concluded with Great Britain 
for indemnifying the sufferers by the late 
war. 

May 13. A new and protective tariff is 
adopted. 

May 7. A treaty is concluded with Turkey. 
The ports are again opened to English com- 
merce. 

July 4. Death of the ex-president James 
Monroe. (See Moneoe Dootbine.) 

July 14. New tariff laws are passed. The 
commercial world of America is agitated 
by a violent panic. 

Sept. Anti-negi-o-emancipation riots are fre- 
quent. 

April. Arkansas and Michigan (q. v.) are ad- 
mitted into the Union. The national debt 
of the United States is paid off. 

Dec. 29. The U. S. steamer Caroline is burnt 
by Canadian royalists, near Schlosser, for 
having brought assistance to the rebels. 

Jan. 5. The president prohibits American 
citizens from aiding Canadian rebels in 
arms against the Bi-itish government. 

Oct. 9. The United States Bank suspends 
payments. 

Jan. Alexander M'Leod, a British subject. Is 
arrested in New York state on a charge 
of complicity in the destruction of the 
Caroline. Feb. A tme bill for murder 
and arson is found against him. March 
12. Mr. Fox, English ambassador, demands 
the release of M'Leod. April 4. Death of 
President Harrison a month after his in- 
auguration. Sept. 9. A party of Canadian 
volunteers cross the New York frontier, 
and seize and carry into Canada Colonel 
Grogan, a citizen of the United States, 
Sept. 11. Resignation of the ministry, in 
consequence of the president's exercise of 
his power of veto. Sept. 25. The president 
issues a proclamation against "Hunters' 
Lodges," or any other secret societies formed 
for the annoyance of the Canadian frontier. 
Oct. 4. The trial of M'Leod is commenced 
at Utica, and Colonel Grogan is restored to 
the American government. Oct. 12. M'Leod 
is acquitted. Oct. 27. The brig Creole sails 
from Hampton Roads for New Orleans 
laden with slaves and tobacco. 



UI7I 



l&H. Nov. 7. The slnves obtain the mastfry of the 
vessel, murder their owner, Mr. Hewell, 
■wound several of the crew, and steer for 
Nassau, New Providence. Nov. 9. The 
English governor of Nassau liberates all 
the slaves except such as were concerned 
in the murder and mutiny. 

1842. April 1. Lord Ash hurt on arrives at New York 
as special ambassador from the British 
government. Aug. 9. Signing of the treaty 
of Washington, better known as the Ash- 
bui-ton Ti'eaty (g. v.), by the English and 
American plenipotentiaries. Aug. 10. The 
president exercises his power of veto in 
the case of a proposed tariff bill. Aug. 30. 
After undergoing some modifications the 
tariff act receives the president's sijinatuie. 
Sept. 30. Lord Ashbua-ton an-ives in Eng- 
land. 

1844. April 12. The Texans conclude a treaty with 

the United States requesting annexation 
to the Union. Jmie 27. Murder of Joe 
Smith, the prophet of the Latter-day 
Saints {g. v.). 

1845. March 1. Texas {q. v.) is admitted into the 

Union. March 3. Florida {q. v.) is admitted 
a.s a state of the Union. June 4. Wai- is 
declared against the United States by 
Mexico {q. v.). 

1846. June 12. A treaty for the settlement of the 

Oregon boundary ciuestion is concluded 
with Great Britain at Washington. Aug. 
4. Iowa (g. v.) is admitted into the Union. 
Aug. 22. General Kearney announces the 
anr exation of New Mexico to the American 
republic. 

1847. The Americans assist the distressed Irish 

and gain many victories in Mexico 
{q.v.l 

1848. Feb. 2. Upper California is ceded to the 

United States. Feb. 23. John Quiucy 
Adams dies suddenly in the house of 
Congi-ess. May 19. Peace is ratified with 
Mexico. Wisconsin (q. v.) is admitted into 
the Union this year. 

1849. Mai-ch 3. The territoi-y of Minnesota {q. v.) is 

erected. Aug. 11. The president publishes 
a proclamation against the expedition of 
General Narciso Lopez against Cuba, irept. 
15. The Fren'h ambassador is dismissed 
fi'om Washington. 

1850. April 19. A convention for the establishment of 

aship-canal through the isthmus of Panama 
is concluded with Great Britain. {See Bdl- 
wer-Clavton Tkeatv.) May 17. General 
Lopez conducts another piratical expedition 
agninst Cuba for the puTTpose of annexing 
That island to the American Union, Vmt he 
is repulsed at Cardenas by the Spanish 
authorities. July 9. Death of the pre- 
sident. General T«ylor. Aug. Heniy Clay 
obtains the adoption of his " omnibus 
measui-e," by which California is admitted 
into the Union as a free state, and the 
Fugitive Slave BiU is passed. (See Cali- 
FOKNIA and Slaa'-eet.) Sept. 9. New 
Mexico is erected into a teiTitory of the 
Union, and Utah is admitted as a territory 
of the Union. 

1851. April 25. The president issues another pro- 

clamation against the marauding expe- 
ditions directed against Cuba. Aug. 12. 
General I^opez, with a force of Americans, 
effects another landing on the island. 
Sept. 1. He is executed by the garotte at 
Havannah. Sept. 14. Death of James 
Fenimoie Cooper, the American novelist. 
Oct. 22. The president issues a proclama- 
tion against a projected expedition in 
favotir of the Mexican insui-geuts. Dec. 5. 
Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian ex'le, lands 
at New York. Dec. 24. A destructive fire 
at the Capitnl, Washington, destroys the 
library of the Congress, and many im- 
portant state documents. 



UNI 



May 26. Sir John Pakington, British colonial 
secrettiry, addresses a note to the American 
government respecting the encroachments 
of American vessels on the British fisheries. 
June 29. Henry Clay expires at Washing- 
ton. Aug. The existence of the " Lone 
Star" Society (q. v.) creates some sensation 
in England. Oct. 24. Death of Daniel 
Webster, secretary of state to the U.S. 
government. Duiing the year an expedi- 
tion is despatched to Japan for commercial 
purposes. 
June 22. The Hungarian Martin Kossta, a 
citizen of the United States, is seized by the 
Ausrian authorities at Smyrna as a rebel, 
in consequence of which several Austrian 
oflScials are assassinated by political re- 
fugees. Capt. Ingraham, U.S. corvette fif*. | 
Louis, demands the restoration of Kossta, 
who is subsequently surrendered. July 14. 
Opening of the New York exhibition. The 
territory of Washington is erected this 
year. 
Feb. 28. The American vessel Black Eagle 
is seized by the Spaniards at Cuba. 
March 8. A commercial treaty is concluded 
with Japan. April 28. The United States 
government announces its neutrality in 
the eastern question. June 7. A reciprocity 
treaty with British America is coiicluded 
at Washington. June 24. Violent anti- 
slavery riots take place at Boston. July 13. i 
Captain Hollins, of the Cyane corvette, 
bombards Greytowu (q.v.) in Central Ame- 
rica. July 22. A convention relative to the 
rights of neutrals is concluded with Russia. 
Nebraska is erected into a tenitory of the 
Union this year. 

. April 12. The United States renounce the 
treaty concluded with Denmark in )820'. 
July 6. James Buchanan , American minister 
in London, complains of the enlistment of 
American citizens to serve in the English 
army. Nov. 8. A treaty of amity and 
commerce is concluded with Switzer- 
land. 

, May 2. Charles Bu'd Sumner is brutally as- 
saulted by Preston Brooks in the Senate 
House, Washington, for his strong expres- 
sion of anti-slavery principles. May 28. Mr. 
Crampton, British envoy at the United 
States government, is ordered by the presi- 
dent to quit Wiishington. June 24. The pre- 
sident recognizes the filibuster general 
Walker as president of Iv ic.iragua. Nov. 4. 
James Buchanan, the democratic, or pro- 
slavery candidate, is elected to the presi- 
dency, after a severe contest with Colonel 
Fremont, the representAtive of the repub- 
lican, or anti-slavery party. Dec. 16. The 
ship Eesolute is fomially presented to Queen 
Victoria by the United States government. 
Kansas (?.«).) is admitted into the LTniou 
this year. 

, Jan. 27. Death of Preston Brooks, the 
assailant of Sumner. March 16. Lord 
Napier is received by the president 
as English ambassador. June 16. Dan- 
gerous riots take place at New York, on 
the eve of the anniversary of the battle 
of Bunker's EiU. July 7. A treaty with 
Siam is concluded at Bangkok. Sept. 23. 
Commencement of the great religious 
"revival" (5. v.). Oct. 13. The banks of 
New York suspend payment. Nov. 15. 
A treaty with Nicaragua is concluded at 
Washington. Filibustering expeditions 
against the central American republics 
are numerous this year. 

. Feb. 14. The troops of the republic defeat 
the Mormons in an engagement near Eco- 
Cannians. March 28. Nicaragua places 
herself under the protection of the Union. 
May 14. Minnesota is admitted a state of the 
Union. June 26. The republican army enters 
Utah, the Mormon capital 



UNI 



UNI 



1858. July 28. A commercial treaty with Japan 

is concluded at Kanagawa. Aug. 5. 
Completion of the Atlantic telegraph. 
{See SUBMAKINE Tkleouaph.) Oct. 30. 
President Buchanan warns American citi- 
zens not to participate in a projected 
filibustering expedition against Nicara- 
gua. 

1859. Jan. 28. William Hickling Prescott, the 

American historian, diesat New York. Feb. 
4. A commercial treaty is concluded with 
Paraguay. Feb. 12. Oregon {q. v.) is erected 
into a state of the Union. Feb. 26. Murder 
of Philip Barton Key by D. B. Sickles, 
whose wife he had seduced. The mur- 
derer is acquitted. July 27. General Har- 
ney occupies the island of San Juan in 
the name of the United States government. 
July 29. Mr. Ward arrives at Pekin as 
American ambassador to the emperor of 
China. Aug. 16. A treaty with China is 
ratified at Peitang. Oct. 7. Walker's 
filibusters are made prison ei-s by the 
United States government near the mouth 
of the Mississippi. Oct. 17. An unsuccess- 
ful negro insun'ection breaks out at 
Harper's Ferry (q. v.). Nov. 28. Death of 
Washington Irving. 

1860. Feb. 1. Pennington is appointed speaker 

of the chamber of representatives after a 
stormy contest. March 5. Congress nomi- 
nates a couimittee of inquiry into the 
means employed by PresideJit Buchanan 
to secure his election, and into the 
character of his administration. March 28. 
The president i)rotests against this measure. 
April 23. A democratic convention to 
secure the election of Stephen Bouglas 
as president, assembles at Charlestown. 
May 9. A convention of unionists ussembles 
at Baltimore, and proposes John Bell 
for the presidency. May 14. A Japanese 
embassy is solemnly received by the pre- 
sident at Washington. May 16. The 
republican convention assembles at Chi- 
cago, and nominates Abraham Lincoln 
as candidate. June 18. A second demo- 
cratic convention meets at Baltimore, and 
divides into two parties, the northern 
delegates persisting in their nomination 
of Douglas, while the southern seceders 
propose John Breckinridge. Sept. 12. 
The filibuster, General Walker is shot at 
Honduras. Oct. 3. The prince of Wales is 
received by the president at Washington. 
Nov. 6. A. Lincoln is declared president 
elect, in consequence of which an intense 
political agitation commences in the 
Southern states. Deo. 20. South Caro- 
lina secedes fiom the Union. Dec. 29. 
Howell Cobb, Lewis Cass, and John B. 
Floyd resign their appointments in the 
government. 

1861. Jan. 3. President Buchanan refuses to with- 

draw the federal forces from Fort Sumpter, 
Chai-lestown, and announces his intention 
of enforcing the laws of the Union in South 
Carolina. Jan. 4. A general fast is ob- 
sei-ved throughout the United States, on 
account of the disafi"ection of the southern 
states. Jan. 8. Jacob Thompson resigns 
the secretaryship of the interior. Jan. 9. 
Mississippi secedes from the Union. Jan. 
10. Florida withdraws. Jan. 11. Alabama 
secedes. Jan. 17. The convention of Georgia 
declares that state no longer part of the 
Union. Jan. 26. Louisiana secedes. Feb. 7. 
Secession of Texas. Feb. 9f. Delegates from 
the seceded states assemble at Montgomery, 
and adopt a constitution for the Confede- 
rated States of America, of which Jefi"erson 
Davis is declared president. Feb. 18. In- 
auguration of J. Davis as president of 
the confederation. Feb. 27. A conference 
for restoring peace teiminates its sittings 
at Washington. 



A.D. 

1861. March 2. New Mexico is admitted as a 
state of the Union, and President Bu- 
chanan signs the Maine tariff'. March 4. 
Abraham Liuc(>ln is inaugurated presi- 
dent of the United States. April 6. Ar- 
kansas leaves the Union. April 12. The 
confederates under General Beauregard 
attack the federals in Fort Sumpter, and 
coHxpel them to surrender after a bom- 
bardment of forty hours. April 15. Presi- 
dent Lincoln arms the militia, and grants 
the confederates a dehiy of twenty days 
in which to consider their position. 
April 18. Tennessee and Virginia secede. 
April 19. Lincoln proclaims the southern 
ports in a state of blockade. May 13. The 
federals, under General Butler, occupy 
Baltimore. May 16. Lincoln states his 
determination to cease all diplomatic 
relations with such foreign powers as 
acknowledge the confederates. May 18. 
Kentucky declares itself neutral. May 23. 
The federalists enter Virginia. May 31. 
Postal communication ceases between the 
northern and southern states. June 13. 
Secession of Missouri. June 18. The fede- 
ralists under General Lyon defeat the 
Missouri confederates under General 
Jackson at Booneville. July 4. Defeat of 
the confederates at Paoh Mountain. July 5. 
An engagement takes place near Carthage, 
Missouri. July 20. The confederate con- 
gress assembles at Eichmond, Virginia. 
July 21. Battle of Manassas {q.v.), or BuU's 
Bun. Aug. 10. The federals sustain 
severe losses in the battle of Dug Spring. 
Aug. 28. The forts on Hatteras Inlet are 
seized by the federals. Aug. 29. An en- 
gagement takes place near Summersville. 
Sept. 16. The confederates are defeated at 
Lexington. Sept. 18. And at Blue Mills. 
Sept. 20. Lexington, Missouri, suiTenders 
to the confederates. Sept. 2(j. The northern 
states observe a gener.il fast. Oct. 21. 
Defeat of the federalists at Ball's Blutf. 
Oct. 31. General M'Olellan is appointed 
commander-in-chief of the forces of the 
Union. Nov. 8. The federalists seize 
Beaufort, and capture nearly 2,000,000 
dollars worth, of cotton. Slidell and 
Mason, commissioners from the confede- 
rate states to the French coiu-t, are 
forcibly taken from the English mail 
steamer Trent. Nov. 9. The news of the 
seizure of Mason and Slidell is received 
with great rejoicings at the principal 
northern towns. Nov. 13. The federalists 
are defeated by a superior confederate force 
at Guyandotte. Nov. 14. Defeat of the con- 
federates at Piketown, Kentucky. Nov. 20. 
General M'Clellan reviews 70,000 federal 
troops at Washington. Dec. 2. Congress 
passes a vote of thanks to Captain Wilkes, 
for the seizure of Slidell and Mason. 
Dec. 10. The confederates sustain a severe 
defeat in Pocahontas county, Virginia. 
Dec. 23. Lord Lyons, British minister at 
Washington, demands the suiTeuder of 
Mason and Slidell. Dec. 27. The United 
States goveriunent accedes to the de- 
mand. Dec. 26. A destructive fire breaks 
out at the government stables, Washington. 
Dec. 30. The New York bankers suspend 
cash payments. 

1862. Jan. 1. Mason and Slidell are set at liberty. 
Jan. 17. Death of ex-president Tyler at 
Eichmond, Virginia. Jan. 18. The con- 
federates are defeated at Mill Spring, Ken- 
tucky. Feb. 6. Fort Henry, Kentucky, 
surrenders to the federalists. Feb. 8. 
Eoanoke Island is taken by the federalists 
at the point of the bayonet. Feb. 9. Ax- 
rest of the federal general Stone on a 
charge of treason. Feb. 16. Fort Dounel- 
Bon, with 15,000 confederate prisoners, is 
taken by the federals. 



VNI 



1862. Feb. 24. Nashville, Tennessee, Is occupied 
by the federalists. March 8. The con' 
federate ii-on- plated steam-ship Merri- 
mac destroys the federal sailing frigates 
Cuinherland and Congress in Hampton 
Roads. March 9. An engagement takes 
place between the Merrimac and the 
federal floating-battei-y Monitor, in which 
the former is compelled to retire. 
March 24. The confederates are defeated 
at Winchester, Virginia. March 26. The 
confederates are driven from Warring- 
ton Junction. April 6 and 7. Two severe 
battles are fought at Pittsburg Landing, 
near Corinth, -which are won by the con- 
federates. April 11. Fort Pulaski, on the 
Savannah, surrenders to the federals. 
April 26. The federalists occupy New 
Orleans. May 3. The confederates evacuate 
Torktown. May 5. ITie federals are vic- 
torious at Williamsburg. May 10. Norfolk, 
Virginia, sun-enders to the feder.al troops. 
May 11. The confederates blow up the Mer- 
rimac to prevent its captui-e by the enemy. 
May 27. The confederates lose Hanover 
Court-house and 1,000 men. May 29. 
The confederates evacuate Corinth. 

PEESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The president holds the office for a term of 
four years, but is ehgible for re-election at 
the expiration of that period. The official 
year commences on the 4th of March. 



George Washing- 
ton 1789 

John Adams 17S»7 

Thomas Jefferson . . 1801 

James Madison 1809 

James Monroe .... 1817 
John Quincy Adams 182.5 
Andrew Jackson . . 1829 
Martin Van Buren 1837 



A.D. 

William Henry 

Harrison 1841 

John Tyler 1841 

James Knox Polk.. 184.5 

Zachary Taylor 1849 

Millard Fillmore . . 1850 
Pierce Franklin . , 1853 
James Buchanan . . 1857 
Abraham Lincoln.. 1861 



Fniteesalists, who held the doctrine of 
the ultimate salvation of all mankind, existed 
at an early age in the Christian church. 
They are divided into Universalists, Hypo- 
thetical Universalists, and semi- Universalists. 
They formed several societies in America 
A.D. 1780. 

Univeesal Suffeage.— This system of 
Toting existed in the republics of an- 
cient Greece and in Eome. It was esta- 
bHshed in France a.d. 1791, and was abo- 
lished on the faU of the empire. It formed 
one of the provisions of Daniel O'Connell's 
Eeform Bill, which was rejected by the 
House of Commons May 28, 1830, and it was 
adopted as the jfirst point of the people's 
charter in 1838. It was again established 
m France March 5, 1848, and was modified 
May 31, 1850. It was adopted by the pre- 
sident, Louis Napoleon, Dec, 2, 1851, and 
again in the election of deputies by the new 
French constitution, Jan. 15, 1852. The voting 
of the Itahan states for and against annex- 
ation to Sardinia in 1860 was also by uni- 
versal suffrage. 

UifiVEESiTiES.— The ancient Eomans 
apphed the term university to any corpo- 
ration of traders or professional men, and 
in ecclesiastical language it was used to de- 
note a number of churches under the govern- 
ment of one archdeacon. An instance of 
861 



tJlfl 

this employment of the word occurs a.d. 
688. Academically it signifies " a universal 
school, in which are taught all branches of 
learning, or the four faculties of theology, 
law, medicine, and the arts, and in which 
degrees are conferred in these faculties," 
The university system of education origi- 
nated in the schools attached to the churches 
and monasteries, and was estabhshed during 
the 11th century. The following is a hst 
of the most important universities, with 
the dates of their foundation. Additional 
information is frequently given under the 
title of the town in which they are situ- 
ated : — 



A.D. 

Aberdeen 1494 

Abo 1609 

Aix 1413 

Alcala de H6nar6s 1508 

Almagro 15-53 

Altorf 1622 

Andrew's, St 1411 

Angers 1246 

Athens 1837 

AvUa 1482 

Baeza 1565 

Barcelona 1430 

Basel 1459 

Berlin 1810 

1834 

1676 

Bologna 1116 

Bonn 1784 

Bordeaux 1441 

Bourges 1463 

Breslau 1702 

Brussels 1834 

Buda before 1490 

Cuen 1436 

Cagliari 1626 

Cahors 1320 

Cambridge 636 

Camerino 1727 

Catania 1445 

Cervera 1714 

Charkov 1803 

Christiana 1811 

Coimbra 1537 

Cologne 1388 

Copenhagen 1479 

Corfu 1824 

Cracow 1364 

Dijon 1722 

DUlengen 1554 

D61e 1426 

Dorpat 1632 

Douai 1562 

Dublin 1591 

Durham 1831 

Edinburgh 1582 

Elbing 1542 

Erfurt 1392 

Ei'langen 1743 

Evora 1578 

Ferrara 1390 

Florence 1438 

Franeker 1585 

Frankfort -on- Oder 1506 

Freiburg 14.57 

Gandia 1547 

Geneva 1368 

Genoa 1812 

Ghent 1816 

Giessen 1607 

Girona, or Gerona 1446 

Glasgow 1451 

Gottingen 1734 

Granada 1531 

Gratz 1586 

Greif swald 1456 

Grenoble 1339 



A.I>. 

Groningen 1614 

Guatemala 1628 

Halle 1694 

Harvard (Cam- 
bridge, U.S.) .... 1638 

Heidelberg 1386 

Helmstadt 1576 

Helsingfors 1828 

Huesca 1354 

Ingoldstadt 1472 

Innspriick 1672 

Jena 1547 

Kasan 1803 

Kiel 1663 

Kiev 1834 

Konigsberg 1544 

Leipsic 1409 

Lemberg 1784 

Lerida 1300 

Leyden 1575 

Li6ge 1817 

Lima 1614 

Lisbon 1290 

London 1828 

Louvain 1423 

Luchente 1423 

Lund 1668 

Macerata 1290 

Madrid 1836 

Majorca 1483 

Marburg 1527 

Mayence 1477 

Messina 1548 

Mexico 1553 

Montpellier 1284 

Moscow 1755 

Munich 1826 

Murcia 1310 

Nanci 1769 

Nantes 1464 

Naples 1220 

Olmutz 1581 

Onate 1542 

Oi-auge 1365 

Orihuela 1568 

Orleans 1305 

Osma 1550 

Osuna 1549 

Oviedo .\ 1604 

Oxford 879 

Paderbom 1623 

Padua 1228 

Palencia 1212 

Palermo 1447 

Pampelona Estella 1563 

Paris 1169 

Parma 1422 

Pau 1722 

Pa via 774 

Perpignan 1349 

Perugia 1320 

Pesth 1784 

Petersburg, St 1819 

Piacenza 1249 

Pisa 1338 

Poitiers 1431 



UNI 



A.D. 

Pont-4-MouEsoii .. 1572 

Prague 1948 

Quito 1586 

Rheiins 1548 

Rome 1303 

Bostock 1419 

Sa'amanca 1240 

Salzburg 1623 

Santiago 1532 

Saragossa 1474 

Sassari 1766 

hevUle 1502 

Siena 1203 



Toledo 1520 

Tortosa 1645 

Toulouse 1223 

Treves 1454 

Tubingen 1477 

Turin 1412 

Upsal, or Upsala . . 1478 

TJrbino 1671 

Utrecht 1634 

Valence 1464 

Viilencia 1410 , 

Valladolid 1346 I 

Vienna 1365 1 

Vilna 1803 I 

Weissemberg 3607 1 

"Wittenberg 1502 

Wurzbui-g 1403 

Zuiich 1834 



Siguenza 1472 

Siut»gard 1775 

Suhagun-Irache .. 1534 

Tarragona 1572 

Teneriffe 1744 



Univeesitt College (London). — This 
institution, in Gower Street, was erected 
into a distinct college of London University 
(q. v.)hj a charter dated Nov. 28, 1836. 

University College (Oxford), said to 
have been founded by Alfred, a.d. 879, was 
endowed by William of Durham, rector of 
Bishopwearmouth, a.d. 1253. The first 
statutes are dated 1280. The hall was com- 
menced in 164^, the chapel was completed 
in 1665, and the library in 1669. 

Univehsity op London. (See London 
Uniyeesity.) 

Unkiae-Skelessi (Treaty), between Eus- 
sia and Turkey, was signed at Constantinople 
July 8, 1833. By a secret article the straits 
of the Dardanelles were closed against aU 
foreign ships of war. A motion for its pro- 
duction in the House of Commons by Lord 
Dudley Stuart, who characterized it as in- 
imical to British interests, was agreed to 
Feb. 19, 1836. 

Unknown Tongite. (See Ievingites.) 

Unteewalden (Switzerland) formed the 
two separate communities of Nidwalden 
and Obwalden, a.d. 1150. It entered into 
a temporary confederacy with Schwyz and 
Uri, in August, 1291 ; took part in the insur- 
tion of 1308 ; and was recognized as one 
canton at the federal union, Dec. 8, 1315. 

Upsal, or Upsala (Sweden), was taken 
by Ivar Vidfadme, a Danish king, who united 
the thrones of Denmark and Sweden, a.d. 
722. From this town the kings received 
their title till 1015. It was created an 
archbishopric in 1164. The cathedral was 
built between the years 1258 and 1435 ; the 
university was founded by Sten Sture, in 
1478 ; and the Society of Sciences was in- 
stituted in 1719. Six miles from the town 
are the monasteries where the kings were 
elected from 1140 to 1520. 

Ueanittm was obtained from the mineral 
pitchblende, by KJaproth, who named the 
new metal after the planet Uranus, a.d. 
1789. 

Ueanus. (See G-eoegium Sidus.) 

Uebicus (Battles) . — On the banks of this 
Spanish river, the modern Orbega, Theodoric, 
ting of the Visigoths, defeated and almost 
annihilated the Suevi, under their king 
Kechiarius, a.d. 456. The Moorish prince 
Almondhir was defeated near its baiis by 
865 



UES 

Alphonso III., king of Leon, in 874, but with 
such loss to himself that, according to the 
Arab chroniclers, the Christians wei-e em- 
ployed during more than eleven days in 
burying their dead. 

Uebino (Italy), the ancient Urbinum 
Hortense, a municipal town where Fabius 
Valens, the general of ViteUius, was put to 
death a.d. 69, was besieged and taken by 
BeUsarius in 538, and became the capital of 
a duchy about 1320. Csesar Borgia treacher- 
ously obtained possession by requesting 
the duke, as a friend, to lend him his ar- 
tillery, with which he entered the town as a 
conqueror in 1502. It was wrested from 
him by Pope Julius II. in 1503. Leo X. 
captured it in 1516. The efforts of the duke 
to recover it in 1517 proved ineffectual, and 
Leo X. annexed it to the States of the Church 
in 1519. It was recovered by the duke in 
1522, and was finally incorporated with the 
papal states in 1632. 

Uegel (Spain) was created a bishopric 
A.D. 820. It was captured by the Moorish 
king Abderahman in 822, by the French in 
1691, and again when the duke of Berwick 
commanded, Oct. 12, 1719. After a few 
days' siege, the royahsts took it by assault, 
putting the greater part of the garrison to 
the sword, June 21, 1822. A regency, which 
professed to administer the government in 
the name of Ferdinand VII., was formed 
here Sept. 14, 1822. On the approach of 
Mina, the regency fled from the town, 
Nov. 10. 

Uei (Switzerland). — This canton was one 
of the three which revolted against Austria, 
A.D. 1307, and which contracted the federal 
compact of Brunnen, Dec. 8, 1315. In 1775 
the Val Levantina revolted against the juris- 
diction of Uri, but was compelled to return 
to its allegiance. 

Ueiconium, or Weoxbtee (Shropshire) . — 
About A.D. 1700 a person digging in a 
field at Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury, dis- 
covered a Roman tessellated pavement and 
other interesting remains. Other discoveries 
were afterwards made, but no systematic 
plan of exploration was adopted until a 
committee of excavation was appointed at 
Shrewsbury, Nov. 11, 1858. Excavations 
were commenced Feb. 3, 1859 ; and the 
result was the discovery of the ruins of the 
Roman city of Uriconium, which has been 
called, in consequence, the British Pompeii. 

Ueim and Thummim, commanded by 
Jehovah to form part of the breastplate of 
judgment worn by the Jewish high priest on 
certain occasions, b.c. 1491 (Exod. xxviii. 30). 
It was consulted before entering upon any 
important enterprise, as by Da^ad when he 
inquired if he should go up against any of 
the cities of Judah (2 Sam. ii. 1), B.C. 1053. 
According to Josephus, it ceased to return 
responses about B.C. 110. 

Uesuline Nitns, founded by Angela da 
Brescia about a.d. 1537. The order took its 
name from the English saint Ursula, when 
the institution was confirmed by Pope Paul 
III. in 1544. Madame de Sainte B ^uve esta- 
3 K 



UKU 

blished the first house of the order at Paris 1 
in 1604. I 

Uetjgttat, or Banda Oeientai, (South 
America), formed part of the vice-royalty 
of Buenos Ayres, under the Spaniards, and ; 
was taken possession of by Brazil a.d. 1815. < 
A war between the two countries ensued in ' 
consequence in 1825. A settlement was 
effected, by which a portion of Uruguay was 
erected into an independent republic in 1828 ; 
and a constitution was published August, j 
1830. Ships of war were sent by England 
and France into the Eio de la Plata, in con- 
sequence of the lawless state of the country, 
under Eosas, in 1845 ; and Monte Video was 
blockaded by the EngHsh till 1848 ; and by 
the French till 1849. Arrangements were 
made, and treaties formed with Prance and 
England at the conclusion of the blockade ; 
but after the withdrawal of those powers the 
war was renewed with Brazil, and prosecuted 
till 1851. 

Ushant (France). — An engagement took 
place off Ushant, July 27, 1778, between the 
English fleet, under Admiral Keppel, and 
the French, under d'Orvilliers. It was of an 
indecisive character, and Keppel was tried 
by court-martial. Off the island, Captain 
"Williams, of the -PZor«, captured the Nymphe, 
commanded by Chevalier du Eomain, after 
a severe struggle, Aug. 10, 1780. Lord Howe 
gained a signal victory over the French fleet 
off the coast, June 1, 1794. 

UsiPETES, or UsiPi. — This German tribe, 
having crossed the lower Ehine, were treach- 
erously attacked and defeated by Juhus 
Cassar, b.c. 55. They opposed the progress 
of Germanicus on his return from the country 
of the Marsi, a.d. 14; and took part in the 
siege of Moguntiacum, about 70. A de- 
tachment of the nation served in the Eoman 
army in Britain in 83 ; after which then- 
name disappears from history. 

UsTJRT. — The Jews were prohibited by the 
Mosaic law to exact usury from those of 
their own nation, B.C. 1451 (Deut. xxiii. 20). 
In Greece it was not regulated by law, and 
ranged from ten to eighteen per cent. With 
the Eomans the legal rate was twelve per 
cent., senators being allowed to recover one 
half of that rate by the Theodosian code, 
A.D. 438. Li England usury was prohibited 
by 15 Edw. III. st. 1, c. 5 (1341). It was 
limited to ten per cent, by 37 Hen. VIII. 
c. 9 (1545) ; reduced to eight per cent, in 
1624; to six in 1660 ; and by 12 Anne, st. 2, 
c. 16 (1713), was lowered to five per 
cent. By 2 & 3 Vict. c. 37 (July 29, 1839), 
all bills of exchange and promissory notes 
not having more than twelve months to run, 
and all contracts for sums above ten pounds, 
were exempted from the operation of the 
usury laws. All restrictions were repealed 
by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (Aug. 10, 1854). In 
France the rate was fixed at five per cent, in 
1665 ; but the laws affecting usury were 
abohshed at the revolution of 1789. 

Utah (North America) was acquired by 
the United States government from Mexico, 
A.D. 184S, and constituted a territory, with 



UXE 

Brigham Young as governor, Sept. 9, 1850. 
Previous to the formal transfer in 1847, the 
Mormons had estabhshed themselves here. 
A force was despatched against them by the 
federal government in 1857. Brigham Young 
submitted to authority, and received them 
peaceably in May, 1858. 

Utica (Africa) was founded by the Tyrians 
about B.C. 1165, and is mentioned as an ally 
of Carthage B.C. 348. At the close of the 
third Punic war it concluded terms with the 
Eoman conquerors, B.C. 147. Cato the 
younger committed suicide here, B.C. 46. 
It was presented by Augustus with the 
Eoman civitas, B.C. 31. It appears to have 
fallen into the hands of the Vandals about 
A.D. 439 ; and, after undergoing various 
vicissitudes, was destroyed by the Saracens 
about 700. 

Uteecht (Holland), the Trajectum of the 
Eomans, capital of the province of that 
name, is mentioned in the Itinerary of An- 
toninus, A.D. 138. An independent bishopric 
was founded here in 696. It entered into 
the Dutch confederation in 1579, and was 
taken in 1672 by Louis XIV., who was com- 
pelled to abandon it in 1673. The French, 
under General Salm, occupied Utrecht 
Jan. 17, 1795. The cathedral of St. Martin, 
built in 1382, was much injured by a storm 
in 1674. The imiversity was founded in 
1634. 

Uteecht (Treaty), which closed the war 
of the second Graiid Alliance that broke out 
A.D. 1701, was signed at Utrecht between 
France, Great Britain, Spain, Prussia, Por- 
tugal, and the States-General, April 11, 1718 
(IS'.S. ) . Gibraltar, Minorca, N"ova Scotia, and 
St. Christopher, were ceded to England, 
Hudson's Bay was restored, and the French 
settlements in jS^ewfoundland were aban- 
doned. The emperor Charles VI., who re- 
fused to make peace, was given to June 1 to 
join in the treaty. His forces were de- 
feated, and conferences were opened Nov. 
26, which resulted in the peace of Alt- 
Eanstadt {q. v.). 

Uttoxetee (Stafford).— The duke of Ha- 
milton having entered Lancashire with a 
body of Scotch troops in support of the 
cause of Charles I., was defeated near 
Preston by Cromwell, who pursued him to 
this town^ where he was captured, Aug. 20, 
1648. 

UxBBiDGE (Middlesex) . — Commissioners 
met here to discuss terms of peace between 
Charles I. and his parliament, Jan. 30, 1645. 
The parliamentary party demanded the abo- 
lition of episcopacy and the Uturgy, and that 
the absolute control of the army and navy- 
should be vested in them. These conditions 
were rejected on behalf of the king, and 
the negotiations terminated without result, 
Feb. 22. 

UxELLODTiifuir (France). — This town of 
the Cadarci was the scene of Caesar's last 
great mihtary exploit in Gaul. It was be- 
sieged by him, and only surrendered after a 
desperate resistance, from want of water, 
B.C. 51. The conqueror sullied his victory 



uz 

by causing the hands of all the fighting men 
left alive to be cut off. 

Uz, supposed to have been in the south 
of Arabia Deserta, is mentioned as the land 
where the patriarch Job lived (Job i. 1), 
B.C. 2130. 

•V. 

Vaccination. — Dr. Edvrard Jenner's at- 
tention vras first directed to this subject 
A.D. 1768, and he tried it on a boy with 
matter procured from the hand of a dairy- 
maid who had contracted cow-pox. May 14, 
1796. The boy was inoculated with small- 
pox matter by way of experiment, July 1, 
1796, and no disease followed. An act (3 & 4 
Vict. c. 29) to extend its practice was passed 
July 23, 1840 ; and another (4 & 5 Vict. 
c. 24) provided for its gratuitous perform- 
ance to the poor, June 21, 1841. An act to 
extend and enforce the practice of it (16 & 
17 Vict. c. 100) was passed Aug. 20, 1853. 
The Koyal Jennerian Institution was founded 
in 1806, and the JS'ational Vaccine Establish- 
ment in 1809. Jenner's services to the 
country were acknowledged by a grant of 
£10,000, voted by the House of Commons, 
June 3, 1802, and by another of £20,000 in 
1807. 

Vaccoli (Battle), between the Pisans 
and the Luccans, in which the latter were 

, defeated, was fought a.d. 1055. 

Vadimonian Lake (Battles). — The Etrus- 
cans were defeated, and their power fibrst 
broken, near this lake, in Italy, in an en- 
gagement with the Romans, under Q. Fabius 
Maximus, B.C. 310. In alliance with the 
Gauls, they were defeated by the consul 
P. Cornelius DolabeUa at the same place, 
B.C. 283. 

Va&eants, or Vagabonds. — This class of 
wanderers is referred to in the " Statute of 
Labourers " (23 Edw. III. c. 1), passed 
A.D. 1349. Numerous penal enactments 
were made to prevent the increase of va- 
grancy. By 1 & 2 Edw. VI. c. 3 (1547), any 
person who had offered them work which 
they refused, was authorized to brand them 
on the breast with a V, hold them in slavery 
for two years, feed them during that period 
on bread and water, and hire them out to 
others. Inoperative from its severity, this 
act was repealed in 1549. The privy council 
having issued circular letters to the sheriffs 
of counties to apprehend aU " vagabonds 
and sturdy beggars, commonly called Egyp- 
tians," 13,000 were taken up in 1,569. All 
previous laws on the subject were remodelled 
by 17 Geo. II. c. 5 (1744), which distributed 
them into the three classes of — idle and 
disorderly persons, rogues and vagabonds, 

f and incorrigible rogues. The law is at 
present regulated by 5 Geo. IV. c. 83 (1824), 
amended by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 38 (July 27, 
1838). 

VAiiiA (Battle), called by the Frerivsh the 

Battle of Agnadello, was fought between the 

Venetians and the French on the banks of 

the Adda, May 14, 1509, when the latter, 

867 



VAL 

commanded by Louis XII. in person, gained 
a decided victory. 

Valais (Svritzerland), having been con- 
quered by the Eomans, was seized by the 
Burgundians on the decline of the empire. 
They were supplanted by the Franks, vfho 
engaged in a civil war ; and the lower district 
was subjected by the upper, a.d. 1475. It 
was aUied vrith Switzerland in 1495, and 
joined the confederacy in 1529. The two 
districts were formed into one canton in 
1798. N'apoleon Bonaparte constituted it a 
separate republic in 1802, and united it to 
the French empire Nov. 12, 1810. It be- 
came part of the new confederation, under 
the constitution framed by the congress of 
Vienna, May 27, 1815. Several political 
changes of a democratic character took 
place in 1830. 

Valdenses, or Waldenses, also called 
VaUenses, Valdesii, and Vaudois, Christians 
dwelling in the Cottian Alps, who, accord- 
ing to the best authorities, retained their 
faith unsullied during prevailing corruption, 
and form the connecting link between the 
primitive church of the apostolic age and 
the reformed church of modern times. They 
occupy the valleys of Lucerna, Perosa, 
and San Martino, in Piedmont ; and their 
ancestors are said to have possessed an ec- 
clesiastical system of their own as early as 
A.D. 820. A confession of their faith, bear- 
ing date 1120, is extant ; and the " JSTobla 
Ley9zon," an exposition of their principles, 
was written in 1100. They were ordered by 
Alphonso II. of Aragon to depart out of his 
dominions in 1194, and their first persecu- 
tion commenced in 1210, A colony profess- 
ing their tenets settled in Calabria, and 
founded several towns in the 14th century. 
Innocent VIII. ordered a crusade against 
them in 1487. Commissioners, monks, and 
soldiers, were sent by the duke of Alcala, 
viceroy of Naples, with instructions to con- 
vert or destroy them, in 1561. Instigated by 
the pope and the court of Spain, Duke 
Emanuel Phihbert sent troops into their quiet 
valleys in 1560. Neither women nor children 
were spared, and many, taken prisoners, 
were consigned to the flames. Terrible per- 
secutions followed at different times. Charles 
Emanuel I. guaranteed them the exercise of 
their religion, under certain restrictions, in 
1603 and 1620 ; and Charles I. of England 
sent two embassies to intercede for them in 
1627 and in 1629. A merciless crusade was 
commenced against them by Charles Ema- 
nuel II. in 1655. His cruelties elicited pro- 
tests from several European states. Crom- 
well induced Louis XIV. to mediate, and an 
amnesty was granted in August, 1656. Fresh 
persecutions followed in 1663 and 16G4. 
Under the advice of Louis XIV. of France, 
Victor Amadeus II. issued an edict com- 
manding them to abjure their tenets, in Janu- 
ary, 1686. Numbers were put to the sword, 
their whole property confiscated ; others were 
thrown into prison, where they died ; and 
many families migrated into Switzerland. 
Eight hundred of these exiles, under their 
3x2 



VAL 

pastor, Henri Arnaud, undertook a roman- 
tic expedition to their native valleys, where 
they arrived Sept. 16, 1688. In return for 
their bravery in defending the passes of the 
Alps against the French, Victor Amadeus II. 
of Sardinia, in June, 179i, published an ordi- 
nance redressing many of their grievances. 
They were placed by Napoleon Bonaparte on 
an equal footing with Eoman Cathohcs in 
1802; but again subjected to disabilities by 
their king in 1814. Charles Fehx, however, 
showed them some degree of indulgence in 
1821. Permission was granted them by 
Victor Emanuel II. to erect a church at 
Turin, Dec. 15, 1853. 

Valencat (France). — Napoleon I. impri- 
soned Ferdinand VII. of Spain in the palace 
at this town. May 9, 1808. An attempt to 
procure his hberation was made by the 
English government, but without success, in 
1810. A treaty for the same object was | 
concluded belween Napoleon I. and the 
royal captive Dec. 11, 1813. The Cortes 
refused to ratify the treaty ; the king, how- 
ver, was set free, and arrived in Spain 
March 19, 1814. 

Valekce (France). — Pius VI. was con- 
veyed to this town a prisoner by the French, 
Aug. 19, and he died here Aug. 29, 1799. 
Councils were held here, July 12, 374 ; May 
23, 585 ; Jan. 8, 855 ; in 890 ; Sept. 30, 1100 ; 
in June, 1209, and Dec. 5, 1248. 

Valencia (Spain), capital of the province 
of the same name, became a Eoman colony 
about B.C. 138. It was taken and destroyed 
by Pompey about B.C. 77. Adolphus, king of 
the Goths, assailed it a.d. 414; and the Sara- 
cens obtained possession by treaty with Theo- 
demir of Murcia in 713. They erected the 
province into a kingdom in 1009. Ferdi- 
nand I. defeated the Moors here in 1064. 
It was taken hj the king of Toledo, who 
deposed its sovereign in 1065. Prince 
Aleadir perished, with his Christian allies, in 
defending it against the Almoravides in 1092. 
It was delivered from the Moors by the Cid 
in 1094, on which account it is sometimes 
called Valencia del Cid. The Moors re- 
gained possession in 1099. Incursions were 
made into the province by the Christians in 
1224. The city was assailed by Gaycum of 
Aragon in 1236. He capture^ it and an- 
nexed it to his kingdom Sept. 29, 1238. The 
earl of Peterborough seized it in 1705 ; 
but it was recovered for Phihp V. by 
the duke of Berwick in 1707. The French, 
who failed in an attack upon it in 1808, 
succeeded in capturing it Jan. 9, 1812. 
They abandoned their conquest in June, 
1813, A decree issued by Ferdinand VII. 
from this place annulled the acts of the 
Cortes, restoring absolute government over 
Spain, May 4, 1814. An insurrection, caused 
by the imposition of a coal-tax, broke out 
Jan. 17, 1817. Another, with the object of 
assassinating the governor-general, Elio, 
suppressed under circumstances of great 
cruelty, broke out Jan. 21, 1819. The civil 
war was carried on with great fierceness in 
the province in 1836. The cathedral was 



VAL 

erected on the site of a Eoman temple and a 
Moorish mosque in 1262, and received ad- 
ditions in 1482. The wall surrounding the 
city was built by Pedro IV. in 1356 ; the 
university was founded in 1410 ; and the 
Lonja de Seda, or hall of silk, was built in 
1482. CouncUs were held here in July or 
August, 530, and Dec. 4, 546. 

Valencien]s^es (France) was taken by 
Baldwin IV., count of Flanders, a.d. 1006, 
and by the French musqueteers in 1677. 
The allied troops, under the duke of York 
and the prince of Coburg, captured it, after 
an heroic defence extending over forty-three 
days, July 28, 1793. It capitulated to the 
French Aug. 27, 1794. 

Valentine's Day, Feb. 14, "a Christian 
commutation," says Fosbroke, " of the 
ceremony in the Lupercaha, in which the 
names of young women were put into a box, 
from which they were drawn by the men as 
chance directed. It was continued by ladies, 
who chose knights for a twelvemonth, mostly 
during carnival time." The earliest known 
poetical valentines were written by Charles, 
duke of Orleans, taken prisoner at the 
battle of Agincourt, Oct. 25, 1415. They 
are in the library of the British Museum. 
The saint who gives name to the day was 
martyred at Eome about a.d. 270. 

Valentinians, the followers of Valen- 
tinus, supposed to be of Jewish origin, who 
introduced a strange compound of Gnosti- 
cism and Judaism at Eome, in the 2nd 
century. Mosheim says this heresy grew 
to maturity in the island of Cyprus, and 
with wonderful celerity traversed Asia, 
Africa, and Europe. 

Valetta. {See La Valetta.) 

Valladolid (Spain), the Pintia of the 
Eomans, the Belad "Walid of the Moors, and 
capital of the province of the same name, 
was chosen as a royal residence by Juan II. of 
Aragon in the loth century. Philip II., who 
was born here, induced Pope Clement VIII, 
to raise it to a bishopric in 1595. A French 
army tmder Dupont occupied it in January, 
1808. The Spaniards captured a French 
detachment here in 1812, and it was taken 
by the English, June 4, 1813. The univer- 
sity was founded in 1346 ; the cathedral, 
commenced in 1585, is unfinished. One of" 
its towers fell to the ground m 1841. Colum- 
bus died at VaUadolid, May 20, 15(^6. 

Valls (Spain). — The Fi-ench, commanded 
by St. Cyr, gained a complete victory over 
the Spanish troops at this town, in Catalonia, 
Nov. 18, 1809. Macdonald was defeated 
here by Sarstield in 1811. 

Valmy (Battle). — The Prussians were 
defeated by the French under Kellermann, 
at this town, in France, Sept. 2'\ 1792. For 
this success Napoleo i I. conferred on this 
general the title of duke of Valmy, in 18C8. 

Valois (France). — The county was be- 
stowed by Philip III. of France on his 
second son Charles, a.d. 12S5. It fell 
to Louis, duke of Orleans, second son of 
Charles V. of France, in 1392. On the 
accession to the throne of the duke of 



VAL 



VAJS" 



Orleans, under the title of Louis XII., in 
1498, it was reunited to the royal domains. 

Valteline (Italy). — This small district 
was ceded to the Grisons a.d. 1530, and was 
the scene of the cruel massacre of the Pro- 
testants by the Koman Catholic rebels, July 
19, 1620. In 1624 the French resisted the 
attempts of the Spaniards to establish their 
authority here. Napoleon Bonaparte an- 
nexed the Valteline to the Cisalpine re- 
public Oct. 10, 1797, and erected it into the 
department of the Adda, in the French 
kingdom of Italy, in 1807, In 1814 it was 
ceded to Austria. 

Valvassok, or Vavassoe. — Persons holding 
fiefs not immediately under the king, but 
under some intermediate lord, and having 
subordinate freeholders under them, existed 
in England, Scotland, France, Lombardy, 
and Aragon, and are twice mentioned in 
Domesday Book, a.d. 1086. A writ was 
issued in 1220 to the sheriff of Wiltshire, 
directing him to give seisin of three vavas- 
sories to the persons specified. In his deed 
of renunciation, Sept. 29, 1399, Eichard II. 
absolves, amongst others, aU vavassors from 
their oath of allegiance. It was proposed 
to revive the name in the new dignity created 
by James I. in 1611. It, however, took that 
of baronet. 

VA3if, or Wan (Armenia). — Tradition re- 
fers the origin of this town to Semiramis, 
and it undoubtedly exhibits traces of ex- 
treme antiquity. It is said to have been 
rebuilt about the time of Alexander the 
Great, by an Armenian prince named Wan, 
from whom it is named, and Valarsaces I. 
(B.C. 149 — 127) made it the strongest place 
in his dominions. It was taken by Togrul 
Beg A.D. 1032, by Tamerlane in 1392, and 
by Abbas the Great of Persia in 1585. In 
1639 it was ceded to the Ottoman empire. 
M. Schulz examined the antiquities of 
this place in 1827, and in 1850 the inscrip- 
tions were copied by Mr. Layard, 

Vanadium. — This metal was discovered by 
Del Rio, A.D. 1801, and received its present 
name from Sefstrom in 1830. 

Van couvEE Island (North America) was 
supposed to form part of the mainland tiU 
an American captain sailed round it, a.d. 
1789. Captain Vancouver visited it and gave 
it the name of Quadra and Vancouver Island, 
the former in honour of the Spanish com- 
mandant at Nootka Sound, in 1792. It was 
made over to the Hudson Bay Company, on 
condition that they should colonize it, in 
1846. Gold was discovered here in 1856. 

VANCOtfVER's Voyage. — Captain Van- 
couver having been ordered by the British 
government to proceed to Nootka Sound to 
receive a formal cession of the territory from 
Spain, set sail in the Discovery, April 4, 
1791, accompanied by Captain Broughton in 
the Chatham, a small vessel of 135 tons 
burthen. He arrived on the coast of New 
Albion in April, 1792. On the outward 
voyage he surveyed the southern coast of 
New HoUand, and part of New Zealand, 
while Broughton discovered Chatham Islands. 



Broughton having been despatched home 
with intelligence of the evasive conduct of 
the Spaniards, Vancouver proceeded, in 
January, 1793, to winter in the Sandwich 
Islands. In the spring he resumed the 
survey of the American coast, and returned 
to the Sandwich Islands, where he obtained 
from the chiefs a formal cession of Owyhee 
to Great Britain, Feb. 25, 1794. The survey 
of the north-west coast of America was 
completed Aug. 22, 1794 ; and he entered 
the Shannon on his return, Sept. 13, 1795, 
with the loss of only two men out of both 
crews. The narrative of his labours, written 
by himself, was in course of preparation for 
the press when he died, May, 1798. 

Vandals, a Slavonic, or a Germanic tribe, 
existed on the banks of the Oder, and the 
sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburg, 
about A.D. 250. A considerable number were 
transported into Britain by Probus in 279. 
With the Sarmatians in Hungary they formed 
a union in 331, and joined the forces of 
Radagaisus for the invasion of Italy in 405. 
Having separated from their allies, they 
were attacked by the Franks, 20,000 with 
their king falling on the field ot battle. The 
Alani came to their aid, and they marched 
without opposition into the provinces of 
Gaul, Dec. 31, 405. They established them- 
selves in Spain in 428 ; from which country, 
on the invitation of Count Boniface, they 
passed into Africa under their king Gen- 
seric, in May, 429. After a career of con- 
quest on that continent, during which they 
embraced Christianity, Carthage fell under 
their victorious arms, Oct. 9, 439, Here 
they commenced the formation of a power- 
ful navy, and having fitted out an expedition 
against Rome, they landed at the mouth of 
the Tiber, and sacked the capital of the 
empire, June 15—29, 455. The whole of the 
Mediterranean coast was subjected to their 
piratical depredations between the years 
461 and 467. Having embraced the Arian 
heresy in 530, they carried on a cruel and re- 
lentless persecution against the members of 
the orthodox faith. They were converted from 
Arianism, and their rule in Africa destroyed 
by Belisarius, who was declared sole consul 
Jan. 1, 535. The entire nation had disap- 
peared from Africa by 558. 

VANDAL KINGS OP AFEICA. 
A.D. 

429. Genseric. 

477. Huiineric (son of Grenseric). 
484 Guudamund (nephew of Himneric). 
496. Thrasimuud (brother of Guudamund). 
523. Hilderic (son of Huniieric). 
530. Gelimer (cousin of Hilderic, and last of the 
Vandal kings). 

Van Diemen's Land. (See Tasmania.) 
Vane. — The marble tower built at Athens 
by Andronicus Cyrrhestes was surmounted 
by a vane, and Varro had an apparatus at 
his farm to indicate the direction of the wind, 
B.C. 37, A costly pillar was erected at Con- 
stantinople for a similar purpose in the 8th 
century. A vane in the form of a horseman 
was placed on the top of a tower at Hems, 



in Syria, in 1151. In Europe vanes are men- 
tioned as early as the 9th century. In France 
none but noblemen were allowed to have 
them on their houses in the 12th century. 
The Danish fleet under Sweyn, in 1013, 
carried vanes in the shape of birds or dra- 
gons at their mastheads. 

Vannes (France) was besieged by Ed- 
ward III. A.D. 1342. He failed in his enter- 
prise, and concluded a three years' truce, 
through the intervention of the pope's 
legate, in 1343. An insurrection of pea- 
sants was put down by the national guard 
with great slaughter inFebruary, 1790. The 
French emigrants, under the Chevalier de 
SOz, attempted to take Vannes by surprise, 
but were defeated by General Hoche in May, 
1795. A tower in the centre of the town is 
the only remaining vestige of the Chateau de 
I'Hermine, built in 1387. Vannes is sup- 
posed by some to occupy the site of the 
ancient Dariorigum, the capital of the an- 
cient Veneti, whence its modern appella- 
tion. The Bretons stiU call it Wenet or 
Guenet. 

Vaeenwes (France). — Louis XVI., his 
queen, and their two children, were arrested 
here on their flight from Paris, during the 
night of June 21, 1791. 

Vaena (European Turkey) was occupied 
by the Biilgarians a.d. 679, and plundered 
by them in 1193. Ladislaus IV., king of 
Hungary, was defeated and slain in a battle 
fought here with the Turks, commanded by 
Amurath II., when 10,000 Christians fell, 
Nov. 10, 1444. The Eussians failed in an 
attack upon it in 1773, but succeeded in 
capturing it, after a siege of three months, 
Oct. 11, 1828. It was restored to Turkey 
Sept. 14, 1829. A council of war was held 
at Varna by the Turkish minister of war, 
Kiza Pasha, the Turkish generahssimo, Omer 
Pasha, and the allied generals and admirals. 
May 18, 1854. The troops from Scutari 
and other places arrived here in the early 
part of June, and by the end of the month a 
camp of 60,000 English, French, and Turkish 
soldiers had been formed. Sickness broke 
out and prevailed to an alarming extent in 
August. The French portion of the army 
began to embark for the Crimea, Sept. 5, 
the English, Sept. 7, and the combined fleets 
-with their transports, amounting to 700 
vessels, set sail Sept. 10. 

Vaenish. — The art of making varnish was 
imported into Europe from China and the 
East during the 16th century. Dr. Cattell 
proposed certain improvements in the me- 
thod of preparing varnish in 1860. 

Vassalage. (See Feudal Laws, Seep- 
DOM, and Slaveet,) 

Vassy (France). — The duke of Guise 
massacred a Protestant congregation here, 
Sunday, March 1, 1562. 

Vatican, the modem H Borgo, and the 
ancient Mons Vaticanus, outside the walls 
of ancient Rome, gave name to the palace 
which was commenced near the church of 
St. Peter by Eugenius III. a.d. 1146, a pile 
of buildings which gradually increased, and 
870 



VAV 

now forms the Papal palace, the court and 
garden of the Belvidere, the library and the 
museum. Gregory XI. fixed his permanent 
residence here in 1376. It continued to be 
the papal abode till Paul III. built the palace 
on the Quirinal Mount about the middle 
of the 16th century. The new church of 
St. Peter's was projected by Nicolas V. 
in 1450 ; but no progress was made with 
it till the time of Julius II., who laid the 
foundation-stone April 18, 1506. The library 
was built by Sixtus V. 

Vaucelles (France). — A treaty between 
Philip II. of Spain and Henry II. of 
France, the principal clause being a five 
years' truce, was signed here Feb. 5, 1556. 

Vaud (Switzerland) formed part of the 
kingdom of Burgundy a.d. 887, was con- 
quered by Peter, count of Savoy, and 
annexed to his dominions as a barony, in 
1263, reverted to Amadeus VI. in 1359, 
and having been parcelled out into a number 
of petty lordships under the name of the 
Pays de Vaud, was conquered and in part 
annexed by the Bernese in 1476. They com- 
pleted its subjugation in 1536. The French 
Directory demanded that it should be made 
independent of Berne in 1798. It was con- 
stituted a sovereign canton by Napoleon I. 
in 1803 ; and entered the confederation in 
1815. A new constitution was adopted in 
1830. 

Vaitdois, the inhabitants of three high 
valleys in Piedmont, on the eastern side of 
the Cottian Alps, formed a communion 
separate from the Romish church in the 
early ages of Christianity. They have been 
called the perse -uted Protestants of Savoy. 
{See Valdenses or Waldenses.) 

Vauxhall Beidge (London). — This iron 
bridge was commenced May 9, 1811, and 
opened June 4, 1816. 

Vauxhall Gabdens (London) . — Fulke 
de Breaute built a haU in South Lambeth, 
about A.D. 1282, which was called Fulke'a 
Hall, afterwards corrupted into FaukeshaU, 
FoxhaU, and finally Vauxhall. The gardens, 
opened in 1661, under the title of the New 
Spring Gardens, were notorious for the 
licentiousness of the company by which 
they were frequented during the Stuart 
period. About the year 1712 they appear 
to have declined in popularity. They 
were purchased by Jonathan Tyers and 
re-opened with an alfresco entertainment, 
June 7, 1732, and under the management { 
of the new proprietor proved successful 
The name Spring Gardens was not finally- 
abandoned till 1785, and the firework exhi- 
bitions, which for a long period constituted 
the chief feature of the place, were com- 
menced in 1798. Vauxhall Gardens were 
sold by auction for £20,200, Sept. 9, 1841. 
They again passed under the hammer 
Aug. 20, 1859, when the ground was used 
for building. 

Vaveio (Battle).— The combined Nea- 
pohtan and papal armies were defeated at 
this town of Italy by Galeazzo Visconte, 
A.D. 1324. 



VED 

Vedas, the four principal sacred books of 
the Hindoos, ascribed to Brahma, having 
in the course of time become scattered, 
were arranged or edited by a sage about 
B.C. 3000. Such is the native tradition, but 
these writings are now generally assigned to 
B.C. 1300 or B.C. 1400. 

Vehmic or Fehmic Cotjets, also called 
the Vehm-Gericht, formed a secret tribunal 
of Westphaha. Its principal seat was in the 
town of Dortmund, and it possessed rami- 
fications throughout Germany. It is said 
to have been formed on account of the 
severe laws respecting religion enacted by 
Charlemagne, a.d. 800. This tribunal 
reached its greatest prominence in the 13th 
century. Its members, who were bound by 
an oath of secrecy, numbered at one time 
100,000 persons. It continued to exercise 
judicial functions till the end of the 15th 
century. 

Veii (Etruria). — ^The inhabitants of this 
city are first mentioned in history as en- 
gaged in hostilities with Romulus, who 
gained a decisive victory over them, and, 
after exacting severe terms from the van- 
quished, concluded a treaty of peace for 100 
years, B.C. 722. War, however, again broke 
out between them, in which the Romans 
under Tullus Hostilius gained the mastery, 
B.C. 673 — 641 ; and a like result followed hos- 
tilities in the reign of Ancus Martius, B.C. 
641 — 617. Under L. Tarquinius, Veii was 
again vanquished, together with eleven other 
Etruscan cities, its allies, a success which 
the victor commemorated, it is said, by the 
institution of the twelve lietors and their 
fasces, B.C. 535 — 510. Aided by a great 
number of volunteers, the Veientes again 
took the field against their old enemy, and 
a drawn battle ensued, when the Romans 
lost their eonsid, with many tribunes and 
centurions, B.C. 481. The Fabii having 
offered their services to the state, established 
a permanent camp to stop the marauding 
expeditions from Veii, but were drawn into 
an ambuscade and slain, July 16, B.C. 477. 
After much desultory warfare, the Romans 
resolved to besiege the town, and at length 
took it by means of a mine, slaughtered 
or sold into slavery the inhabitants, carried 
off the image of Juno, the tutelary deity, and 
divided the territory amongst Roman citizens, 
B.C. 396. After the burning of Rome by 
the Gauls, B.C. 390, it was proposed to con- 
vert Veii into a new capital. From this 
period Veii gradualUy fell into decay, and 
seems to have been divided by Caesar among 
his soldiers, B.C. 45. The castle, known by 
the name of Isola Farnese, was built on the 
south side of the city in the beginning of the 
11th century. Many relics of Etruscan 
art have been found in the ruins. 

Velletei (Italy). — The ancient Velitrae, 
included within the limits of Latium, was 
besieged and taken by the consul P. Vir- 
ginius, B.C. 494. The population having 
been reduced by pestilence, a Roman colony 
was sent, B.C. 492, which was followed by 
another settlement B.C. 404, Velletri was 



VEN" 

taken by the Romans in consequence of a 
revolt, B.C. 380. It was occupied by Beli- 
sarius a.d. 538. Near the town Carlo 
Borbone defeated the Austrians, and was 
subsequently proclaimed king of Naples, 
May 25, 1734. The cathedral of San 
Clemente was erected in 1660, and the 
church of Santa Maria in 1353. 

Vellore (Hindostan). — Major Lawrence 
wrested this fort from the French, July 8, 
1752. During the wars in India, it was 
frequently besieged. Sir Eyre Coote relieved 
it by a brilliant victory, Sept. 27, 1781, and 
it was selected by government as the resi- 
dence of Tippoo's family, after the fall of 
Seringapatam, May 4, 1799. A mutiny 
amongst the native troops broke out here 
July 10, 1806. It was speedily suppressed, 
and 800 of them were executed. 

Velocipede, a kind of vehicle which the 
occupant moves by his feet, was introduced 
A.D. 1819. 

Velvet, formerly called vellet, is men- 
tioned by Joinville a.d. 1272 ; and in the 
wiU of Richard II. in 1399. Strutt names 
many varieties of the stuff in use in the reign 
of Edward IV. 

Vendee. {See La Vendee.) 

Vbneti, the inhabitants of the country 
called Venetia by Caesar. It nearly corres- 
ponds to the French departmentof Morbihan, 
and was the most powerful maritime state 
on the Atlantic. The Veneti rose against the 
Romans, and sent to Britain for assistance, 
B.C. 57. After a severe naval engagement 
they were utterly defeated, and surrendered 
unconditionally to Caesar, B.C. 56. He sold 
those who had escaped slaughter, and put 
to death all the members of the state as- 
sembly. 

Venetian Republic. — This famous re- 
public of Northern Italy derives its name 
from the Veneti, who regarded themselves 
as a tribe of Trojan origin, which settled at 
the head of the Adriatic under the leadership 
of Antenor, and dispossessed the Euganeans, 
the original possessors of the soil. {See 
Padua.) Other authorities regard them 
as a branch of the Slavonian race, and 
regard the name Veneti, or Venedi, as a cor- 
ruption of the German Wends, which was 
apphed to all Slavonian tribes. The Vene- 
tian territory was invaded by the Gauls 
B.C. 349, and in consequence of the repeated 
encroachments of that people, the inhabitants 
concluded an alliance with the Romans 
B.C. 215. Some Gauls attempted to settle 
here B.C. 186, but were compelled to 
return to their own country by the 
Romans. The Veneti were admitted to 
the privileges of Roman citizens about B.C. 
49. Venetia and latria were subsequently 
united into one Roman province, the capital 
of which was Aquileia. The city of Venice 
was founded by fugitives who escaped 
to the lagunes after the destruction of 
their own cities by Attila, a.d. 421 — 452. 
In this manner the inhabitants of Aquileia 
founded Grado {q.v.), and the Paduans 
Venice, or Venezia. 

871 



TEIf 



452. Completion of the foTindation of the city, and 

establishment of a consular government. 
457. The administration is intrusted to tribunes. 
520. The inhabitants are relieved dmlng a famine 

by Theodoric the Great. 
697. March. In consequence of the tyranny of the 

tribunes, the Venetians elect Paul Luka 

Anafesto of Her acleia to conduct the govem- 

meut as doge. 
735. The Venetians assist the ex-arch Eutychius 

to recover Ravenna from the Lombards. 
737. The tyrann of the doge Orso occasions an 

insurrection, in which he is miu-dered by 

the mob. The government is vested in a 

master of the militia. 
742. Restoration of the ducal government in favour 

of Diodato Or.-o. 
778. Giovanni Galbaio is associated ■with his 

father Maurizio in the dogeship. 
797. The doge Galbaio II. murders the patriarch 

of Grado, in consequence of which a civil 

•war commences. 
804. Banishment of the Galbaii. 
809. Pepiu, son of the emperor Charlemagne, in- 

varies Venice, and is defeated in the battle 

of Albiola ig.v.). 
829. The body of St. Mark is transferred from 

Alexandria to Venice. 
840. The Venetians send a force of nearly 12,000 

men to assist the Eastern empire against 

the Siraceus. 
854. Pope Benedict III. seeks shelter from his 

rival Auastasius in Venice. 
8.56. The emperor Louis II. visits Venice. 
887. Death of the doge Pietro Sanudo in a naval 

battle against the Nareutine coreairs at 

Mucole. 
906. Defeat uf the Huns at Albiola {q. v.). 
970. The tyrannical and licentious doge Sanudo 

IV. is murdered by the populace. 
978. Sept. 1. Abdication of Orsnolo I., the holy, 

■who retires to a monastery. 
992. July 19. A treaty with the emperor Otho III. 

is entered into at Mulhausen. 

997. May 18. On the invitation of the inhabitants, 

the doge Orseolo II. embarks for the con- 
quest of Illjria and Dalmatia. 

998. Orseolo TI. assumes the title of doge of Venice 

aud Dalmaria. 
1004. Oct. 16. The Venetians compel the Saracens 

to raise the siege of Bari. 
1033. The principles of association and hereditary 

succession, in reference to the dogeship, 

are abolished. 
1084 Nov. The Venetians sustain a terrible defeat 

from the Normans under Robert Guiscard 

in the naval battle of Corfu. 
1083. The emperor Alexius T. acknowledges the 

doge of Venice as lord of Dalmatia and 

Croatia. 
1094. Institution of the Magistrato del Proprio. 
1101. A league is concluded with Hung try. 
1110. Oct. 4. Victory of the Venetians over the 

Paduans in the naval battle of Brenta. 
1115. Aug. War is commenced with Hungary. 

1123. June 29. Tyre surrenders to the doge. 

1124. The Venetians sack all the Ionian isles and 

treat their inhabitants -with great cruelty, 
on account of their allegiance to the Eastern 
empire. 

1141. Fano is annexed to the Venetian republic. 

1143. A short war breaks out with Padua. 

1148. Corfu and SicOy are ravaged by the Vene- 
tians. 

1154. An alliance is concluded with Sicily. 

1171. Sept. 1. Michiele III. embarks with a lai^e 

fleet for the invasion of the Eastern em- 
pire. The plague breaks out among his 
crew, and the following year extends to 
the city. 

1172. May 27. Assassination of Michiele III. in con- 

sequence of the failure of his enterprise 
aud the public distress. Important po- 
litical refoims are the result. 
1174. Nov. The Venetians raise the siege of Ancona. 
872 



YEN 



A.D. 

1177. March 23. Pope Alexander III. seeks refuge 
in Venice from the power of Frederick I. 
(Barbarijssa). May 26. The imperial fleet, 
assisted by the navies of Genoa and An- 
cona, sustains a terrible defeat from the 
Venetians, at Salboro. July 24. Frederick 
I. does homage to the pope at St. Mark's. 

1192. War is renewed against Pisa. 

1201. Feb. 27. A tre-tty is concluded between the 

republic and the French b,^rous of the 
fifth crusade, by which the Venetians agree 
to assist the crusadei's ■with large aids nf 
ships, men, and horses, in return for about 
£170,000. 

1202. Nov. 18. Capture of Zara by the Venetians. 

1204. April 9. Constantinople suxTenders to the 

Crusaders under the doge Dandolo and 
the Latin leaders. Aug. 12. Cnndia is 
purchased by the republic for thirty 
pounds' weight of gold, equal to about 
£10,8<i0 of our money. 

1205. June 14 Death of the doge Dandolo. 

1214. The Venetians defeat the Genoese in the 
naval battle of Trepani. 

1239. Sept. 5. A coalition against the emperor 

Frederick II. is concluded between Venice 
aud Pope Gregory IX. 

1240. Aug. Feriara surrenders to the Venetians. 
1258. June 2.5. The Venetians defeat the Genoese in 

a great sea-fight off St Jean d'Acre. 

1263. The Genoese sustain a terrible defeat from 
the Venetian fleet off Sette Pozzi. 

1268. June. A five years' truce is concluded ■with 
Genoa. 

1270. Venice asserts her sovereignty over the 
Adriatic, and declares war against Bologna. 

1273. Aug. 13. Peace is concluded ■with the Bolognese. 

1284. Dec. 4 A treaty against the Saracens is con- 
cluded with the pope. 

1289. Aug. 28. A concordat for establishing the 
inquisition at Venice is concluded with the 
pope. 

1293. War recommences with Genoa. 

1291). The Venetians in Constantinople are mas- 
sacred bv the Genoe.-e. 

1297. July. A Venetian fleet attacks Constanti- 

nople. 

1298. Sept. 8. The Venetian fleet is almost annihi- 

lated by the Genoese at Curzola. 

1299. May 25. Perpetual peace between Venice and 

Genoa is concluded at Milan. 

1302. Oct. 4 Peace with the Easstem empire is con- 
cluded at L'ons-tantiuople. 

1304 A commercial treaty is concluded with Eng- 
land. 

1309. March 27. Venice is excimnmnicated for 

assistii'g the Ferxarese against the pope. 

1310. June 15 Failure of the Quirini-Tiepolo 

conspiracy. July 10. The Council of Ten 
is in^tituted as a temporary committee. 

1335. July 20. The Ten declare themselves a per- 

manent assembly. 

1336. May 28. War is declared against the family 

of La Scala, lords of Verona, Padua, &c. 
Juue 21. An alliance is concluded with the 
Florentines. 

1337. Aug. 3 The allies capture Padua. 

1339. Jan. 24. Venice dictates a peace, by which she 
acquires Tre-vlso. 

i:}46. July 1. Marino Faliero defeats the Httn- 
garlans in a great battle fought at Luca, 
near Zara. 

1348. Aug. 5. Peace is concluded ■with the Hun- 
garians. 

1353. Feb. 13 and 14. The Venetians, with their 
allies the Calatans, are defeated by the 
Genopse in a great naval battle off the 
Dardanelles. Aug. 29. Great ■vdctory of 
Lojera {g.v.). 

1354 Sept. 11. Marino Faliero is elected doge. 
Nov. 4. Defeat at Portolongo {q v.). 

1355. April 2. Michele Steuo publishes a libel on 
the dogaressa, for which he is sentenced 
to eight weeks' imprisonment and a year's 
exile. 



VEIf 



1355. April 4. The doge, irritated by the Ipnieucy 
of the sentence, conspires to assassinate all 
the patricians, and establish a d'spotate 
April 12. The plot is revealed by Be'tramo 
di Bergamo. April 16. The doge is tried 
and condemned. April 17. He is executed. 
April 21. Giovanni Gradenigo is elected 
doge in his stead. 

1358. Feb. 18. A treaty is concluded with Louis I. of 
Hungary and other princes, by which the 
republic surrend< rs balmatia. 

1360. May 21. A strict sumptuary law is passed. 

1372. Nov. The Venetians invade the Paduan ter- 

ritiiries. 

1373. May 12. They are defeated by the Hungarians 

and Carrarese ar. Narve^-a. July 1. The 
Venetians defeat the Hungarians and cap- 
ture S^epheu, the king's nephew, at Fossa- 
Nuova. Sept. 22. Peace is concluded. 
1375. Hungary, Genoa, and the Carrarese form a 
league against Venice. 

1378. April 24 War is declared against Genoa. 

May 30. Victory of Porto d'Anzn {q.v.). 

1379. May 7. The Genoese are victorious at Pola 

(q. v.). Aug. IH. Chioggia, or Chiozza, sur- 
renders to the Genoese. Aug. 24. The 
Genoese lay siege to Venice, which is de- 
fended by Vettore Pisaiii. 

1380. Jan. 1. Carlo Zeno arrives to the relief of the 

capital with a fleet of fifteen sail, and 
besieges the Genoese in Chioggia. June 22. 
The Genoese surrender. Aug. 13. Death of 
the heroic Pisani. 

1381. Aug. 8. Peace is restored by the treaty of 

Turin. 
138S. Corfu {q. v.) is annexed to the republic. 

1403. Oct. 7. The Genoese under Marshal Bouci- 

cault sustain a severe defeat from the 
Venetian fleet of Carlo Zeno, ofl'Zonchio. 

1404. June. War is declared against Padun. 

1405. July 16. Veiona surrenders to the republic. 

Nov. 19. Padua is taken after a long and 
arduous siege. 

1409. June 9. The republic again acquires Dalmat=a 
by purchase from the king of Naples, and 
thus becomes involved in another war 
with Hungary. 

1413. April 17. A five years' truce is agreed to. 

1418. May 8. Death of the illustrious Carlo Zeno. 

1422. Corinth s annexed to the republic. 

1425. Dec. 3. A league against Milan is concluded 
wiih Florence. 

1428. April. Saloniki is annexed to the republic. 
Nov. 20. Brescia surrenders to the Vene- 
tians Hiid Florentines. 

1427. Oct. 11. Victory of Macalo iq. v.). 

1428. April 19. Peace is concluded with Milan, 

which cedes important territory to the 

republic. May 8. Bergamo is annexed to 

Venice. 
1430. War is resumed. 
1433. April 26. Peace is again concluded. 
1437. Aug. 17. The emperor oigismuud formally 

invests the republic with her possessions 

on the mainland, including Treviso, Paaua, 

Brfscia, Bergamo, <$c. 
1441. Nov. 20. By the treaty of Caviiana, Ravenna 

is ceded to the republic. 
1454 April 5. By the treaty of Lodi, Venice 

acquires Crema, Caravag^io. Rivolta, &c. 

April 18. Thfe sultan concedes commercial 

privileges to the republic. 
1455. Aug. 30. A defensive league is concluded be- 
tween Milan, Florence, and the republic. 
1457. Oct. 24. Deposition of the doge, Francesco 

Foscari. Nov. 1. He dies, as is supposed 

of a broken heart. 
1463. War is undertaken against the Turks. 
1466. The Venetians take AthenS. 

1478. Florence and Venice unite against the pope 

and Naples. 

1479. Jan. 26. Peace is concluded with the Turks, 

who obtain Negropoht, S.iutari, Lt-mnos. 
and other eastern possessions of the 
republic. 



A.D. 

1483. 



1484. Aug. 



1489. 
1493. 



1499. 
1501. 



1511. 
1513. 
1516. 
1523. 



1542. 
1570. 
1571. 



1644. 
1651. 



1714. 
1718. 

1733. 

1741. 

1753. 

1774. 



YEN 



May 25. Sixtus IV. excommunicates the Vene- 
tians. 

7. Peace is restored, and the republic 
acquires Polesina de Rovigo. 

Frb. 26. The iepul)lic acquirrs Cyprus. 

AprU 22. A league is concluded between 
Venice, Milan, and the pope. 

March 31. A league against Charles VITT. of 
France is concluded between the Venetians, 
and ihe emperor the p pe, the king of 
Spain, and the duke of Milan. 

War is re.-umed against the Turks. 

Peace is restored by which the republic ob- 
tains the formal cession (if Cephalonia. 

Sent. 22. The treaty of Blois {q.v.) arranges 
the partition of the Venetian-Italian pos- 
sessions between France, the emperor, and 
Julius II. 

Feb. War is commenced against the emperor. 
April 20. A three yeaM' trace is signed 
with the emperor. Dec. Id. The celebiated 
league between France, the emperor, and 
the pope for the humiliation of Venice is 
signed at Cambray (q. v.}. 

April 1. War is declared by France. May 14. 
Defeat of Agnariel (q.v.). Dec. 21. The 
Venetian fleet is df stroyed by the French 
land batteries near Ferrara. 

Oct. 4. Venice unites with the pope and king 
of Spain in the woly League {q. v.). 

March 14. Tne Veueiians concluUe an alliance 
with Louis XII. 

Aug. 13. The war of the League of Cambray 
is concluded by the treaty of Noyon. 

June 28. The Venetians break their French 
alliance, and conclude a union with the 
emperor. 

May 22. Venice, France, Milan, and the pope 
form the League of Cognac (q.v.) against 
Charles V. 

Venice unites with the emperor and the pope 
against tne Turks. 

The Venetians acquire Marano by purchase. 

War is declared against the Turks. 

Aug. Cyprus is taken by the Tuiks. Oct. 7. 
The Venetians assist at the naval battle of 
Lepanto (q. v.). 

March 15. Peaue is restored. 

Api-il 17. Pope Paul V. places Venice under 
an interdict. 

Failure of the conspiracy of Jacques Pierre 
and others, the incioents of which form 
the basis of Otway's tragedy of " Venice 
Preservfd." 

Venice and Savoy form a league against the 
house of Austi-ia. 

War again breaks out with Turkey. 

July 10. The Turks sustain a severe naval 
defeat off Paros. 

June26. Anothei- great naval victory is gained 
by the republic in the Dardanelles. 

July 17. The Venetians gain another dear- 
bought victory in the Dardanelles. 

Sept. 6. Candia is ceded to the IHirks after a 
siege of twenty -four years. 

War is again declared against the Turks. 
Aug. 6. The forces of the republic seize 
Santa-Maura. Sept. 29. They take Pi-e- 
vesa. 

The Venetians conquer part of the Morea. 

Sept. 8. Scio is taken by the Venetians but is 
speedily abandoned. 

Jan. 26. Peace is restored by the peace of 
Carlowitz (q v.), by which the Morea is 
ceded to Venice. 

The Turks again attack the Morea. 

Jtdy 21. Venice relinquishes her Greek pos- 
sessions by the treaty of Passarowitz (q.v.). 

The Veneiian territory is overrun by the 
French and Austrian armies. 

The Turks compel the reptiblic to pay a 
heavy compensation for alleged grievances. 

A treaty is concluded with the Barbary 
pirates. 

War is declared against Tunis. 

873 



YEN 



1791. The Venetians refuse to acknowledge the 

French republic. 
1793. Jan. 26. The Venetian senate acknowledges 

the French revolution. 

1796. July 7. The French government proposes an 

aUiance with Venice. Aug. 27. The propo- 
sition is rejected by the Venetians. 

1797. The French occupy the Venetian territory 

in Italy. Insurrections against them break 
out in all the principal towns. May 3 
Napoleon Bonaparte declares war against 
the republic. May 12. The senate abdi- 
cate. May 16. The French occupy Vei ice. 
Oct. 17. The Venetian republic is abo- 
lished by the treaty of Campo-Formio 
{q.vX 

(See Venice.) 

Venezuela (South America) was partly | 
cliscovered by Columbus, a.d. 1498, and 
partly by Ojeda and Vespucci, in 1499. Cu- 
mana was settled in 1523, and Coro in 1527. 
The Dutch took possession of the island of 
Cura9oa in 1634. It formed a part of the 
government of New Granada tiU 1731. 
When Kapoleon I. made his brother Joseph 
king of Spain in 1808, it still adhered 
to the old dynasty, but asserted its inde- 
pendence in 1810. It returned to its al- 
legiance to Spain in 1812. Bolivar com- 
menced his struggles to liberate it from the | 
mother country in 1813, and this was ^ 
ultimately effected in 1823. It united with j 
New Granada and Quito to form the repub- 



lic of Colombia in 1819. This union was ami- 
cably dissolved in 1831. The constitution 
was "remodelled in 1843, and Spain recog- 
nized its independence in 1845. A war be- 
tween the native population and the whites, 
which broke out in 1846, lasted till 1849. 
Such was the state of its finances, that the 
expenditure was three times that of the 
receipts in 1853. 

Venice (Italy). — This city was founded 
by refugees from the fury of Attila, between 
A.D. 421, when a church was estabhshed in 
the Eialto island, and 452, when a consular 
government was adopted. The great Cam- 
panile was commenced in 902, and the ca- 
thedral of St. Mark was founded on the site 
of an earlier edifice in 977. A terrific fire 
which occurred in 1106 destroyed the greater 
part of the city, which was rebuilt in stone 
and marble. The celebrated columns were 
brought from the Holy Land in 1127, and 
were erected on their present site about 
1180. The bank was estabhshed in 1157. A 
fire at the arsenal, Sept. 13, 1569, occasioned 
an explosion, which laid great part of the 
city in ruins. The bridge of the Eialto, 
founded in 1588, was built from the de- 
signs of Antonio da Ponte. The Dogana 
was erected in 1682. Venice, occupied by 
Napoleon Bonaparte, was ceded to Austria 
in 1797 ; and by the treaty of Presburg, Dec. 
26, 1805, it was transferred to the French. 
The Academy of Arts was founded by Na- 
poleon I. in 1807. On the dissolution of the 
French kingdom of Italy in 1814, Venice was 
ceded to Austria, and in 1830 it was de- 
clared a free port. An insurrection com- 
menced under Daniel Manin, March 22, 
874 



VEN 

1848, but the town was again brought under 
Austrian dominion Aug. 22, 1849. By the 
treaty of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, Venice 
was declared part of the Italian confederation 
subject to the emperor of Austria. The 
bishopric of Venice was founded in 733. 
Councils were held here in 1040, and Aug. 
14, 1177. 

Venlo, or Venloo (Holland), was cap- 
tured by Marlborough, who allowed the 
garrison to leave with the honours of war, 
Sept. 23, 1702. The French general Miranda 
bombarded it Feb. 11, 1793. It was invested 
by General Moreau Oct. 8, and surrendered 
Oct. 26, 1794. 

Vennee's Insueeection. — Thomas Ven- 
ner, a wine-cooper and Anabaptist preacher, 
headed a rising of about eighty of his fol- 
lowers in London, Jan. 6, 1661. They fought 
desperately, and killed several of the soldiers. 
They were, however, taken prisoners, and 
the 'leader and sixteen others were hanged, 
Jan. 19 and 21. 

Venosa (Italy), the ancient Venusia, was 
captured by the Eoman consul L. Postumius, 
B.C. 262. T. Varro took refuge here after 
the defeat at Cannae, Aug. 2, B.C. 216. 

Ventilation. — Originally no means of 
ventilation existed except such as were af- 
forded by the doors and windows, or by 
holes in the walls and ceihngs. Dr. Desa- 
guhers was employed in 1723 to improve 
the ventilation of the House of Commons, 
and in 1734 he invented his fan-ventilator. 
In 1741 Samuel Sutton was ordered by 
government to fix a ventilator of his own 
invention in the Norwich man-of-war.^ 
Deacon introduced ventilation by means of 
hot air in 1813 ; and a similar plan was 
adopted by the marquis of Chabannes in 
ventilating the London theatres in 1816, 
and the House of Commons in 1820. After 
the destruction of the House of Commons 
by fire in 1834 a temporary building was 
erected, provided vdth extensive ventilating 
apparatus designed by Dr. Eeid, whose sys- 
tem possessed many advantages over those 
preceding it. Dr. Neil Arnott's work on 
Warming and Ventilating appeared in 1838, 
and directed considerable attention to the 
subject. A commission to examine the laws 
of ventilation was appointed in 1859 at the 
instance of the Board of Health. 

Venteiloquism. — Allusion is probably 
made to this art by Isaiah : " And thou 
shalt be brought down, and shalt speak out 
of the ground, and thy speech shall be low 
out of the dust, and thy voice shall be, as 
of one that hath a familiar spirit, out of the 
ground, and thy speech shall whisper out of 
the dust." (Isaiah xxix. 4, B.C. 713.) It was 
practised by the Greeks, and probably by 
all ancient nations, and was held to be a su- 
pernatural gift. In modern times it is known 
to have been made use of to secure certain 
personal advantages by Louis Brabant, valet 
to Francis I. (a.d. 1515— 1547). BaronMen- 
gen, of Vienna, practised the art, and pro- 
duced a complete illusion on his auditors, 
about 1770 ; and M. St. Gille, at Paris, 



YEN- 

tested his own powers in the same line be- 
fore the Academy of Sciences in 1771. 

Venus, one of the planets known to the 
ancients, its occultation of Mercury having 
been observed by the Egyptians and in mo- 
dern times, May 17, 1737. Her phases were 
discovered by GaUleo in 1611. The appli- 
cation of her transits to determine the sun's 
distance was first pointed out by HaUey, 
who announced those of 1761 and 1769, The 
disturbing influences of this planet on the 
orbits of the earth and the moon were in- 
vestigated by Airy, and published in the 
Philosophical Transactions for 1832. 

Veea C'ktjz (Mexico) was built about the 
close of the 16th century. The island on 
which the fortress stands was first visited by 
Juan de Grinalva a.d. 1518. Cortes landed 
an army in 1519, and founded a town, which 
was afterwards abandoned. The present 
town was incorporated in 1615. It was 
blockaded by the French in 1838, and cap- 
tured by the Americans March 29, 1847. 

Vercelli (Sardinia), capital of a pro- 
vince of the same name, the ancient Ver- 
cellae, and chief city of the Libici, in Gallia 
Cisalpina, was the scene of an engagement 
between the Cimbri and the Romans, under 
Marius, when the former were defeated, 
July 30, B.C. 101. It became a somewhat 
important Roman municipium, after the 
time of Stiabo, who described it as only an 
unfortified village, a.d. 14. In the neigh- 
bourhood were gold mines so considerable 
that it was prohibited to have more than 
5,000 men employed in them, a law to that 
effect being mentioned by Pliny in 72. 
Eusebius was bishop of the see in the 4th 
century. John Scot's book on the Eu- 
charist was burned by a council held here 
Sept. 1, 1050. It joined the league of Lom- 
bardy against the emperor Frederick I. in 
1175. A treaty, brought about through the 
mediation of the duchess of Savoy, between 
Venice and France, was signed at VerceUi 
Oct. 10, 1495. The town was captured by 
the duke de Vendome in 1704, and the French 
incorporated the province with the Cisalpine 
repubUc in 1801. The cathedral, with a li- 
brary containing one of the most ancient 
copies of the New Testament in Latin, said 
to be the work of Eusebius, was built in the 
16 th century. 

Verde. {See Cape Verde.) 

Veeden (Hanover). — This place was the 
scene of the massacre of 4,500 Saxon rebels, 
by order of Charlemagne, a.d. 782. In 1715 
it was ceded to the elector of Hanover by 
Frederick IV. of Denmark. 

Verdun (Prance). By a treaty entered 
into here, a redistribution of empire was 
effected between the sons of Louis I. (le De- 
bonnaire) Aug. 11, a.d. 843. Henry II. of 
France received it in 1552, on condition of 
aiding the German Protestant league, and 
it was ceded to France by the treaty of 
Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648. The bishopric 
was seized by the council of Metz in 1680. 
The town and citadel surrendered to the 
Prussians Sept. 2, 1792. Fourteen beau- 



VER 

tiful young women, who had welcomed the 
Prussians with garlands, were sent by the 
French to Paris, where they were guillotined 
May 28, 1794. English residents and travellers 
in France, on the renewal of hostilities, were 
detained here by Napoleon I. May 22, 1803. 
Some English sailors detained in this man- 
ner, who lent important aid in extinguishing 
a fire which broke out in the town, were 
supplied with money by Napoleon I. out of 
his own purse, and sent home in 1805. 

Vermont (North America), so called 
from its green mountains by the French, 
who settled here a.d. 1731. They ceded it to 
the English in 1763. The state declared it- 
self independent in January, 1777. It was 
admitted a member of the Federal Union in 
1791, and a constitution was formed in 1793. 

Verneuil (Battle).— The allied French 
and Scotch were completely defeated near 
this town, in France, by the English, under 
the duke of Bedford, Aug. 16, 1424. 

Vernon Gallery. — In 1847 Robert Ver- 
non presented to the nation his collection 
of 162 paintings by modern British artists. 
In 1850 they were removed from the cellars 
at the Royal Academy, Trafalgar Square, 
where they had been previously exhibited, 
to Marlborough House ; and in 1859 they 
were transferred to South Kensington Mu- 
seum. 

Verona (Italy), under the Roman do- 
minion, became a colony with the surname 
of Augusta. In its neighbourhood Marius 
completely overthrew the forces of the 
Cimbri, B.C. 101. {See Vercelli.) The 
emperor Philip lost his life here a.d. 249. 
The city, walled during the reign of Gal- 
lienus, in 265, was besieged and captured by 
Constantine I. in 312. Odoacer was defeated 
by Theodoric near Verona, Sept. 27, 489. 
The city was captured by Charlemagne in 
774. Schools were established by Lothaire 
I. in 829. Louis of Aries, defeated here 
by Berenger I., was made a prisoner, and 
had his eyes put out in 905. Berenger I., 
who had received the title of emperor from 
the pope, was assassinated by the inhabi- 
tants in 924. The march was ceded to Otho I. 
in 952. The emperor Henry III. bestowed 
it upon Guelph III. in 1047. It assumed a 
repubhcan form of government in 1107, was 
engaged in hostilities with Padua in 1141, 
united in the league formed against Frede- 
rick I. with other towns of Lombardy in 
1164, and submitted to Eccelino da Romano, 
the GhibeUine leader, in 1227. Dehvered 
from its tyranny, it chose for its podesta 
Mastino dalla Scala in 1262. It was seized 
by Gian Galeazzo Visconte in 1387, and 
after an obstinate resistance surrendered to 
Francesco da Carrara in 1404. After a siege 
which reduced the inhabitants to a state of 
famine, it submitted to Venice in 1405, and 
delivered up its keys to the emperor Max- 
imilian I. in 1509. Maximilian I. mortgaged 
it to Louis XII. for a sum of money in 1510. 
It was besieged by the French, and restored 
to Venice by the peace of Brussels, Dec. 4, 
1516. The confederate armies captured it 
875 



VER 

in 1745. The French general-in-chief esta- 
blished his head quarters here June 3, 1796. 
A complete defeat was sustained by the 
French in a battle with the Austrians, 
March 28, 29, 30, 1799. It was secured to 
Austria by the congress of Vienna in 1815. 
A European congress held here decided 
upon the evacuation of Piedmont and Na- 
ples by the Austrian troops, Dec. 14, 1822. 
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, defeated 
the Austrians here May 6, 1848. A large 
portion of the amphitheatre erected by the 
Eomans was overthrown by an earthquake 
in 1184. 

Versailles (France). — ^A lazar-house 
was established at this place as early as 
A.D. 1350. In 1579, Albert de Gondi, arch- 
bishop of Paris, purchased an estate here, 
which was bought by Louis XIII. in 1632, 
and made the site of a royal hunting lodge. 
In 1661 Louis XIV. formed the project of 
establishing his coui't at Versailles, and 
commenced the palace and gardens, which 
were sufficiently advanced to be occupied 
in 1672. In 1681 it became the royal resi- 
dence. The chapel was completed in 1710, 
and the theatre in 1770. On the outbreak 
of the French revolution, the mob attacked 
Versailles and compelled the royal family to 
return to the Tuileries, Oct. 5 and 6, 1789. 
The national Museum was founded by Louis 
Philippe, and was inaugurated in 1837. The 
school of artillery for the Imperial Guard 
was established in 1856. 

Versailles (Treaties). — The following 
are the most important alhances and treaties 
concluded at Versailles : — 



1675. April 25. An alliance between France and 

Sweden is concluded at Vei-sailles. 
1701. March 9. An alliance between Fiance and 

Bavaria is concluded at Versailles. 
1715. April 3. An alliance between France and 

Sweden is concluded at Vei-saiiles. 
1739. Jan. 13. A treaty between Fi-ance and the 

emperor is si'^ned at Versailles. 
1744. June 5. An alliance is concluded between 

France and Prussia at Versailles. 
1756. May 1 An alliance between France and 

Austria is concluded at Versailles. 

1782. July 16. A convention is signed between 

Frauce and the United States at Versailles. 

1783. Sept. 3. Peace between Grtat Britain and 

France and Spain is concluded at Ver- 
sailles. By this treaty the French re- 
covered Pondicherry and other possessions 
in India, and Trincomalee was restored to 
the Dutch. 

1784. July 19. A secret convention between France 

and Sweden is signed at Versailles. 
1786. Sept. 26. A commercial treaty is siamed at 
VersaUles between France and England. 

Verse. — The earhest kind of verse em- 
ployed in Grecian poetry was the hexameter 
or dactylic metre, which was said to have 
been invented by the mythical Pythoness 
Phemonoe, and which remained the standard 
verse for epic poetry throughout the classic 
period. The elegiac metre, produced by using 
alternate he.tameter and pentameter verses, 
originated about the beginning of the 7th cen- 
tury B.C. Archilochus, who flourished B.C. 
688, is the reputed inventor of iambic and 
876 



trochaic verse, and Alcseus, B.C. 611, gave 
his name to the alcaic verse. Arion per- 
fected the ancient dithyrambic metre, which 
had been previously employed in the choral 
songs to Bacchus about B.C. 585. Hipponax, 
who flourished B.C. 540, introduced a mo- 
dification of the iambic verse, known as 
the chohambic metre, which was specially 
adapted for the expression of homel}' senti- 
ments. The saturnian verse, the original 
metre of the Eoman poets, was generally 
ascribed to an Etruscan origin. The ancient 
fescennine verse was introduced at a very 
early period in Latium, and was perverted 
into a vehicle for libel, in consequence of 
which it was prohibited by the laws of the 
Twelve Tables, b.c. 451. The other metres 
of the Romans were founded on those of 
the Greeks. The metres of the moderns 
were chiefly derived from the Latin, and 
the earhest example of verse in a modern 
language is a fragmentary poem of Boethius 
in French, which has been referred to a.d. 
1000. (See Blank, Leonine, and Maca- 
ronic Verse.) 

Vervins (France). — Philip II. of Spain 
concluded a treaty here. May 2, 1598, with 
Henry IV. of France, restoring all the 
places he had seized during the war. 

Veseris (Italy). — In an engagement on 
the banks of this river in Campania, the 
Romans under Manlius and Decius gained 
a great victory over the Latins, B.C. 340. 
The consul Decius, in the heat of the battle, 
seeing his troops waver, devoted himself 
to the infernal gods and rushed into the 
ranks of the enemy, where he fell covered 
with wounds. (-See Vesxtvius.) 

Vespers, or Evening Song. — The even- 
ing prayer of the Romish church, so named 
from Vesper, the evening star, is mentioned 
by the most ancient fathers, and was cer- 
tainly celebrated in the eastern churches 
during the 3rd and 4th centuries. 

Vesprim (Hungary). — The fortress at this 
place, seized by Soliman II. a.d. 1552, was 
recovered from the Turks in 1598. In 1702 
it was dismantled. 

Vestals. — Virgin priestesses of Vesta 
existed in Etruria and among the Sabines 
before they were instituted at Rome. Clas- 
sical tradition asserts that Romulus and 
Remus were the sons of the vestal Ilia, who 
was compelled to violate her oath of chas- 
tity, and suffered death by being buried alive, 
B.C. 770. Wuma Pompilius is regarded as 
the founder of the order at Rome, as he in- 
stituted four virgin priestesses of Vesta 
(B.C. 715 to 673). Two more were added by 
Tarquinus Priscus (b.c. 616 to 578), or by 
Servius TulUus (b.c. 578 to 534) . The law of 
!N"uma inflicted death by stoning on vestals 
guilty of incontinence ; but Tarquinius Pris- 
cus enforced the penalty of burying alive. 
The most celebrated instances of the inflic- 
tion of this penalty, were those of the vestal 
Minucia, b.c. 337 ; Sextilia, b.c. 273 ; and 
Licinia, who, with several of her companions, 
was convicted of incest, B.C. 114. In every 
case the corruptor of a vestal's purity was 



VES 



VIC 



scourged to death. Domitian (a.d. 81 — 96) 
enforced the laws respecting the strict man- 
ner of the life of the vestals, and the order 
was finally abolished by Theodosius I. in 389. 

Vesuvius (Battle). — The armies of Latium 
and Rome confronted each other in the plains 
of Campania, at the footof Mount Vesuvius, 
B.C. 340. In accordance with an oracle 
which announced that victory should declare 
for whichever army first lost its generals, the 
plebeian consul P. Decius Mas, who, with his 
colleague, T. Manlius Torquatus, led the 
Soman legions, dashed into the Latin ranks 
before the commencement of the action, and 
was immediately slain. The superstition of 
the Romans was thus enlisted on their behalf, 
and the energy with which they fought, joined 
to the good generalship of Manlius, secured 
them a complete victory, and materially con- 
duced to the total subjection of the Latins, 
which followed soon after. 

Vesxjvius (Naples). — The first recorded 
eruption of this celebrated volcano occurred 
Aug. 23, A.D. 79. It resulted in the de- 
struction of Herculaneum and Pompeii 
(q.v.), and occasioned the death of about 
200,000 persons, including the elder Pliny. 
Other eruptions of less violent character 
occurred in 203, 472, 512, 685, 993, 1036, 
1049, 1139, 1306, and 1500. An eruption 
which burst forth Sept. 29, 1538, resulted in 
the formation of Monte Nuovo. It was 
forced up by subterranean convulsions to a 
height of 413 feet in two days. A very violent 
eruption took place Dec. 16, 1631, and over- 
whelmed Torre del Greco and other villages 
at the foot of the mountain, besides causing 
the death of 18,000 persons. It was again 
violently active Aug. 12, 1682, when a conical 
projection was formed in the centre of the 
great crater, which was nearly fiUed up by a- 
succession of small discharges in 1689. A 
series of violent eruptions commenced May 
20, and continued till August, 1707 ; and on 
the 2nd of August the ashes, &c., were thrown 
with much violence upon Naples, where they 
produced great consternation. A violent 
eruption took place May 20, 1737, and the 
mountain commenced pouring forth destruc- 
tive torrents of lava, &c., Oct. 25, 1751, and 
continued active for twenty-five days, during 
which time the central cone sank, leaving an 
immense gap in its place. A terrible eruption 
took place from Aug. 8 to 11, 1779, and a 
new cone was thrown up between Oct. 12, 
1784, and Dec. 20, 1785. A most violent erup- 
tion, which raged from Feb., 1793, till Mid- 
summer, 1794, and which attained its height 
June 15, 1794, poured a torrent of lava 
through Torre del Greco, where the cathe- 
dral and several churches, with most of the 
houses, were destroyed. A new crater 
opened Sept. 4, 1809, and the mountain con- 
tinued more or less active for about four 
years. On the 22nd of Oct., 1822, a series of 
violent disturbances commenced, during 
which the great cone fell in, and vast torrents 
of lava werepoured over the adjacent country. 
The village of Caposecco was overwhelmed 
by an eruption in Aug., 1834. It commenced 



violent action Feb. 6, 1850, and remained 
disturbed tiU the end of the month, during 
which time a tract of nine square miles was 
covered by the lava. Eruptions took place 
from May 1 to 28, 1855 j a grand one com- 
menced May 21, 1858, and continued for 
some weeks, during which the crater again 
fell in. The mountain was again active in 
Aug., 1859, and a series of violent eruptions 
commenced Dec. 8, 1861. 

Vetekinaey Science. — The first school 
for the study of this branch of pathology 
was established at Lyons a.d. 1761. The 
Veterinary College of London was founded in 
1792, and marks the introduction of the 
science into this country. 

Viaticum. — This term was apphed to the 
Eucharist administered to persons at the 
point of death, by a canon in the first ge- 
neral council held at Nicsea in 325. St. Basil 
applied it to the rite of baptism, as con- 
stituting a provision for the journey to 
another world. 

ViAZMA (Battle). — The Russians defeated 
the French at this town in Russia, a greater 
part of which was destroyed by fire, Oct. 22, 
1812. 

ViBOEG, Vtboeg, or Wtbob& (Finland). 
— This city of European Russia was founded 
A.D. 1293 by Torkel Knutson, regent of 
Sweden, and became the capital of Careha. 
It was besieged by the Russians in 1322, 
1359, and 1496, and was taken by Peter the 
Great in 1710. By the peace of Nystadt, 
Aug. 30, 1721, Viborg was definitely ceded 
to Russia by the Swedes. A treaty of alliance 
between Sweden and Russia was concluded 
at this place Feb. 28, 1609. A severe naval 
engagement took place off the port, between 
the Russians and Swedes, July 3, 1790, when 
the latter were defeated with the loss of nine 
ships of the line and three frigates, besides 
several smaller vessels. 

Vice.— This character in the Mediaeval 
mystery and morality plays was originally 
introduced as an embodiment of vice, and 
is stated by HaUam (Lit. Hist., vol. i. 
part i. ch. viii. p. 45), to have gradually 
acquired' a human individuality, in which 
he came very near to our well -known 
Punch. The devil was generally introduced 
in company with the Vice, and had to 
endure many blows from him." He was 
attired in a long jerkin, and wore a cap 
with ass's ears, and he was armed with a 
thin wooden dagger with which to belabour 
the devil. The Vice was especially popular 
about the beginning of the 16th century, 
and he ceased to be in fashion at the end of 
the century. 

Vice-Chancelloe. — The vice-chanceUor 
of England, a judge in equity, was first 
appointed by 53 Geo. III. c. 24 (March 
23, 1813). By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 5 (Oct. 5, 
1841), two additional vice-chancellors were 
created. Certam provisions of these acts 
were repealed by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 35, s. 29 
(July 15, 1850). {See Lords Justices of 
Appeal.) 

VicejSZa (Italy), capital of a province of 
877 



VIC 

the same name, and the ancient Vicentia, or 
Yicetia, is first mentioned as having its limits 
fixed by the proconsul Sex. Atilius Saranus, 
B.C. 136 ; and afterwards as a municipal 
town, B.C. 43. It was plundered by Alaric 
A.D. 401, and wasted with fire and sword by 
Attila, in 452. It joined the famous Lom- 
bard league against the emperor Fre- 
derick I. in 1175 ; was captured by Frederick 
II. in 1236, and seized by Fccelino da 
Eomano in 1256. It afterwards fell to 
Alberico, his brother, from whose tyranny 
it was delivered by Padua, and held in sub- 
jection in 1269. 'Alboino and Cane dalla 
Scala reduced it to the GhibelHne cause in 
1311, and Gian Galeazzo Yisconte seized it 
after murdering his uncle, in 1387. Ceded 
to Venice in 1403, it surrendered to the 
plenipotentiary of the emperor Maximihau I., 
and was retaken by the Venetians in 1509. 
The French captured it, and it was wrested 
from them by Venice in 1510. It was occu- 
pied by French troops, under General Victor, 
April 28, 1797. The Austrians assailed it 
ineffectually May 23, 1848; and it capitulated 
to Eadetskv after a severe bombardment 
June 11, 1848. 

Victoria, daughter of Edward, duke of 
Kent, and the princess Maria Louisa, of 
Saxe-Coburg, was born May 24, 1819. She 
succeeded to the Enghsh throne on the 
death of William IV., June 20, 1837; was 
proclaimed queen June 22 ; was crowned 
June 28, 1838 ; and married Prince Albert, 
of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Feb. 10, 1840. 
Four sons and five daughters were horn of 
this marriage : — 1. Victoria Adelaide Mary 
Louisa, born Nov. 21, 1840, married to 
Prince Frederick William of Prussia, Jan. 
25, 1858. 2. Albert Edward, prince of 
Wales, bom IS'ov. 9, 1841. 3. Ahce Maud 
Mary, born April 25, 1843, married to 
Prince Louis, of Hesse-Darmstadt, July 1, 
1862. 4. Alfred Ernest Albert, born Aug. 6, 
1844. 5. Helena Augusta Victoria, bom May 
25, 1846. 6. Louisa Caroline Alberta, born 
March 18, 1848. 7. Arthur William Patrick 
Albert, born May 1, 1850. 8. Leopold 
George Duncan Albert, April 7, 1853 ; and, 
9. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, born 
April 14, 1857. Prince Albert died, after a 
short illness, at Windsor Castle, Dec. 14, 
1861, and was buried Dec. 23. 

ViCTOEiA (Hong-Kong) was founded by 
the English in August, 1841. Its bishopric 
was founded in 1849. 

Victoria Cross for distinguished gal- 
lantry on the part of officers or privates in 
the army and navy was established Feb. 5, 
1856. The honour was conferred by Queen 
Victoria upon forty -eight mihtary men and 
fourteen belonging to the rofal navy, in 
Hyde Park, June 26, 1857. Another distri- 
bution took place on Southsea common, to 
men who had distinguished themselves in 
the Crimea and during the Indian mutiny, 
Aug. 2, 1858. 

Victoria Brid&e (Canada). — This 
magnificent iron railway tubular bridge 
over the St. Lawrence was designed by 
878 



VIE 

Robert Stephenson and Alexander M. Ross, 
and was built by James Hodges for 
Messrs. Peto, Brassey, & Betts. The first 
portion of the north abutment coffer dam 
was towed into its place May 24, 1854, 
and the first stone of the bridge was laid 
the following July 20. The stone piers sus- 
tained uninjured the violent movement of 
the ice Jan. 4, 1855, and the first train 
passed over the bridge Dec. 17, 1859. The 
formal inauguration bv the prince of Wales 
took place Aug. 25, 1860. The total length 
of the tubes is 6,592 feet, and of the bridge, 
9,144 feet, or nearly two miles. It stands 
sixty feet above the surface of the water, 
and is composed of 9,044 tons of iron, held 
together by 1,540,000 rivets. The iron-work 
was all completed at the Canada Works, 
Birkenhead. The spans of this splendid 
bridge are twenty-five in number, that in 
the middle being 330 feet. 

Victoria Park (London). — By 4 & 5 
Vict. c. 27 (June 21, 1841), the commissioners 
of Woods and Forests were empowered to 
complete the sale of York House to the duke 
of Sutherland for the sum of £72,000 and to 
lay the money out in the purchase of about 
290 acres of land at Hackney for a royal 
park. It was opened to the public in 1845, 

Victoria Regia. — This aquatic plant, 
named after Queen Victoria, was discovered 
in the river Berbice, in Guiana, by Sir Robert 
Schomburgk, a.d. 1837. 

Victory, Nelson's flag-ship at Trafalgar 
(q.v.), on the deck of which he received 
his mortal wound, and on board of which 
he died, Oct. 21, 1805, is kept at Portsmouth, 
where it is exhibited to visitors. 

Victuallers.— By 12 Edw. II. c. 6 (1318), 
officers of cities or boroughs were prohi- 
bited from selling wine or victuals during 
their time of office. The regulation of the 
provision - dealers of London was vested in 
the mayor and aldermen by 31 Edw. III. 
c. 10 (1357), and they were restrained from 
selling their goods at exorbitant prices 
by 13 Rich. II. stat. 1, c. 8 (1389). The 
prices of victuals were assessed and taxed 
by 3 Hen. VIII. c. 8 (1511), and the price 
was confined within certain limits, and the 
exportation of provisions without a license 
was prohibited by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1533). 
Further restrictions on the exportation 
were imposed by 1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 5 
(1554) . The permanent fund of the licensed 
victuallers was founded in 1794. Their 
school in the Old Kent Road was instituted 
in 1803, and their asylum in 1827. {See Alb 
AND Beer, Licenses, &c.) 

Victualling Office. — The victualling 
office erected at Deptford, a.d. 1745, was 
destroyed by fire in 1749. In August, 1785, 
the department was removed from Tower- 
hill, the clerks' offices being transferred to 
Somerset House and the workshops for 
the preparation of provisions to Deptford. 
The Royal Clarence Victualling yard was 
transferred from Portsmouth to Gosport in 
1828. 

Vienna (Austria) . — ^This city is supposed 



VIE 

to occupy the site of the Roman station 
Vindobona, which is memorable as the place 
where the emperor Marcus Aurehus expired, 
A.D. 180, 



791. Vienna is annexed to the empire of Char- 
lemagne. 
984. Vienna is made the capital of the margraviate 
of Austria. 

1142. The modern town is founded. 

1'51. It is erected into a city. 

1198. It is surrounded by walls. 

I'2'i7. Fredfrick II. erects it into an imperial city. 

1267. May 10 A council is held against the injustice 
and violence committed during the vacancy 
of the imperial throne. 

1277. It is taken by Rodolph of Habsbuvg. 

1359. The cathedral of St. Stephen's is founded. 

1365. The university is founded. 

1462. The Viennese revo't a'ld besiege the emperor 
Frederick III. in his own quarter of the 
tnwn 

1477. Matthias Coi-vinus, king of Hungary, fails in 
an attempt to besiege Vienna. 

1485. Vienna surrenders to Matthias Corviuus. 

1-529. Sept. 26 to Oct. 14. The Turks, under Soliman 
II., besiege Vienna, and are compelled to 
retire by the emperor Charles V. 

1619. Vienna is attacked by the Bohemians. 

1683. July 14 to Sept. 12. The Turks are compelled 
to raise the siege of Vienna by John 
Sohieski, king of Poland, and Charles, 
duke of Lorraine. 

170.5. The Academy of Fine Arts is founded. 

1785. The Josephine Medical Academy is founded. 

1805. Nov. 12. The French seize Vienna. 

1809. May 13. Vienna again surrenders to Napo- 
leon I. 

1815. March 13. The allies publish the declara- 
tion of Vienna, by which Napoleon I. is 
outlawed. 

1830. Considerable injury is occasioned byan inun- 
dation of the Danube. 

1848. March 13. An insurrection breaks out at 
Vienna. May 17. The emperor Fer- 
dinand II. is compelled to quit the city. 
Aug. 12. The emperor returns. Oct. 6. A 
second insurrection breaks out. Oct. 7. 
The emperor avain leaves the city. Oct. 
28. Vienna is bombarded by .Tellachich 
and Windischgratz. Oct. 31. The rebels 
surrender. 

1852. May 8. Nicholas I. of Russia visits Vienna. 
Sept. 30. Funeral services are perfoiined in 
honour of the duke of Wellington. 

1857. Strangers are permitted to enter Vienna 

without passports. 

1858. The fortifications are demolished preparatory 

to the extension of the city. 
1860. March 5 The Reichsrath is re-established by 
patent. 

Vienna (Congress). — The first congress 
of Vienna was convened by the treaty of 
Paris, May 30, 1814, for the settlement of 
the affairs of Europe after the abdication of 
the emperor Napoleon I. The 1st of August 
was the day appointed for the opening of the 
congress ; but it was afterwards resolved 
that the meeting should be postponed till 
October. The duke of Saxe-Weimar arrived 
at Vienna Sept. 17 ; the kings of Denmark 
and Wiirtemberg, and the duke of Saxe- 
Coburg, Sept. 22 ; the empero,r of Eussia and 
the king of Prussia, Sept. 25 ; the king of 
Bavaria and the duke of Brunswick, Sept. 28; 
the elector of Hesse and the prince of Ifas- 
sau-Weilburg, Sept. 30; and the grand- 
duke of Baden, Oct. 2. Besides the sove- 
reign princes, the congress was composed of 



VIE 

plenipotentiaries from the courts of Aus- 
tria (Prince Metternich and others), Spain, 
France (Prince Talleyrand, &c.). Great Bri- 
tain (Lord Castlereagh, and afterwards the 
duke of Wellington, v.i.ih. others), Portugal, 
Prussia, Eussia (Count Nesselrode, &c.), 
Sweden, Denmark, and other minor states. 
The first official declaration of the congress 
was issued Oct. 8, and announced the post- 
ponement of the formal opening till ]S'ov. 1, 
when business commenced under the presi- 
dency of Prince Metternich. After the re- 
turn of Napoleon I, from Elba, and the 
establishment of the monarchy of the Hun- 
dred Days, the congress published a decla- 
ration March 13, 1815, announcing that he 
had thereby broken all civil and social ties, 
and had rendered himself a political .outlaw. 
The principal arrangements of the congress 
were collected in one grand act of 121 articles, 
which was signed by the ministers of Great 
Britain, Austria, Prance, Portugal, Prussia, 

Eussia, and Sweden, June 9, 1815.- On 

the breaking out of the Eusso-Turkish war, 
a conference of the representatives of the 
four great powers assembled at Vienna, for 
the purpose of adjusting the question paci- 
fically, July 24, 1853. On the 31st of July 
the congress adopted the celebrated Vienna 
note. It was accepted by Russia Aug. 10, 
but the Turkish government demanded some 
alterations, Aug. 19, which were rejected 
by the czar Sept. 7. The result was the de- 
claration of war by Turkey, Oct. 5. The con- 
gress addressed another note to the Porte, 
expressing the regret of the great powers at 
the war, and requesting information on the 
conditions on which Turkey would treat for 
peace, Dec. 5, and the Turkish government, 
in a reply dated Dec. 31, named the earliest 
possible evacuation of the principalities, the 
renewal of treaties, the maintenance of the 
rehgious privileges of all commuuities, and a 
definite regulation of the Holy Places, as the 
indispensable grounds of negotiation. These 
four points were admitted hj the congress 
Jan. 13, 1854, and on the 16th the meeting 

was dissolved. A third congress assembled 

March 15, 1855, composed of plenipoten- 
tiaries from Great Britain (Lord John Eus- 
seU and the earl of Westmoreland), France, 
Austria, Turkey, and Russia (Prince Gorts- 
chakoff ) , and ai'ter agreeing on the questions 
relative to the principalities, and to the navi- 
gation of the Danube, a dispute commenced 
respecting the restriction of Russian power in 
the Black Sea, which resulted in an adjourn- 
ment of the congress March 26. M. Drouyn 
de Lhuys and Aali Pasha arrived at Vienna 
as additional ministers April 6, and negotia- 
tions were resumed April 17. Lord John 
ijusselL vrithdrew from Vienna April 23, in 
consequence of the dissatisfaction his pohcy 
had created in England, and Drouyn de 
Lhuys also left the conference April 27. 
The congress terminated without producing 
any satisfactory results June 4. 

Vienna (Treaties).— The following is a 
list of the most important treaties that have 
been concluded at Vienna. 
' 879 



VIE 



ItjCHJ. June 20. The Beligious Peace of Vienna Is 
coucluded 1 etwceu tbe emperor Rodolph 
II. and tlie Hungjiriau Protest 'ii to. 

1671. Sept. 1. A secivt ailmuce between France 
and the emperor Leopold I. is signed at 
Vienna. 

1689. Miiy 12. An alliance against France is con - 
cludt-d by Holland and tbe emperor Leo- 
pold I. at Vienna. 

1725. A pence and an alliance are concluded at 

Vienna by Germany and Spain Si>aiii 
guai'aufeeU th^ Pragmatic Sanction, and 
Germany agreed to furnish a force for re- 
Bering Giliraltjir to Spiin, and to endea- 
vour to restore the Stuai-ts to the English 
throne. 

1726. Aug. 6. An alliance between the emperor 

CliailesVr. and Cathar'ne I., empress of 
Rns»i:i, is concluded at Vienna 

1731. March 10. A treat, is concluded at Vienna 

brtweeii Great Britain, Germany, and 

• Holland. By this tre«ty Great BriUin 

guaranteed I he Priigmatic Sanction. Si>alQ 

acceded to it July '2'i. 

1738. Nov. 18. A d-finiiive \teAie between France 
and Gemmny is concluded xt Vienna. By 
thi* treaty L'rraine is reded to France, 
which agrees to th-- Pragmatic Sanction. 

1757. Oct. 30 Maria Iheresa giianint^e- tl'e po«- 
fessi'^n of Berg ai d Juliers to th" e'e«.tor 
palatine, by a treaty ►i(rne<l at Vienna, 

1791. July 25. All alliance between the emperor 
Leopold II. and Prussia is siuued at 
Vienna 

1809. Oct. 14. Peace between Napole<>n I. and Anstrfa 
la signed ntPchOenbnnm, an imiHirial palace 
in the 8Ui>nr)i8 of Vienna. Austria cedea 
Dalmatia, tlie Tyrol, 4c., to Franc-, and 
unites with France and Russia in their 
pri'hibito'y py teni with regard to Rngland. 

1815. Maicti 2.5. Ore*«t Bri'aln, Austria, Ru-r<it.and 
Pru8-ia conclude an allia?ice at Vie'ina. 
May 31. A treaty is concluded between 
Holland on one side, hii'I Great Bri'ain, 
Austria, Prussia, and Ru«<sia on the other. 
The allies agr-e to an ex'enslon o' the 
Dutch territories, and dechtre the house of 
Oiange ihe loyal family of Holland. June 
4 Denmark cedes Swedish Pomeninia and 
BUgeu t" Pruss a in exchange for lauen- 
be g by a treaty conclu.'ed Wtweeu the 
two powers at Vienna June 8. An ail 
vestinir tbe adininistrHtinn of the German 
states in a general diet ifi signed at Vienna. 

YiT.y-ST. (France), the Eoman Tionna, a 
flourishing and an important town of the Al- 
lobro.ces. The emperor Valentinian II. was 
murdered here Mav 15, .a.d. ?92. It was 
besieged by the German and French princes 
in 880, and surrendered to Carloman in 882. 
Servetus escaned from prison here, and was 
burned in effigy June 17, 1553. A Roman 
temple still exists, which has been converted 
into a museum, and near the town is a pyra- 
midal monument called Pontius Pilate's 
Tomb. Councils were held here in April, 
870; in 892; Jan. 31, 1060; Sept. M, 1112; 
in 1118; January, 12nr»; and the fifteenth 
general council, from Oct. 16, 1311, to May 6, 
1312. 

Vigo fSpa'n) was taken and burned by 
the exped tion under Drake and Norris, 
despatched by Elizabeth to attempt to place 
Don Antonio on the throne of Portugal, 
A.D. 15*59. Sir George Rooke destroyed a 
fleet of Spanish galleons in its harbour, cap- 
turing booty that was estimated at 6,000,000 
dollars, Oct. 12, 1702. Its garrison surren- 



VIM 

dered to Lord Cobham, who carried off 43 

Eieces of ordnance, 8,000 muskets, 2,000 
arrels of gunpowder, and a number of 
slave sloops, Oct. 10, 1719. 

Villa Franca (Battle) was gained by 
Sir Stapleton Cotton at this town, in Portu- 
gal, over the French forces of Marshal 
Soult, April 11, 1812. The pursuit was 
maintained for four miles, and the French 
lost several officers and 12Smen iu prisoners, 
besides their killed and wounded. 

Villa Franca or Villefranchk (Lom- 
bardy). — This town was founded by Charles 
of Anjou, king of Naples, during the 13lh 
century, and is celebrated for the prelimi- 
nary treaty of peace which was concluded 
here between the emperors of France and 
Austria July 11, 18.59, by which Austria 
abandoned iombardy to Sardinia. (See 
ZrsicH.) 

Villa Fbanca (Sardinia). — This small 
port in the Mediterranean was purchased 
Nov. 19, 1858, for twenty years, ny a Hus- 
I sian company as a station for steamboats, 
and was almost immediately occupied by two 
I Russian ships of war. The English govern- 
ment opposed this transaction as an encroach- 
ment on the part of Russia in the Mediter- 
ranean. 

Villain, or Villkin. — The name applied 
by the Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Normans 
to their slaves. Af\er the Coni^uest, a.d, 
1066, there were four classes of slaves in 
England : villains in gross, who were the 
absolute property of their masters, and were 
emplovecl in the most menial offices ; villains 
regardant, otherwise styled prwdial sl.tves, 
who were attached to the soil, and followed 
the occupation of husbandmen ; and two 
smaller divisions, known as cottnrii and lor- 
darii. The method for the amercement of 
villains is prescribed by 9 Hen. III. c. 14 
(1225), ana their performance of homage 
to their feudal lords is regulated by 17 Edw. 11. 
I Stat. 2 (1321). By 25 Edw. III. stat. .5. c. 1« 
I (13.50), a lord was empowered to seize his 
villain notwithstandingawritof /jiV/fr^*/^ />»'o- 
batida. (See Fkidal Laws and Slavkhy.) 

Villingshauskn (Battle). (See Kirch- 

DENKEHN.) 

ViLNA, or WiLNA (Russia), is the capital 
] of a government of the same name. A 
treaty by which Gotherrl Kettler, last grand 
master of the Livonian knights, ceded Livo- 
nia to Polantl, was signed here a.d. 1.561. Pro- 
: testants were admitted to equal privileges 
with Roman Catholics by the diet assembled 
' at Vilna in 1563. A truce between Russia 
< and Poland was agreed to here in 1656. It 
was occupied by Napoleon I. on his march 
to Moscow, June 28, 1812 ; and the remnant 
I of his army, on their return in December, 
' were driven from the city by the Cossacks. 
ViMEiRA (Battle). — General Junot, who 
received from Napoleon I. the title of due 
j d'Abrantes, attacked Wellington near this 
j town, Aug. 21, 1808. The French were com- 
I pletely defeated, with a loss of fourteen guns 
I and many prisoners. 
I ViMOBi (Battle). — A German army raised 



VIN 



VIS 



in the cause of Henry of Navarre, was 
attacked here by the duke of G-uise, and 
dispersed Oct. 27, 1587. 

ViNCENNES (France). — Henry V. of Eng- 
land having fallen ill at Corbeuil, was removed 
to the Bois de Vincennes, where he expired, 
Aug. 31, 1422. In its state prison Conde was 
confined Jan. 18, 1650 ; the cardinal de 
Eetz Dec. 19, 1652 ; and Mirabeau for three 
years and a half. The castle was attacked by 
a Parisian mob Feb. 28, 1791. The duke 
d'Enghien was shot here by order of Napo- 
leon I., March 20, 1804. When the allies 
appeared before it in 1815, the governor- 
general Daumenil saved it by threatening to 
blow it up. 

Vincent. (See Cape St. Vincent.) 

Vincent, St. (West Indies), was disco- 
vered by Columbus a.d. 1498. Charles II. in- 
cluded it with the Barbadoes and several other 
islands under one government, in 1672 ; the 
French began to colonize the island in 1714 ; 
it was ceded to England in 1763 ; captured 
by the French, June 17, 1779 ; and restored 
to England in 1783. An insurrection of the 
Caribs was put down Oct. 1, 1795. Another, 
aided by the French republicans, terminated 
in the surrender of 5,000 blacks to General 
Hunter. They were transported to the 
island of Eattan in November, 1796. An 
alarming eruption of the volcano Souffriere 
took place in 1812. 

ViNCT (Battle). — Charles Martel, son 
of Pepin d'Heristal, encountered the Neu- 
strians under Eaginfried at this plaec, near 
Cambray, May 21, 717, and gained a victory 
which made him master of all Jn eustria. 

Vindelicia (Germany), inhabited by a 
Celtic tribe, the VindeHci, was conquered by 
Tiberius I., and many of the people were 
transported into other countries, B.C. 15. 

Vine and Vine Disease. — Noah is said 
to have planted a vineyard, B.C. 2247 (Gen. 
ix. 20). It is supposed that the culture of 
the vine passed from Persia into Asia Minor, 
and thence into Greece and Southern Europe, 
and it is known to have been introduced into 
France by the Phocsean founders of Mar- 
seilles, B.C. 600. It is supposed that vines 
were first brought to England by command 
of the emperor Probus, about a.d. 280, and 
the Venerable Bede speaks of vineyards as 
common objects in this country in 731. Vines 
were planted at Tokay, in Hungary, in the 
I3th century. They were introduced into 
Madeira about the year 1421, and were first 
planted at the Cape of Good Hope by the 
Dutch in 1650. The Catawba vine of Ame- 
rica first attracted attention about 1826. 
The vine disease, Oidium Tuckeri, first ap- 
peared in an English hothouse in 1845. In 
L847 it was noticed in France ; and in 1851 
ts destructive ravages extended to Italy. 

Vinegar Hill (Battle).— The Irish rebels 
vere defeated at "Vinegar Hill, Wexford, 
heir principal camp or station, by General 
Lake, June 21, 1798. 

Vintneks' Company. — The vintners of 
London were incorporated by Edward III. 
Il.d. 1365, and coniirmed by Henry VI. in 
881 



1436. The site of their hall in Thames 
Street was granted by Sir John Stodie in 
1357. The present building is of modern 
date. 

Vioi,, Violin, &c.— The viol, a six- 
stringed fretted instrument played with a 
bow, existed as early as the 8th century a.d., 
and the violin, which differs in having only 
four strings, dates from about the same 
period. During the Middle Ages the violin 
was regarded as a vulgar instrument un- 
worthy the attention of musicians of refine- 
ment, and it was not till the Italian Balta- 
zarini was sent as a leader of a band of 
violins to France, for the gratification of 
Catherine of Medicis, that it became fa- 
shionable. About the beginning of the 17th 
century it became an important instru- 
ment in concerted pieces, and the celebrated 
violins of the Amati family, of Cremona, were 
made in great quantities as early as 1620. 
Charles II. rendered the violin a fashionable 
EngHsh instrument soon after his resto- 
ration in 1660. Nicolo Paganini, the most 
eminent viohnist of any age, was born at 
Genoa in 1784. He visited England in 1831, 
and died at Nice in 1840. 

ViEGiNiA (North America) received its 
name from Queen Elizabeth after the return 
of Sir Walter Ealeigh, a.d. 1584, James I. 
granted a patent of the southern part of the 
state to a London company in 1606; and 
the first colonists, one hundred and five in 
number, settled on the banks of the James 
river, calling the place James Town, in 
honour of the king. May 13, 1607. The 
colony met with many disasters, but was 
recruited by fresh emigrants, who arrived 
with Lord Delaware as governor June 10, 
1610, and by another batch, under Sir 
Thomas Gates, in August, 1611. A consti- 
tution was given to the colony in July, 1621. 
A general slaughter of the settlers was 
conunitted March 22, 1622, by the Indians, 
who attempted a similar atrocity, but only 
partially succeeded, April 18, 1644. The 
first constitution was adopted for legislative 
purposes June 29, 1776. The importation 
of slaves was forbidden by the state legisla- 
ture, under heavy penalties, in 1778. Its 
constitution was revised in 1830. Virginia 
seceded from the United States April 18, 
1861. 

Virgin Islands (Atlantic), called Las 
Virgines, in honour of the virgins of the 
Eomish ritual, by Columbus, who discovered 
them on his second voyage, a.d. 1494. 
Dutch buccaneers, who settled in Tortola in 
1648, were expelled by the Enghsh in 1666. 
St. Thomas's was settled by the Danes in 
1672. St. John's was also appropriated by 
the Danes, who were dispossessed of both 
islands by the EngHsh in 1801 ; they were, 
however, restored in 1802. This group, 
again captured by the English in 1807, was 
restored to Denmark in 1815. Cholera ra- 
vaged the islands in 1853 and 1854. A new 
constitution was granted them in 1854. 

Viscount. — The title, created by patent, 
was first conferred on John, Lord Beaumont, 
3 L 



VIS 

accompanied with a grant of landsinFrance, I 
by Henry VI., Yeh. 10, 144^. 

VisEtr (Portugal) . — Alfonso V. of Leon 
was MUed while besieging this town, a.d. ' 
1028. It was captured by Perdinand I. of : 
Castile in 1040. 

Visigoths, or Thi?:ettngi.— The division 1 
of the great Gothic nation into the Eastern | 
or Ostrogoths (q.v.), and Western, or Visi- j 
goths, took place about a.d. 330. In 365 the 1 
Visigoths assisted Procopius against the ! 
Eomans. Valens permitted them to settle 1 
south of the Danube in 376, and in 382 they 
tendered their submission to the Romans, I 
when Theodosius I. granted them permis- j 
sion to occupy Thrace. In 395 they ravaged 
Thessaly, under their leader Alaric, whom i 
they elected king in 398, and in 400 they i 
invaded Italy. They took Eome Aug. 24, 1 
410, and established a kingdom in the ! 
south of Gaul in 412. They penetrated into 
Spain, and estabhshed a monarchy in that 
country in 419. Clovis expelled them from 
France in 507, and the Moors overthrew ' 
their power in Spain in 711. 

Vitebsk, or Witepsk (Russia). — The 
Russians, to the number of 80,000, under 
Barclay de Tolly, retreated to this place on 
the left bank of the Dwina, July 25, 1812. 
Tliey broke up their camp within sight of 
the French army, and commenced their 
march towards Smolensko to etfect a 
junction vrith Bagrathion, July 27. The 
French having taken possession, were driven 
out by Wittgenstein, Nov. 7. An engage- 
ment between the troops in its neighbour- 
hood, resulting in a loss on each side of 
3,000 men, proved rather favourable to the 
Russians, ^S'ov. 14, 1812. 

ViTEEBO (Italy), capital of a legation of 
the same name, supposed to occupy the site 
of the Fanum Voltumnae, where the ancient 
Etruscans held their confederate assemblies, 
is said to have been built or enclosed 
by Desiderius, the last of the Lombard 
kings (a.d. 757 — 774). Having main- 
tained its indejpendence as a free munici- 
pality, it was obhged to submit to Rome 
about 1200. The Romans marched against 
it and were ignominiously defeated by the 
Viterbans, led by the count of Toulouse and 
the bishop of Winchester, in 1234. A treaty 
was concluded here in 1267, between Charles 
of Anjou and Baldwin II., who had fled to 
Italy after the fall of Constantinople. It was 
captured by Ladislaus, king of Naples, Jnl413. 
A defensive alliance was also formed here 
between Pope Leo X. and Francis I., king of 
France, in Oct. 1515. The town-haU was com- 
menced in 1264, and the episcopal palace, 
containing the great haU, where several 
popes of the Middle Ages were elected, was 
built in the 13th century. There is a tradi- 
tion that Prince Henry, son of the earl of 
Cornwall, was murdered at the high altar of 
the cathedral by Guy de Montfort, who fell 
at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265. 
Pope Adrian IV., an Englishman, compelled 
the emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) to 
hold the stirrup of his mule while he dis- 



VOL 

mounted at the piazza before the cathedral 
in 1155. 

ViTBT (France). — This tovm, formerly- a 
place of considerable importance, was seized 
and burned by Louis VII. a.d. 1144, when 
1,300 of the inhabitants perished from fire in 
a church. In expiation of this offence the 
Idng undertook the second crusade in 1146. 
Vitry, after having been gradually restored, 
was again destroyed by Charles V. in 1544, | 
in consequence of which Francis I. founded 
Vitry-le-Francois at ahttle distance from the 
original town' in 1545. The new city vt-as 
seized by the allies in 1814. 

ViTTORiA (Spain) was so named by 
Sancho IV. of Navarre, to commemorate 
a victory over the Moors, about a.d. 1180. 
It was occupied by the French in 1808. A 
signal victory was gained here by Welhngton 
over the French, under the command of 
Jo3e])h Bonaparte and Jourdan, June 21, 
1813. So complete was their rout, that 
of the 71^,00'^ men who marched under the 
French standard, not one man remained on 
Spanish soil June 27. 
ViYAEiuir. (See Aquativakium.) 
ViziEK. — "Who among you will be my 
vizier ?" (i. e. burden-bearer) asked Mo- 
hammed among forty of his followers at the 
commencement of his career, a.d. 609. 
Among the Turks the office of grand vizier 
was created for Aladin, the brother of 
Orchan, in 1326. So precarious was their 
position, that three years and a half was the 
average tenure of 115 who had filled it down 
to 1683. The office of grand vizier was 
abohshed in Turkey in 1838. 

Vladimik, orWLADiMiH (Russia).— This 
city, founded a.d. 1158, is one of the most 
ancient in Russia. It was originally a place 
of great importance, and, until 1318, was 
the seat of the government, and the residence 
of the grand duke, but it is now sunk into 
insignificance. 
Vlissingen-. {See Flushing.) 
VocoNiAN Law, aboKshing the right of 
female inheritance, and restricting legacies 
to women to the sum of 100,000 sesterces, 
was enacted at Rome B.C. 169. 

VoiEosr (Battle) . — Clodomir having killed 
Sigismund, king of the Burgundians, was 
defeated and slain at this place, on the 
Rhone, by Gondemar, the brother of Sigis- 
mund, who was acknowledged king in his 
stead, A.D. 524. 

VoLCAifo. — Monte Nuovo, a Neapolitan 
volcano, was thrown up during an eruption 
of Vesuvius a.d. 1538. Jorullo, in Mexico, 
suddenly rose to a height of 1,600 feet in 
1759, and has remained quiescent ever since ; 
and the volcano of Izaleo, in Central America, 
was thrown up Feb. 23, 1770, and has been 
in action from that time till the present. 
Graham's Island, or Ferdinandea, a volcanic 
island in the Mediterranean Sea, was heaved 
up from a depth of 100 fathoms to a height 
of 230 feet above the water, July 31, 1831, 
and remained visible for three months, when 
it again sank below the surface. {See Mis a, 
Hecla, and Vesuvius.) 



VOL 

Vols CI, a branch of the same family as 
the Umbrians and Oscans, inhabiting a por- 
tion of ancient Latium, first appear in Ko- 
man history as a numerous and warlilce 
people, whose capital city, Suessa Pometia, 
was captured by Tarquin II. The spoils 
taken from it were employed to build the 
Capitol. An army sent by them to besiege 
Eome was completely routed. The consul 
Virginius and Coriolanus defeated them in 
different engagements, B.C. 487. Coriolanus 
is said to have found refuge with them 
after his banishment from Kome, and to 
have led them against the Komans, who were 
compelled to sue for peace, as the city was 
about to be invested by his victorious troops, 
B.C. 490. Having leagued with the ^qui, 
both nations were defeated by the Romans, 
B.C. 431. CamiUus routed them and took 
their capital, b.c. 388; and again at Satri- 
cum he took their camp by storm and cap- 
tured a great number of prisoners, B.C. 381. 
A coalition of the Volsci and the Latins was 
Bubdued by the Romans b.c. 377. Valerius 
Corvus defeated them, storming and burning 
the town of Satricum, B.C. 346. The whole 
of the Volscian people having submitted to 
Eome, received the privilege of citizens be- 
fore B.C. 304. 

VoLSciwiANS, or ViTLSciH-iANS, an ancient 
Etrurian people, who made an incursion into 
Roman territory during a famine, B.C. 391. 
They were beaten, and lost five thousand in 
prisoners, and were finally subjugated by 
the Romans B.C. 280. The conquerors 
razed their town, and compelled the re- 
maining inhabitants to migrate to another 
spot. 

Voltaic Pile, Voltaic Electeicitt, or 
Galvanism {q. v.), was first erected into a 
science in consequence of Alessandro Volta's 
publication of the contact theory of galvan- 
ism, A.D. 1793. The pile was first constructed 
by Volta in 1800, and has undergone nume- 
rous improvements by Grove, Bimsen, and 
other men of science. 

VoLTEEBA (Italy), on the site of Vola- 
terrse, one of the most ancient of the Etrus- 
can cities, offered a brave resistance to the 
consul L. Scipio b.c. 298. It was afterwards 
admitted as a dependent ally of Rome, and 
furnished suppHes for the fleet of Scipio in 
the second Punic war, b.c. 205. It opened 
its gates to Sylla after a two years' blockade, 
B.C. 88. Upon the fall of the empire, it 
passed successively under the power of the 
Vandals and the Lombards. The latter were 
driven out by Charlemagne in the 8th cen- 
tury. Its palace was constructed in the 10th 
century. The town-hall, with its museum 
of Etruscan remains, the most valuable in 
Italy, was built a.d. 1208-1257. The cathedral 
was built about 1254. The citadel was con- 
verted into a house of correction in 1818. A 
bed of alum discovered near the city was 
claimed by the Florentine government in 
1472. 

VoLTEi (Italy) was occupied by the allied 
Austrian and Sardinian forces a.d. 1795. 
A series of combats between them and the 



VOL 

French, extending over fifteen days, took 
place in its neighbourhood in the month of 
April. Both sides suffered severe loss. The 
French, under Massena, sustained a com- 
plete defeat here from the Austrians, com- 
manded by Melas, April 18, 1800. 

VoLUNTEEES. — The oldest volunteer 
corps connected with the British army is 
the Honourable Artillery Company, which 
was first raised a.d. 1585, and restored in 
1610. 



A.D. 

1778. 
1779. 

1782. 
1794 
1799. 



1853. 
1859. 



Volunteer regiments for service in the Ameri- 
can war are enrolled in some of the chief 
English cities. 

Oct. 12. A regiment of Irish volunteers under 
the earl of Leinster, musters 20,000 strong at 
Dublin to support the parliament in de- 
manding free trade. 

The earl of Shelbui-ne proposes the formation 



March. Volunteer corps are raised in England 
in consequence of^an anticipated invasion 
by the French republicans. 

June 4. George III. reviews upwards of 8,000 
volunteers in Hyde Park. 

Numerous volunteer corps, enrolled for the 
defence of the country against Napoleon 
I., are regulated by 44 Geo. III. c. 54. 
Aug. 10. The volunteers receive the thanks 
of the House of Commons. Oct. 26. George 
III. reviews 12,401 London volunteers in 
Hyde Park. Oct. 28. He reviews 14,676 
Westminster, Lambeth, and Southwark 
volunteers. 

June 5. The volunteer system is regulated by 
44 Geo. IIL c. 54. 

March 26. The Exeter and South Devon 
Volunteer Rifle Battalion is formed. 

Aug. 3. The Victoria Rifles are enrolled. 

May 12. The Secretary of Vfar publishes a 
circular announcing the intended establish- 
ment of volunteer rifle corps under the 
provisions of the act of 1803. June. Rifle 
corps are formed throughout the United 
Kingdom. Ang. 10. Rules for the govern- 
ment of rifle corps not in actual service, 
and formed by a committee of volunteers, 
are issued by the War Oflace. Nov. The 
National Rifle Association is fonned at 
London under the presidency of Mr. Sid- 
ney (afterwards Lord) Herbert, secretary 
for war, and with the Queen and Prince 
Albert for its patrons. 

March 7. The Queen receives 2,500 oflicers of 
volunteer rifle brigades at a lev§e at St. 
James's. June 23. About 21,000 volunteers 
are reviewed by the Queen in Hyde Park. 
July 2. The first meeting of the National 
Rifle Association takes place on Wimbledon 
Common, when Mi-. Edward Ross gains the 
fli-st prize, and M. Thorel of Geneva greatly 
distinguishes himself. July 14. A sham 
fight of the London volunteers is held at 
Camden Park, Chiselhurst. Aug. 7. The 
Queen reviews the Scotch volunteers in 
the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. Sept. 1. 
The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 
Lancashire volunteers at Koowsley. 

Feb. 16. Lord Herbert of Lea resigns the pre- 
sidency of the National Rifle Association. 
April 1 (Easter Monday). Volunteer sham 
fights take place at Brighton, Wimbledon, 
&c. July 4 to 14. The second meeting of 
the National Association takes place .it 
Wimbledon, when the Queen's cup, worth 
£250, is won by Mr. Jopling, of the South 
Middlesex corps. 

April 21 (Easter Monday). Lord Clyde re- 
views about 20,000 volunteers at Brighton. 
July. The third meeting of the National 
Kifle Association is held at Wimbledon, 
3 L 2 



vos 



WAF 



VossEM (Treaty). — A peace was con- 
cluded between France and the elector of 
Brandenburg at this town of Brabant, June 6, 
1673. 

VouGLE (Battle). — Alaric II., king of the 
Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, 
ting of the Franks, at this place, near 
Poitiers, in France, a.d. 507. 

Voyages. [See CiEcuirifAviGATiON, &c.) 

Vulgate, the name of the Latin transla- 
tion of the Bible sanctioned by the Romish 
church, was commenced by St. Jerome about 
A.D. 385. The Gospels were completed in 
387, and the Old Testament about 405. 
The first printed edition of the Vulgate was 
that of Guttenberg, published at Mentz in 
1462, and an attempt to restore the text to 
the state in which it was left by Jerome was 
made by Eobert Stephens in 1528. The 
council of Trent declared the Vulgate authen- 
tic, April 8, 1546, and iu 1589 an edition was 
printed at the Vatican, and sanctioned by a 
bull of Pope Sixtus V. This edition was 
superseded by another, which was printed by 
order of Clement Vlil. in 1592, and this is 
the version still used by Koman Catholics. 



Waal (Holland).— The French defeated 
the advanced posts of the English army on 
the banks of this river, Oct. 19, 1794, and 
were in turn defeated here by the EngHsh 
and Dutch towards the end of the same 
month. It was crossed by the French on 
the ice, to make a winter campaign in Hol- 
land, towards the end of December, 1794. A 
skirmish between the English, under Wel- 
lington, and the French, took place here 
Jan. 15, 1795. 

Wadham College (Oxford) was founded 
by l^icholas Wadham and Dorothy his wife, 
A.D. 1613, for a warden, fifteen fellows, 
fifteen scholars, two chaplains, and two 
clerks. Dr. Humphi-ey Hody founded ten 
exhibitions— foui- for the study of Hebrew, 
and six for the study of Greek — in 1706. 
Eichard Warner bequeathed an exhibition 
for the study of botany in 1775. John 
Goodridge left lands, &c., to the value of 
£60 a year to the college, Nov. 25, 1654 ; and 
Lord Wyndham bequeathed £2,000 in 1745. 
Its greatest benefactor was the Eev. John 
Wills, who, in 1806, bequeathed £90 a year for 
a law exhibition to a fellow, £18 a year for a 
law exhiMtion to a scholar, £90 a year for a 
medical exhibition to a fellow, and £18 a 
year for a medical exhibition to a scholar, 
besides bequests to a fund for the purchase 
of livings. The chapel was consecrated April 
29, 1613. The altar was paved with black 
and white marble in 1677, and the rest of 
the chapel in 1678. An additional building 
was erected on the south side of the college 
in 1694. 

Wafer. — The bread used in the Eucharist 
by the Lutherans and Eoman Catholics is 
called a wafer. It is in the shape of a denarius, 
or penny, to represent, according to some, 



the money for which Jesus was betrayed; 
and its use was first introduced in the llth 
century. Bernoldus, in his " De Ordine 
Eomano," written in 1089, condemns the 
substitution of the wafer for bread. 

Wafers. — The oldest seal with red wafers, 
according to Beckmann, is dated a.d. 1624. 
A writer in Notes and Queries (ii. 410) 
mentions a letter, dated April, 1607, in his 
possession, sealed with a red wafer. Wafers 
were only used by private persons in the 
17th century. Their use on public seals 
commenced in the ISth century. 

Wagee of Battel. {See Assize of 
Battel.) 

Wages. — The earHest attempts to regulate 
the price of labour in this country arose in 
consequence of the depopulation occasioned, 
A.D. 1346 and the following years, by 
the plague, which reduced the number of 
the working class to such an extent that 
the supply of labour proved inadequate to 
the demand, and an immediate rise of wages 
was the result. The consequence was, the 
passing of the Statute of Labourers, 25 
Edw. III. Stat. 1 (1350), which limited the 
rate of wages. Further regulations were 
imposed by 13 Eich. II. c.8 (1389), 23 Hen. 
VI. c. 12 (1444), and 11 Hen. VII. c. 22 
(1496). These statutes were amended by 
5Eliz. c. 4 (1562), and 1 James I. c. 6 (1604), 
which entrusted the decision of disputes 
respecting wages, to justices, sheriffs, mayors, 
&c. This jurisdiction was abohshed by 53 
Geo. IIL c. 40 (April 15, 1813). By 1 & 2 
Will. IV. c. 37 (Oct. 15, 1831), numerous 
statutes prohibiting the payment of wages in 
goods were repealed, and by 12 & 13 Vict. 
c. 106 (Aug. 1, 1849), clerks and servants of 
bankrupts are entitled to at least one quar- 
ter's wages in fuU, provided the amount does 
not exceed £30. The following table, ex- 
tracted from Tooke's " History of Prices," 
vi. 389, exhibits the average daily wages of 
agricultural laboxirers in England during the 
periods stated : — 



Wages 
A.D. per Day. 

1200—1299 4d. 

1300—1399 5\d. 

14€0-1499 6id. 

1500-1599 64d. 

1600—1699 10|d. 

1700—1799 15d. 



Wages 
A.D. per l>ay. 

1701-1766 12.1. 

1767—1789 15d. 

1767—1800 17d. 

1790-1803 20d. 

1804-1810 24d. 

1811 25M. 



{See Labotjeees, &c.) 

Waggons. — Pharaoh sent waggons to 
convey Jacob and his family from Canaan 
to Egypt, B.C. 1706 (Gen. xlv. 19), and 
some rude vehicle existed among all the 
nations of antiquity, and was employed for 
agricultui-al purposes during the Middle 
Ages. Long waggons, for the conveyance of 
passengers and goods from London to some 
of the principal provincial towns, were started 
iu 1605, but did not meet with much success. 
They were supplanted by waggon-coaches, 
which continued to be the chief means of 
conveyance until the establishment of stage- 
coaches {q. v). Waggoners, or common car- 
riers, were regulated by 3 WiU. & Mary, c. 12 



WAG 



WAL 



(1691), which was amended by 21 Geo. II. 
c. 28 (1748). 

Wagkam, (Battle,) fought at this village, 
near Vienna, between the French, under 
Napoleon I., and the Austrians, under the 
Archduke Charles, July 6, 1809. The former 
were victorious. This led to the peace of 
Schonbrunn {q.v.), and the marriage of 
Kapoleon I. with the Archduchess Maria 
Louisa. 

Wahabees, a Mohammedan reforming 
sect, originated by Abd el Wahab, in Arabia, 
about A.D. 1748. They made a successful 
campaign against Ghaleb, the grand sheik of 
Mecca, in 1792 and 1793 ; repelled an attack 
by Soliman, pasha of Bagdad, in 1797 ; and 
totally destroyed a Turkish army sent against 
them in 1801. They took Mecca in 1803, 
and Medina the same year ; conquered the 
greater part of Arabia, and overran Syria. 
Slohammed Ali sent an army against them, 
which they defeated near Medina, in 1812 ; 
but the Egyptians took that town in the 
same year. The Wahabees, defeated at 
Zohran, were victorious at Brissel, in 1815, 
when a peace was concluded. Ibrahim 
Pasha made war upon them in 1816, and, 
after an obstinate resistance, drove them 
into Derayeh in 1818, which he took 
in December of the same year, and sent 
Abdullah, their chief, and several of his 
family, to Constantinople, where they were 
beheaded. The greater part of the terri- 
tories conquered by the Wahabees fell under 
the authority of Mohammed Ali ; but they 
gave him much trouble, by fomenting insur- 
rections, in 1827, 1834, 1838, and 1839. 

Wahlstatt (Battles). — This Prussian 
village was the scene of a great victory gained 
by the duke of Silesia over the Mongol 
Tartars, a.d. 1241. Blucher defeated the 
French at the same place, Aug. 26, 1813, 
and received, in consequence, the title of 
Prince of Wahlstatt. The latter battle is 
frequently spoken of as the battle of Katz- 
bach (q.v.), from a small stream that runs 
through the plain in which it was fought. 

Waistcoat. — This term originally sig- 
nified an under-garment, reaching to the 
waist. The waistcoat afterwards became 
the principal male garment, and superseded 
the doublet; but in the 17th century it 
resumed its original meaning, and acquired 
the same character which it still possesses. 
Pepys, in 1663, mentions seeing the queen 
" in a white laced waistcoat." During the 
reign of Charles II., gentlemen wore 
waistcoats reaching to the knees, and this 
fashion continued till about 1772, when the 
members of the Macaroni club (q.v.) intro- 
duced short waistcoats. 

Wait ZEN (Hungary). — The Hungarian 
insurgents took this town by .storm April 9, 
1849, and repulsed the Russians with great 
slaughter July 15. They were defeated the 
next day by the Russians, who entered the 
town. 

Wakefield (Yorkshire), supposed to 
have existed in the time of the Romans, 
formed part of the royal demesne in the 



reign of Edward the Confessor. The 
manor was granted by Henry I., about 
A.D. 1107, to WilUam, Earl Warren in whose 
family it remained till the middle of the 
14th century, when it reverted to the crown. 
It was granted to the earl of Holland by 
Charles I., and was purchased by the duke 
of Leeds in 1700. A sanguinary battle was 
fought here Dec. 30, 1460, between the 
Lancastrians and the Yorkists, in which the 
latter were defeated, and Richard, duke of 
York, father of Edward IV., was slain. 
The Royalists were defeated here by Fairfax 
May 21, 1643. The parish church of All 
Saints was built in the reign of Henry III. 
The font bears the initials of Charles II., and 
the date is 1611. The bridge was built in the 
reign of Edward III. The Free Grammar- 
school was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 
1592. The Green -coat school was esta- 
blished in 1707. The church of St. John 
was built in 1795, and was made parochial 
in 1815. The Court-house was erected in 
1806, a corn-exchange in 1823, and a more 
commodius building in 1837. The Literary 
and Philosophical Society was founded in 
1827 ; the Proprietary school was opened in 
1834 ; and Trinity church was built in 18-40. 

WALCHEKEif Expedition. — This expedi- 
tion, for checking the growing influence of 
JSTapoleon I. in Holland, and preventing the 
consequent injury apprehended to Enghsh 
commerce, consisted of 30,000 men, under 
the command of Lord Chatham, brother of 
the great William Pitt. Lord Chatham 
received his instructions July 16, 1809. 
The expedition sailed from England, in a 
fleet of thirty-seven ships of the line and 
twenty -three frigates, besides numerous 
smaller vessels, July 28, 1809, and landed 
in Walcheren, the principal island of the 
Dutch province of Zealand, July 30. Mid- 
dleburg, the chief town of the island, and 
Goes, the capital of South Beveland, were 
immediately occupied, and Balitz was eva- 
cuated by the French Aug. 2, and seized 
the following day. Instead of proceeding 
to capture Antwerp, which was the grand 
object of the expedition, Lord Chatham next 
invested Flushing, which surrendered, after 
a vigorous bombardment, Aug. 16. In the 
mean time, however, the French forces had 
I assembled around Antwerp ; and as the 
I marsh fever of the Low Countries began to 
! appear among the English troops, it was 
i decided, in the beginning of September, to 
withdraw into the island of Walcheren. 
As the mortality continued on the in- 
crease, orders were issued for the evacuation 
of the island Nov. 23 ; and before Christmas 
the entire force had embarked. The total 
number of deaths during the occupation 
amounted to 7,000, and the sick sent home 
at various times to 12,863. Considerable 
indignation having been felt at the failure 
of the expedition, a select committee of 
inquiry was nominated by the House of Com- 
mons Feb. 6, 1810. After a long adjourned 
debate, a majority of forty-eight declared 
in favour of the ministerial policy March 30. 



WAL 

Waldeck (Grermany). — This small prin- ' 
cipality was created a.d. 1682. Its first 
prince was George Frederick, a celebrated 
imperial general, who was born in 1620, and 
died in 1692. Prince Christian Augustus, \ 
born in 1744, signalized himself in the wars j 
against the French during the Eevolution, 
and is said to have originated the plan of 
the successful attack on the French lines of 
Weissenburg, in Alsace, Oct. 13, 1793. The 
prince of Waldeck granted a constitution to 
his subjects in August, 1852. 
Waldenses. (See Valdenses.) 
Wales, the ancient Cambria, or Britannia 
Septentrionahs, or Secunda, was a distincc 
principality before the invasion of Ceesar, 
and maintained its independence through- 
out the Eoman, Saxon, and Danish inva- 
sions. The modern Welsh are said to be 
descendants of the ancient Britons, who fled 
to the fastnesses of "V^^ales in order to escape 
from the Saxon tyrants. 



58. Suetonius Paulinus invades "Wales. 

60. Christianity is said to have been first preached 

in Wales about this year. 

61. Paulinus takes Moua, or Anglesey (q.v.). 

75. Julius Frontinus conquers the Silures, inha- 
bitants of Monmouthshire and the adjacent 
country. 
78. Julius Agricola invades Wales and takes 
Moiia. 

429. The Welsh Britons, under St. Germanus, de- 
feat the Saxons at Maes-Gannon. {See 
Haixelujah.) 

443. Caswallon establishes an independent mon- 
archy in North Wales. 

445. The Britons are di-iven into the mountainous 
regions of Wales by the Picts and Scots. 

517. Arthur is elected king of the Britons in 
Wales, and commences war against the 
Saxons. 

542. Arthur is slain at Camelford {q. v.). 

560. Maelgwyn, king of North Wales, is acknow- 
ledged sovereign by the minor princes of 
the countiy. 

603. Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia, invades Wales 
and massacres the monks of Bangor-iscoed 

ig.v.). 

607. St. David dies in Wales. 

610. Tewdrick, a Welsh chieftain, defeats Ceol- 

wulph, king of Wessex. 
676. Cadwallader is elected king of the Welsh 

Britons. 
688. Cadwallader retires into Armorica, or Bil- 

tanny. 
703. Death of Cadwallader, whose throne is con- 
tested by his infant son Edwal, and Ivor, 

son of the king of Armorica. 
776. The inhabitants of South Wales invade Mercia. 
779. Olfa, king of Mercia, constructs a dyke and 

rampart between his territories and those 

of the Welsh. {See Offa's Dvke.) 
813. The western parts of Wales are devastated by 

Egbert. 
833. The Danes land in Wales and conclude an 

alliance with the inhabitants against the 

Saxuns. 
846. The Mercian prince Berthred ravages North 

Wales. 
873. The Danes invade South Wales. 
877. On the death of Roderick the Great, Wales is 

divided into the three principalities of 

North Wales, or GwjTiedh, South Wales, 

or Deheubarth, and Powys. 
895. Wales is ravaged by the Danes. 
900. On the death of Mervyn, prince of Powys, 

his kingdom is annexed to South Wales. 
913. The Irish invade North Wales. 
915. The Danes again invade Wales. 



WAL 



A.D. 

933. Athelstan invades Wales and exacts a heavy 

annual tribute. 
940. Wales is re-united into one kingdom by 

Howel Dha the Good, the great lawgiver. 
948. On his death it is again divided by his sons, 

who commence a civil war. 
952. The sons of Edwal Yoel defeat the sons of 

Howel Dha in the great battle of Llanrwst. 
961. Edgar invades North Wales. 
969. North Wales is devastated by the Danes. 
973. Edgar again ravages Wales. 
981. Einiou, son of oVen, king of South Wales, 

defeats the Danes in a great battle at 

Llauwanoc. 
984. Howel, king of North Wales, invades Eng- 
land and falls in battle. 
990. Edwin, sou of Eiuion, invades South Wales. 
997. V/ales is again invaded by the Danes. 
1003. iEdan ap Blegored iisurps the sovereignty of 

North Wales. 
1015. Llewelyn ap Seisyllt invades North Wales, 

defeats and slays jEdan, and annexes his 

kingdom to South Wales. 

1020. JElhim, a Scot of low birth, usurps the throne 

of South Wales, and is vigorously supported 
by the inhabitants. He is defeated and 
slain by Llewelyn. 

1021. Llewelyn is assassinated by the sons of 

Edwin. 

1037. lago, king of North Wales, is defeated and 

slain by Grylfydh, sou of Llewelyn, who 
ascends the throne and gains a victory nver 
an invading army of English and Danes at 
Crosford, on the Severn. 

1038. Gi-ylTydh defeats Howel, king of South Wales, 

in a great battle fought at Pencadaer, iu 

Caermarthenshire. 
1042. Howel, prince of South Wales, is defeated and 

slain by Gryffjdh, king of North Wales, 

on the banks of the Towi. 
1055. Harold, son of Earl Godwiu, invades North 

Wales. 
1063. It is again ravaged by Harold and his brother 

Tostig, who compel Gryffydh to leave the 

country for a time, and exact a tribute 

from the people. 
1079. William L of England invades Wales, and 

compels the native princes to take the oath 

of fealty. 

1087. Rhys ap Tewdwr, king of South Wales, de- 

feats a rebellion of the sons of Bleddyn 
ap Cynvyn, in tlie battle of Lhechiyd, "in 
Kaduorshtre. 

1088. The Welsh rebel against William 11. 

1091. Wales is in^•aded by an English army under 
Robert Fitzhanunon, who defeats and slays 
Rhys ap Tewdwr near Brecknock. 

1094. The English inhabitants of South Wales are 
massacred by the natives. 

1096. Wales is invaded by a large army under the 
earls of Chester and Shrewsbury. 

1101. Henry I. invades Wales, and crushes a con- 
spiracy of the native princes. 

1108. Owen, son of Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, king of 

Powys, forcibly abducts Nest, the wife of 
Gei-ald, governor of Pembroke Castle. 

1109. Strongbow, earl of Strigill, seizes Cardigan. 
1112. Henry I. establishes a colony of Flemings in 

South Wales. 

1114. Wales is unsuccessfully invaded by a formid- 
able army under Henry I. of England, 
Alexander I. of Scotland, and the earl of 
Pembroke. 

1121. Henry T. again invades Wales. 

1135. On the death of Henry I. a formidable 

revolt breaks out under Owen Gwynedh 
and his brother Cadwallader. 

1136. Ranulph, earl of Chester, invades Wales, 

and sustains a severe defeat from the 
rebels. 

1150. The earl of Chester is again defeated in an 
attempted invasion of Wales. 

1155. After the death of Stephen, the Flemish mer- 
cenaries, who formed part of his army, 
settle iu Waies. 



A-n. 
1157. 



1163. 
1164. 



117-2. 
1177. 
1184. 



1195. 
1196. 



1202. 

1204 

1211. 

1212. 

1215. 
1218. 
1219. 



1234. 
1240. 

1244 

1245. 

1255. 



1264. 
1267. 



WAL 



Henry IL invades North "Wales with au im- 
mense army, and compels Owen Gwynedh 
to do homage. 

On the death of Madnc, prince of Powys, his 
kingdom is divided into minor principali- 
ties. 

Henry II. invades South Wales, and exacts 
homage from Rhys ap Gryffydh. 

Rhys ap Gryffydh rebels, aud is joined by aU 
the native Welsh princes. 

Death of Owen Gwynedh, prince of North 
Walts, who is succeeded by his son David. 
Another son, Madoc, embarks with a few 
ships, aud is asserted by some to have 
reached America. 

Dissolution of the Welsh confederacy against 
Hem-y IT., who makes a friendly progi-ess 
through South Wales. 

William de Bruce, lord of Brecknock, mas- 
sacres a large number of the Welsh nobility 
at Abergavenny Castle. 

The children of the slain lords, having ar- 
rived at years of maturity, sack Aber- 
gaveuiry and Monmouth castles, and mur- 
der their English garrisons. 

Rhys ap Gryfiydh rebels against Richard I. 

On the death of Bhys ap Grytlydh, king of 
South Wales, his kingdom becomes extinct, 
though nominally governed by his de- 



A treaty of peace is concluded between King 
John and the Welsh. 

King John gives his natural daughter in mar- 
riage to Llewelyn ap loi-werth, prince of 
North Wales. 

John invades North Wales, and compel.i his 
son-in-law to surrender all his inland ter- 
ritories, aud to pay heavy tribute. 

Llewelyn organizes a jiowerful confederacy 
against John.and seizes the English castles 
in North Wales. 

The English barons form an alliance with 
the Welsh princes. 

Llewelyn does homage to Henry IIL at Glou- 
cester. 

The Welsh Flemings revolt. 

Llewelyn ravages the English possessions in 
South Wales. 

Henry III. invades Wales withoiit success. 

William, earl of Pembroke, and other English 
lords, rebel against Henry IIL, and con- 
clude an alliance with Llewelyn. 

He is made prisoner by the English. 

Death of Llewelyn ap lorwerth, sumamed 
the Great 

His successor, David, rebels against Henry 
III., and invades the English frontier. 

Aug. Henry III. invades Wales at the head 
of a powerful army. 

A confederacy of Welsh princes against the 
Engl.sh is headed by Llewelyn ap Gryffydh, 
who recoveis the inland territories of North 
Wales. 

Llewelyn defeats a large English army in a, 
great battle at Dinevawr. 

Prince Edward, son of Henry IIL, invades 
Wales. 

Simon de Montfort and the rebellious barons 
assist the Welsh against Henry III. 

On the death of De Montfoit, Llewelyn con- 
cludes a ti«aty with the king, who acknow- 
ledges him prince of Wales. 

Eleanor de Montfort, daughter of the 
earl of Leicester, and affianced bride of 
Llewelyn, is made prisoner by Edward I. 
while on her way into Wales to be mar- 
ried. Llewelyn consequently breaks out 
into open rebellion. 

Edward L encamjjs with a large army on 
Saltney Marsh, near Chester, and Llewelyn 
retreats to Snowdon. Late in the year, a 
peace is concluded at Conway, on teims 
most humiliating to the Welsh prince. 

Oct 13. Marriage of Llewelyn and Eleanor 
de Montfort. 



WAL 



1282. Palm Sunday. A general insurrection breaks 

out in Wales under Prince David, brother 
ofLlevyelyu. March 22. He takes Hawarden 
Castle. June. Edward I. invades Wales. 
Dec. 10. Llewelyn, the last Welsh prince 
of the blood, is defeated and slain at the 
battle of Port Orewyn. 

1283. June 21. Prince David, brother of the late 

king, is captured by the English. Sept. 20. 
He is condemned iis a traitor, and is after- 
wards executed with shocking barbarity. 

1284. April 25. Edward's eldest son is born in Caer- 

narvon Castle, and receives the title of 
prince of Wales and the homage of the 
native chieftains. The statutes of Ehud- 
dlau (12 Edw. I. c. 5), for the government 
of Wales, are enacted. 

1287. Rhjs ap Meredydh rebels against Edward I. 

1290. He is made prisoner and executed. 

1295. A dangerous insm-rection breaks out under 
Madoc, a natural son of Llewelyn, who is 
defeated and imprisoned in the Tower. 

1315. Another rebellion is suppressed. 

1354. By2S Edw. III. c. 2, the Marches of Wales 
are annexed to the English crown. 

1400. Owen Glendower, or Glendourdy, rebels in 

Wales, assxunes the royal dignity, and 
imprisons Lorrl Grey and Edmtind Mor- 
timer, earl of Marcli. Sept. 20. He burns 
the town ofRuthyn. Nov. 30. Henry IV. 
offers pardon to the Welsh. 

1401. Henry IV. invades Walts, and compels Owen 

to retreat to the mountains. 
1403. Glendower assists the Percies in their rebel- 
lion. 
1405. A French force of 12,000 men lands in Wales 

to assist Glendower ; but on the approach 

of the king they re-embark. 
1408. Glendower is again in open rebellion with tho 

earl of Northumberland. 
1415. Sept. 20. Death of Owen Glendower. 
1535. By 27 Henry VIII. c. 26, Wales is united to 

England, English laws are ordered to be used , 

and a commission is appnluted for dividing 

the province into counties. 
1543. Wales is divided into twelve counties by 

34 & 35 Henry VIII. c. 26. 
1830. July 23. The separate jurisdiction of the 

Welsh courts is abolished by 11 Geo. IV. 

& 1 Will. IV. c. 70. 
1843. Wales is distm-bed by Rebecca riots ((?. v.). 



EtJLEES OF WALES, 




AD. 


A.D. 


Cynedda Wledig .. 


340 


Edwal Iwreh 703 


EiuionYrth 


389 


EoderickMolwynog 720 


Caswallon Law-hir 


443 


Cynau Tindaethwj^ 755 


Maelgwii Gwynedh 


517 


Merfyn Frych and 


Rhuii ap Maelgwyn 


560 


Essylt 817 


BeliapRhun 


586 


Rodri Mawr, or Ro- 


lago ap Beli 


599 


derick the Great 843 


Cadfan 


603 


Division of the 


Cadwallon 


eao 


kingdom 877 


CadwaUader 


676 




KORTH 


WALES. 




A.D. 


A.D. 


Anarawd 


877 


Bleddyn and Rhi- 


EdwalFoel 


913 


wallon 1064 


Howel Dha, the 




Bleddyn, alone .... 1068 


Good 


940 


Trahaearn ap Ca- 


lenaf and lago 


948 


radoc 1073 


Howel ap leuaf and 




Gi-yffydh ap Cynan 1079 


lago 


972 


Owain, or Owen 


Cadwallon ap lenaf 


984 


Gwynedh 1137 


Meredydd, or Mere- 




Dafydd, or David 


dith apOwen 


985 


ap Owain 1169 


Edwal ap Meirig . . 


992 


Llewelyn ap lor- 


Mdsm ap Blegored 1003 


werth, the Great 1194 


Llewelyn ap Sei- 




Dafydd ap Llewelyn 1240 


syllt 


1015 


Owen and Llewelyn 1246 


lago ap Edwal 


1021 


Llewelyn ap Gryf- 


Giyffydh ap Lle- 




fydh 1254 


welyn 


1037 





WAL 



WAL 



SOUTH WALES. 



the 



Cadell 

Howel Diia, 

Goud 907 

Owea ap Howel . . 948 
Tenaf and lago .... 958 
Owen ap Howel . . 966 
Meredydd ap Owen 987 
Llewelyn ap Sei- 

syllt 998 

Ehydderch ap Jes- 

tyn 1021 

Howel and Mere- 

dydd 1031 

Howel, alone 1032 



Merfyn, or Merryn 

Cadell 

Howel Dha, the 

Good 

Edwin and Kode- 

rick 

Edwin, alone 

lenaf and lago 

Meredydd ap Owen 
Llewelyn ap Sei- 
syllt 



A.D. 

Gryffydh ap Lle- 
welyn 1042 

Meredydd ap Owen 1064 
Caradoc ap Gryf- 
fydh 1068 

Khydderch ap Ca- 
radoc 1069 

Rhys ap Owen 1072 

Rhys ap Tewdwa- 

Mawr 1077 

Cadwgau ap Bled- 

dyn 1092 

Gryffydh ap Rhys 1116 
Rhys ap Giyffydh 1187 



A.D. 

Bleddyn and Rhi- 

wallon 1021 

Bleddyn, alone 1068 

Meredydd, Cadw- 

gan,andIorwei-th 1973 
Meredydd and Ca- 

dwgan 1108 

Meredydd, alone . . 1110 
Madoc ap Meredydd 1133 



"Waihalia. — This edifice, which derives 
its name from the Hall of AVoden, the para- 
dise of the Scandinayian mythology, was 
built by Louis Charles, king of Bavaria, upon 
a hill on the north bank of the Danube, near 
Eatisbon, for the reception of the statues 
and memorials of the great men of Germany. 
Commenced Oct. 18, 1830, it was finished 
and solemnly inaugurated Oct. 18, 1842. 

"VValiachia (Europe) formed part of the 
kingdom of Dacia, when it was conquered 
and colonized by the Eoman emperor Tra- 
jan, A.D. 106. The Wallachians are sup- 
posed by some to be the descendants of these 
colonists. They were, however, recalled from 
Dacia when that kingdom was ceded to the 
Goths by the emperor Aurelian, in 270. 
This name belonged to some people in 
Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, in the 9th 
century, a portion of whom settled north of 
the Danube in the 12th century. The inha- 
bitants of Dacia were nearly exterminated 
by the Mongols in the 13th century; and, 
after they had withdrawn, the Wallachians 
and other foreign colonists settled in Wal- 
lachia, and were governed by their o\vn 
princes, who were called waiwodes, or des- 
pots. The kings of Hungary compelled them 
to pay tribute in the 14th century. The 
Turks greatly harassed them in 1391 and 
1394, devastated the whole country in 1415, 
and obliged them to pay an annual tri- 
bute. They put themselves under the pro- 
tection of the emperor of Germany in 1608, 
but were again resigned to Turkish domi- 
nion by the treaty of Carlowitz, Jan. 26, 
1699. The country suffered from civH war 
and the plague in the beginning of the 17th j 
century, and the western part was ceded to 
the emperor by the treaty of Passarowitz, 
July 21, 1718 : he lost it again in 1739. 
Turkey covenanted with Eussia not to re- 
move the waiwode for the space of seven 
years, bv the treaty of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1792; 
8S8 



and further stipulated not to do so without 
the consent of Eussia, September 24, 1802. 
Through French influence, the sultan de- 
posed the waiwode, without the knowledge 
of Eussia, Aug. 30, 1807, and, in conse- 
quence, a Eussian army entered Wallachia. 
defeated the Turks, and occupied Bucharest, 
in Dec. 1807. They remained in the country 
until it was formally annexed to Eussia by an 
imperial ukase, Jan. 21, 1810. It was restored 
to Turkey by the peace of Bucharest, May 28, 
1812. The principahties of Waliachia and 
Moldavia were united, vrith the privilege of 
self-government, under the suzerainty of the 
sultan, by a convention signed by the prin- 
cipal European powers at Paris, Aug. 19, 
1858. 

Wallee's Plot, contrived by Edmund 
Waller, the poet, to deliver London into the 
power of Charles I., was discovered May 31, 
1643. His principal confederates, Tom- 
kins, his brother-in-law, and Chaloner, a 
wealthy citizen, were hanged, July 5, 1643, 
but Waller escaped with banishment and a 
fine of £10,000. 

Wallingfoed (Berkshire), supposed to 
have existed in the time of the Eomans, was 
taken and burned by the Danes a.d. 1006. In 
Domesday Book it is called Walingeford, 
and is described as a borough with 276 
houses. William I. received the homage of 
Archbishop Stigand and the principal nobles 
here in 1066. A strong castle was built in 
1067, which was held for the empress Maud 
in the civil war with Stephen, who unsuccess- 
fully besieged it several times. It was taken 
by the Parhamentarians in 1646, and the 
castle was completely demolished in 1653. 
WaUingford received its first charter in the 
reign of Henry I., and has returned two 
members to parhament since 1294. A Bene- 
dictine priory, founded here in the reign of 
WiUiam I., was suppressed in 1535. St. 
Leonard's church, much damaged in the 
siege of 1646, was afterwards rebuilt. St. 
Peter's, also ruined in the same siege, was 
rebuilt in 1769, and the tower was erected in 
1777. The free school was founded in 1659, 
the almshouses in 1681, and a school for 
20 boys and 30 girls was established in 1819. 

Wallis's Yotage. — Captain WaUis sailed 
from Plymouth in the Dolphin, Aug. 22, 1766. 
He visited Tahiti, which he named King 
George's Island, June 19, 1767 j reached 
Batavia !N'ov. 30, the Cape of Good Hope 
Peb. 4, 1768, and returned to the Downs 
May 20, 1768 ; having accomphshed the cir- 
cumnavigation of the globe in one year 
and nine months. 

Walloons, the name given to the ancient 
Celtic inhabitants of Flanders, and also to 
the Flemish refugees who settled in Eng- 
land in consequence of the persecutions of 
the duke of Alva, a.d. 1567. A Walloon 
church was estabHshed in Threadneedle 
Street, London, in the building of the hos- 
pital of St. Anthony, once a Jews' syna- 
gogue, erected in 1231. This building was 
destroyed in the great fire of 1666, and the 
Walloons erected their present church. 



WAL 

About fifty Walloons who wrought and 
dyed fine woollen cloths were brought over 
to instruct the English in their manufacture, 
May 4, 1668. 

Walls. — The great wall in Egypt to pre- 
vent the incursions of the Syrians and Ara- 
bians was built by Sesostris. The ancient 
cities of Greece were surrounded by massive 
walls in the time of Homer, b.c. 962. The 
great wall of China was completed about 
B.C. 211 ; Caesar's wall between Geneva and 
Mount Jura, B.c, 58; and the long wall of 
Constantinople, a.d. 507. (See Egman- 
Walls.) 

Walkut-teee was cultivated in Europe 
by the Eomans before B.C. 37. The black 
walnut-tree was introduced into England 
from North America before a.d. 1629. 

Walpole Administkations. — Eobert 
Walpole was appointed first lord of the 
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 
Oct. 10, 1715. The other members of the 
ministry remained the same as in the Halifax 
and Carlisle administrations (q.v.), the earl 
of Lincoln being appointed paymaster-gene- 
ral in place of Mr. Walpole, Oct, 17, and 
Joseph Addison one of the commissioners for 
trade and plantations, Dec. 15, 1715. The 
earl of Nottingham, president of the council, 
resigned Eeb. 28, 1716. The duke of Argyll 
was removed from all his offices June 30 ; the 
duke of Devonshire was appointed president 
of the council July 6 ; Lord To-vrashend re- 
signed Dec. 11 ; and the duke of Kingston 
was made lord privy seal, in place of the earl 
of Sunderland, Dec. 14, 1716. This adminis- 
tration was dissolved April 10, 1717. (See 
Stanhope, or Gekman Admim-isteatign'.) 
Walpole' s second administration was formed 
April 4, 1721. It was thus constituted : 

First Lord of the Trea- ) q. . t,„^^. w„i^ ^ r 
sury and Chancellor of ^^'^.^"^ji^ff^Jl^J ^I" 
the Exchequer j terwards earl of Orford. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Parker. 

President of the Council.. Lord Carleton. 

Privy Seal Duke of Kingston. 

Principal Secretaiies of "(Viscount To wnshend aad 
State J Lord Carteret. 

Admiralty Earl of Berkeley. 

Secretary at War Mr. Treby. 

Ordnance Duke of Marlborough. 

Lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, 
resigned the lord-chancellorship Jan. 4, 1725, 
and his office was filled by Lord King, June 1. 
He resigned in November, 1733, and was 
succeeded, Nov. 29, by Lord Talbot, who 
died in February, 1737, and Lord Hardwicke 
was appointed Feb. 21. The duke of Devon- 
shire, who succeeded Lord Carleton as presi- 
dent of the council, March 27, 1725, was 
followed by Lord Trevor, May 8, 1730, and 
he was succeeded by the earl of Wilmington, 
Dec. 31, 1730. Lord Trevor became privy 
seal March 11, 1726, and was succeeded by 
the earl of Wilmington May 8, 1730. The 
duke of Devonshire took the office June 12, 
1731 ; Viscount Lonsdale, May 5, 1733 ; the 
earl of Godolphin, in May, 1735 ; and Lord 
Hervey, April 7, 1740. Lord Carteret was 
succeeded as one of the principal secretaries 



WAE 



of state, by the duke of Newcastle, April 14, 
1724 ; and Viscount Towushend was replaced 
by Lord Harrington, June 27, 1730. The 
earl of Berkeley was succeeded at the Admi- 
ralty, Aug. 2, 1727, by Viscount Torrington, 
who was succeeded by Sir Charles Wager, 
Jan. 25, 1733. The office of secretary at 
war was filled by Mr. Henry Pelham, from 
April 1, 1724; by Sir W. Strickland, Bart., 
from Jan. 11, 1730; and by Sir W. Yonge, 
Bart., from May 9, 1735. The earl of Cado- 
gan succeeded the duke of Marlborough at 
the Ordnance, July 1, 1722. He was replaced 
by the duke of Argyll July 1, 1725 ; and the 
duke of Montagu took the office July 1, 1740. 
Sir Eobert Walpole resigned Feb. 3, 1742, 
and was created earl of Orford Feb. 6. {See 
Wilmington Administration.) 

Waltham Abbey, or Holt Cross (Essex), 
originally founded in the reign of Canute, 
derives its name from the celebrated abbey 
founded by Harold, son of Earl Godwin, 
A.D. 1062. This abbey had a yearly revenue 
of £1,079. 12s. Id. when it was surrendered 
to Henry VIII., March 23, 1540. There 
are few remains of the abbey left. The 
church, formerly the nave of the church of 
the monastery, has an embattled tower 
bearing the date of 1558. The government 
gunpowder-mills were establishedat Waltham 
Abbey in 1787. 

Waltz. — This dance, of German origin, 
was introduced into England a.d. 1813. 

Wandewash (Hindostan). — This town in 
the Carnatic was attacked by the Enghsh 
without success in September, 1759, and was 
taken by Colonel Coote after a siege of three 
days, Nov. 29. M. LaUy afterwards made con- 
siderable efforts to take it, and a great battle 
was fought between his French force and the 
English army under Coote, July 22, 1760. 
The Enghsh forces comprised 1,700 Euro- 
peans and 3,000 sepoys, and the French, 
2,200 Europeans and 10,000 sepoys ; but, in 
spite of their superior numbers, the French 
sustained a severe defeat, and were com- 
pelled to retreat to Pondicherry. 

Wandsworth (Surrey) is called Wan- 
deforde and Wendleforde in Domesday 
Book (1086) . All Saints Church was restored 
in 1780. A bridge over the Wandle, built by 
order of Queen Elizabeth in July, 1602, was 
rebuilt in 1757. The first puritan presbytery 
was formed here in 1572. (See Nonconfor- 
mists. ) Garrett, a hamlet within this parish, 
was formerly the scene of a mock election on 
the meeting of every new parliament. This 
was made famous by Foote's play of "The 
Mayor of Garratt " (1763). 

Wantage (Berkshire). — This town is 
celebrated as the birthplace of Alfred the 
Great, Oct. 25, 849. The 1000th anniversary 
of this event was celebrated here by a public 
banquet Oct. 25, 1849. 

Warbeck's Insurrection. — Perkin War- 
beck, said to have been the son of John 
Osbeck, or Olbeck, a converted Jew of Tour- 
nay, was a godson of Edward IV., and a young 
man of great personal attractions and good 
manners. He was instructed by Margaret, 



WAK 



WAR 



dowager duchess of Burgundy, and sister of 
Edward IV., to pass liimself off as the young 
duke of York, who was supposed to have been 
murdered in the Tower by Eichard III. She 
first sent him to Portugal, where he remained 
for a year ; but on the commencement of war 
between France and England, a.d. 1492, she 
despatched him to Ireland, where he was re- 
ceived with welcome by the inhabitants of 
Cork. Charles YIII. of France next invited 
him to his court, and received him as the 
young duke and the rightful heir to the Eng- 
lish crown ; but when peace became probable 
he dismissed him, l>rov. 3. Perkin repaired 
to Flanders, where his cause was openly 
espoused by the dowager Margaret, who 
acknowledged him as her nephew, and gave 
him the cognomen of the White Eose of 
England. News of this arrived in England 
in the early part of 1493, and was eagerly 
beUeved by many who were discontented 
with the avaricious government of Henry 
VII., and a conspiracy in favour of Perkin 
was formed by the lord chamberlain, Sir 
WiUiam Stanley, Sir Eobert CUfford, and 
others. Henry VII. sent spies into Flanders, 
who obtained a knowledge of Warbeck's an- 
tecedents, and by diut of bribes he induced 
Clifford to betray his companions and to 
reveal aU he knew of the conspiracy. Sir 
Simon Mountford, Sir Thomas Thwaites, 
and Eobert EatcUfF were immediately exe- 
cuted ; but the others received a commu- 
tation of sentence. Sir William Stanley was 
executed Feb. 16, 1495. Warbeck, who at- 
tempted to land at Deal July 3, 1495, was 
repulsed, and 169 of his adherents were 
made prisoners, and hanged by order of 
the king. Having subsequently besieged 
Waterford, in Ireland, he was compeUed 
to flee by Sir Edward Poynings, July 23. 
After this failure he again retired to Flan- 
ders, where he remained till March, 1496, 
when he visited Scotland, and was favourably 
received by James IV., who gave him in 
marriage has kinswoman, the lady Catherine 
Gordon, and invaded the northern counties 
of England in his behalf, A war breaking 
out in consequence between the two coun- 
tries, Warbeck was obliged to retire to Ire- 
land July 26, 1497, and subsequently to 
Whitsand Bay, Cornwall, where he landed 
Sept, 7, and was placed at the head of a large 
body of Cornish rebels. He retired to Taun- 
ton Sept. 20. Being apprised of the approach 
of Lord Daubeney with a numerous army, 
he fled during the night to the sanctuary 
of Beauheu, in Hampshire, Sept. 21. His 
wife. Lady Catheriue Gordon, fell into the 
hands of the royal troops, and became an 
attendant on the queen. Warbeck surren- 
dered to Henry VII. Oct. 5, and was led ia 
triumph through London Nov. 27. He was 
subsequently kept prisoner in the royal 
palace, and afterwards in the Tower, whence 
he escaped June 8, 1498, and took shelter 
with the prior of Shene. He again surren- 
dered on the promise that his lS"e should be 
spared, and was exhibited in the stocks at 
Westminster HaU, June 14, and the following 



day in Cheapside ; after which he was again 
removed to the Tower. Here he formed an 
intimacy with his fellow prisoner the imbe- 
cile young earl of Warwick, son of George, 
duke of Clarence, with whom he planned an 
escape and a renewal of his claims. The 
attempt failed, Aug. 2, 1499, and Warbeck 
was tried at Westminster Hall Nov. 16, 
and hanged Nov. 23. Warwick was tried 
Nov. 21, and executed Nov. 28. The account 
of Perkin (Piers or Peter) Warbeck's parent- 
age is derived from his enemies. By some 
authorities he is believed to have been, if not 
Eichard, duke of York, at any rate a son 
of Edward IV. 

Wabbtjkg (Battle). — The French were 
defeated by the Enghsh and their allies, 
under the prince of Brunswick, at this 
town, in Prussia, Aug. 7, 1760. 

Wak-Chaeiots are said to have been in- 
vented by Ninus, king of Assyria, B.C. 2059, 
and are mentioned Exod. xiv. 7 (b.c. 1491); 
Josh. xi. 4 (B.C. 1444) ; 1 Sam. xiii. 5 (b.c. 
1093)'; and in other passages of the Old Tes- 
tament. Cassivellaunus, the commander- i 
in-chief of the ancient Britons, had 4,000 ' 
war-chariots in his army, B.C. 54. The Chi- | 
nese used chariots of war armed with can- \ 
non A.D. 1453. [ 

Waeds and Liyeeies (Court of). — This | 
court, erected by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 46 (1540), 
was abolished by 12 Charles II. c. 24 (1660). 

Waeeham (Dorsetshire) existed in the 
time of the Britons, and, subsequently oc- 
cupied by the Eomans, was taken by the 
Danes, the inhabitants massacred, and the 
town reduced to ruins, a.d. 800. It was 
again ravaged by them in 998. The castle 
and town were seized for the empress Maud 
in 1138, and were retaken and burned by 
Stephen. The town, almost destroyed by 
fire in 1762, was completely rebuilt within 
two years, A priory was founded here in 
the 9th century. 

Wae Office. — The department of the 
Secretary of War was established a.d. 1666, 
for the management of the finance business 
of the army. The Secretary of State for 
War was made a distinct ofiice in 1854. 

Waeeants. {See Geneeal Waeeants.) 

Waeeingtost (Lancashire) is supposed 
to have been a Eoman station a.d. 79. 
After its occupation by the Saxons it ob- 
tained the name of Werington, from the 
Saxon wering, a fortification, and tun, a 
town, from which its present name is derived. 
It was besieged and taken by the Parhament- 
arians in May or June, 1643. General Lam- 
bert defeated the Scots here in 1648, and 
Prmce, afterwards Charles II. repulsed the 
Parliamentarians here in 1651. The bridge 
was cut down to intercept the passage of the 
Jacobite army under Charles Edward, and 
part of the rebel force captured it in 1745. 
The duke of Cumberland passed through 
the town in his march to the north ia 1746. 
A wooden bridge, erected in the end of the 
14th century, was replaced by a bridge 
of stone by Thomas, first earl of Derby, in 
comphment to Henry VII., on his visit to 



WAR 



WAS 



Latham and Knowsley, in 1496. A new 
bridge of wood on stone piers was erected in 
1812. The parish church of St. Helen's is 
of Saxon origin, and existed at the time of 
the Conquest, The tower was rebuilt 
in 1696. ,The free grammar-school was 
founded in 1526; the Blue-coat school in 
1677; the subscription library was esta- 
blished in 1758, the dispensary in 1810, and 
a building was erected for it in 1818. The 
town-haU was built in 1820. 

Waksaw, the principal city of Eussian 
Poland, became the capital of Poland a.d. 
1566 ; was taken by the Swedes in the middle 
of the 17th century, and was retaken by the 
Poles in 1656. It fell again into the hands of 
the Swedes in the same year, when they 
destroyed the fortifications. It was taken 
by Charles XII. in 1703. The Poles rose 
against the Russians and expelled them from 
the city, April 17, 1794. Unsuccessfully be- 
sieged by the Prussians in July and August, 
it was taken by the Russians with great 
slaughter, Nov. 4, 1794. It was evacuated 
by the Russians Nov. 28, 1806, and occupied 
by the Freoch two days afterwards. Napo- 
leon I. arrived here Dec. 18, 1806, and re- 
ceived embassies from Turkey and Persia in 
the beginning of March, 1807. It was cap- 
tured by the Austrians April 23, 1809, and 
was retaken by the Poles in the following 
month. Napoleon I. arrived here, on his 
retreat from Russia, Dec. 10, 1812. The 
town was evacuated by the Austrians in the 
beginning of February, 1813, and was occu- 
pied by the Russians. The Pohsh insurrec- 
tion broke out Nov. 29, 1830, and the Russian 
grand-duke Constantine having retired from 
the city Nov, 30, a provisional government 
was formed. The Polish army withdrew 
into the town after the battle of Praga, 
Feb. 24 and 25, 1831. The prisons were 
broken into and aU the state prisoners, 
Russian prisoners and others, were mur- 
dered by the mob, Aug. 15 and 16, 1831. 
After a sanguinary battle, which lasted two 
days, the town was taken by the Russians, 
Sept. 7, 1831. A strong citadel was erected 
by them after the close of the revolution. 
A royal palace was built here by Sigismund 
III, The church of the Holy Cross was 
erected 1696, the beautiful Lutheran church 
in 1781, the church of St. Alexander in 1814, 
and the Dominican church in 1823. The 
university was abolished in 1834, and the 
library of 150,000 volumes and other valuable 
collections were removed to St. Petersburg. 
Disturbances broke out at Warsaw Feb. 21, 
1861. {See Poland.) 

Waesaw (Battle). — The Poles were de- 
feated here by the Swedes in a battle which 
lasted three days, a.d. 1656. The Russian 
and Prussian troops were , beaten by the 
Polish guards and the populace in the town, 
April 17, 1794. The Poles under Kosciusko 
were defeated by the Russians, Oct, 4, 1794, 
and again with a loss of 10,000 slain and 
9,000 in prisoners, Nov. 4, 1794. In the 
battle between the Poles and the Russians 
at the village of Grochow near Warsaw, 



Feb. 19 and 20, 1831, the former were vic- 
torious ; and in the contest at the suburb 
of Praga, Feb. 24 and 25, 1831, the result was 
indecisive. The Poles gained a victory over 
the Russians at Warsaw, March 31, 1831, 
but were defeated by them here in a great 
battle Sept. 6 and 7, 1831, 

Warwick (Warwickshire), supposed by 
some to have been a town of importance 
prior to the Roman invasion, having been 
destroyed by the Danes, was restored, and 
a fort erected by Ethelfleda, daughter of 
Alfred the Great, a.d. 913. Queen EHza- 
beth visited it on her way to Kenilworth 
Castle in 1572. More than half the town 
was destroyed by an accidental fire in 1694, 
and it was rebuilt by a national contribu- 
tion, which amounted to £110,000, of which 
Queen Anne gave £1,000. William III. 
visited it in 1695. Its earliest charter 
dates from 1260, but it was not regularly in- 
corporated tiU 1553. Warwick Castle, one 
of the most splendid and entire specimens 
of feudal grandeur in the kingdom, is sup- 
posed to have been founded by Ethelfleda 
(913), but no authentic trace of the origi- 
nal building remains. Ctesar's Town, built 
at least 700 years ago, and Guy's Tower, 
built in 1394, are both in fine preservation. 
St. Mary's church, which stands on the site 
of an older structure, was built in the 14th 
century. Having been nearly destroyed by 
fire in 1694, it was rebuilt in 1704. The 
tower, 130 feet high, was designed by Sir 
Christopher Wren. The Beauchamp chapel 
was erected in 1464. 

Washing-ton (North America), sur- 
veyed and laid out by three commissioners 
A.D. 1791, was founded by the laying of 
the corner-stone of the Capitol, Sept. 18, 
1793. The seat of the federal govern- 
ment was transferred from Philadelphia to 
this place in 1800, and the president and 
the other chief officers of the government 
have since resided here. It was captured 
by a small English force under Ross, Aug. 
24, 1814, and a proposition to ransom the 
public buildings having been rejected by 
the American authorities, they were fired, 
and the English withdrew Aug. 25. A de- 
structive fire in which part of the Capitol 
and the whole of the hbrary were destroyed, 
occurred Dec. 24, 1851. The prince of Wales 
visited the president here in September, 1860. 
The Capitol, commenced in 1793, was finished 
in 1827, at a cost of £400,000. Columbian 
College was incorporated by Congress in 
1821. 

Wassail Bowl. — The term wassail is 
derived from the Anglo-Saxon was-hcel, be 
in health, and the wassail bowl was com- 
pounded of ale, nutmeg, sugar, toast, and 
roasted crabs or apples, which formed an 
aggregate, sometimes called lamb's wool. 
The custom of wassaihng on New Year's 
eve is derived by some antiquaries from the 
presentation of a loving cup to Vortigern by 
Rowena, a.d. 499 ; but others assert, and 
with greater probability, that it is of earlier 
origin. 



WAS 



WAT 



Waste Lands were first inclosed in 
England in order to promote agriculture, 
A.D. 1547. This caused an insurrection in 
various parts of England in June, July, 
and August, 1549. (/SeeKET'slNSUEEECTioif.) 
Inclosures of commons and waste lands are 
generally made by local statutes, which are 
regulated by the General Inelosure Act, 
41 Geo. III. c. 109 (1800), amended by 1 & 2 
Geo. IV.c. 23 (1821). 

Watch (London) was established in ac- 
cordance with an order issued by Henry III. 
A.D. 1253. The duty was performed by the 
citizens themselves, and they had stately 
processions yearly. Henry VIII. came into 
the city disguised as a yeoman of the guard 
to see this nocturnal pomp on the eve of 
St. John, 1510, and was so weU pleased that 
he brought his queen, attended by the prin- 
cipal nobihty, into Cheapside to see it on 
the eve of St. Peter following. The caval- 
cade of the city watch was abolished, and a 
stated watch appointed at the charge of each 
ward, in the summer of 1570. An armed 
watch of the inhabitants of London during 
the civil war was appointed by the common 
council Oct. 2, 1643. The regulation of the 
city watch was vested in the common council 
by 10 Geo. 11. (1736). The watch of Lon- 
don was superseded bv the pohce by 10 
Geo. IV. c. 44 (June 19," 1829). 

Watches are said to have been first in- 
vented at !N'uremberg, in Germany, towards 
the end of the 15th century. Eobert I., 
king of Scotland (1306 to 1329), is said to 
have possessed a watch. The earhest known 
watch was in Sir Ashton Lever's museum ; 
it bears the date of 1541, Watches were 
common in France before 1544. Henry 
VIII. is said to have had a watch ; and one, 
set in an armlet, was presented to Queen 
Elizabeth in 1572. They were not in general 
request in England till the end of her reign. 
The invention of spring watches has been 
ascribed to Dr. Hooke, and by some to 
Huyghens, about 1658. The anchor escape- 
ment was invented by Clement, a London 
clockmaker, in 1680, and the horizontal watch 
by Graham in 1724. Harrison finished his 
longitude watch in 1736, for which he received 
a government reward of £20,000. Eepeaters 
were invented in the reign of Charles II., 
and the smallest one of this kind ever known 
— it was the size of a silver twopence, and its 
weight that of a sixpence — was made by 
Arnold for Geo. III., and was presented to 
him on his birthday, June 4, 1764. The 
duties on wrought gold and silver watch-eases 
were abolished by 38 Geo. III. c. 24 (March 
9, 1798). 

Watchet (Somersetshire), anciently 
eaUed Weced-poort, was plundered by the 
Danes a.d. 886. Having been defeated in 
the vicinity in 918, they took and plundered 
the town in 988. The pier, erected by the 
Wyndham family, was repaired previously 
to 1740. 

Watee. — The composition of water was 
discovered by Mr. Henry Cavendish in 1784. 
{See Htdbostatics.) 



Wateh-Clock. (See Clepstdea.) 

Water- Colours. — All the ancient 
modes of painting, as fresco-painting (q.v.), 
&c., were systems of water-colour ; but the 
existing mode of water-colour painting 
did not become a popular branch of art 
untU about the latter part of the 18th 
century. The Society of Painters in Water- 
Colours was instituted in 1805, and the New 
Society in 1832. Both these associations 
have held exhibitions since the date of their 
institution. Paul Sandby (1732 — 1808), 
Thomas Gistin (1773—1802), Joseph Mal- 
lord Wilham Turner (1775 — 1851), and 
Samuel Prout (1783 — 1852), are regarded aa 
the founders of the art of water-colour 
painting. 

Watee Cure. {See Htdeopatht.) 

Waterfoed (Ireland), capital of the 
county of Waterford, is said to have been 
founded by the Danes about a.d. 850. 
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, took it by 
assault in 1170. Henry II. landed here on 
his invasion of Ireland, Oct. 18, 1171. King 
John granted its first charter, and resided 
here for some months, in 1210. The citi- 
zens, led by the mayor, were defeated by 
the Poers and O'Driscolls in 1368. Water- 
ford was visited by Eichard II. in 1394, and 
again when he went to redress some dis- 
orders consequent on the death of the lord- 
heutenant, earl of March, who had fallen in a 
skirmish with the natives, in 1399. The 
motto of the city, " Urbs intacta manet," 
was bestowed upon it in consequence of 
having successfully resisted Perkin War- 
beck in 1495. It was unsuccessfully besieged 
by Cromwell in 1649, and submitted to Ireton 
in 1650. It sided with James II., who em- 
barked here for France, after the battle of 
the Boyne, July 2, 1690. General Kirk com- 
pelled it to surrender July 25, 1690. The 
cathedral, founded in 1076, has been since 
altogether rebuilt. The chamber of com- 
merce was incorporated in 1815. 

Watee-Glass, or Oil of Flint. — Stereo- 
chromy, or the process of painting with this 
mixture, which is a soluble alkaline silicate, 
was invented by Dr. Johann N. Von Fuchs, 
whopubhshed an account of it a.d. 1825. It 
has recently been employed by Messrs. 
Machse and Herbert, E.A., in the fres- 
coes at the new palace of Westminster. 
In 1840 Professor F. Kuhhnann, of LiUe, 
directed his attention to the material, with 
a view to its employment as a preservative 
for stone ; and in 1859 a translation of a 
report on its application to the fine arts was 
privately printed by order of Prince Albert. 
F. Eansome asserts the identity of Kuhl- 
mann's process with his own inventions for 
preserving stone, and claims the merit of 
priority. (See Stone.) 

Wateekloof (Cape of Good Hope). — 
The camp of the Caffre chief Macomo, at 
this place, was destroyed by an expedition 
under Major-General Somerset, Oct. 16, 
1851. 

Waterloo (Battle).— This great battle, 
which proved the death-blow to the ambitious 



WAT 



WAT 



schemes of Napoleon I., was commenced 
near Waterloo, in Belgium, at half-past 
eleven o'clock in the morning, June 18, 
1815, by an attack of the French, under 
Prince Jerome, upon the chateau Hougo- 
mont, which was set on fire about two 
o'clock. The French cavalry, under Ney, 
was repeatedly driven back by the English 
infantry, but the farm of La Haye Sainte 
was compelled to surrender, owing to the 
scanty ammunition of its brave defenders. 
Late in the afternoon. Marshal Blucher ar- 
rived with the Prussian army, and attacked 
the French right flank. The grand attack 
of the Lnperial Guard commenced at a 
quarter past seven, and was defeated by the 
English foot-guards, under Major-General 



Maitland. Just as the sun vanished below 
the horizon, WeUiugton gave the order for 
the whole of the English hne to advance, 
which occasioned a panic and general flight 
in the French army. The Old Guard still 
stood firm, but at length yielded to the 
attack of Adam's brigade and the Osnaburg 
battalion of Colonel Halket ; and at half- 
past eight the duke relinquished the pursuit 
and returned to the village of Waterloo. 
At the hamlet of La Belle Alliance he met 
Blucher, who, after mutual congratulations, 
continued the pursuit. The following table, 
taken from Captain Siborne's history of the 
Waterloo campaign, exhibits the effective 
force of the aUied army in this memorable 
battle : — 





Infantry, 


Cavalry. 


ArtiUery. 


Total Men. 


Gtms. 


British 


15,181 
3,301 

10,258 
4,586 
2,880 

13,402 


5,843 

1,997 

497 

866 

3"205 


2,967 
526 
465 
510 

1,177 


23,991 

5,824 
11,220 
5,962 
2,880 
17.784 


78 
18 
12 
16 

32 


King's Gernian Legion 






Dutch-Belgians 


Total 


49,608 


12,408 


5,645 


67,661 


156 





The Dutch-Belgian forces acted vnth great 
lukewarmness, and were of but slight service 
during the battle. The Prussian forces en- 
gaged amounted to 41,283 infantry, 8,858 
cavalry, and 1,803 artillery, making a total 
of 51,944 men, with 104 guns. The effective 
French army consisted of 47,579 infantry, 
13,792 cavalry, and 7,529 artillery, forming 
a force of 68,900 men, with 246 guns. The 
following table exhibits the English loss : — 





Killed. 


Missing. 


Wounded. 


Total. 


Officers.. 
Men .... 


85 
1,334 


10 


365 
4,564 


460 
6,480 


Total 


1,419 


592 


4,929 


6,940 



Among the killed were Generals Sir Wil- 
liam Ponsonby and Sir Thomas Picton, who 
fell pierced by a musket -baU at the 
beginning of the battle. Lord Uxbridge, 
afterwards the earl of Uxbridge, and Lord 
Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards Lord Eaglan, 
were both severely wounded. The total 
loss of the allies exceeded 22,000 men ; and 
the French are said to have lost no less 
than 40,000 men. The battle was called by 
the Prussians the battle of La Belle Alliance, 
and by the French the battle of Mont St. 
Jean. It has received its English name 
from the adjoining village ' of Waterloo, 
where Wellington fixed his head-quarters, 
and reposed after the fatigues of the day. 

Waterloo Bridge (London). — The first 
stone was laid Oct. 11, 1811, and the bridge 
was opened to the public June 18, 1817. It 
was built by John Kennie, at a cost of 



upwards of a miUion sterling. The toll for 
foot passengers was reduced from a penny 
to a halfpenny Feb. 29, 1841. A committee 
of the House of Commons was appointed 
to consider the expediency of abolishing the 
toU April 26, 1841. 

Watermill. (See Mill/.) 

Waterspout. — These remarkable meteo- 
rological phenomena are regarded as belong- 
ing to the same class as the moving sand- 
piUars of the desert, but their cause and 
nature are imperfectly understood. One 
burst in Lancashire in 1718, and occasioned 
considerable damage. Another, at Brack- 
enthwaite, in Cumberland, Sept. 9, 1760, 
tore away the gravel and soil from 
a field. A great waterspout descended 
upon Dungavel HiU, in Scotland, July 2, 
1768, and made an opening about twenty- 
four yards broad and three feet deep. A 
similar phenomenon occurred at Clapham 
Common, during a violent thunderstorm, 
June 18, 1782 ; and at Eamsgate, where it 
produced a depth of four feet of water in 
several cellars, July 14, 1798. One burst 
over the Wheal Abraham and Creuve mines, 
in Cornwall, in Nov. 1806, and choked up 
the shaft, causing the death of several miners 
and considerable destruction of property. 
The town of Silkstone, in Yorkshire, was 
similarly visited May 9, 1807, when a torrent 
of water, nearly six feet in diameter, de- 
scended on the town and drowned several of 
the inhabitants. The appearance of the 
temporary island Sabrina, in the Azores, 
Jan. 12, 1811, was attended with numerous 
waterspouts and volcanic phenomena. A 
waterspout of very destructive character 
overwhelmed the village of Kingscourt, 
county Cavan, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1838 ; and 



WAT 



"V^^A 



mucli injury was occasioned in Provence, 
France, by a similar cause. May 30, 1841. 
A ship was struck by one near Gozo, Oct. 14, 
1850, wben she foundered, and all on board 
perisbed, with the exception of one man. 
The island of Sicily was visited by two 
waterspouts, attended by a hurricane, Dec. 
8, 1851. Five vessels were sunk in Tunis 
harbour by similar means ISTov. 18, 1855. 
Major Sherwill made numerous observations 
on waterspouts in India, where they are fre- 
quent. One which fell at Dum-Dum, near 
Calcutta, Oct. 7, 1859, measured 1,500 feet 
in height, and covered half a square mile with 
about six inches of water. 

Watee ToFAifA, or Aqtja Tofana, so 
named from its inventor, Tofana, the secret 
poisoner, an Italian woman, who resided 
at Palermo, and afterwards at IS'aples, about 
the middle of the 17th century. Many hus- 
bands died suddenly at Eome in 1569, and 
suspicion having been excited, a society of 
young wives was discovered. An old woman 
named Sparawas the president, and she sup- 
plied them with small phials, bearing the in- 
scription " Manna of St. jS'icholas of Barri," 
by the use of which husbands were removed. 
Spara and four others were executed ; and 
Tofana, who manufactured the poison, was 
dragged from a monastery where she had 
taken sanctuary, and put to the torture. She 
confessed to having been instrumental in the 
deaths of six hundred persons. 

Watlixg Stbeex, extending from Kent 
to Cardigan Bay, or probably to the Firth 
of Forth, one "of the four great roads in 
South Britain, was constructed by the Eo- 
mans during their occupation, B.C. 57 — 
A.D. 418. 

Wattigities (Battle), between the troops 
under the duke of Coburg and the French 
commanded by General Jourdan, com- 
menced in an affair between the outposts 
near Avesnes, Oct. 14, 1793. It resulted in 
the triumph of the republican army, after 
a loss on each side of about 3,000 men, 
Oct. 15. 

Wat Ttlee's Inst7EEECTion-.— One of the 
collectors of the poll-tax, who had insulted 
the daughter of a man called Wat the Tyler, 
at Deptford, was killed by her father on the 
spot : this took place early in June, 1381. A 
rising ensued, and the insurgents met on 
Blackheath June 12. They proceeded to Lon- 
don, burned the duke of Lancaster's palace, 
and committed many atrocities, June 13. The 
Tower was seized; the archbishop of Can- 
terbiiry and Sir Eobert Hales were executed 
by them June 14 ; and some of the autho- 
rities met them in Smithfield, June 15, when 
the leader, Wat, was killed by William Wal- 
worth, the lord mayor. A body of armed 
men, under Sir Eobert KnoUys, suddenly 
attacked the malcontents, who were quickly- 
dispersed. 

WATE-LiifE Pbikcipie. — The system of 
building ships with contours scientifically 
adapted to the curves of the waves of the 
sea was originated by Scott EusseU, who 
commenced a series of experiments on the 
894 



subject in 1834. His theory attracted con- 
siderable attention, and in 1836 the British 
Association appointed a Committee on 
Waves, who presented their first report the 
following year, and continued their labours 
for several years. The victory of the United 
States schooner America over Mr. E. Ste- 
phenson's iron yacht Titania in the grand 
race of Aug. 28, 1851, established the supe- 
riority of the principle, which has since been 
applied in the Great Eastern and other 
vessels. 

Wavee (Battle). — The Prussians, under 
Thielman, engaged the French, under Mar- 
shal Grouchy, at this place, in Belgium, and 
prevented them from joining the emperor at 
Waterloo, June 18, 1815. The battle lasted 
from four o'clock till midnight, and was re- 
newed by Thielman on the following morn- 
ing. Grouchy received orders to retire upon 
Namur, which he reached on the 20th. 

Wawz, or Wawee (Battle).— The ad- 
vanced guard of the Eussians, under General 
Geismar, was attacked at this place, in Po- 
land, by the Poles, and forced to fall back 
upon Dembe-Wielkie. Here the Poles routed 
them, after fighting from five in the after- 
noon till ten at night, March 31, 1S31. 

Wax. — The ancients used wax for torches, 
for covering the tablets on which they wrote, 
for encaustic painting, for sealing, and for 
modelling. Pliny states it was customary 
for the wealthy Eomans to preserve waxen 
effigies of their dead relatives, which were 
exhibited on occasions of great interest, 
and were borne in procession in the funerals 
of distinguished members of their family. 
Apuleius, writing in the 2nd century, men- 
tions wax candles. The Wax Chandlers* 
company of London was incorporated in 
1484. Seahng-wax, or Spanish wax, has been 
found on documents dated 1574 and 1620. 
Gaetano GiuHo Zvimmo (1656 — 1701) intro- 
duced the art of preparing anatomical models 
in wax. The wax-tree was imported into 
this country from China in 1794. A new 
kind of wax-producing insect was described 
in 1857 as inhabiting China, where its wax is 
used for candles, which are said to be 
much superior to ordinary wax tapers. 
Provisions for the regulation of the wax- 
trade were made by 11 Hen. VI. c. 12 
(1433), and by 23 Eliz. c. 8 (1581). The 
duties on imported wax were finally repealed 
by 8 & 9 Vict. c. 12 (May 8, 1845). 

WEAViifG. — A writer in the "English 
Cyclopaedia" (Arts, viii. 797), remarks: — 
" In all probabiHty weaving was practised 
before spinning; that is, the combination 
of reeds, strips of leather, or rude fibres into 
a material for dress, by a process analogous 
to that of weaving, preceded the practice of 
spioning yam from a congeries of elementary 
fibres." It was practised in Egypt at least 
as early as B.C. 2000, and in China and 
India from an equally remote period. The 
Scriptures contain similes drawn from the 
art of weaving, and the Homeric poems 
and other relics of classical antiquity exhibit 
its universal extension ia the most ancient 



WED 

times. "Weavers settled in England a.d. 1132 
and 1331, and were much encouraged by- 
Edward III. (See Calico, Cloth, Cotton, 
Linen, Silk, Wool, &c.) 

Wedgewood Waee was invented by 
Josiab Wedgewood, of Burslem, potter to 
Queen Charlotte, and patented a.d. 1762. 
His imitation of the Portland vase, fifty 
copies of which were produced and sold at 
fifty guineas each, was executed in 1787. 

Wednesday received its name from the 
ancient Saxons, who called it Wodnes-daeg, 
or Woden's day, after their conversion to 
Christianity, about a.d. 785. It was ap- 
pointed a fast-day by the primitive church, 
on account of its having been the day on 
which our Saviour was betrayed. 

Week. — According to Dion Cassius, this 
division of time was first made by the Egypt- 
ians, from whom other nations borrowed it. 
The Jews had a week of days, reckoned from 
sabbath to sabbath ; a week of years, con- 
sisting of seven years ; and a week of seven 
times seven years, reckoned from one jubilee 
to another. Among the ancient Greeks and 
Eomans the week was unknown. It was 
only gradually introduced with Christianity, 
under the later emperors. 

Weights. — A national standard of weight 
was first estabhslied in England A.D. 1197, and 
a uniformity of weight throughout the king- 
dom was ordered by 9 Hen. III. c. 25 (1225). 
Ey 51 Hen. III. st. 1, c. 3 (1266), an English 
penny, weighing thirty-two wheat corns from 
the midst of the ear, was made the standard 
weight. The weight of the pound {q. v.) was 
regulated by 31 Edw. I. c. 1 (1303), and a 
uniform weight throughout the realm was 
ordered by 27 Edw. III. st. 2, c. 10 (1353). 
By 8 Hen. VI. c. 5 (1429), every city was 
ordered to have a common balance and 
weights, for the free use of the inhabitants. 
Standard weights of brass were ordered to 
be made and sent to every city and borough 
by 7 Hen. VII. c. 4 (1490), which was ex- 
tended and confirmed by 11 Hen. VII. c. 4 
(1494). Avoirdupois weight is first men- 
tioned by 24 Hen. VIII. c. 3 (1532), where it 
is ordered to be used in the sale of butchers' 
meat. Uniformity of weights and measures 
was again enjoined by 16 Charles I. c. 19 
(1648). The House of Commons appointed 
committees in 1758, 1759, and 1790, to exa- 
mine the best means of securing an accurate 
standard of weights and measures. By 35 
Geo. III. c. 102 (June 22, 1795), the justices 
at quarter sessions were empowered to ap- 
point examiners of weights and scales, and 
in 1814 parliament appointed another com- 
mittee to consider the question of standard. 
The prince regent instituted a commission 
for the same purpose in 1819, which pre- 
sented reports in 1819, 1820,, and 1821, and 
procured the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 (June 17, 
1824), for estabMshing uniformity of weights 
and measures. This was amended by 4 & 5 
Will. IV. c. 49 (Aug. 13, 1834), and both 
acts were repealed by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 63 
(Sept. 9, 1835). Troy weight is ordered to be 
used in sales of bullion and precious stones 



WEL 

by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 29 (June 14, 1853). Fur- 
ther provisions for legalizing and preserving 
the standard were made by 18 & 19 Vict, 
c. 72 (July 30, 1855), and 22 & 23 Vict. 
e. 56 (Aug. 13, 1859). {See Measuees and 
Found.) 

Weimae, capital of the grand-duchy of 
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, was taken by the 
French Oct. 14, 1806. The emperors Alex- 
ander I. of Russia and Napoleon I. were 
entertained here by the grand-duke Oct. 6 — 
14, 1808. The city church was built in 1400, 
the court theatre in 1825, and the Falk's 
Institution, for pubhc education, in 1829. 
The colossal bronze statue to Herder was 
erected Aug. 25, 1850. 

Weinsberg (Battle). — Duke Guelph was 
defeated here in defending his castle in 
Swabia against the emperor Conrad III., 
A.D. 1140. The famous Guelph and Ghibel« 
line factions originated at this battle. 

Weissenbeeg (Battle). — Matthias Cor- 
vinus. Icing of Hungary, defeated the Turks 
at this toAvn of Transylvania, a.d. 1479. 

Weissenbueg (Alsace) . — Wiirmser forced 
the French fines at this place Oct. 13, 1793. 
It was recovered by the French Dec. 27 
the same year. 

Wellington ( Somersetshire) . — The 
manor, bestowed upon Asser, bishop of 
Sherborne, by Alfred the Great, was trans- 
ferred to the diocese of Wells a.d. 910. It 
occurs as " Walintone " in Domesday Book 
in 1086. From it the duke of Wellington 
received his title, May 3, 1814. A lofty 
column, raised on Blackdown HiU by pubhc 
subscription, commemorates the battle of 
Waterloo. 

Wellington Administeation was formed 
on the dissolution of the Goderich adminis- 
tration iq.v.), Jan. 8, 1829. The cabinet 
was thus constituted : — 



Duke of "Wellington. 

Lord Chancellor Lord Lyndhurst. 

President of the Council .. Earl Bathurst. 

Privy Seal .... Lord Ellenborough. 

Chancellor of Exchequer . .Mr. Henry Goulburn. 

Home Secretaiy Sir Robert Peel, Bart. 

Foreign Secretary Earl of Dudley. 

Colonial Secretary Mr. "William Huskisson. 

Board of Control Viscount Melville. 

Secretary at War "Viscount Palmerston. 

Duchy of Lancaster Earl of Aberdeen. 

Master of the Mint Mr. J. C. Herries. 

Treasurer of the Navy \ 

and President of the >Mr. Charles Grant. 

Board of Trade ) 

Mr. Huskisson resigned May 20, and was 
followed by the earl of Dudley, Lord Pal- 
merston, and Mr. Charles Grant. Their 
places were supplied as follows : — 

Foreign Secretaiy Earl of Aberdeen. 

Colonial Secretary Sir George Murray. 

Treasurer of the Navy ) 

and President of the VMr. "W. V. Fitzgerald. 

Board of Trade ) 

The secretary at war. Sir Henry Hardinge, 
and the chancellor of the duchy of Lancas- 
ter, Mr. Charles Arbuthnot, did not receive 
seats in the cabinet. The duke of Clarence, 



WEL 

who remained lord high admiral on the 
formation of the ministry, resigned office 
Aug. 12, 1828, when Lord Melville left the 
Board of Control and became first lord of 
the Admiralty, and Lord Ellenborough took 
the Board of Control. Earl Eosslyn became 
privy seal June 4, 1829, Lord Ellenborough 
retaining only the Board of Control. Par- 
liament was dissolved July 24, 1830. The 
new parHament met Oct. 26, and William TV. 
dehvered his first speech from the throne 
Nov. 2. Ministers were beaten by a majority 
of 233 to 204, on a motion for a select com- 
mittee on the civil list, Nov. 15, and their 
resignation was annoxmced in both houses 
of parliament Nov. 16. {See Geet Adminis- 

TBATION-.) 

"Wellington' College (Hampshire), for 
the support and education of the orphan 
children of soldiers, was erected at Sand- 
hurst in honour of the illustrious duke whose 
name it bears, the funds for the purpose — 
upwards of £109,000 — having been raised by 
private subscription. The foundation-stone 
was laid July 2, 1856, by her Majesty Queen 
Victoria, who also performed the inaugura- 
tion ceremony Jan. 29, 1859. 

Wells. — The art of boring wells was prac- 
tised in the East at least 4,000 years ago. 
Abraham's servant encountered Eebekah 
beside a well, b.c. 1859 (Gen. xxiv.). Da- 
naus is stated by Pliny to have introduced 
wells into Greece from Egypt about B.C. 
1500. The superstitious veneration of wells 
and fountains was prohibited by Athelstan 
in 960, and the immemorial custom of de- 
corating wells with garlands and flowers on 
Holy Thursday, or at Whitsuntide, is still 
preserved at Tissiugton, Wirksworth, and 
other villages in Derbyshire. 

Wells (Somersetshire). — This city and 
borough originated in a collegiate church 
founded by Ina, king of Wessex, towards the 
end of the 7th century. It became the seat of 
a bishopric a.d. 909 (see Bath and Wells), 
and is chiefly remarkable for its beautiful 
cathedral, which was founded by Bishop 
Wulfehn, or Wyff'ehne (923 to 928), and re- 
stored or refounded by Bishop Jocehne (1206 
to 1244) . The two west towers were added 
about the end of the 14th century. The 
Yicar's Close was founded by W" alter de 
Hull, sub-dean, in 1335, and was much en- 
larged by Ralph de Salopia in 1348. Bishop 
Beckingtou erected a fine cross in 1450, which 
was replaced by another in 1780. 

Weklock (Shropshire), the first town in 
England the charter of incorporation of 
which expressly gave it a right to return 
members to parHament, a privilege conferred 
by Edward IV. The abbey was founded by 
Millburga, related to the kings of Mercia, 
about A.D. 680. The ruins belong to the 13th 
century. 

Wesletans. (See Methodists.) 

Wessex, or the kingdom of the West 
Saxons, was founded by Cerdic a.d. 519. 

Western Austealia, comprising nearly 
one fourth of the entire continent, was esta- 
blished under the name of the Swan Eiver 



WES 

settlement, a.d. 1829. An extensive bed 
of coal was discovered here by Dr. Van 
Sommer in 1847. At the request of the 
colonists, convicts were sent out to supply 
the labour market in 1849. The colony 
received a representative constitution Aug. 
5, 1850. 

Westeen Chuech was also called the 
Latin or Roman church. Milman (Lat. 
Christ, vol. ii. book iv. ch. 9, p. 203) re- 
marks : "In the 8th century Rome suddenly, 
as it were, burst the bonds of her connection 
with the older state of things, disjoined her- 
self for ever from the effete and hopeless 
East, and placed herself at the head of the 
rude as yet, and dimly descried and remote, 
but more promising and vigorous civilization 
of the West. The Byzantine empire became 
a separate world, Greek Christianity a sepa- 
rate rehgion. The AVest, after some struggle, 
created its own empire : its natives formed 
an independent system, either of warring or 
of confederate nations. Latin Christianity 
was the hfe, the principle of union, of all the 
West ; its centre, papal Rome." Differences 
of opinion between the Church of Rome and 
the church at Constantinople (see Greek 
Chuech) existed from a very early period. 
The Arian controversy in the 4th century ; the 
disputes concerning the Fdioque in the 6th 
century ; the Monothelite controversy in the 
7th century ; and the Iconoclast controversy 
early in the 8th century, paved the way for 
the final separation which occurred a.d. 876. 
(For the hst of bishops, nee Popes ; and 
for its history, see Roman Catholics, Rome, 
&e.) 

Westeen Empiee. — The division of the 
Roman territory into the Eastern and 
Western empires was first effected by 
Valentinian I., a.d. 364, and was completed 
by Arcadius and Honorius in 395. 



378. May. The Alemanni invade the Western 
empire and are defeated by Gratian, near 
Argeutaria, or Colm.ar, in Alsace. 

388. Aug. 25. Gratian is assassinated at Lyons by 
Andragathius, general of the usurper 
Maximus. 

387. Maximus invades Italy and expels Valen- 

tuiian II., who is in conseriuence assisted 
by Theodosius I. 

388. Maximus is defeated by Theodosius I. at 

Aquileia, and is beheaded by the army. 
392. May 15. Aigobastes the Frank murders 
Valentinian II., and bestows the purple 
upon the rhetorician Eugenius. 

394. Sept. 6. Theodosius I. defeats and beheads 

Eugenius on the plains of Aquileia. Argo- 
bastes escapes capture by suicide, and the 
two empires are reunited under Theodosius 
I., or the Great. 

395. Jan. 17. Death of Theodosius I., whose do- 

minions are again divided, the Western 
empire falling to his youngest son Ho- 
norius, aged eleven years, who governs 
under the regency of his uncle Stilicho. 
The seat of government is removed to 
Milan. 
400. Alaric invades Italy. 

403. He expels Honorius from Milaij. March 29. 

He sustains a severe defeat froln Stilicho 
at PoUentia (q. v.). 

404. Honorius celebrates a pompous triumph at 

Kome, and removes his court to iUvyeiiua. 



WES 



WES 



406. Radagaisus invades Italy at the head of an 
immense army of German barbarians, 
and is defeated by Stilicho. 

408. Aug. 23. Fall and execution of Stilicho. 

Alaric besieges Rome {q. v.). 

409. The Goths and Bomans elect Attalus em- 

peror. 

411. He is degraded by Alaric. 

412. A peace is concluded between Honorius and 

Adolpbus, king of the Goths. 

423. On the death of Honorius, his throne is 
usurped by the state secretary, John. 

431. A rebellion in Africa under Boniface is sup- 
pressed. 

451. The Huns under Attila invade the Western 
empire. 

455. March 16. Valentin ian III. is assassinated by 
the partisans ofthe senator Maximus, whose 
■wife he had debauched. June 12. The Van- 
dals under Genseric invade Italy at the in- 
vitation of the empress Eudoxia, widow of 
Valentiuian Til., and wife of Maximus. 
Maximus is stoned to death by the infu- 
riated Romans. 
461. Majorian is deposed by Bicimer, general 
of the barbarians, who elevates Libius 
Severus to the throne, and governs in his 
name. 
467. April 12. On the death of Libius Severus, 
Leo I. of Constantinople confers the West- 
em empire upon Anthemius. 

472. Aug. 20. Death of Ricimer. 

476. Odoacer takes Rome and compels Augustulus 
to abdicate, thus terminating the Western 
empire. 

EMPEROBS OF THE WEST. 



A.D. 

Valentinian 1 364 

Valentinian I. and 

Gratian 367 

Gratian and Valen- 
tinian II 375 

Valentinian II. alone 383 

Eugeuius 392 

Theodoslus I., or the 

Great 394 

Honorius 395 

John 423 



A.D. 

Valentinian III 425 

Maximus 455 

Avitus 455 

Majorian 457 

Libius Severus 461 

Authemius 467 

Olybrius 472 

Glycerius 473 

Julius Nepos 474 

Romulus, called Au- 
gustulus 476 



West Indies, or Colttmbiak" Akchi- 
PEiiAGO (Atlantic Ocean). — These islands 
were for the most part discovered by Colum- 
bus, who first sighted American land at San 
Salvador, one of the Bahamas, Oct. 11, 1492, 
and are consequently termed the Columbian 
Archipelago. Columbus called them the 
West Indies, because he believed that he had 
simply discovered a western passage to 
Hindostan, and for the same reason the 
name was originally apphed to the whole of 
America. {See Antilles, Bahamas, Cuba, 
Domingo, St , Guadaloupe, Jamaica, 
Porto Kico, Trinidad, &c.) 

Westmeath (Ireland) originally formed 
part of the kingdom of Meath, was included 
m the county palatine granted by Henry II. 
to Hugh de Lacy, a.d. 1173. It was sepa- 
rated from Eastmeath in 1543, and Long- 
ford was detached from it in 1569. The 
abbey of Multifernan near Tristernagh was 
in the possession of the Franciscan friars tiU 
1641, notwithstanding the suppression of 
monasteries by Henry VIII. An old Danish 
fort at Ballymore was fortified by the rebels 
and held in the wars of 1641 and 1688. 

Westminster (Middlesex). — This city, 
which now joins London, was anciently 



known as Thorney Island, and received its 
present name from the Benedictine monas- 
tery of Sebert. (See Westminster Abbey.) 
The palace, which was the principal resi- 
dence of the English sovereigns from Edward 
the Confessor to Edward VI., was destroyed 
by fire a.d. 1512. St. Stephen's chapel, 
foundedby King Stephen in 1150, and rebuilt 
between 1320 and 1352, was, until its destruc- 
tion by fire, Oct. 16, 1834, the seat of the 
English parliament. (See Houses op Par- 
liament.) Westminster was first repre- 
sented in parhament in 1547. A procla- 
mation for cleansing its streets was pub- 
lished March 29, 1672. _ The Westminster 
Hospital was founded in 1719. Councils 
were held at Westminster, Dec. 7, 1141 ; 
May 26, 1162 ; in 1173 ; and April 29, 1229. 

Westminster (Bishopric). — Henry VIII. 
erected the see of Westminster by letters 
patent, dated Dec. 17, 1540, and appointed 
Thomas Thirlby the first bishop. Thirlby 
resigned the office March 29, 1550, when the 
see was dissolved and re-united to London 
by Edward VI. Pius IX.'s bull for esta- 
Wishing a Koman CathoHe hierarchy in 
Great Britain, dated Sept. 30, 1850, erected 
Westminster into an archbishopric under 
Cardinal Wiseman, who issued his first 
pastoral letter Oct. 7. 

Westminster (Treaties). — One was con- 
cluded between Henry VIII. and Francis I., 
April 30, 1527. It provided for carrying on 
the war in the Netherlands against the 
emperor, the liberation of the French 
princes, and the payment of the debt due 
to England. Henry VIII. renounced his 
claim to the French throne, on condition of 
receiving a pension of 50,000 gold crowns. 
It was modified by another treaty signed 
May 29. Wolsey went to France in July, 
and concluded the treaty of Amiens Aug. 18. 
This confirmed and extended the treaty of 
Westminster. A treaty was concluded at 
Westminster with France, Feb. 3, 1659; 
vrith Holland, Feb. 19, 1674; and an alli- 
ance was formed with Prussia Nov. 29, 1742. 

Westminster Abbey. — According to tra- 
dition, St. Peter visited Britain a.d. 65, and 
founded a church on Thorney Isle, which 
formed the origin of Westminster Abbey. 
Another account is that it occupies the site 
of a Koman temple of Apollo, destroyed by 
an earthquake during the reign of Antoninus 
Pius; but no authentic record places its 
erection earher than about 604, when Sebert, 
king of Essex, embraced Christianity, and 
founded a church in honour of God and 
St. Peter, to the west of London. This 
church having fallen into decay, was restored 
by Edgar, soon after his accession, in 957, at 
the request of St. Dunstan, and was rebuilt 
by Edward the Confessor between 1050 and 
Dec. 28, 1065, when the new building was 
consecrated. Henry III. commenced the 
erection of additional buildings May 16, 
1220, and continued the enlargement until 
nearly the end of his long reign, the new 
abbey being opened Oct. 13, 1269. Edward I. 
deposited the celebrated Scotch coronation 
3 M 



WES 



WES 



stone and otlier trophies of tlie Scottish 
kingdom in the abbey in 1297 ; and it was 
partially destroyed by fire March 29, 1298. 
A murder was committed in the church 
Aug. 11, 1378, in consequence of which it 
was closed for four months. The great 
western window was set up in 1490. The 
beautiful chapel of Henry VII. was founded 
by that sovereign Jan. 24, 1503, and on his 
death in 1509 became his place of sepulture. 
Henry YIII. dissolved the abbey Jan. 16, 
1540, and restored it as a cathedral church 
the 17th of December following. Queen 
Mary refounded the monastery of West- 
miQster, Sept. 7, 1556. Elizabeth again re- 
moved the monks, July 12, 1559, and made 
the abbey a coUegiate church, May 21, 1560. 
The puritan parliament appointed a com- 
mittee to demolish all monuments of super- 
stition and idolatry in this church, April 24, 
1643, and it is said to have been used as a 
military barrack the same year. The House 
of Commons voted a sum^ of money for the 
repair and restoration of Westminster Abbey 
in 1697, and employed Sir Christopher Wren 
to carry out the proposed reparation. The 
erection of the west front was commenced 
in 1715, the great rose window was finished 
in 1722, and the towers were completed in 
1735. A fire which broke out in the roof of 
the tower July 9, 1803, occasioned serious 
injury to the woodwork of the choir. Henry 
the Seventh's Chapel was restored between 
1S09 and 1S22 by Benjamin Wyatt. Ano- 
ther fire occurred April 27, 1829, but was 
extinguished before it had had time to do 
much damage. The woodwork of the choir 
was restored in 1847. Evening services 
were first celebrated in Westminster Abbey 
in January, 1858. 

Westmixstek Assemblt. (See AssEir- 
BLT OF Divines.) 

"V\ ESTiiixsTEE Beid&e. — The first bridge 
at Westminster, founded Jan. 29, 1739, was 
bunt from the designs of Charles Labelye, 
a Swiss. It was opened Nov. 18, 1750, and 
consisted of fifteen arches, containing, 
according to the architect's report, twice 
the amount of stone used in St. Paul's ca- 
thedral. Owing to the sinking of the piles, 
the bridge was closed to carriages Aug. 15, 
1846, and to foot-passengers Aug. 27, and it 
was lightened of much of its stonework and 
reduced in height before it was again opened. 
These measures having proved ineifectual, a 
local act of parliament was passed in 1850 
for the construction of a temporary bridge, 
but was never carried into eff'ect. By 16 
& 17 Vict. c. 46 (Aug. 4, 1853), the man- 
agement of the bridge was transferred to 
the Commissioners of Works and Pubhe 
Buildings, who were authorized to remove 
it and erect a new one. The design of 
Thomas Page was accepted; and in May, 
1854, the works commenced, under an agree- 
ment that they should be completed in three 
years. Owing to the proposed erection 
of new government offices at Westminster, 
and the consequent alterations of plan that 
might be necessary, they were suspended, 



March 20, 1856. They were, howeyer, re- 
newed the following year, and in 1860 a 
portion of the bridge was opened for carriage 
traffic. The expense of the bridge up to 
July, 1861, was £316,936, and a further 
outlay of £60,692 was voted by parliament. 
It consists of seven iron arches, and is 
eighty-five feet wide. It was formally opened 
throughout May 24, 1862. 

Westiiinstee Hall. — This fine haU, said 
to be, with the single exception of the haU 
of justice at Padua, the largest room in 
Europe which is not supported by pillars, 
was founded by William Rufus, a.d. 1097. 
In 1224 it was made the permanent seat of 
the English law courts, and in 1397 it waa 
repaired by Richard II. A fire which broke 
out Feb. 20, 1631, was checked before it 
had time to extend its ravages. The haU 
was repaired at a cost of £13,000 in 1802. 

Westminster School, or St. Petek's 
College (Westminster). — Henry VIII. 
foimded an educational establishment in 
connection with the abbey of Westminster 
about A.D. 1540. The present institution was 
founded by Queen EHzabeth in 1560. The 
dormitory was built by the earl of Burlington 
in 1722. William Camden, the antiquary, 
was master of this school from 1593 to 1599, 
and Dr. Richard Busby from 163S to 1695. 

Westmoreland (England), partly occu- 
pied by the Brigantines, was comprised in 
the Ifaxima Ccesariensis of the Romans, 
after the subjugation of South Britain, about 
A.D. 204. It was conquered by the Angles 
of Northumbria about 685. William I. 
divided it between two of his vassals in 
1068. It had long been an object of con- 
tention between England and Scotland ; and 
the king of Scotland, in consideration of a 
grant of lands in Cumberland and ISTorth- 
umberland, abandoned his claim to the county 
in 1237. 

Westphalia (Germany). — The ancient 
duchy of Westphaha was separated from 
western Saxony by Frederick I. a.d. 1180. 
In 1613 Prussia obtained possession of part 
of the country, and in 1801 it was ceded to 
the duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. Napoleon I. 
erected Westphalia into a kingdom, under 
his brother Jerome, Aug. 18, 1806. Bruns- 
wick -Wolfenbiittel, Hesse-Cassel, and Mag- 
deburg were annexed by the treaty of Tilsit, 
July 9, 1807 ; and Hanover, March 16, 1810. 
This kingdom was overthrown by the battle 
of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 18, and 19, 1813 ; and 
the following year its constituent provinces 
were restored to their former possessors. 

Westphalia (Treaty). — The name of 
Public Peace of Westphalia was given to a 
compact made a.d. 1371, between the em- 
peror Charles IV. and the States of the 
empire, for maintaining the peace of Ger- 
many. The celebrated treaty of Westphalia, 
which terminated the Thirty Years' war,' 
was signed at Miinster and Osnaburg by the 
plenipotentiaries of France, Germany, and 
Sweden, Oct. 24, 1648. By this treaty France 
acquired Alsace, and Sweden Pomerania, 
Riigen, Bremen, and Verden j and the inde- 



WEX 

pendence of Holland and Switzerland was 
formally recognized. 

Wexford (Ireland), cMef town of the 
county of the same name, was founded by 
the Danes, and surrendered to Fitzstephen, 
the English adventurer, a.d. 1169. It ob- 
tained a charter in 1318. A parhament was 
held here by the earl of Desmond in 1463. 
James I. confirmed and extended its charter 
in 1608. The town was seized by the insur- 
gents, who received their principal foreign 
supphes at its port, in 1641. Cromwell 
having reduced it, military execution was in- 
flicted upon the inhabitants in 1649. It was 
garrisoned by the troops of William III. in 
1688, and was taken hj the rebels in 1798. 
St. Selsker Abbey was founded about 1190. 

Weymouth (Dorsetshire), an important 
commercial place in the 14th century, was 
united with the borough of Melcombe Eegis 
A.D. 1571. Kalph Allen, of Bath, brought it 
into repute as a bathing-place about 1763. 
George III. paid his first visit to the place 
July 16, 1789. A naval fete and Dutch fair 
were got up for the entertaiament of the 
king and queen, Sept. 29, 1804. 

WHALEBOifE. — Braeton and Britton, who 
flourished during the 12th century, state that 
it was an ancient feudal right of the queen of 
England to claim the tail of every whale 
caught on the British coast ; but the earhest 
mention of whalebone, which is contained in 
the head of the animal, occurs a.d. 1593, 
when some English sailors brought a large 
number of fins, as the pieces of baleen are 
erroneously called, from Cape Breton. A 
riding-whip of whalebone, possessed by 
Queen Ehzabeth, is mentioned as a valuable 
article. The fiirst instance of the bone being 
systematically sought for as an article of 
commerce occurs in 1617 ; and by 9 & 10 
Wm. III. c. 23 (1698), the importation of 
ready-cut whalebone was prohibited. Lau- 
rence Kortwright patented certain improve- 
ments in the preparation of this useful 
material in March, 1841. 

Whale-fisheet. — The capture of the 
whale was practised by the Norwegians as 
early as a.d. 887, and was systematically 
pursued as a calling by the Biseayans during 
the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. By 
17 Edw. II. c. 11 (1324), the king was entitled 
to all whales and great sturgeons taken in 
British seas; and in 1388 Edward III. re- 
warded Peter Bayune for his expense in 
providing a fleet for the royal use, by 
granting him a tax of £6 on every whale 
carried into the port of Biarritz. The Dutch 
discovered the abundance of whales in the 
neighbourhood of Spitzbergen in 1596, and 
thus opened the way for a profitable 
fishery by the merchants of HoUand iu 
the northern seas. In 1611 the first Eng- 
lish whahng exxjedition sailed from HuU, 
which remained for a long period the cen- 
tre of the English whale-fishery. In 1614 
the Dutch trade was monopohzed by a single 
company, but in 1642 it was thrown open, 
with immense benefit to the national com- 
merce of Holland. The American whale- 



WHI 

fishery commenced in 1690, and the fishery 
of the Enghsh South- Sea Company in 1724. 
The harpoon-gun was invented in 1731. Se- 
veral acts of parhament have been passed 
for the encouragement of the whale-fisheries, 
the chief being 22 Geo. II. c. 45 (1749). 
Louis XVI. revived the French fishery in 
1784. Owing to the decreasing demand for 
whale oils, in consequence of the use of gas 
and the scarcity of fish, the whaling trade is 
declining. 

Wheat. (See Beead, Coen-, &c.) 

Wheelbaebow. — This simple vehicle is 
said to have been invented by Blaise Pascal, 
the geometrician (1623—1662). 

Wheels.— The first wheels were, doubt- 
less, plain disks of wood, probably composed 
of segments of the circular boles of trees. 
The custom of using an iron tire was prac- 
tised by the Eomans, and wheels entirely of 
metal were sometimes employed in classic 
war-chariots. The wheel has been variously 
apphed by different nations as an instrument 
of punishment. The Greeks bound the cri- 
minal to the circumference, and whirled him 
round until death was the result. Breaking 
on the wheel was introduced in Germany, 
and was legally adopted in France by Fran- 
cis I. in 1534. 

Whig-. (See Toet.) 

Whist. — This game originated ia England, 
and is mentioned as a common pastime 
A.D. 1680, though no regular science was 
usual in playing it till about 1730, when it 
was studied by a card -party that met at 
the Crown coffee-house, in Bedford Eow. 
Hoyle's celebrated work flrst appeared in 
1743, when he taught the game at a guinea 
a lesson. The name is said to have originated 
in the silence which the intricacy of the game 
renders indispensable. 

Whitby (Yorkshire) probably took its 
rise from the abbey founded by Oswy, king 
of Forthumbria, a.d. 658. The abbey and 
town were both destroyed by the Danes about 
867. They were restored after the Norman 
conquest. he alum-works in the neigh- 
bourhood raised the port to some distinction 
in the reign of Ehzabeth. The chapel of 
ease was erected in 1788. The central tower 
of the abbey ruins fell to the ground in 
1830. 

Whitebait Dinnees. — The annual minis- 
terial whitebait dinner is said to have origin- 
ated about A.D. 1721, when Captain Perry 
was employed in repairing Dagenham 
Breach, in Essex, and a body of parhament- 
ary commissioners was appointed to super- 
intend his labours. These gentlemen held a 
board meeting every year at the Breach 
House, and concluded their business pro- 
ceedings by a fish dinner, to which, on one 
occasion, they invited the great commoner 
Wilham Pitt, The experiment proved very 
successful, and became a precedent for a 
similar annual festival, the scene of which 
was afterwards removed to Greenwich. 

White-boys, or Boxtghaleen Bawiits. — 
This Irish party derives its name from the 
white shirt wmch its members wore over 
3 K 2 



WHI 

their dress during their depredations. The 
society was formed in October, 1761, and in 
1762 a military force under Lord Drogheda 
was sent for its suppression. Father Nicholas 
Sheehy, one of their most violent leaders, 
was executed at Clonmel, March 15, 1766. 
In 1786 another Eoraan Cathohc party ap- 
peared, known as the Right-boys, who also 
proved very dangerous. The White-boys 
were again in insurrection in 1822, when they 
committed many shocking outrages. 

Whitefeiaes (London) . — This precinct 
of London, situated between Fleet Street 
and the Thames, derived its name from the 
White Friars' church of the Carmehtes 
(q. v.), which was founded here by Sir 
Eichard Grey a.d. 1241. It was one of the 
most notorious of the old London sanctu- 
aries, and, under the slang name Alsatia, 
was the resort of the lowest dregs of society. 
Its privileges as a sanctuary were confirmed 
and enlarged by a special charter in 1608. 
WTiitefriars Theatre was built about 1580, 
and was pulled down in 1613. Sahsbury- 
court Theatre was erected near the original 
site in 1629, and was destroved by the Puri- 
tans March 24, 1649; and the Duke's The- 
atre, in Dorset Gardens, which supphed the 
place of the two former edifices, was'opened 
Nov. 9, 1671, and finally removed soon after 
1720. 

Whitehall (London). — The fiirst palace 
on the site of the modern "Uliitehall was 
erected by Hubert de Burgh, the celebrated 
chamberlain of King John and chief justi- 
ciary of England under Henry III., who 
bequeathed it on his death, in 1243, to the 
convent of the Black Friars in Holbom. In 
1248 it was purchased by Walter de Grey, 
archbishop of York, who made it the town 
palace of that see, on which account it was 
called York Place. Its magnificence was 
greatly increased by Cardinal Wolsey, who 
resigned it toHenry Ylll.by a charter dated 
Feb. 7, 1530, when its name was changed 
to Whitehall, and the building became 
the regular royal palace of the English 
sovereigns. The old banque ting-house was 
destroyed by fire Tuesday, Jan. 12, 1619, and 
the present edifice, commenced by Inigo 
Jones June 1, 1619, was completed March 31, 
1622. The ceiling was painted abroad by 
Eubens in 1635. "^Tiitehall is chiefly famous 
in history as the scene of the execution 
of Charles I., Jan. 30, 1649. The scaflFold 
was erected in the street, and, according 
to some contemporary authors, a passage 
was opened through the wall of the palace 
for the egress of the king. Grinling Gib- 
bons' statue of James II. was erected 
Dec. 31, 1686. A considerable portion of 
the old palace was destroyed by a fire which 
broke out April 10, 1691, and it was at length 
completely destroyed by a fire which com- 
menced Tuesday, Jan. 4, 1698, and lasted 
seventeen hours. The Banqueting-house was 
converted into a chapel by George I. in 1724, 
and Holbein's Gate was removed to make 
room for Parliament Street, in August, 1759. 
The fine facade of the Treasury, Whitehall, 
900 



WHI 

opposite the Banqueting-house, was erected 
by Sir Charles Barry in 1847. 

White Hats. — The name given to some 
extreme democrats who formed a party at 
Ghent, a.d. 1377. Headed by Hyons, they 
revolted against Count Louis in 1378, and 
took Bruges. Hyons was poisoned at Damme 
the same year, and through the mediation 
of Philip I., duke of Burgundy, a peace was 
concluded in December, 1379. The struggle, 
renewed in 1380, was not finally terminated 
until Philip II. of Burgundy obtained 
power in 1384. 

Whitehavest (Cumberland) consisted of 
half a dozen fishermen's huts a.d. 1566. It 
was attacked by the pirate Paul Jonea in 
1778. 

White Pes-itents. (See Bianchi.) 

White Plains (Battle). — The Americans 
were defeated at this place, near New York, 
by the Enghsh imder General Howe, Oct. 28, 
1776. 

White Sheep. — A tribe of Turkomans, 
so called from the figure on their banner, 
led by their chief Azan Hasoun, acquired 
possession of western Persia a.d. 1468. 
They were conquered by Shah Ismail in 
1501. 

White Towee. — This most celebrated 
portion of the Tower of London (q.v.) was 
erected by William I. about a.d. 1078, and 
designed by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, 
It measures 116 feet by 96, and is 92 feet in 
height. 

Whitfieldites, or Lady Huntingdon's 
Connection, the followers of the Rev. 
George Wliitfield, or Whitefield, who waa 
born at the Bell inn, Gloucester, Dec. 16, 
1714. In 1732 he was entered at Pembroke 
College, Oxford, as a servitor, and here he 
formed an intimacy with the brothers John 
and Charles Wesley, who were attracting 
attention from the strictness of their hfe. 
In 1736 he was ordained a deacon of the 
established church, and in a short time his 
eloquence created intense excitement in 
London and the principal provincial cities in 
the south of England. In December, 1737, 
he accompanied the Wesleys on a missionary 
tour to Georgia; and in 1738 he returned for 
the purpose of being admitted to priest's 
orders, and to coUect funds for the support 
of the rehgious eflforts being made in Ame- 
rica. During this visit the orthodox clergy 
excluded him from their pulpits, in conse- 
quence of which he commenced preaching 
in the open air to the Bristol coUiers, and 
in August, 1739, he returned to Georgia, 
where he remained two years. On his re- 
turn he separated from the Wesleys, in con- 
sequence of their rejection of Calvinism, and 
in June, 1741, his admirers built him a large 
temporary shed in Moorfields, which he 
called the Tabernacle. In August, 1744, he 
made a third voyage to America, where he 
remained nearly four years, after which he 
was appointed chaplain to the countess of 
Huntingdon, at whose suggestion the Taber- 
nacle was rebuilt, and opened in June, 1755. 
The Tabernacle in the Tottenham Court Road 



WHI 



WIG 



was opened in Nov. , 1756 ; and in 1767 Lady- 
Huntingdon established a college for the edu- 
cation of young ministers in the doctrines of 
Calvinistic Methodism at Trevecca, in South 
Wales. Whitfield's life was devoted to long 
and arduous preaching excursions through 
England, Scotland, and Ireland. He made 
seven voyages to America, and died at New- 
bury, in New England, Sept. 29, 1770. The 
first ordination of Whitfieldite ministers took 
place in 1783, when the connection seceded 
from the Church of England, of which, how- 
ever, it retained the forms and most of the 
doctrines, the chief difference being the ab- 
sence of episcopacy. Rules for the govern- 
ment of the sect were prepared in 1785. The 
countess of Huntingdon, from whom the 
followers of Whitfield derive the name by 
which ^they are best known, died June 17, 
1791. 

Whitsuntide. — The feast of Whitsunday, 
or Whitesunday, is celebrated in the Chris- 
tian churches as commemorative of the day 
of Pentecost {q.v.), in which the apostles 
received the Holy G-host. It was devoted in 
the primitive church to the solemnization of 
baptisms, and derives its name from the white 
linen with which the recipients of that ordi- 
nance were clad. 

Whittington CoLiEGE. — ^WJuttington's 
College, or God's House, was originally 
founded on College Hill, Thames Street, by 
Sir Eichard Whitington, a.d. 1421, for the 
maintenance of twenty-nine free mercers of 
London and thirty out-pensioners. It was 
removed to Highgate in 1808. 

WiBBANDUNE (Battle) .—Ceaulin, king of 
Wessex, defeated Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
at this place, supposed to be Wimbledon, 
A.D. 568. 

WiCKLiFEiTES. (See Wtclieeites.) 

WiCKLOw (Ireland), the chief town of 
the county of that name, supposed to have 
been a naval station of the Danes, is built 
on the site of a castle erected by the Anglo- 
Norman invader Maurice Fitzgerald, about 
A.D. 1169. The town was burned by the Irish 
in 1310, and was fortified by Eitzwihiam in 
1375. Its corporate rights were confirmed 
by a charter of James I. in 1613. A Fran- 
ciscan friary, the ruins of which remain, was 
founded in the reign of Henry III. The 
church of the Wicklow union has a tower 
and a copper cupola, erected in 1777. 

WiDDiJsr (Turkey), taken from the Turks 
by John Hunniades, the Hungarian captain- 
general, A.D. 1454, was captured by Prince 
Louis of Baden in 1689, and was recovered 
by the vizier Mustai^ha Kioprili in 1690. It 
was invested in 1737 by the Austrians, who 
soon abandoned the siege ; and it was simi- 
larly threatened and abandoned in 1790. The 
pasha, Osman-Paswan-Ogli, revolted and 
declared himself independent in 1792. The 
fortifications were greatly strengthened by 
the Turks in 1853 and 1854. 

Widows and Widowees. — It appears to 
have been customary in the East for a man 
to marry the widow of his deceased brother, 
in the event of his dying childless, as early 



as B.C. 1727, when Onan married the wife of 
his brother Er (Gen. xxxviii. 8), and it was 
afterwards made a law by Moses, b.c. 1451 
(Deut. XXV. 5 — 10). Kindness to widows 
formed an important part of the good deeds 
required from the Jews. Their rights were 
regulated in England by 9 Hen. III. c. 7 
(1225) ; and by 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 10 
(1670), the widow of an intestate husband 
receiving half of his personal property, unless 
she have children by him surviving, in which 
case her portion is one-third. By 6 & 7 
Win. III. c. 6 (1695), various taxes were 
imposed upon childless widowers, according 
to their rank in life, the rates being the 
same as were demanded from bachelors 
(g.v.). The Widows' Fund, for the widows 
of Protestant dissenting ministers, was esta- 
blished in 1733, the Widows' Friend Society 
in 1808, and the Society for the Eehef of 
Distressed Widows in 1823. The Hindoo 
custom of sutteeism, or burning the widow 
with the body of her dead husband, which 
is of great antiquity, and is referred to 
by the G-reek writers of the age of Alex- 
ander, was declared illegal by the governor- 
general. Lord Wilham Bentinck, Dec. 14, 
1829. (See Dowek.) 

Wiesbaden, or Wisbaden (Germany), 
believed to be the Aquse Mattiacse or Pontes 
Mattiaci of the Eomans, was made the 
residence of the dukes of Nassau a.d. 1820. 
In comphance with popular demand, feudal 
rights were abolished March 6, 1848. The 
fine Greek chapel was erected by the duke, 
with a statue to his wife, in 1855. 

Wiesloch (Battle). — The aUied army, 
under Count Mansfeldt, defeated the Impe- 
riaUsts, commanded by TiUy, at this place in 
Germany, April 29, 1622. 

WiGAN (Lancashire) received a royal 
charter a.d. 1246, and returned members to 
parhament in 1295. The earl of Derby was 
defeated here by the parliamentarian colonel 
Eobert LUburne, Aug. 25, 1651. It was 
visited by the Pretender on his southward 
march in 1745. The town-hall was built in 
1720, St. George's Church in 1781, the Com- 
mercial Hall in 1816, and St. Catherine's 
Church in 1841. 

Wight, Isle oe (Hampshire) . — This 
island, known to the Eomans as Vecta or 
Vectis, and to the ancient Britons as Guith 
or Guict, was conquered by Titus Vespa- 
sian, A.D. 43, and was seized by Cerdie, 
king of Wessex, in 530. Wulfhere, king of 
Mercia, subdued it in 661 ; but in 686 it was 
reunited to Wessex by CeadwaUa, who com- 
pelled the inhabitants to embrace Christianity, 
which they had not previously received, and 
disgraced his victory by many acts of cruelty. 
The Danes took it in 787, during their first 
invasion of Britain, and converted it into 
a magazine for the spoils taken from the 
Saxons. They frequently ravaged the is- 
land, especially in 897, 998, 1001, and 1048. 
In 1052 it was devastated by Godwin, earl 
of Kent, in revenge for his banishment by 
Edward the Confessor, and in 1066 it was 
invaded by Tostig, earl of Northumber- 
901 



WIG 

land, at the instigation of William I. Ed- 
ward I. purchased the island in 1293, and 
in 134iO it was attacked by the French, who 
were driven to their ships by the islanders. 
They returned in 1377, and committed great 
devastations ; but failed in an attempted 
siege of Carisbrook Castle, which was gal- 
lantly defended by Sir Hugh Tyrrel. In 
1445 Henry VI. crowned Henry Beauchamp, 
duke of Warwick, king of the Isle of Wight. 
The dignity was merely titular, and con- j 
veyed no regal authority, and on the duke's 
death without issue, soon after his corona- 
tion, the title was discontinued. In 1545 
the French made another unsuccessful at- 
tempt on the island, which was the last occa- 
sion of its suiFeriDg from foreign invasion. 
The Isle of Wight suffered considerably 
during the civil wars of Charles I., who 
was imprisoned at Carisbrook Castle {q.v.). 
In 1671 Charles II. visited the island, and 
it is a favourite resort of Queen Victoria. 
(See OsBOEN-E House.) The house of in- 
dustry, for the indigent poor of the island, 
was established in 1770. Parkhurst prison 
was founded as a military hospital and 
barracks in 1778, and received its first con- 
victs Dec. 26, 1838. The salary of £1,300 
per annvim, formerly attached to the go- 
vernorship of the Isle of Wight, ceased 
in 1841. 

Wigs. — The Egyptians, Greeks, and Ko- 
mans were all familiar with the use of wigs, 
either coveriog the whole head, or merely 
the front, and made of wool, goats' hair, and 
other materials. Periwigs were introduced 
at Eome during the imperial sera. Wigs 
are said to have been first worn in England 
during the reign of Stephen. Long periwigs 
were introduced in France about a.d. 1529, 
and in 1595 it was \msafe for children 
to walk out alone in this country, as they 
were hable to be robbed of their hair for the 
vrig-makers. Ladies' wigs are mentioned 
in 1608. Charles II. introduced enormous 
perukes, which it was fashionable to comb 
in pubhc, as mentioned by Kfihgrew in 1663. 
Wigs with immense toupees are first alluded 
to in 1731, and were rendered popular by I 
the Macaroni Club in 1772. After under- 
going various modifications, the fashion of \ 
wearing wigs in preference to the natural 
hair was abandoned about the end of the 
18th century. 

Wild Beggars. {See Guetjx.) 

William and Maet. — This vessel, plying 
regularly between Bristol and Waterford, 
struck on the rocks called the Willeys, near 
the Holmes Ughthouse, about eleven o'clock 
at night, Oct. 26, 1817, and sunk in a quar- 
ter of an hour, carrying down with her, of 
sixty souls on board, all save nine persons, 
who escaped in a boat and landed a few 
miles from Cardiff. 

William the Fiest, the illegitimate son 
of Eobert I., duke of Normandy, was born 
at Falaise a.d. 1029. He succeeded his 
father as WiUiam II., duke of Normandy, 
iu 1035, and married Matilda, daughter 
of Baldwin V., count of Flanders, iu 1054. 
902 



WIL 

They had four sons and five or six daughters. 
Eobert, the eldest, born in K)56, was sur- 
named Curthose, and became duke of Nor- 
mandy in 1087. His brother, WiUiam II. of 
England, waged war against him, and impri- 
soned him in Cardiff Castle, where he med 
Feb. 10, 1135. Of WiUiam the First's other 
chUdren, William {see William II.) and 
Henry {see Heney II.) became kings of 
England. Richard died young ; and of hia 
daughters, CecUia, Adeliza, MatUda, Con- 
stance, Adela, and probably Gundred, but 
httle is known. WiUiam I., having laid 
claim to the Enghsh crown, landed on the 
coast of Sussex, defeated Harold II. at the 
battle of Hastings {q. v.), Oct. 14, 1066, and 
was crowned king at Westminster Dec. 25. 
His queen, MatUda, arrived in England in 
1068, and was crowned on Whitsunday, 
May 11. She died Nov. 2, 10S3, and was 
buried at Caen. WiUiam I. died at Eouen 
Sept. 8 or 9, 1087, and was buried at Caen. 
He was surnamed the Conqueror. 

William the Second, the third son of 
WiUiam I. and his wife MatUda, was born 
about A.D. 1060 ; succeeded on the death of 
his father, and was crowned Sunday, Sept. 26, 
1087. He was kUled in the New Forest, 
Aug. 2, 1100, and was buried at Winchester. 
WiUiam II., who never married, was sur- 
named Eufus, ti-om the colour of his hair. 

William the Thied, son of WiUiam II., 
stadtholder of HoUand and Zealand, and 
Maiy, daughter of Charles I. of England, 
was born at the Hague, Nov. 4, 1650. He 
was made stadtholder of HoUand and Zea- 
land in July, 1672. WiUiam married Mary, 
daughter of James, duke of York, afterwarda 
James II. of England, Nov. 4, 1677. At the 
Revolution the crown was offered by the 
Convention to WiUiam and Mary, who be- 
came king and queen of England Feb. 13, 
1689, and were crowned April 11. They 
reigned jointly untU the death of Mary, 
which took place Dee. 28, 1694. She was 
buried at Westminster, March 5, 1695. Wil- 
ham III. died at Kensington, March 8, 1702, 
and was buried at Westaiinster AprU 12. 
WUham and Mary left no children. 

William the Foueth, duke of Clarence, 
the third son of George III., was born 
Aug. 21, 1765. He married the princess 
AmeUa Adelaide Theresa of Saxe-Meiningen, 
July 11, 1818, and succeeded his brother, 
George IV., asking of England, June 26, 1830. 
The coronation took place Sept. 8, 1831. 
WiUiam IV. died at Windsor, June 20, 1837, 
and was buried there July 8. His queen, 
who survived him, died Dec. 2, 1849. They 
had but one child, a daughter (born March 27, 
1819), who died in infancy. 

Wills. — Testamentary arrangements of 
property are of immemorial antiquity, and 
appear to be referred to by Moses, who 
states that Jacob bequeathed to Joseph a 
portion above his brethren, B.C. 1689 (Gen. 
xlviii. 22) . Solon is said to have introduced 
wUls into Greece b.c. 594; and they were 
first regulated at Eome by the laws of the 
Twelve Tables, b.c. 430. Codicils were in- 



WIL 



WIN 



troduced by Trebatius Testa B.C. 31. Eoman 
wills were required by law to be in Latin 
until A.D. 439, when they were allowed in 
Greek ; and the practice of making wills was 
established by the Eomans among the Teu- 
tonic nations. Lands were devisable by wills 
in this country before the Conquest; and 
the privilege of making wills was specially 
sanctioned by Henry I. in 1100. Richard II. 
made a vrill in 1399, which is regarded as the 
first royal will on record, though it is as- 
serted that similar documents were prepared 
by previous sovereigns. Testamentary power 
of freehold land was established by the Sta- 
tute of Wills, 32 HenVIII. c. 1 (1540), which 
was explained and confirmed by 34 & 35 
Hen. VIII. c. 5 (1543). By 29 Charles II. 
c. 3, s. 5 (1676), wills of land are required to 
be in writing, signed by the testator, and 
attested and subscribed by three or four 
witnesses. The royal power to make wills is 
defined by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88, s. 10 
(July 28, 1800). All the laws respecting 
wills and testaments were amended and 
consohdated by 7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26 
(July 3, 1837), which was amended by 15 & 16 
Vict. c. 24 (June 17, 1852). {See Execu- 

TOES, MOKTMAIN", PrOBATE CoUBT, &C.) 

Wilmington Administbation. — The earl 
of Wilmington succeeded SirEobert Walpole 
as first lord of the treasury Feb. 16, 1742. 
The cabinet was thus constituted : — 

Treasury Earl of Wilmington, 

Lord Chancellor Lord Hardwicke. 

• President of the Council. .Earl of Harrington. 
Pi-ivy Seal Lord Gower. 

Chancellor of Exchequer { ^^l^^^t"'"''"^' ^°'** 
Piincipal Secretaries off Duke of Nev/castle and 

State \ Lord Carteret. 

, , . , , f Earl of Winchelsea and 

Admiralty | Nottingham. 

Ordnance , ..Duke of Argyll. 

The earl of Wilmington died July 26, 1743, 
and a new ministry was formed by Mr. Pel- 
ham. {See Pelham Adminisieation.) 

WiLNA. {See Vilna.) 

Wilton (Wiltshire), formerly capital of 
the Saxon kingdom of Wessex, was the scene 
of a victory gained over the Danes by Alfred, 
A.D. 871. It was plundered and burned by 
the Danes in 1003. By the dismemberment 
of Sherborne, in 909, it became the seat of a 
bishopric, which continued till about 1045. 
A new church was erected in 1844. 

Wimbledon (Battle). {See Wibban- 

DUNE.) 

Winchelsea (Sussex). — It is not knovm 
whether this town existed in the time of the 
Eomans, though it is mentioned as an im- 

Sortant place under the Saxons, Under the 
^orman sovereigns, Winchelsea became one 
of the chief ports for communication with 
France, and it was added to the Cinque Ports 
March 27, 1191, Much injury was done to 
the town by severe storms and inundations 
in 1236, and Oct. 1, 1250 ; and in 1266 it was 
almost ruined by the severity with which 
Prince Edward suppressed the frequent pira- 
cies of which the inhabitants were guilty. 



The old town was finally destroyed by an 
inundation in 1287, in consequence of which 
the king granted a charter for the erection 
of a new port in the adjacent manor of Iham. 
Edward III. and the Black Prince defeated 
the Spanish in a sea-fight off the modem 
tovra of Winchelsea, Aug. 29, 1350. The 
town was burned by the French in 1377, and 
March 15, 1380. In 1404 the walls were re- 
paired, and in 1449 the French again landed, 
and burned the place. Camber Castle, two 
miles north-east of Winchelsea, was built 
by Henry VIII. in 1539, In 1582 the town 
is mentioned as already in a state of decay, 
and it has lost all trace of its former im- 
portance. 

WiNCHESTEE (Bishopric). — Birinus was 
appointed first bishop of the West Saxona 
at Dorchester, by Cynegils, king of Wessex, 
A.D. 635. In 650 the diocese was divided into 
two sees, one of which was located at Win- 
chester, and in 678 the sees were re-united 
and settled in Winchester. In 705 another 
division occurred, part of the diocese being 
erected into a new bishopric centred at Sher- 
borne {q.v.), and the remainder being in- 
trusted to Daniel, who thus became the first 
bishop of Winchester, 

Winchester (Hampshire), the VentaBel- 
garum of the Eomans. Mythical tradition 
ascribes the origin of this fine old city to 
Ludor Eons Hudibras, king of the Britons, 
B.C. 892, and there is sufficient reason for 
believing that it really was founded by the 
first Celtic inhabitants of the island, by 
whom it was called Caer Gwent, or White 
City. It subsequently ijassed into the hands 
of the Belgse, by whom it was occupied at 
the period of Caesar's invasion, b.c. 55. The 
Christian king Lucius, who flourished a.d. 
181, is reported to have erected a church or 
cathedral at Winchester, which was destroyed 
during the persecution of 304, but was after- 
wards rebuilt. In 516 the city was taken by 
Cerdic, who converted the church into a 
temple of the Saxon gods, and in 519 erected 
the city into the capital of his new kingdom 
of Wessex, under the name of Winchester. 
Cynegils founded the cathedral in 635, and 
it was consecrated by St. Birinus, apostle of 
the West Saxons, and their first bishop, in 
648. Egbert erected Winchester into the 
capital of England in 827, and it maintained 
the distinction throughout the Saxon period. 
In 871 the Danes ravaged the city and mas- 
sacred the inhabitants. It was restored 
by Alfred the Great. St, Ethelwold com- 
pleted a restoration of the cathedral in 980 ; 
and in 1013 the city surrendered to Sweyn. 
Wilham I, founded the castle before 1070, 
and in 1079 Bishop Walkelin commenced 
the rebuilding of the cathedral, which was 
completed in 1093. Winchester attained its 
greatest prosperity during the reign of 
Henry I., when it extended a mile in every 
direction beyond its present limits. The 
hospital of St. Cross was founded in 1132 by 
! Henry de Blois, bishop of the diocese, and 
j Wolvesey Castle in 1138. The treaty of Win- 
I Chester, between Stephen and Matilda, was 



WIN 

signed ISor. 7, 1153. (See Es-&land.) The 
coUege of St. Mary at Winchester was com- 
menced by WiUiam of Wykeham, March 26, 
1387, and completed in 1393. The establish- 
ment of London as the capital of England in 
1156, and the suppression of the monasteries j 
by Henry YIII. in 1536 and 1539, proved fatal 
to the ancient glory of this city. It was taken 
by Ohver Cromwell in September, 1645, and 
was much favoured byCharles II. , who founded 
a royal palace, which was intended to be built 
by Sir Christopher Wren, March 23, 1683, } 
but which was discontinued on the death of I 
the king. The cathedral was renovated during j 
the reign of Queen Anne, and the guild- ! 
hall was founded in 1711. The unfinished | 
palace of Charles II. was converted into 
mihtary barracks in 1810. Councils were 
held at Winchester in November, 855 ; 1070 ; 
AprU 1, 1076 ; Aug. 25, 1139 ; and April 7, 
1141. 

Wind IIS- &-TJP Acts, to facilitate the disso- 
lution of joint-stock companies and other 
partnerships, were amended by 11 & 12 Vict. \ 
c. 45 (Aug. 14, 1848). This act was amended ' 
by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 108 (Aug. 1, 1849 )_. They ; 
were repealed, and the laws regarding such 
associations remodelled by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 
47 (July 14, 1856), which was amended by 
20 & 21 Vict. c. 14 (Jidy 13, 1857). 

Windmills are of oriental origin, and are 
said to have been used in Hungary before 
A.D. 718. They were introduced into England 
and Erance about 1040, and were used for 
drainage purposes in Holland soon after 1408. 
The earliest windmills were constructed to I 
turn completely roimd, the moveable top | 
being a Flemish improvement of the 16th 
century. \ 

Windows. — The Egyptians, Greeks, and 
Bomans seldom used windows in the con- 
struction of their houses and temples, the 
principal rooms of which were mostly Ughted 
from above. Those that did exist were 
small, being originally mere openings in the 
wall, <,'losed by shutters. Sometimes they 
were covered with lattice or net-work, and 
sometimes by plates or transparent stone. 
Glass windows were found at Pompeii, which 
was overwhelmed a.d. 79, and were re-in- 
vented about the 3rd century, and introduced 
into England by Benedict Biseop in 674. {See I 
Glass.) The form of the windows is one of 
the most characteristic features of Gothic 
architecture. Windows were first taxed in 
this country by 6 & 7 WiU. III. c. 18 (1695). , 
The duty was increased by 20 Geo. II. e. 3 
(1746), amended by 21 Geo. II. c. 10 (1748), 
andfurtherincreasedby the Tea-commutation 
Act, 24 Geo. III. sess. 2, c. 38 (1784). It 
was again raised by 37 G«o. III. e. 105 (July 
19, 1797) ; by 42 Geo. III. c. 34 (April 15, 
1802) ; and by 48 Geo. III. c. 55 (June 1, 
1808). It was reduced by 4 Geo. IV. c. 11 
(March 19, 1823) , and was finally repealed by 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (July 24, 1851). 

Winds. — The existence of the trade winds 
was first ascertained by Columbus at the end 
of the 15th century ; and they were first cor- 
rectly explained on scientific principles by 
904 



WIN 

George Hadley, in the " Philosophical Trans- 
actions" for 1735. {See Stoems.) 

WiNDSOH Castle (Berkshire). — ^Windsor 
derives its name from the Saxon town of 
Windleshora, which was situated about two 
miles from the present town, and was granted 
by Edward the Confessor to the monks of 
Westminster. William the Conqueror re- 
ceived it in exchange for Wokendune, in 
Essex, soon after his accession, a.d. 1066, 
and commenced the erection of the castle, 
where he held his court at Whitsuntide, 1070. 
A council was held at Windsor April 26, 1114. 
The fortifications and buildings were greatly 
increased by Henry I., and in 1216 King 
John successfully defended the castle against 
the barons. Henry III. founded a chapel, 
the original of St. George's chapel, in 1240, 
Edward I. erected the town into a free bo- 
rough in 1276, and the chapel was refounded 
by Edward III., who obtained a papal bull 
sanctioning the act, Nov. 30, 1351. The 
same monarch caused Wilham of Wykeham 
to rebuild the castle about 1360, and made it 
the seat of his newly-founded order of the 
Garter. Edward IV. commenced the re- 
building of the chapel in 1474, which was 
continued by succeeding sovereigns, and 
finally completed by Henry VIII. Elizabeth 
constructed the terrace, and, in 1572, erected 
the gate on the hill next the town ; and a new 
gallery and banqueting-house were added 
soon after 1576. The park and forest were 
surveyed in 1605, and various improvements 
were made by Charles I. in 1635. The chapel 
was entered by a parliamentary force Oct. 23, 
1642, and was afterwards much injured by 
the bigotry of the Puritans ; and the castle 
was the prison of Charles I. from Dec. 12, 
1648, to Jan. 19, 1649. Sir Christopher 
Wren made several improvements dui-ing 
the reign of Charles II., who refaced the 
terrace with stone in 1676, and erected an 
equestrian statue of himself in 1680. The 
Queen's Walk was formed in 1707, and the 
drive along the Long Walk in 1710. The 
Queen's Lodge was completed in 1782, and 
in 1787 the interior of St. George's chapel 
was newly decorated. The royal vault was 
constructed in 1810. George IV. laid the 
first stone of several important alterations 
Aug. 12, 1824, and resumed his residence in 
the improved building Dec. 9, 1828. The 
royal stables were erected in 1839, at an 
expense of £70,000. A fire which broke out 
in the Prince of Wales's Tower March 19, 
1853, in consequence of the heat of the 
flues, was quenched without causing much 
damage. The Prince Consort died at Windsor 
Castle, Saturday, Dec. 14, 1861, and was 
interred in the vaults of St. George's chapel. 

Wine. — Noah made vrine as early as B.C. 
2347 (Gen. ix. 20 and 21), and commentators 
believe that the art was known to the ante- 
diluvians. The Egyptians ascribed the 
invention to Osiris, whose worship was 
instituted about B.C. 2100, and the Chinese 
state that rice wine was manufactured by 
their king Ching Noung B.C. 1998. The 
Greeks and other classical nations regarded 



WIN 

Bacchus, or Dionysius, who was reputed to | 
have flourished about b.c. 1457, as the 
earliest wine-maker. The Jews esteemed 
the wines of Lebanon and Helbon ; the 
Greeks those of Lesbos, Chios, and the other 
islands of the archipelago ; and the Komans 
the celebrated Falernian and Cecuban. The I 
classics mixed their wine with sea-water, I 
asafcetida, tar, and other substances at 
variance with modern taste, and exhibited 
great discrimination in their preference of 
the vintages of certain years. The pro- 
duction of wine commenced in Prance soon 
after b.c. 600, when the culture of the vine 
(q. V.) was introduced at Marseilles ; and 
Provence, Dauphiny, Languedoc, and Au- 
vergne, were celebrated for their vintage 
as early as B.C. 120. In the time of the 
Eomans and Saxons, wine was made in 
England ; but the manufacture was gradually 
relinquished, and, about the year 1154, 
the importation of French wines from Bor- 
deaux commenced. Hippocras, a mixture 
of wine and spices, was much admired during 
the Plantagenet period. Wine was exported 
from Madeira before 1460, and Eatafie wine 
was introduced into France from Italy in 
1533. Sack, or sherry, from Xeres in Spain, 
Canary, and Malaga, formed the popular wine 
of the 16th and 17th centuries. The wines 
of Portugal were first imported about 1600, 
and Champagne attained its present quality 
and repute about 1610. The art of making 
raisin vrine was introduced into this coun- 
try in 1635, and port came into use about 
1690. The practice of importing this wine 
quaUfied with brandy commenced in 1715, 
and led to many abuses in the wine-trade, 
which were much increased by the monopoly 
estabhshed in favour of the Oporto company, 
Sept. 10, 1756. The Catawba wine of the 
United States came into repute about 1826, 
and unsuccessful attempts to introduce 
Masdew as a substitute for port were made 
in 1832. The original Oporto company, 
abolished by Don Pedro in 1833, was re- 
established April 7, 1838. It was finally 
abolished in October, 1852. Australian wine 
of excellent quahty received medals from the 
Society of Arts in 1856. Many statutes have 
been enacted for regulating the duties on 
wine, one of the earhest of which is 7 Hen. 
A'll. c. 8 (1490). Wine-dealers were com- 
pelled to take out a hcense by 12 Charles II. 
c. 25 (1660). The poHcy of taxing the pro- 
duce of French vineyards more highly than 
the wines of other countries was commenced 
by 4 WiU. & Mary, c. 5 (1692), when an 
additional duty of £8 per tun was imposed. 
This discrimination was carried to much 
greater length by subsequent acts, and was 
rendered permanent in 1703 by the Methuen 
tre-ity {q. v,). William Pitt reduced the du- 
ties on French vrines nearly one-half, and on 
other wines nearly a third, by 26 Geo. III. 
c. 59 (1786). They were again increased 
10«. &d. per gallon on French wines, and 
6s. Id. on Spanish and Portuguese, by 
86 Geo. III. c. 123 (May 19, 1796). Mr. 
Eobinson, afterwards Lord Eipon, reduced 



WIS 

them to 78. Zd. and 48. lOd. per gallon on 
French and other foreign wines, and 2s. ?)d, 
on the produce of the Caoe of Good Hope, 
by 6 Geo. IV. c. 104 (July 5, 1825) ; and by 
the Equahzation Act, 1 & 2 WiU. IV. c. 30 
(Oct. 5, 1831), all foreign wines were 
rated at 5s. &d. per gallon, and Cape wines 
at 2s. 9J. By the commercial treaty con- 
cluded with France Jan. 23, 1860, the'duties 
on wines were reduced to 3s. per gallon 
until Jan. 1, 1861, when a scale of Is., Is. M., 
and 2s. per gallon, according to the amount 
of proof spirit contained in the wine, and of 
3s. per gallon on wine in bottles, came into 
operation. Wine licenses were granted to 
refreshment-houses by 23 Vict, c, 27 (June 
14, 1860). 

WiNwiDPiELD (Battle). — Penda, king of 
Mercia, was defeated and slain at this place, 
near Leeds, by Oswy, king of Northumber- 
land, A.D. 655. 

WiPPEDSFLEET (Battle). — Hengist, the 
Saxon, gained his first victory over the 
Britons, led by Vortimer, a.d. 466. He 
named the field after Wipped, one of his 
principal officers, who fell in the engage- 
ment. 

WiEE was originally formed by hammering 
the metal on an anvU, and its manufacture by 
drawing is mentioned in the history of Augs- 
burg, A.D. 1351, and in that of Nuremberg 
in 1360. A large drawing-machine driven 
by water, beheved to have been the invention 
of a person named Eodolph, was constructed 
at Nuremberg about 1400. Anthony Four- 
nier, a Frenchman, much improved the art 
in 1570. Fine gold and silver wire, for 
spinning round silk and for weaving, was 
made by Frederick Held at Nuremberg in 
1592, and after the patent for securing his 
process had been several times renewed, it 
was converted into a fief for the heirs male 
of the family, Sept. 26, 1622. In England, 
wire was manufactured by the hand till 
the art of drawing it was introduced by 
foreigners in 1565. The first flatting-mill 
was erected at Sheen, near Eichmond, by 
a Dutchman, in 1663. 

WiETEMBEBG. {See WtJETEMBEBG.) 

WiscoNsin" (North America) was visited 
by the French about a.d. 1660, and con- 
tinued nominally in their possession till ceded 
to England in 1763. It was erected into a 
territorial government in 1836, and admitted 
into the Union as a state in 1848. Its con- 
stitution was confirmed by a popular con- 
vention in April, 1848. 

WiSMAE (Germany) . — An aUiance between 
France and Sweden against Austria was 
concluded at this town of Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin, March 20, 1636. The town was 
granted to Sweden by the peace of West- 
phaha, Oct. 24, 1648, and purchased from 
Sweden bv Schwerin, for a sum of 1,200,000 
dollars, in 1803. 

WissEHEAD (Battle). — The emperor Sigis- 
mund having abandoned the siege of Prague, 
held by the Hussites, was attacked at this 
place, in the vicinity, by Ziska, their leader, 
and totally defeated, July 14, 1420. 

905 



WIT 



WIT 



WiTCHCEAFT.— The Mosaic law strictly 
enjoined death as the penalty of witchcraft, 
B.C. 1491 (Exod. xxii. 18) ; but commen- 
tators are of opinion that the offence thus 
denounced was united with idolatry and 
also with the crime of poisoning. The ear- 
liest example of a witch is that of Endor, 
whom Saul employed to raise the spirit of 
Samuel B.C. 1055 (1 Sam. xxviii. 7 — 25). 
Dr. Mackay, in his " Memoirs of Extraor- 
dinary Popular Delusions," says, " Europe, 
for a period of two centuries and a half, 
brooded upon the idea, not only that parted 
spirits walked the earth to meddle in the 
affairs of men, but that men had power to 
summon evil spirits to their aid, to work woe 

upon their fellows Thousands upon 

thousands of unhappy persons fell victims to 
this cruel and absurd delusion. In many 
cities of Germany, the average number of 
executions for this pretended crime was 
600 annually, or two every day, if we 
leave out the Sundays, when it is to be 
supposed that even this madness refrained 
from its work," 



1234. The Stedingers, a tribe of Frieslanders, are 
exterminated by order of the pope and 
Frederick II. of (Jermany, as a nation of 
■witches. 

1307. The Templai-s are suppressed throughout 
France on a charge of sorcery. 

1431. May 30. Joan of Arc is burnt at Bouen as a 
■witch. 

1459. The Valdenses are cruelly persecuted at Arras 
as witches. 

1487. Two old ■women are burned at Constance, on 

a charge of having raised a storm ■which 
had occasioned much loss of property. 

1488. Innocent VIII. issues a bull appointing in- 

quisitors for the suppression of ■witchcraft. 
1494 Alexander VI. nominates a commission 

agaiust witches. 
1515. About 500 persons are burned in Geneva aa 

■witches. 
1521. Leo X. issues a commission. 
1524. A thousand victims to the ■witch mania 

perish at Como. 
1541. Witchcraft employed against the lives of 

others is declared felony in England, by 

33 Hen. VIII. c. 8. 

1561. Five poor women are bui-ned at Vemeuil 

on a charge of ha-ving changed themselves 
into cats. 

1562. All witchcraft is declared a crime of the 

highest magnitude in the eye of the 
English law, by 5 Eliz. c. 16. 

1571. Trois Echelles is burned at Paris, for hav- 
ing, on his own confession, sold him- 
self to the devil. This man stated that 
he had 1,200 accomplices, and accused 
many persons, who were tried and exe- 
cuted. 

1573. Jan. 18. GUles Gamier is condemned to be 
burned at D61e, as a loup-garou, or man- 
woLf, in which capacity he was accused of 
cannibalism. 

1593. April 7. Execution of the Warbois ■witches, 
an old woman and her husband and 
daughter, for witchcraft. Their property 
was confiscated, a portion being devoted to 
endow an annual lecture, by a doctor of 
Queen's College, Cambridge, on the enor- 
mity of witchcraft. This lecture was still 
delivc-red as late as 1718, 

1597. James VI. of Scotland publishes his work on 
Dsemonologie at Edinburgh. 

1604. Further measures are taken for suppressing 
witchcraft by 1 or 2 James L c. 12. 



1617. The mar§chale d'Ancre suffers at Paris in 

consequence of the machinations of Mary 

of Medicis, who is fearful of her influence 

over the mind of Louis XIII. 
1634. The celebrated Lancashire ■witches, ■viz., 

eight people, are executed on the e^vidence 

of the boy Eobinson, resident at Peudle 

Forest, Lancashire. 
1644 Matthew Hopkins, the celebrated witch-finder 

general, flotu'ishes. 
1652. The last execution for witchcraft in Pro- 

testa,nt Switzerland takes place at Geneva. 
1654. The elector of Brandenburg forbids the tor- i 

ture of supposed witches, and denounces 

the swimming test as unjust and cruel. 
1664. Sir Matthew Hale condemns two women to 

the stake as ■witches. 
1669. Sweden is the theatre of a violent anti- 

■witch mania. 
1692. A cruel persecution of supposed ■witches takes 

place in New England. 
1716. A woman and her daughter, aged nine years, 

are hanged at Huntingdon for selling their 

Bouls to Satan. This is the last judicial 

execution in England for witchcraft. 
1722. The last execution for witchcraft in Scotland 

takes place this year. 
1736. The capital sentence against ■witchcraft is 

abolished by 9 Geo. II. c. 5. 
1749. A cruel persecution of supposed wi^tches rages 

at Wurzburg, in Germany. 
1751. July 30. An old woman named Osborne is 

drowned at Tring by the people as a 

witch. 

WiTETTA GBMOT, or Assembly of the Wise 
Men. — This was the great council of our 
Anglo-Saxon kings. Instances of its meeting 
are recorded in the reign of Ina, king of 
Wessex (a.d. 688—727). King Alfred or- 
dained that it should meet twice in the 
year, or oftener if needful. The witenage- 
mot outlawed the family of Godwin, earl of 
Kent, in 1043, and restored them in 1052. 

WiTEPSK. (See Vitebsk.) 

With AM (Essex), believed to have been 
a Roman station, was fortified by Edward 
the Elder a.d. 913. 

Witnesses. — By the law of Moses, two, 
at least, were required to establish a question 
of fact. A false witness was to suffer the 
punishment due to the offence of which he 
made accusation (Deut. xix. 15 — 19), B.C. 
1451. Amongst the Romans and some other 
nations, it was the custom to cuff them and 
pull their ears, in order to make them 
remember their evidence. Witnesses were 
seldom called at trials in this covmtry, the 
jurors usually deciding from their ovni 
knowledge of the prisoner, and of the facts 
of the case. The first traces of the present 
practice in that respect occur about 1349. 
It was fully established by the middle of the 
15th century. By the ancient practice of 
most European countries, the evidence of 
women was iaadmissible, and in Switzerland 
the testimony of two women was only con- 
sidered equivalent to that of one man so late 
as 1824. Disquahfication arising from crim- 
inal conviction was removed by Lord 
Denman's act (6 & 7 Vict. c. 85), Aug. 22, 
1843. By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 83 (Aug. 20, 1853), 
husbands and vdves are compellable to give 
e^vidence for or against each other, except 
in criminal cases. 

WiTTENBEEG (Prussia) surrendered to 



WIT 



WOO 



the Imperial army Aug. 21, 1759, and having 
been bombarded by the Imperialists capitu- 
lated Oct. 14, 1760. The French took posses- 
sion, making it a depot for ammunition and 
provisions, in October, 1806. It refused to 
surrender on the summons of Colonel SchiU 
in 1809; was besieged Sept. 15, 1813, by the 
aUies, who were compelled to raise the siege 
in October. Again besieged by the alUes, it 
was taken by assault Jan. 15, 1814, and was 
ceded to Prussia May 18, 1815. The univer- 
sity, in which Luther and Melancthon held 
professorships, was established in 1502, and 
incorporated with that of HaUe in 1815. The 
colossal statue of Luther in the market-place 
was erected in 1821. 

WiTTSTOCK (Battle).— In this engagement 
the imperial troops in Brandenburg, com- 
manded by the elector of Saxony, were at- 
tacked and routed by the Swedes, under 
General Banner, Sept. 24, 1636. Five thou- 
sand Austrians and Saxons fell on the field, 
seven thousand were taken prisoners, and 
an immense amount of anmiunition and bag- 
gage was captured. 

WoLLiif (Prussia). — This seaport town of 
Stettin was in a flourishing condition as early 
as A.D. 776. In 805 it received the people of 
Wineta, which was destroyed that year ; and 
in 1125 its bishopric was founded by Otho, 
bishop of Bamberg. Waldemar I. of Den- 
mark destroyed WoUin in 1177. 

WoLODOMiE. {See Suzdai,.) 

WoLVEEHAMPTON" (Staffordshire) was 
called Wulfrune's Hampton, from Wulfruna,' 
sister of King Edgar, who founded a monas- 
tery here a.d. 996. It received a charter of 
incorporation in 1847. The free grammar- 
school was founded by Sir Stephen Jenyns 
in 1513, and the Bluecoat school about 1710. 
St. John's church was erected in 1755 ; St. 
George's church was built in 1830; the 
South Staffordshire Hospital, at a cost of 
£18,000, in 1848; and the Orphan Asylum, 
at a cost of £9,000, in 1854. 

Wolves were so numerous in some parts 
of England that a retreat for passing travel- 
lers was erected at a place called Fhxton, in 
the reign of Athelstan (a.d. 925 — 941). 
They were nearly extirpated in the reign 
of King Edgar, who miposed an annual 
tribute of three hundred wolves' heads upon 
Ludwal, prince of Wales. Sir Ewen Cam- 
eron killed the last seen in Scotland in 1680. 
They were extirpated in Ireland about 1710. 

Woman. — From the circumstance that 
the chapters of the Bible which treat of the 
incidents immediately after the FaU contain 
scarcely any allusions to women, it is in- 
ferred that the female character was then 
held in very low estimation. Among the 
pastoral nations of the primitive ages, women 
tended the flocks and herds, drew water, 
and performed other menial offices. The 
Egyptians treated them Avith considerable 
kindiiess, and employed them in weaving 
and spiiming ; and the Jewish law, though 
severe in the case of female offences, afforded 
them ample protection, and assigned thena 
an important position in the national and 



social economy. The subsequent demoral- 
ization of the Hebrew race was in nothing 
exemplified more clearly than in the sordid 
treatment and the low character of its 
women. Among the Greeks they were se- 
cluded in private apartments, and were 
compelled to wear a veil when out of doors. 
The Eomans treated women with great con- 
sideration, intrusting to them the education 
of the young and the control of their house- 
hold affairs ; but in the latter days of the 
Republic and of the Empire, when morals 
became corrupt, measures were taken for 
their restraint. Thus the Lex Oppia im- 
posed sumptuary restrictions ; Augustus 
prohibited their appearance at the public 
games; and, by a law passed a.d. 222, they 
were formally excluded from the senate. 
The ancient Germans allotted a very high 
position to the female sex ; and Tacitus com- 
memorates the excellence of character which 
their women exhibited. During the Dark 
Ages the female lot was of course a hard 
one, the right of free choice in marriage 
and the advantages of education being totally 
denied them. The romantic chivalry of the 
11th and following centuries introduced a 
better order of things, and laid the founda- 
tion for that recognition of female rights 
and respect for female excellence which is 
at once the most powerful agent and the 
clearest evidence of modern civilization. 
The pubUc whipping of women was abohshed 
by 57 Geo. III. c. 75 (July 7, 1817), and the 
punishment was altogether prohibited in the 
case of female offenders by 1 Geo. IV. c. 57 
(July 15, 1820) . By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 10, 
1842), the employment of women in mines 
was declared illegal. {See Amazons, Ladt, 
Maeeia&e, &c.) 

WoNDEES OP THE WoEiD. — The scven 
wonders of the world which excited the 
marvel of the ancients were, — the Colossus 
of Ehodes {q. v.) ; the temple of Diana at 
Ephesus {q. v.) ; the tomb of Mausolus 
(see Mausoleum) ; the Egjrptian pyramids 
{q. V.) ; the lighthouse on the Pharos (q.v.) ; 
the hanging gardens, constructed at Babylon 
by Queen Semiramis about B.C. 2017 ; and 
the celebrated colossal statue of Jupiter 
Olympus, constructed in ivory and gold by 
Phidias, who flourished B.C. 440. 

Woodcuts. — The ancient Egyptians prac- 
tised the art of engraving on wood for the 
purpose of producing an impression upon 
soft clay. In China woodcuts were employed 
in literature about the 12th century. The 
earliest in Europe were probably executed 
at Nuremberg about a.d. 1340, and seem to 
have been first applied to the production of 
playing-cards. The first woodcut with a date 
(1423) represents St. Christopher carrying 
our Saviour across a river on his shoulders. 
The improvement known as "cross-hatching" 
was shown in a work printed at Mentz in 
1486. In Germany woodcuts were much 
used for illustrating books, although the 
style of workmanship became much dete- 
riorated between 1545 and 1580. (See En- 
GEATiNG and Engeaving on Wood.) 
907 



woo 



woo 



Woods AifD Forests. — The demesne lands 
of the crown, terrce dominicales regis, whence 
is derived one branch of the ordinary revenue 
of the sovereign, were either reserved to the 
crown at the original distribution of landed 
property, or came to it afterwards in various 
ways. William III. had so reduced their 
extent by the exercise of his power of ahen- 
ation, that a civil hst was passed by which 
Queen Anne, in 1702, placed them at the 
disposal of the parliament, in return for 
£700,000 a year (1 Anne, s. 1, c. 7). The like 
arrangement has been made at the com- 
mencement of each succeeding reign. The 
office of surveyor-general of his majesty's 
works was created by 46 Geo. III. c. 142 
(1805), and altered by 50 Geo. III. c. 65 
(June 9, 1810) . The woods and forests are 
now managed by the Conmiissioners of 
Woods and Forests, a board formed and 
regulated by 10 Geo. IV. c. 50 (1829), and 
2 Will. IV. c. 1, s. 1 (Feb. 13, 1832). 

Wood's Halfpence. {See Deapiee's 
Lettees.) 

Woodstock: (Oxfordshire). — This ancient 
town derives its name from the forests by 
which it was anciently surrounded, and was 
a place of considerable importance during the 
Saxon period. Ethelred I. (866—871) is said 
to have held a parhament at Woodstock ; 
and it is beheved that Alfred the Great (871 — 
901) resided here while engaged in his trans- 
lation of Boetius. Henry I. resided much at 
this town, and it was the scene of Henry 
the Second's amour with the fair Eosamond 
Clifford in 1154. {See Eosamond's Bowee.) 
The same monarch received the homage of 
Malcolm of Scotland at Woodstock in 1164, 
and in 1275 it was the scene of a parhament 
summoned by Edward I. The renowned 
Edward the Black Prince was bom at Wood- 
stock June 15, 1330. The tovra received its 
fii-st charter from Henry VI. in 1453, and 
was the prison of the Princess Ehzabeth in 
1555. In 1649 the Eump Parliament ap- 
pointed a commission for surveying the 
royal property at Woodstock. Blenheim 
Palace, the magnificent seat of the duke of 
Marlborough, was erected at Woodstock by 
Sir John Vanbrugh in 1705, and was pre- 
sented to the duke by the nation. Wood- 
stocktown Hah was built from the designs 
of Sir WiUiam Chambers in 1766. 

WooL-coMBEES. — The septennial festival 
to their patron St. Blase was celebrated at 
Bradford with great rejoicing, Feb. 3, 1825. 
This saint, who holds a place in the Church 
of England calendar, was bishop of Sebaste, 
in Armenia. He was tormented with iron 
combs and martyred under Licinius in 316. 

AYOOLLEN" TbaDE AND MaNUFACTUEE. 

The woollen manufacture, one of the most 
ancient on the face of the globe, is 
stated to have originated in Babylonia. 
The fable of Jason and the Golden Fleece 
points to its existence in Greece as early as 
B.C. 1263. Moses prohibited the Jews from 
wearing clothes woven of wool and hnen 
together, b.c. 1451 (Deut. xxii. 11). England 
has been celebrated for its woollen goods 



from the earliest periods, and Winchester 
was a noted manufacturing town for this 
species of industry during the Eoman occu- 
pation. It is said to have been practised in 
France as early as a.d. 960. The worsted 
manufacture was estabhshed at Worstead, in 
Norfolk, by a colony of Flemish settlers, in 
1327, and 'in 1331 Edward III. greatly en- 
couraged the woollen trade by receiving 
John Kemp, and seventy famihes of Walloon 
weavers, from Flanders. The exportation 
was first prohibited by 11 Edw. III. e. 1 
(1337). Many improvements in the manu- 
facture of woollen goods were introduced by 
refugees from Holland in 1420, and in 1464 
English sheep were exported to Spain. In 
1493 the mart of Enghsh cloths was esta- 
blished at Calais. In 1568 a large number 
of woollen -workers from France and Flanders 
settled in England, and further measures 
were taken for the prohibition of the export 
of wool, and in 1636 a number of EngMsh 
manufacturers emigrated, and established 
an important trade at Leyden and Alkmaar. 
In order to encourage the woollen trade of 
England, it was ordered by 18 Charles II. 
c. 4 (1666), that all corpses should be buried 
in woollen shrouds. {See Bueial.) The 
exportation of English wool was again 
prohibited, and the importation of Irish 
wool into this country was permitted by 
7& 8 WiU. III. c. 18 (1696). The first 
machine for spinning wool was invented by 
John Wyatt about 1733. Lewis Paul's card- 
ing-machine was patented Aug. 30, 1748, and 
Hargreaves made his first spinning- jenny in 
1767. Arkwright's machine was invented 
about 1768. The first importation of wool 
into England took place in 1770, and merino 
sheep {q.v.) were first brought into the coun- 
try in 1791. Dr. Edmund Cartwright's comb- 
ing-machine was patented in 1792, and in con- 
sequence of the number of wool-combers thus 
thrown out of employment, measures were 
adopted by 35 Geo. III. c. 124 (June 26, 1795), 
for enabling them to exercise other trades. 
The first Alpaca sheep exhibited in this coun- 
try were shown in 1811. {See Alpaca.) Seve- 
ral teazhng-machines, composed of metallic 
wires, were patented in France in 1818. AH | 
the acts prohibiting the exportation of wool 
were repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 47 (June 3, 
1824). John Piatt's combing-machine was 
patented in November, 1827, James Noble's 
in February, 1834, and Eoss's improvements 
March 13, 1851. Customs duties on wool 
are mentioned by 51 Hen. III. st. 5, c. 6 
(1266). A tax was imposed on exported 
woollen goods by 12 Charles II. c. 4 (1660). 
It was removed by 11 & 12 WiU. Ill, c. 20 
(1700). 

Woolwich (Kent).— The Henry Grace a 
Dieu, the largest ship of the period, named 
after Henry VIII., was built here a.d. 1515: 
she was burned in 1553. The Sovereign of 
the Seas, of 100 guns, called the Golden Devil 
by the Dutch, was also built here in 1637. 
The arsenal was established in 1716 ; the 
Eoyal Mihtary Academy was founded in 
1719 ; and the present building was erected 



WOE 



WEE 



from the plans of Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, at a 
cost of £150,000, in 1805. The church of 
St. Mary Magdalene was built in 1740, and 
St. John's church in 1840. 

Worcester (Battle). — Charles II., after 
his coronation in Scotland, marched into 
England with an army of 14,000 men. He 
was pursued by Cromwell, who defeated his 
army at Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. 

Worcester (Bishopric). — This diocese 
was separated from Lichfield about a.d. 680. 
By an order in council of Dec. 22, 1836, the 
archdeaconry of Coventry was transferred 
from Coventry and Lichfield to Worcester, 
and the parish of Shenington, in Gloucester- 
shire, was also annexed July 19, 1837. 

Worcester (Worcestershire), the chief 
town of the county, founded by the Saxons 
A.D. 680, was destroyed by the Danes, and 
rebuilt in 894. It was plimdered by Hardi- 
Canute in 1041. The barons of Hereford 
occupied it to quell a conspiracy against 
William I. in 1074. Bernard Neumarck 
failed in an attempt to take it in 1088. It 
was plundered by the troops of Henry III, 
in 1216, on account of a revolt of the inha- 
bitants. A grand tournament held here in 
1225 drew down upon the j ousters an ex- 
communication from Bishop Blois. The city 
was captured by the rebel barons in 1263. 
In the civil wars it was taken by Prince 
Eupert, who defeated a party of parliamen- 
tary horse under Colonel Sandys, Sept. 25, 
1642. The earl of Essex recovered it 
the same year. Charles II. entered the 
city Aug. 23, 1651, and Cromwell stormed 
the forts and totally defeated the royahsts 
Sept. 3. The last of the six gates of the city 
was removed in 1787. The cathedral was 
rebuilt by Bishop Oswald in 983, and by 
Bishop Wulfstan in 1084. It was repaired 
and re-consecrated in January, 1281, and un- 
derwent alterations and repairs in 1830. The 
bridge across the Severn was built in 1780. 
The remains of a Franciscan monastery were 
removed in 1823. A council was held here 
July 26, 1240. 

Worcester College (Oxford) was 
founded by Sir Thomas Cookes, Bart., a.d. 
1714. The chapel, haU, and library were 
commenced in 1720. The new buildings on 
the north side of the inner court were com- 
pleted in 1776, and the hall in 1784. 

Workhouse.— By 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25 
(1536), the able-bodied poor were directed 
to be kept to constant labour. Edward VI. 
founded the royal hospital of Bridewell in 
1553, for the punishment and employment 
of the vigorous and idle. By 43 Eliz. c. 2 
(1601), work was ordered to be provided by 
the overseers for the poor. By 59 Geo. III. 
c. 12 (1819), known as Sturges Bourne's act, 
parishes were empowered to enlarge or build 
workhouses where none existed before. 
Their government was vested in a board 
of guardians, subject to the control of the 
Poor-Law Board, by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c, 76 
(Aug. 14, 1834) . 

World . — The sera of its creation is fixed 
by the Jews B.C. 3761. According to the 



chronology of the English Bible, that event 
took place B.C. 4004, and according to the 
Grecian sera, B.C. 5598. 

Worms (Germany), occupying the site of 
the Eoman Borbetomagus, or Augusta 
Vangionum, was plundered by the Alemanni 
A.D. 354, and destroyed by Attila in 451. 
Clovis rebuilt it about 475. The legislative 
assemblies of Charlemagne, called Mai Lager 
from the month when they met, were held 
here. A council elected Leo IX. pope in 
December, 1048, and another deposed Gre- 
gory VII. in January, 1076. By a concordat, 
signed at another council, Sept. 8, 1122, 
the emperor lost some of his influence over 
ecclesiastical appointments. The marriage 
of Isabella, sister of Henry III. of England, 
with Frederick II., emperor of Germany, 
was solemnized here July 20, 1235. Between 
this town and Spires, at Eosenthal, the em- 
peror Adolphus of Nassau was slain, in an 
engagement with Albert of Austria, July 2, 
1298. Luther appeared before the diet of 
Worms, April 4, 1521. By order of Louis 
XIV.,Worms was burned in 1689. George II. 
of England fixed his head-quarters in the 
episcopal palace Aug. 27, 1743. The city was 
taken by the French, under Custine, in Oct. 
1792, and again in 1793. The cathedral, 
commenced in the 8th century, was com- 
pleted 1110. Councils were held here in 
Lent, 858; May 16, 868; in December, 1048; 
January, 1076; Sept. 8, 1122; in April, 1127; 
and at Pentecost, 1153. 

Worsted acquired its name from the town 
of Worstead, in Norfolk, where a settlement 
of Flemings introduced woollen manufactures 
in the 14th century. The trade was removed 
to Norwich in the reign of Richard II. 

WoTjifDiNG. {See Maiming.) 

Wrecks. — Among the early Greeks and 
Romans, shipwrecked mariners, of whatever 
nation, were regarded as enemies, and as 
such were usually put to death or sold into 
slavery; but the Pandects {q.v.), published 
in Dec. a.d. 533, made the murder of them 
a capital crime, and imposed severe penalties 
on thefts from wrecks. On the subversion 
of the Roman power, the old barbarous cus- 
toms were restored, and the majority of such 
as sulfered shipwreck consummated their 
misfortunes by a hfe of slavery. Goods 
washed on shore were adjudged to belong to 
the king or the lord of the manor ; and it 
was no uncommon circumstance for pilots 
and landowners to enter into collusion, 
whereby ships were purposely run ashore 
for the sake of their plunder ; and for the 
sailors to be barbarously murdered on 
the beach to prevent the assertion of their 
rights. The Oleron Laws {q.v.) enacted 
that in such case the pilot shoiild suffer as a 
robber; that the lord should be bound in the 
centre of his house, which was to be ignited 
at its four corners, and be left to perish ; 
and that common wreckers, after being half- 
drowned in the sea, should suffer death by 
stoning. The Enghsh law regarded wrecks 
as royal property. In the time of Henry I. 
it was enacted, that when any passenger 



WEI 

or seaman survived the loss of the ship, it 
should not be regarded as a wreck ; and 
in the reign of Henry III. it was ruled, 
that goods so marked as to be clearly iden- 
tified might be recovered by their ovmers 
within a year and a day after the wreck. By 
27 Edw. III. c. 13 (1353), goods washed 
ashore from wrecks were to be delivered to 
the merchants, who were to pay a reasonable 
salvage for their preservation. These regu- 
lations, however, proved futile, and wrecking 
continued a frequent crime on the EngUsh 
coasts until a comparatively recent period. 
By 12 Anne, stat. 2, c. 18 (1713), the chief 
authorities of seaside towns were ordered to 
assist ships in distress under forfeiture of 
£100; and by 26 Geo. III. e. 19 (1785), the 
prevention of the escape of shipwrecked per- 
sons, the wounding of such as had attained 
the shore, or the exhibition of false Mghts in 
order to decoy vessels into danger, were 
made capital felonies. The laws relating to 
shipwrecks were consolidated by 9 & 10 
Vict. c. 99 (Aug. 28, 1846), and by 17 & 18 
Vict. c. 104 (Aug. 10, 1854). A Hst of 
the disasters at sea, described in this work, 
is given in the index, imder " Wrecks." | 

Weiting. — Some traditions attribute the [ 
origin of writing to Seth, the son of Adam, 
and others to Enoch ; but there appears suf- 
ficient proof that it was invented in the ante- 
diluvian period. Other authorities consider 
the system of hieroglyphics (q.v.), which 
was invented by Athotes, or Thoth, about 
B.C. 2122, as the most ancient mode of 
writing. Cadmus carried a knowledge of 
letters from Phoenicia to Greece, b.c. 1550, 
and the Pelasgi introduced writing into Italy 
about B.C. 1476. The Eomans practised 
running-hand as early as the 4th century, 
and introduced a knowledge of writing 
into their provinces ; but it was not much 
known in Britain until about the year 596. 
Writing became an ordinary branch of edu- 
cation during the 14th century. {See Alpha- 
bet, Caligbapht, and iLiuiiii^-ATioif.) 

Weoxeter. (See Ubiconium.) 

WiJETEMBEEG (Germany) was overran in 
the 4th century by the Alemanni, who oc- 
cupied that part afterwards called Swabia, 
and were conquered by the Franks under 
Clovis, A.D. 496. Eberhard V. was created 
duke by the emperor Maximilian I., July 21, 
1494. It iinderwent various vicissitudes 
during the Thirty Years' war, from 1618, 
tin the peace of Westphalia restored the 
reigning family, Oct. 24, 1648. It was en- 
tered by the armies of France, when the 
duke was obliged to purchase peace by the 
payment of 8,000,000 of francs and the cession 
of territory, Feb. 9, 1801. It was raised to 
an electorate by the German diet in 1803, 
and the elector assumed the title of king 
Jan. 1, 1806. Censorship of the press was 
abolished March 1, 1848. l^ational assem- 
blies convoked to revise the constitution of 
1819 were dissolved without effecting their 
object in 1849 and 1850. 

WiJKTzcHEN (Germany). — A collision be- 
tween the French army, under Napoleon I., 
910 



WYC 

and that of the allies, commanded by the 
sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, occurred 
in the neighbourhood of this town, May 19, 
1813. A general engagement at the village 
of Bautzen terminated favourably for the 
French, May 21, and the conflict having 
been renewed at Wiirtzchen, the allies were 
forced to retire. May 22. 

WuEZBtTEG (Bavaria). — St. KOian is said 
to have suffered martyrdom here a.d. 687, 
and it was created a bishopric a.d. 741. 
The emperor Henry II. wishing to found 
another bishopric at Bamberg in 1006, was 
opposed by the bishop of this city. The 
duke of Bavaria besieged it in 1086. A 
council was held here in 1080. A confede- 
ration of the Eoman Cathohc princes of 
Germany met here, and elected Maximilian, 
duke of Bavaria, as their leader, in 1609. 
The town was surrendered by the prince- 
bishop to the French, July 25, 1796. Under 
Jourdan they sustained a severe defeat from 
the archduke Charles in the neighbourhood, 
and the place afterwards surrendered to ( 
the Austrians, Sept. 3, 1796. It was be- 
sieged by the French in 1800 ; secularized and 
ceded to Bavaria Feb. 5, 1803; surrendered 
to the allies March 21, 1814 ; and restored 
to Bavaria in 1815, The cathedral was 
founded in the 8th century, dedicated in 
1189, and much altered in 1240. The Neu- 
miinster church was founded in the 11th 
century, and the Marien-Kirche was built 
between 1377 and 1479. The university, esta- 
blished in 1403, was renewed in 1582. The 
royal, formerly the episcopal palace, was 
built between 1720 and 1744. 

Wyatt's Instjeeectioh". — Sir Thomas 
Wyatt, a Kentish gentleman, joined with 
others, a.d. 1553, to prevent the marriage of 
Queen Mary with Philip of Spaia. The duke 
of Suffolk failed in an attempt to raise troops 
in Leicester Jan. 29, 1554. Wyatt fortified 
himself at Rochester Jan. 26, and a number 
of the troops brought by the duke of Nor- 
folk to attack him went over to his side 
Jan. 29. He reached Deptford Feb. 1, and 
entered Southwark, plundered the palace of 
the bishop of Winchester, but could not 
effect the passage of London Bridge, Feb. 3. 
Having withdrawn from Southwark Feb. 6, 
he marched to Kingston, and crossing the 
Thames there, reached London. He was de- 
serted by many of his followers, and sur- 
rendered, after a skirmish at Temple Bar, 
to Sir Maurice Berkeley. He was conveyed 
to the Tower, pleaded guilty to his indict- 
ment March 15, and was beheaded April 11. 
About fiftv of his followers were executed 
between Feb. 13 and 26. Upwards of 400 
were brought with halters round their necks 
to the queen at Westminster Feb. 20, and 
set at liberty. 

Wtclifeites, the followers of John 
Wycliffe, who began to verite against the 
Mendicant Friars a.d. 1360, and was sum- 
moned to answer a charge of heresy before 
the convocation at St. Paul's, Feb. 19, 1377. 
Having translated the whole of the Scrip- 
tures from the Latin vulgate into English, 



WYE 

and employed " poor priests " to travel over 
the country and disseminate his opinions, he 
died at Lutterworth, Dec. 31, 1384. The 
new doctrines and propositions were con- 
demned by the council of London, Feb. 19, 
1397. Jerome of Prague returned to that 
city from Oxford, and in 1402 began to spread 
the views of Wycliffe, which were formally con- 
demned by the university of Prague in 1404. 
They were again condemned by the council of 
London, July 23, 1408, and a papal bull issued 
in 1409 ordered his writings to be seized, 
and all persons who professed the heretical 
opinions to be tried. John Huss persisted 
in preaching, notwithstanding a prohibition, 
and was excommunicated by the pope in 
1411. A Eomish council (1412 to June 18, 
1413) condemned WycliflEe's writings; and 
another at Constance condemned Huss to 
the flames, received the recantation of 
Jerome, and denounced the innovations as 
pernicious. Eeginald Pecock, bishop of 
Chichester, was deposed in 1458 for profess- 
ing these opinions. 

Wye. — A massive iron bridge was built 
over this river at Chepstow a.d. 1816, and a 
tubular bridge for the South Wales Eail- 
way, erected by I, K. Brunei, was finished 
April 2, 1852. 

WTOMijya (IN'orth America) was attacked 
and destroyed by a party of Americans, 
assisted by a number of Indians, under 
Colonel Butler, in July, 1778. The incident 
forms the subject of Campbell's well-known 
poem. 



Xanthica. — This festival, which was 
observed during the month Xanthicus, the 
sixth of the Macedonian year, corresponding 
to our April, was the annual occasion for the 
lustration or purification of the Macedonian 
army, and comprised a sham fight and 
other solemnities. 

Xanthus (Greece), a celebrated city of 
Lycia, was besieged by Harpagus in the 
reign of Cyrus, when the inhabitants 
perished, vnth all that they possessed, in 
the ruins of their city. It was rebuilt, and 
during the Eoman civil war was taken by 
Brutus, B.C. 42. The inhabitants refused to 
submit, and perished in the flames. 

Xativa (Spain) was taken from the Almo- 
ravides by Abu AbdelmeUk, a.d. 1145, and 
surrendered to James I. of Aragon in 1246. 

Xeees (Battle). — A Saracen army of 
90,000 or 100,000 men encountered the 
Christians near this tovm in Spain, and, 
after several minor skirmishes, a grand 
engagement took place, in which Eoderick 
was slain, and his Visigothic kingdom de- 
stroyed, July 19—26, A.D. 711. 

Xeees, or Jerez, be la rEONTEEA 
(Spain), from which sherry derives its name, 
was taken by Alfonso X. of Castile, a.d. 
1254. He subdued a revolt of its inhabitants 
in 1263. 

Xeexes' Expedition. — The Persian 
monarch having resolved to subdue Greece, 



YEA 

commenced his preparations B.C. 4.83. 
Three years were occupied in collecting 
troops and provisions. A canal was ordered 
to be cut through Mount Athos for the 
passage of the snips, and a bridge for the 
army to be thrown across the Hellespont. 
This immense force set out from Sardis, 
where it had wintered, b.c. 480. The army, 
according to Herodotus, numbered 1,800,000 
men. Various cities gave in their submission 
to the invader. The pass of Thermopylae was 
defended by Leonidas and 300 Spartans, who 
perished to a man, Aug. 7 — 9, b.c. 480. 
Bceotia and Attica were ravaged, Athens 
was sacked, and Delphos attacked. The 
Persians were defeated at Artemisium (q.v.) 
and at Salamis (q.v.). Xerxes with the 
remnant of his shattered army returned 
into Asia. 

Ximena (Spain) was taken from the 
Moors by Don Henry, who put aU the in- 
habitants to the sword, a.d. 1456. The 
French, commanded by Eegnier, were de- 
feated near this town by the Spaniards 
under BaUasteros, Sept. 10, 1811. 



Yandaboo (Burmah).— a treaty was 
signed at this town at the close of the first 
Burmese war, Feb. 24, 1826. Assam, Arra- 
can, Tavoy, Mergui, and Tenasserim were 
ceded to England, and the Burmese agreed 
to pay one crore of rupees. 

Yankee. — This term, applied to the people 
of the States of North America, is con- 
sidered to be a corruption of the Indian 
pronunciation of "English." They called 
them Yenghees, and the term Yankee began 
to be used about a.d. 1775. 

Yaed. — Spelman says that a new standard 
of longitudinal measure was ascertained by 
Henry I., who commanded that the ancient 
ell should be made of the exact length of 
his own arm. 

Yaemouth (Norfolk) was, according to 
Domesday Book, a royal demesne a.d. 1086. 
A charter of Henry III. gave permission to 
fortify the town, which was done by con- 
structing a moat, and a wall with ten gates 
and sixteen towers. The town was attacked 
by the insurgents dicing Ket's rebellion in 
1549. A fortress with four towers was 
erected in anticipation of the Spanish inva- 
sion in 1588. William III., on his return 
from Holland, landed here Oct. 18, 1692. 
The suspension bridge across the Yare gave 
way, and seventy-nine persons were drowned. 
May 2, 1845. St. Nicholas's church was 
founded in the beginning of the 12th cen- 
tury, St. George's was built in 1716, and St. 
Peter's in 1833. Nelson's monument, 140 
feet high, was erected in 1817. 

Yasst. (See Jassy.) 

Yeae.— Nicolas (the Chronology of His- 
tory) remarks : " The days on which the 
year commenced in most countries have 
been as follow : — Christmas-day, the 25th of 
December: the day of the Circumcision, the 
911 



YEA 

1st of January ; the day of the Conception, 
the 25th of March ; and Easter-day, the day 
of the resurrection of our Lord. In Eng- 
land, in the 7th, and so late as the 13th cen- 
tury, the year was reckoned from Christmas- 
day ; but in the 12th century, the Anglican 
church began the year on the 25th of March ; 
which practice was also adopted by civilians 
in the 14th century. This style continued 
until the reformation of the calendar by 
24 Geo. II. c. 23 (1751), by which the legal 
year was ordered to commence on the 1st of 
January, in 1752. It appears, therefore, that 
two calculations have generally existed in 
England for the commencement of the year ; 
viz. — 1. The Historical year, which has, for a 
very long time, begun on the 1st of January ; 
and 2. the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Legal year, 
which was used by the Church, and in all 
public instruments, until the end of the 13th 
century, began at Cliristmas. In and after 
the 14th century, it commenced on the 25th 
of March, and so continued until the 1st of 
Januarj', 1752." This led to great confusion. 
Charles I. is said by those authorities who 
use the Historical year to have been be- 
headed Jan. 30, 1649, whilst by those writers 
who computed by the Civil, Ecclesiastical, or 
Legal year, the date is assigned to Jan. 30, 
16&. The date of any event that happened 
between Jan. 1 and March 25 was, in order to 
avoid confusion, frequently written thus : — 

8 1 i. e., the Civil, Ecclesiastical, 
January 30, 164— V and Legal year. 

9)i.e., the Historical year. 



January 30, 1648-9. 

The lower, or last figure always indicates the 
year according to the system of computation 
now in use. (See New Style and Old 
Style.) 

Yeast, or Leaveis", was employed in the 
manufacture of bread as early as B.C. 1897 
(Gen. xix. 3). The absence "of leaven con- 
stituted the peculiaritj^ of the bread used in 
the passover, B.C. 1491 (Exod. xii. 15) ; and 
it was always omitted in bread intended for 
immediate use. The Faculty of Medicine of 
Paris reported against the use of yeast, as 
prejudicial to health, March 24, 1688. 

Yeddo. (See Jedbo.) 

Yeeiateeinbukg. (See Ekateeibtbtjeg.) 

Yellow Fever. —The history of this 
scourge of the southern parts of North 
America is enveloped in considerable ob- 
scurity. Dr. Bascombe, in his treatise on 
the "Nature and Cause of Yellow Fever," 
denies that it is of modern origin, and states 
that it raged in Spain as early as B.C. 1100. 
He also regards the pestilence which ravaged 
England a.d. 664 as the true yellow fever; 
and he mentions a deadly outbreak of the 
same disease which occurred in the fleet of 
Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers 
during its voyage to Virginia in 1608. It 
appears that an epidemic fever of fatal 
character raged in the Antilles in 1635, and 
that somewhat similar diseases appeared 
912 



YEW 

! at Martinico in 1655, at St. Lucia in 1665, 
and at Brazil in 1685 ; and it is asserted by 
some that these attacks were all recurrences 
of the tropical yellow fever. Other authors 
state that it originated in Siam, and that it 
was carried thence by the French to the 
West Indies in 1690. In 1699 it first appeared 
at Philadelphia, which has since been one of 
its chief seats. It broke out at Charlestown, 
South Carohna, in 1728, at New York in 
1791, at Newhaven in 1794, and at Boston in 
1798 ; and it has frequently renewed its visi- 
tations in these and other large cities of the 
United States. In 1800 it broke out with 
great violence at Cadiz, and devastated 
Spain for four years ; and in 1804 it raged in 
Italy. Gibraltar was violently attacked in 
1810, and has been the scene of frequent 
subsequent visitations. 

Yembo (Arabia). — An expedition against 
the Wahabees of this place was dispatched 
by Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, in August, 
1811. 

Yemen (Arabia Felix) was restored to the 
Homerites and made tributary to Persia 
A.D. 570. A brother of Saladin conquered 
it, and estabUshed the dynasty of the Curds, 
or Ayoubites, in 1173. It was taken by the 
lieutenant of Sohman I. in 1538, and again 
by Sehm II. in 1568. The Turks were ex- 
pelled from Yemen in 1630. Abou Nokta 
plundered a number of its towns in 1804. 

Yeomanry, Yeomanry Cavalry, &c. — 
The yeomen of the Middle Ages constituted 
the great body of farmers and small free- 
holders. Hallam terms them " a very nu- 
merous and respectable body, some occupj'- 
ing their ovra estates, some those of land- 
lords." Henry VII. founded the yeomen of 
the guard in 1485, for fifty men upwards of six 
feet in height and a captain. The number 
was, however, speedily raised to about two 
hundred; but no settled standard existed 
till 1668,- when Charles II. fixed it at one 
hundred, of whom six were called yeomen- 
hangers, because it was their business to 
superintend the hanging of the tapestry in 
the royal apartments ; and two yeomen- 
bedgoers, because to them was intrusted the 
arrangements of the beds during royal pro- 
gresses. The offices of heutenant and ensign 
of the yeomen of the guard were also added 
in 1668. Volunteer cavalry corps were 
formed by the yeomen of England on the 
outbreak of the war vrith France in 1793, 
and became very frequent when Mr. Dundas 
recommended the enrolment of volunteers 
in 1797. 

Yeomen op the Guard, vulgarly called 
" beef-eaters," a corruption of buffetiers, 
from their having been stationed at the 
buffet, or sideboard, during state banquets, 
were formed as a body-guard, fifty in num- 
ber, by Henry VII., a.d. 1485. 

Yeemtjk (Battle).— Heraclius, the Eoman 
emperor, was totally routed by the Saracens, 
after a bloody engagement on the banks of 
this Svrian stream (the Hieromax), Aug. 23, 
A.D. 634. 

Yew-tkee. — The wood of this tree was 



YEZ 

employed in the manufacture of bows by 
the ancient Greeks and Romans, who were 
also acquainted with the poisonous nature 
of the juices of the yew. The custom of 
planting the tree in churchyards is variously 
explained as a remnant of Druidical super- 
stition ; as a means of sheltering the church 
from winds,&c. ; as affording a supply of the 
evergreens so frequently used by our fore- 
fathers in ecclesiastical festivals ; and for the 
sake of the wood, which was the best adapted 
for making bows. Caxton, in his " Directory 
forthe Festivals," pubhshed in 1483, refers to 
the yew as a substitute used in England for 
palms on Pahn Sunday. Shakespeare, in his 
comedy of" Twelfth Night" (act ii. sc. 4), 
written in 1600, alludes to *' My shroud of 
white, stuck aU with yew." The custom of 
ehpping the yew into fantastic forms as a 
garden tree was at its height between the 
reigns of Charles I. and Wilham III. The 
Canada or North-American yew was in- 
troduced into this country in 1800. 

Tbzdegied, or Pebsias" JiIra, commenced 
on the accession of Yezdegird to the throne 
of Persia, June 16, a.d. 632. The error in 
the calendar was rectified by Sultan Jela- 
ledin in 1075. 

Yoke. — Yokes of iron are mentioned by 
Moses B.C. 1451 (Deut. xxviii. 48), and it is 
beheved that such were actually used by 
slaves during the Scriptural period. The 
ancients regarded the yoke as a symbol of 
slavery, and it was customary for vanquished 
armies to pass under a yoke, formed Uke a 
gaUows, of two upright spears, and a third 
fixed transversely at top. The Samnites 
exacted this mark of submission from the 
Eomans after their victory at the Caudine 
Eorks, B.C. 321 ; and were themselves com- 
pelled to undergo the same humiliation 

.c. 307 and B.C. 294. 

York (Archbishopric). — St. Lucius, king 
of the Britons, is said to have estabhshed an 
archbishopric at York as early as a.d. 180. 
The names of only four of the ancient 
bishops are recorded, and the see subse- 
quently became extinct. It was revived by 
Edwin, king of Northumbria, about 622, and 
conferred upon PauUnus April 27, 627. On 
the death of this primate, the Northumbrians 
rdapsed into idolatry, and the see remained 
vacant for about thirty years, until 664, from 
which year the succession remains unbroken. 
The supremacy of Canterbury to York was 
decreed by the Anglican council of 1072. The 
metropolitan see of York originally exercised 
jurisdiction over the Scotch bishops ; bat 
this power was abohshed in 1466. By an 
order in council Aug. 21, 1837, the entire 
county of Nottingham was separated from 
York, and annexed to Canterbury. The 
province now comprises the sees of York, 
Carhsle, Chester, Durham, Manchester, 
Ripon, and Sodor and Man. 

AECHBISHOPS OP TOEK. 

A.D. A.D. 

Paulinus 627 I Bosa 673 

Ceaclda 664 John of Beverley . . 705 

Wilfredl 667 Wilfiredll 713 

913 



YOR 



A.D. 

Egbert 732 

Bthelbert, or Coena 767 

Eanbald 1 780 

Eaubald II 796 

Wulfsius 812 

Wimundus 831 

Wulfhere 854 

Ethelbald 900 

Bedeward 

Wulstan L 939 

Oscytel 956 

Ethelwoldus 972 

Oswald 972 

Aldulfus, or Eadulf 993 

Widstanll 1002 

.iElfric Puttuc 1023 

Kinsige, or Kinsius 1051 
Ealdred, or Alredus 1061 

Thomas 1 1070 

Gerard 1100 

Thomas II 1109 

Thurstan 1119 

Henry Murdac .... 1147 

"William 1153 

Roger of Bishopa- 

bridge 1154 

(Interregnum) .... 1181 
Geoffrey Planta- 

genet 1191 

(Interregnum) 1212 

Walter Grey 1216 

Sevan de Bovill .. 1256 
Godfrey de Ludham 1258 
"Walter Giflfard .... 1266 
"William "Wickwane 1279 
John le Eomaine . . 1286 
Henry de Newerk 1298 
Thomas de Cor- 

bridge 1300 

"William de Grene- 

feld 1306 

"William de Melton 1317 
"William la Zouch . . 1342 
John de Thoresby 1353 
Alexander de Ne- 
ville 1374 

Thomas Arundel .. 1388 



A.D. 

Robert Waldby 1397 

William Leserope . . 1398 

Heiiry Bowet 1407 

John Kemp 142S 

William Bothe 1452 

George Neville .... 1465 
Lawrence Bothe . . 1476 

Thomas Scot 1480 

Thomas Savage .... 1501 
Christopher Bain- 
bridge 1508 

Thomas Wolsey .. 1514 

Edward Lee 1531 

Robert Holgate .... 1545 
Nicholas Heath .... 1555 

Thomas Young 1561 

Edmund Grindal . . 1570 
Edwin Sands, or 

Sandys 1577 

John Piers 1589 

Matthew Button I. 1595 
Tobias Matthew .. 1606 
George Monteigne 1628 
Samiiel Harsnet . . 1628 

Richard Neyle 1632 

John WLUiams .... 1641 

(Interregnum) 1650 

Accepted Frewen . . 1660 

Richard Sterne 1664 

John Dolben 1683 

(Interregnum) .... 1686 
Thomas Lamplugh 1688 

John Sharp 1691 

Sir WilUfim Dawes 1714 
Lancelot Blackburn 1724 
Thomas Herring . . 1743 
Matthew Hutton II. 1747 

John Gilbert 1757 

Robert Hay Drum- 

mond 1761 

William Markham 1777 
Edward Venables 

"Vernon 1808 

Thomas Musgrave 1847 
Charles Thomas 
Longley 1860 



YoEK (England), the Roman Ebora- 
cum, the Altera Roma, belonged originally 
to the Brigantes. It was made a Roman 
station about a.d. 79. The emperor Sep- 
timius Severus died here Feb. 4, 211. A 
Danish force captured the city in 867, and 
occupied it during the year 869. The inha- 
bitants made a treaty with Ethelfleda, sister 
of Edward the Elder, in 918. A witenagemot 
was held here by Edgar in 966. The castle was 
taken by the Norwegians, Sunday, Sept. 24, 
1066. It was seized by Edgar AtheUng, and 
the garrison of 3,000 persons put to the 
of the Jews 



sword, m 1069. 
took place March 17, 1190, when upwards of 
1,000 were put to death, and many who were 
besieged in the castle destroyed themselves. 
It was besieged in 1216 by the insurgent 
barons, when the inhabitants paid a ransom 
of 1,000 marks. The marriage of Alexander 
II. of Scotland and Joan, sister of Henry III., 
was celebrated here June 25, 1221 ; and that 
of Alexander III. of Scotland, and Margaret, 
daughter of Henry III., Dec. 26, 1251. A 
parliament was summoned to meet at York 
by Edward I. in 1298. The courts of King's 
Bench and Exchequer were removed to this 
city in 1299, where they remained for seven 
years. Edward II. made it his head-quarters 
in 1311, and was married in the cathedral to 
3 If 



YOK 

Philippa of Hainault, Jan. 24, 1328. A pes- 
tilence carried off 11,000 of the inhabitants 
in 1390. The city was taken by the Lancas- 
trians in 1460. On the suppression of monas- 
teries by Henry VIII. in 1536, an insurrection 
took place, styled the "PUgrimage of Grace " 
iq.v.), when the insurgents entered the city, 
and compelled the archbishop to join them. 
Conferences before the duke of Norfolk and 
the earl of Sussex were held here in 1568, to 
inquire into the charges against Mary, queen 
of Scots. Charles I. visited York on his way 
to Scotland in 1633 ; and a pacification was 
concluded with the Scottish commissioners, 
Jime 18, 1639. The king summoned the 
peers to meet him here Sept. 24, 1640 ; and 
again, when he took a solemn pledge to 
exercise a legal government, June 13, 1642. 
It was besieged by the parhamentary army, 
and surrendered after the defeat of Prince 
Eupert at Marston Moor, Julj' 16, 1644. The 
parliamentary generals, Fairfax and Monk, 
occupied it in 1659. A meeting of the gentry 
was held at York, and £40,000 subscribed for 
the suppression of the rebellion, Sept. 24, 1745. 
Eleven of the rebels were executed here in 
1746. A petition respecting extravagance and 
abuse in the expenditure of the public money, 
adopted at a monster meeting, was presented 
to parhament Feb. 8, 1780. Foiu'teen of the 
rioters termed Luddites were executed here 
Jan. 10, 1813. A grand banquet was given in 
the GuUdhaU by the lord mayor to Prince Al- 
bert, the lord mayor of London, and the chief 
municipal officers in the kingdom, Oct. 25, 
1850. Its first charter was granted by Henry 
II., and the title of lord was given to the 
mayor by Eichard II. The Guildhall was 
erected in 1446, and the church of St. Michael- 
le-Belfrey was built in 1545. St. Olave, Mary- 
gate, was raised out of the ruius of the abbey 
that was founded on the spot by Siward, earl 
of Northumbria, in 1732. St. Peter's school 
was founded by Queen Mary in 1557, and 
the Blue-coat boys' school was established 
in 1705. The Mansion-house was built in 
1726, and the Assembly-room, the finest 
in the kingdom, in 1736. The covmty hos- 
pital was endowed by Lady Hastings in 
1749, and the retreat for lunatics was 
erected by the Quakers in 1796. The 
building of the PhQosophical Society was 
opened in 1830. 

YoEK (tapper Canada). — The name of 
this town was changed to Toronto (q.v.) 
A.D. 1834. 

YoKKisTS. {See Laitcasteians and 

YOEKISTS.) 

YoEE MiifSTEE, originally founded by 
Edwin, king of Northumberland, a.d. 627, 
was destroyed by fire April 23, 741. A new 
church was built dui-ing the episcopate of 
Ethelbert, who was elected to the see in 767. 
It was rebuilt by Archbishop Thomas, who 
came to the see in 1070, and was burned 
dovra in 1137. Of the present building 
the nave was founded by John le Eomaine, 
the archbishop, in 1291. The edifice was 
completed by Archbishop Melton about 
1331. Archbishop Thoresby rebuilt the 
914 



YVR 

choir in 1361 ; and the central tower was 
taken down in 1370, and rebuilt soon after- 
wards. Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, set 
fire to the cathedral Feb. 2, 1829. Ano- 
ther conflagration ensued, through the 
carelessness of a workman who left his 
candle burning in the clock-tower, May 20, 
1840. 

YoEK Missal. — Perhaps the only perfect 
copy of this ritual is that preserved in the 
hbrary of St. John's College, Cambridge, 
bearing the title, " Missale ad usum Eccle- 
siae Eboracum, sumptibus Fraucisci Eeg- 
nault, Parisiis, a.b. 1533." 

YoEK Towif (North America) . — Lord 
CornwaUis, on taking the command in Vir- 
ginia, concentrated his forces here Aug. 22, 
1781. The American batteries were opened 
upon it Oct. 9, and CornwaUis surrendered 
Oct. 19. 

Ypees, or Ypeeen- (Belgium), took its 
rise from a fortress which was built by a 
count of Flanders a.d. 960. The town was 
enlarged and walled by Philip the Bold in 
1388. The Spaniards wrested it from the 
inhabitants, who had revolted, in 1649, and 
it was taken by the English and French 
in 1658. The French captured it in 1744, 
bombarded it ineffectually in 1793, and 
reduced it, after a thirteen days' siege, 
June 17, 1794. Linen, called " diaper," was 
originally made here, taking its name from 
a mispronunciation of d' Yperen. 

Yttkium was discovered in the state of 
oxide called yttria, by Professor Gadolin, 
of Ytterby, in Sweden, a.d. 1794. The me- 
tal, of a dark grey colour, was first procured 
by Wohler in 1828. 

Yucatan (Mexico) was discovered by 
Hernandez Cordova, a.d. 1517, and con- 
quered by the Spaniards, under Bernal 
Diaz, in 1522. It remained subject to Spain 
till the declaration of independence in 1813. 
The change of the federal into a central go- 
vernment in Mexico in 1835 raised a spirit 
of discontent in this state. This led to a 
repudiation of the central power in 1839 ; 
and after a lengthened contest the esta- 
blishment of its independence in 1841. The 
ruins of many extensive cities have been 
discovered. They were described by the 
North American traveller Stephens in 1838 
and 1842. 

Y'usT, St. (/See Just, St.) I 

YvEES, or IvET (France), belongedJ 
to Eaoul, half-brother of Eichard I., 
duke of Normandy, who built a strong 
fortress, round which the town sprung up, 
A.D. 943—996. Eoger de Beaumont, whe 
had received the domain from Wilhaia 
the Bastard, founded the Benedictine moi 
nastery in 1071. Henry I. of England" 
threw a garrison into the castle in 1119. 
An interview took place near the town 
between Henry II. of England and LouMj 



VII. of France in 1176. The upper town 
taken by the Enghsh, under Talbot, in 1418 
and by the duke of Bedford in 1424. Il 
was recovered by the French in 1449. (Set 
IvET, Battle.) 



ZAA 



z. 

Zaawdam. {See Saaedam.) 

Zab (Battle) . — Merwan II., the fourteenth, 
and last caliph of the Ommiades, was defeated 
A.D. 750 in a sanguinary conflict on the 
banks of this river, in Assyria, by the Ab- 
bassides, who established their dynasty. 
Merwan II. took refuge in a mosque at 
Busir, in Egypt, where he was slain Feb. 10, 
750. 

Zactnthus. {See Zante.) 

Zadock (Battle). — The insurgent Hun- 
garians collected by Bertzeny were defeated 
at this place, on the frontiers of Poland, by 
the Austrian general Seekingen, Jan. 22, 
1710. 

Zageab (Battle). — Charles Martel, having 
entered Hungary to claim the crown, was 
defeated in an engagement at this place, 
A.D. 1292, by Andrew III. 

Zaire Eivek (Africa). — This river was 
discovered by Diego Cam, a.d. 1484. In 
1518 it was stated that it flowed from 
a lake in the interior of Africa, and in 
1816 it was partially explored by Tuckey. 
Its actual source and course are stiU 
very imperfectly known. This river is also 
called the Congo, which name it gives to 
the country through which it flows. {See 
Con- GO.) 

Zalacca (Battle). — The Almoravides of 
Africa defeated AJfonso VI. of Castile in 
this plain, near Badajos, Oct. 2 and 3, 1086. 

Zama (Numidia), at one time strongly for- 
tified, and the residence of the ancient kings 
of the country, was the scene of a signal 
defeat of Hannibal by P. Cornelius Scipio, 
when twenty thousand Carthaginians were 
slain, and as many taken prisoners, B.C. 202. 
It refused admittance to Juba when a fugi- 
tive from Caesar, after the battle of Thapsus, 
B.C. 46. 

Zawte (Ionian Islands), the ancient Za- 
cynthus, was founded by a colony of Achseans 
about B.C. 1390. It was unsuccessfully at- 
tacked by the Lacedaenaonians B.C. 430, 
and assisted the Syracusan expedition of 
Dion against Dionysius, B.C. 357. It was 
taken by the Eoman praetor Valerius b.c. 
211. Phihp V. of Macedon having obtained 
possession, restored it to the Romans B.C. 
191. The town suffered from an earthquake in 
October, 1841 . The pitch-weUs of the island, 
which stiU exist, were described by Herodo- 
tus and PUny. 

Zanzaleens. ■ — The followers of Jacob 
Zanzalee, better known as Baradseus, who 
died A.D. 578, were so called. {See Jaco- 
bites.) 

Zanzibar (Africa). — This island was dis- 
covered by the Portuguese Albuquerque 
A.D. 1503. 

Zaea (Austria) occupies the site of the 
ancient Jadera, the capital of Liburnia, in 
lUyria. It became a Eoman colony under 
Augustus. Under the name of Diodora it 
paid a tribute of a hundred and ten pieces 
915 



ZEL 

of gold to the Eastern empire, and was 
transferred to the Slavonic princes by Basil 
I. (a.d. 867 — 886). Zara afterwards became 
the capital of Dalmatia. Having revolted 
from Venice, and implored the aid of Hun- 
gary, it was besieged by the French and 
Venetian crusaders, and yielded after a five 
days' resistance, Nov. 10, 1202. 

Zatmae (Treaty) . — A convention by which 
peace was restored to Hungary, — the empe- 
ror, Joseph I., granting a general amnesty, 
restitution of confiscated property, liberation 
of prisoners, and the exercise of the Pro- 
testant rehgion, — was signed in January, 1711. 

Zealand, or Sieland (Denmark). — This 
island was anciently of great importance as 
a resort for the fleets for which Denmark 
was so justly famous. Its castle of Wor- 
dingborg was founded by Valdemar I. a.d. 
1166. 

Zealand (HoUand). — The islands com- 
posing this province were first united under 
one government by Florence V. a.d. 1256. 
In 1304 Zealand was seized by Guy of 
Flanders, who was, however, speedily ex- 
pelled ; and, in 1579, it participated in the 
celebrated Union of Utrecht. Under the 
French domination, from 1810 to 1814, 
Zealand formed the department of Bouches- 
de-l'Escaut. 

Zeeboueg. {See Eammekens.) 

Zegeis. {See Abenceeeages.) 

Zeilan. {See Ceylon.) 

Zeitz (Battle) . — Eodolph, duke of Swabia, 
having accepted the crown of Germany, and 
having been recognized by the pope, en- 
countered the emperor Henry IV. in a 
pitched battle at this place, near Merse- 
burg, on the banks of the Elster, in Ger- 
many, in which he was defeated and slain, 
Oct. 15, 1080. 

Zela (Asia Minor), said to have been bmlt 
on a mound constructed by Semiramis, was 
raised to the rank of a city by Pompey about 
B.C. 66. Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces 
here B.C. 47, and recovered the province of 
Pontus ; on which occasion he is said to have 
sent his laconic despatch to Eome, " Veni, 
vidi, viei." 

Zell, Zelle, or Celle (Hanover) . — This 
town was erected into a duchy a.d. 1369. Its 
castle was built in 1485, and is chiefly cele- 
brated as the prison of the unfortunate 
CaroHne Matilda, queen of Denmark and 
sister of George III., who was immured 
here on a false charge of incontinence. 
{See Denmaek.) She was arrested at Co- 
penhagen Jan. 16, 1772, and immediately 
conveyed to the castle of Cronenburgh, 
whence she was removed to this place on 
the intercession of her brother, the king of 
England, May 30. After Uving in retire- 
ment for three years, she died May 10, 
1775, in her twenty-fourth year, and was 
interred in the sepulchre of her maternal 
ancestors, the dukes of ZeU. A treaty be- 
tween the duke of Brunswick, Germany, 
Spain, and HoUand, was concluded at Zell 
June 20, 1674, and another between Bruns- 
wick and Sweden Feb. 5, 1679. 



ZES 



ZUG 



Zendecak (B attle ) . — The G-aznerides 
were defeated by the Turkomans at 
this place, in Khorassan, and the dynasty of 
the shepherd Mngs founded in Persia, a.d. 
1038. 

Zenta. {See Szenta.) 

ZiBTC -was unkno^ni to the Greeks, Eomans, 
or Arabians, although the ore calamine was 
probably employed in making brass in the 
6th century. Albertus Magnus showed that 
furnace calamine might be used for this pur- 
pose in the 13th century. This application 
was also pointed out by Erasmus Ebener, of 
Nuremberg, about 1548. Artificial white 
vitriol was an article of commerce about 
1570, before it was known that it was pro- 
cured from zinc. The name zinc first occurs 
in Paracelsus, who described it in 1530. 
Henkel procured it from calamine, and pub- 
lished his success in 1741. In England it was 
probably manufactured in that way as early 
as 1737. "Works for its manufacture were 
established at Bristol by Champion in 1743. 
The greater part of the metal used in Europe 
was brought from the East Indies, the Com- 
mercial Company of the Netherlands having 
sold nearly 1,000,000 lb. between 1775 and 
1779, 

Zieconiitm:. — This rare metal, which has 
at present resisted all attempts at fusion, 
was discovered by Berzehus a.d. 1824. 

Zodiac. — It is beheved that the ancient 
Babylonians divided the zodiac into twelve 
signs, distinguished by the names of different 
animals ; and a siinilar arrangement was 
adopted by the Egyptians, Greeks, and 
orientals. Anaximander of MUetus is said 
to have constructed a dial representing the 
signs of the zodiac about B.C. 600, and Ara- 
tus, who wrote an astronomical poem about 
B.C. 270, describes the zodiac. The practice 
of decorating ceilings, &c., with represen- 
tations of the zodiacal signs was common in 
ancient Egypt and Kome. The phenomenon 
of the zodiacal light was first observed by 
Descartes and Cluldrey, and was named by 
the elder Cassini in 1683. It was first 
observed in England in Essex, by Derham, 
April 3, 1707. 

ZoLLVEKEiK-. — The idea of a uniform 
system of customs for the German states 
was first suggested at the congress of Vienna, 
A.D. 1815, and was acted upon by the go- 
vernment of Prussia, which aboUshed all 
distinctions of customs throughout its terri- 
tories. May 26,1818, and invited other govern- 
ments to unite for a similar purpose. The 
invitation, was generally accepted, and the 
result was the formation of the ZoUverein, 
or customs union of the German states, by 
a treaty signed March 22, 1S33. Saxony 
joined the union March 30, and Thuringia 
May 11, and the uniformity of customs thus 
introduced commenced Jan. 1, 1834. 

Zoological Gaedej^s. — The Zoological 
Gardens, Eegent's Park, were laid out a.d. 
1825, and the Surrey Gardens in 1832. 

Zoological Society. — The Zoological 
Society of London was founded by Sir 
Humphry Davy, Sir Stamford Eaffles, and 
916 



other eminent gentlemen, a.d. 1826. The 
Cuvierian Society of Paris was instituted iii 
1738. 

Zoology. — Aristotle wrote his " History 
of Animals" about B.C. 334. The first Eu- 
ropean work in any department of this 
science worthy of notice is Turner's " His- 
toiy of Birds," published at Cologne a.d. 
1548. Conrad Gesner's "History of Ani- 
mals," considered by Cuvier as the basis of 
all modern zoology, was pubUshed between" 
1551 and 1587. A history of fishes in Latin, 
from the pen of Belon, the traveller, ap- 
peared in 1553. Ichthyology was treated of 
by Salviani in 1558, and by Kondelet in 1554. 
Aldrovandus, professor oi natural history at 
Bologna, produced a work on the subject in 
thirteen volumes, nine of which were pub- 
hshed after his death, which occurred in 
1605. The last, on cloven-hoofed quadru- 
peds, was issued from the press in 1642. 
The animals of Brazil were described by 
Marcgraf in 1648. Jonston, a Pole, pro- 
duced a natural history 1648 — 1652. A 
work on insects, by Mouffet, an English 
physician, appeared in 1634. Kay, the fibrst 
zoologist who made use of comparative ana- 
tomy, wrote on the subject in various de- 
partments between 1676 and 1693. Swam- 
merdam, a Dutch naturalist, published a 
general history of insects in 1669. Baron 
Cuvier, conjointly with M. Geoffroy, issued 
a new classmcation of mammiferous animals 
in 1797, and published his " Animal King- 
dom" in 1817. {See Linn^san System and 
Natueal Histoey.) 

ZoENDOEF (Battle).— The Eussians, 50,000 
strong, commanded by Marshal Fermor, 
were attacked Aug. 25, 1758, at this village 
in Prussia, by the Prussians under Fre- 
derick II., and suffered a severe defeat, 
having lost upwards of 20,000 men and 
nearly 1,000 officers. 

Zouaves. — A Kabyle or primitive Berber 
people, inhabiting a mountainous district 
between Bougie and Dellis, in Algeria, known 
as the Gaouaoua, or D'Ait-Gaoua, are also 
called Zouaouas ; whence the term Zouave. 
Max MiiUer says they are called Shawi in 
Algiers, that is, Nomads ; and that at Tunis 
the name has been corrupted to Suav ; whence 
the French Zouave. The lieutenant-general 
ofpohce attached to the French expedition 
to Algeria addressed a communication to 
Marshal Bourmont containing an offer of an 
auxiliary corps of 2,000 of these people, 
Aug. 14, 1830. The offer was accepted, and 
a decree issued for its formation, Oct. 1, 1830. 
A royal ordinance divided them into two 
battalions, composed of four companies of 
indigenes and two of French, Dec. 5, 1835. 
Gradually the enhstment of natives ceased j 
and the force now consists almost exclusively 
of Frenchmen. 

ZuG (Switzerland), the smallest of the 
cantons, joined the confederation a.d. 1352, 
became a member of the new confederacy 
in 1815, and formed one of the seven Eoman 
Cathohc cantons which associated, under 
the name of the Sonderbund, against the 



ZtL 

Free Corps in 1846. The arsenal contains 
the bloody banner borne by Peter Kollin, 
yfho fell fighting against the Milanese in 1422. 

ZutucHATJ (Battle). — The Prussians, 
under General Wedel, were defeated by the 
Kussians, with a loss of 9,000 men, near this 
town of Prussia, July 23, 1759. 

ZuLPicH. — The name sometimes given to 
the battle of Tolbiac (q. v.). 

ZuEiCH (Switzerland), capital of the can- 
ton, and an ancient Roman station, was 
burned by the Helvetii when about to invade 
Gaul, B.C. 61. The Alemanni rebuilt it a.d. 
256. It received the jus monetce from Charles 
the Bald, and was walled round under Otho I. 
Arnold of Brescia found refuge here in 1140, 
when he fled from Italy on a charge of heresy. 
The canton joined the confederation in 1351, 
and was engaged in 1436 in a civil war with 
the other cantons, which besieged it in 1444. 
Peace was concluded between them in 1446. 
The town of Winterthur was mortgaged to 
the canton in 1452. The reformed faith was 
adopted in 1523, and the sacrifice of the mass 
replaced by the celebration of the Lord's 
Supper in 1525. The French general Mas- 
sena retreated from the town, leaving it in 
the hands of the Austrians, June 5, 1799. 
He defeated the Eussian general Korsakoff, 
when the celebrated Lavater, wishing to act 
as a minister of peace, stepped between the 
combatants, and fell dead in the street, Sept. 
The Protestant pastors of the town, 
opposed to the system of education inde- 
pendent of the clergy, put themselves at the 
head of a body of peasants, and effected the 
dissolution of the government in 1839. The 
Miinsterhoff, or cathedral, in the Byzantine 
style, was built in the 11th century; the 
Frauenmiinster, formerly a nunnery, was 
founded in the 13th century ; and the uni- 
versity, an ancient convent, was founded in 
1834. 

ZuEiCH (Treaty). — Plenipotentiaries from 
Austria, France, and Sardinia, for the de- 
finite settlement of the preliminary treaty 
of Villafranca (q.v.), assembled at Zurich 
Aug. 8, 1859, and concluded a definite treaty 
Nov. 10, which was ratified Nov. 21. By 
this treaty, the whole of Lombardy, except 
Peschiera and Mantua, was ceded by Austria 
to France, on condition that it should im- 
mediately be transferred to Sardinia, and a 
perpetual pea«e was established between the 
three contracting powers. 

ZtJTPHEN (Holland).— This fortified town 



ZYP 

was acquired with the province of Guelder- 
land, in which it is situated, by Charles I. 
(the Bold), duke of Burgundy, a.d. 1472. Sir 
Philip Sydney lost his life in a skirmish under 
its walls, when his uncle, the earl of Leicester, 
made an unsuccessful attempt to take it, 
Sept. 22, 1586. 

ZuTDEE Zee, or South Sea (HoUand), 
originally a lake known by the name of Flevo, 
was enlarged by an inundation of the sea, 
which separated HoUand from Friesland, 
A.D.- 1234. A body of French cavalry and 
artillery crossed it upon the ice in 1794, when 
the novel enterprise was executed of the 
capture of a fleet by a land force, a portion 
of the Dutch navy having been frozen in 
at the Texel. The Dutch fleet surrendered 
to the English admiral Mitchell here, Aug. 
30, 1799. 

ZwiCKAtr (Saxony). — The fine Gothic 
church at this place was commenced a.d. 
1453. 

ZwiNGi-iAKS, the followers of Ulrich 
ZwingU, or Zwinglius, who was born at 
Wildhausen, Toggenburg, in the Swiss 
canton of St. Gall, in January, 1484. He 
was ordained priest in 1506, and appointed 
to the parish of Glarus, where he preached 
against the corruptions of the church of 
Rome. The court of Rome charged him 
vrith heresy, and threatened him and his 
disciples vrith excommunication, when he 
opposed the sale of indulgences as preacher 
to the monastery of Einsiedlen, an appoint- 
ment which he received in 1516. Zwinglius 
was appointed, in 1517, to a vacancy in 
the cathedral of Zurich. The ZwingUans 
formed a majority in the two great councils 
at Zurich, in January and October, 1523. 
They ordered the removal of all images and 
ornaments from churches in 1524, and put 
an end to the celebration of the mass in 
January, 1525. The popish cantons having 
sent a force against them, defeated them at 
Cappel (q.v.), where Zwinglius himself led 
them to the field, and fell at their head, 
mortally wounded, Oct. 11, 1531. 

ZwoLLE (Holland) . — This town was taken 
by the French a.d. 1672, and again Jan. 31, 
1795. The Russians occupied it ISTov. 12, 
1813. It was much injured in 1825 by an 
inundation of the river Yssel. 

Zyp (Battle). — Sir Ralph Abercrombie 
repulsed an attack of 16,000 French, under 
Dandaels, at this place, also called Zuyper- 
Sluys, in Holland, Sept. 9, 1799. 



917 



GEKEEAL INDEX. 



GENERAL INDEX 



The Italic letter a after the figures indicates the Second Column of the 
page to which reference is made. 



Aachen, 23a 


Adams, John Quincy, 862 


Albemarle, duke of, 365 




Aarau, 1 


Addison, Joseph, 802a 


Alberoni, Cardinal, 796 




Abacinaire, 127a 


Adelaide, Que^'n Dowager, 326 


Albert, Prince, 878 




Abacus, 167 


Adelie Land, 48a 


Albert of Saxony. 92a 




Abbas-Ben-Abul-MotaUeb, la 


Adjutators, 21a 


Albertus Magnus, 84 




Abbates Milites, la 


Admirable Crichton, 477 


Albiga, 26 




Abbot-counts, 3 


Ad Mui-um, 596 


Albigenses, 118a 




Abbot of Unreason, 3 


Adonijah, 454a 


Albion, 145a 




Abd-el-Kader, 31a, 356a, 357 


Adrastus, 391a 


Alboin. 446 




Abd-el-Wahab, 885 


Adrianople, 401 


Alboni, Mdlle., 621 




Abderahman, 619a 


Adult Schools, 310a 


Albula, 25 




Abdi Pasha, 630a 


Advocate-general, 390 


Albuciuerque, 431 




Abelians, 4 


Adze axe, 8i5a 


Alcaus, 876a 




Abellard. Peter, 836 


Ma, 59a, 230a 


Alcubier, Colonel, 411a 




Aberconwy, 244 


^buda, 789 


Alcuinus, 43a 




Abemethy, Dr., 817 


^gje, 392 


Aldini, 367 




Aben-igiues, 5 


iEgialeia, 77Qa 


Aldus Manutius, 28, 696a 




Abershaw,L. J.,336 


^gialeus, 391a 


Aldrovandus of Bologna, 626 




Abertaw, 819 


JEgira, 8a 


Ale-conner, 28a 




Abococket, 1 


JEgium, 8«, 9 


Ale-founder, 28a 




Abomey, 19a 


.ffilgospotamos, 192 


Alemannia, 818a 




Abraham, 454a, 823a 


^mUius Paulus, 329a 


Alexander, Sir W., 40a 




Abrlncse, 85 


^mona, 480a 


Alexander the Great, 387, 392, 


431, 


Abruzzo, 303a 


JEueas, 445a, 636a 


455 




Absalom, 494a 


^neas Tacitus, 215 


Alfoi.sine Tables, 36a 




Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, 


ASrius, 17a 


Algarve, 689 




429a 


^scesdune, 69 


Algiers, 303a 




Abstainers, 6, 321 


.aischylus, 291, 847 


Alhambra Palace, Leicester Square, 


Abubeker. 471a 


jEseulapius, 550 


639 




Abul Abbas, 2 


^semia, 444 


All Pasha, 450a 




Abuna, 7 


^s Uxorum, 730a 


AUahsher, 662a 




Acacius Luscus, 7 


^tius, 550 


Alleyu, E.. 298 




Acacius, patriarch of Constanti- 


JEtna (city), 191a 


All-Hallow, 33 




nople, 7 


African Association, 373a 


Allegiance, 5 




Acad6mie des Beaux-Arts. 437 


Agendicum, 770 


Allen, William, 725 




Acadgmie des Inscriptions et 


Agennum, 21 


Allmen, 28a 




Belles-Lettres, 437 


Agesilaus, 130. 657 


Allobroges. 370 




Acad^mie des Sciences, 437 


Aggregate Fund, 241a 


AH S-iints, Feast of, 341a 




Acad^iaie des Sciences Morales et 


Aghabo, 627 


Almaden, 708 




Politiques, 437 


Agion-oros, 577a 


Almagro, 1 




Acad^mie Frangaise, 437 


Agricola, John, 49, 790 


Almeida, 19a. 69a, 196a 




Academy del Gai Saber, 853 


Agricola, Julius, 146, 886 


Almohedes, 35 




Academy of Ancient Music, 237a 


Agricola of Saxony, 564a 


Almonaught, 34a 




Acadia, 40 


Agrigentum, 187a 


Almoon-heed, 34a 




Aca Nada, 174 


AUbe, St.,320 


Aln, 36 




Acca-Larentia, 25a 


Airedale Independent College, 430a 


Alompra, 159 




Accho, 10 


Aix Eoads, 103a 


Alp Arslan, 657a 




Accoucheurs,. 562 


Ajax,723 


Alpinus, P., 228 




Achad-Chaoin, 9a 


Akbar, 431 


Alsatia, 900 




Achad-Conaii-, 9a 


Alalia, 29 


Altena, 37 




Achilles Statue, 426 


Alamoot, 70a 


Altera Roma, 913a 




Achmetha, 306a 


Alaus, 24a 


Alube, 380 




Aciucum, 154a 


Alarcon, 40 


Alum Bagh, 4:33a 




Ackerman, Mr. R, 697 


Alard, G., 14 


Alumbrados, 428a 




Achurch, 151a 


Alaric, 251a, 733, 882 


Alva, duke of, 398, 795a 




Acrisius, 478 


Alasco, John, 25, 716a 


Amalek, 37a 




Acronof Agrigentum, 320a 


Alava. 103a 


Amai-apora, 159, 859 




Act of Faith, 83a 


Alb, 817a 


Amaury of Bene, 37a 




Acta Diuma, 599 


Alba Regia, 812a 


Amazonius, 273a 




Actiii Festival, 603a 


Alban, St., 25a 


Ambracia, 329a 




Adafoodia, 20 


Albany, 40a 


Ambrose, St., 39, 580, 830 




Adalbert, St., 699a 


Al Batani, 815 


Ameinocles, 852a 




Adamantine Spar, 251 


Albatnegius, 815 


Amerciament, 39 




Adams, John, 860a, 861a 


Albemarle, 186 


Amhei-st, Lord, 208a 





THE MAIfUAL OF DATES. 



Amir, 14 


Aquse Sextiae. 23a 


Arviragus. 146a 


Amiral, 14 


Aquarium, 53a 


Aryan. 762a 


Ammon, 41a, 312 


Aqua Tofana, 894 


As, Roman, 245 


Ammonium, 615 


Aqua Vitse, 140 


Asclepiades, 550, 817 


Ammonius of Alexandria, 494a 


Arabici, 55 


Ascoli, 68a 


Ammonitis Saccas, 307, 593 


Arago, Frangois, 357, 622 


Asculum Picenum, 68a 


Amorian dynasty, 305a 


Ara Jovis, 56 


Asellius, Gaspar, 128, 474 


Amphibalus, 789 


Aram, 823a 


Ashburnham House, 252 


Amphictyons, 276 


Aram, Eugene, 336 


Ashburton, Lord, 862 


AmpMIochians, 8 


Aram Naharaim, 5.56a 


Ashendon, Bucks, 69, 330a 


Amphipolis, 838 


Ararat, 62 


Ashtaroth, 86 


Amstel river, 41a 


Aratus, 8a, 247 


Ashton, Berkshire, 69 


Amsteldam, 42a 


Arausio, 622a 


Asiente, tiSa 


Amui- River, 42 


ArbU, 56 


Aske, Rf.bert, 667 


Anacapri, 182a 


Arborea, 755 


Assam Tea, 70 


Anadol, 44 


Ai-cas, 56a 


Assembly of the Wise Men, 906a 


Anapia, 154a 


Arcesilaus, 568» 


Asses, Feast of, 350 


Anatolia, 69a 


Archduke. 297ai 


Asshur. 605 


Anaxagoras, 73a 


Archemorus, 593a 


Assumption. Paraguay, 641 


Anaxandrides, 290a 


Ai-cher, Scott, 231a 


Assurance, 437a 


Anaximander, 73a, 280a, 373a, 


ArchUochus, 329, 427, 876 


Astacus. 124a, 603a 


539, 639, 802a, 916 


Aichimandrites, 3 


Asti, 73 


Anaximenes, 73a 


Archimedes, 159a, 374, 548a, 554, 


Astigi, 307 


Anchorets, 43 


626a. 705, 766, 802a, 815 


Aston, Berks, 330a 


Ancore.603 


Archimedes Steamer, 766 


Aston HaU. 122 


Ancyra, 46a 


Archytas, 840a 


Astor. 558a 


Andagoya, Pascual de, 658a 


Arden, Maiy, 773 


Astoria. 624a 


Andegavia, 46 


Arelas, 61 


Asturia, 72 


Andematunnum, 476a 


Arelate. 61 


Asturica Augusta, 73 


Anderson, Lieutenant, 574 


Arenaria, 191 


Atahuallpa, 6o8a 


Andre, Major, 860a 


Areopagus, 254 


AteUa, 84 


Andreas, Bernar.l, 414 


Aretinus, 65a 


Athanasius, St., 57 


Andronicus. Lirius, 291, 847 


Aretmus, Guido, 580 


Athelney, 269a 


Angelets, 46 


An-ezzo, 65a 


Atheuasus, 768a 


Angitola. 769 


Arrezzo, Guido d', 580, 791 


Athesis, 12a 


Angles, 322 


Argand Lamp, 475a 


Athlone Castle, 736 


Anglesea, Isle of, 46 


Argeutoratum, 811a 


Athotes, 413a 


Anglo Catholics, 703a 


Argo, 59a 


Atlixco, 304a 


Angi-a, 86 


Argovia. 1 


Atossa, 485a 


Angria, 431a 


Arguim, 19a 


Atrebates. 65 


Anjou, Charles of, 584 


Argj'U, Marquis of, 765a 


Atterbury. Bishop, 481 


Ankei-strom, Count, 820a 


Ai-ienzo, 193a 


Attila, 425, 5U4a 


Annam, 43a 


Arion, 847, 876a 


Attleborough. 214a 


Annapolis, 613 


Ai-iosto, 233a 


Attomatus Regis, 77a 


Anne of Austria, 443a 


Aristides, 75a, 192 


Anasis, 615 


Anne of Bohemia, 723a 


Aristippus of Cyi-eue, 266 


Aubert, 40 


Anne of Cleves, 323a, 411 


Aristotle, 73a, 76a, 498, 548a, 589a, 


Auca (See of), 157 


Anne of Denmark, 11, 450 


626, 655 


Auctocthones, 5 


Anne Hyde, 450 


Aristophanes, 233a, 291 


Augusta, 499a, 706, 849a 


Anno Hegirse (a.h),17 


Aristoxenus, 580 


Augusta Prsetoria, 51. 


Anno Mundi (a.m.), 17 


Arius, 60a 


Augusta Suessonium, 789a 


Anno Urbis Conditse (A.n.c), 17 


Arkwright, Sir Richard, 252a, 802a 


Augusta Taurinorum, 854a 


Annunciation, 474 


Armati, Salvino, 802a 


Augiista Vangionum, 909a 


Annunghoy, 210 


ArmiUary Sphere, 802a 


Augusta Veromanduorum, 707a 


Anomseans, 60a 


Arminius, James, 63a, 486a 


Augusta Vindelicorum, 79a 


Ansekn of St. Bee. 686a 


Armlets, 139a 


Augustan Age, 482 


Anson, Lord, 7a, 217 


Armorica, 148a 


Augustiue, St., 57, 94, 179a, 830 


Antakieh, 49 


Armstrong, Johnnie, 577a 


Augustine, St.. Pupils of, 451 


Anthropomorphites, 79a 


Armstrong, Sir W., 399 


Augustobona, 853 


Anti-burghers, 157 


Ai-naud, Henri, 868 


Augustonemetum, 222 


AntiCom-Law League, 254a 


Amaud, St., Marshal, 357, 744 


Augustoritum, 49 la 


Antigoneia, 538a, 603 


Arndt, Ernest Maurice, 378a 


Aula Regia, 71a, 235 


Antigua, 304a 


Arnold. Benedict. 860, 861 


Aurelianum, tj25a 


Antiocheia Majgiana, 556 


Arnold of Brescia, 733, 917 


Aureola, 604a 


Antiocheia Mydonise, 605a 


Ainold, Rev. Dr., 739a 


Aurgi, 449 


Antisthenes, 265a 


Amott, Dr. NeU, 811, 874a 


Auriflamme, 625 


Antoinette, Marie, 354a 


Arpad, 531 


Aurungzebe, 431 


Antonelli, Cardinal, 734 


Arrechis, 114 


Austin Caucus, 80 


Antoninus, PiUax- of, 732a 


Arrow lorcha. 180a, 209a 


Austin, Captaiu, 360a 


Antony, Mark, 732 


Arrows, 57a 


Austin Friars, 80 


Antony, St., 2a, 6 


Ai-sacidtB. Dynasty of the, 62a, 63 


Auteri, 735a 


Antunacum, 45a 


Ai-senites, 66 


Autochthones. 5 


Anxur, 832a 


Ai-seuius. 65a 


Autricimi, 203 


Apelles, 634a 


Ai-senius, St.. 6 


Auvergne. 370a 


Apocleti, 17a 


Arsinarium Promontory, 181a 


Auxume, 85a 


ApoUinarius, 51a 


Arsingham, 303a 


Aval. 90 


Apollodorus, 634a 


Arsinoe, Labyrinth of, 473a 


Avai-icum, 130 


ApostoUci, 51a 


Artemisia, 547 


Ave Bell, 84 


Apostoolians, 366 


Artevelde, Van, J. and P., 379a 


Avarino. 590, 704 


Apostool, Samuel, 366 


Arthur, King, 248a 


Avicenna, 550 


Apotactici, 51a 


Arthur, Prince, of Anjou, 340 


Avocats, 644 


Apotactites, 321 


Articles of War, 592 


Avoirdupois weight, 895 


Appius Claudius, 273a, 730a 


Artificial Stone, 810 


Awal, 90 


Apprenticii ad legem, 101a 


Artificial Teeth, 830a 


Ayoubite dynasty, 912a 


Appropriato.rs, 53a 


Artois, 158, 353 


Ayuthia, 777a 


Aquae Mattiacae, 901a 


Artotyritffi, 204 


Azote, 606 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



923 



Azotus, 69 
Aztlan, 86 

Baax Gad, 86 

Baba-Dagh, Mountain, 304a 

Babbage, C, 167 

Baber, 18a, 431 

Babylonian Gemara, 826 

Babylonish Captivity of the Pope- 
dom, 221 

Babyngton, Anthony, 323a 

Bacoanoelde. 109 

Bacchidse, 246a 

Bacchus, 905 

Bachelor of Arts, 67a 

Backgammon, 368 

Backstaff, 705 

Bacon, John, 766a 

Bacon, Lord, 324. 467«, 613 

Bacon, Kuger, 27a, 399a, 529a, 622, 
802a 

BacuU-annales, 34a 



Baden-Durlach, 89 

Bsetula, 858 

Baffin, "W., 58a, 89a 

Bagnolensians, 90a 

Bahia, 141 

Bahrein, 185a 

Bail Court, 467 

Baily's Beads, 307a, 815 

Bajazet, 46a' 

Balbastro, 97 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. 



9, 271, 



Baldred, St.. 104 

Baleen, 899 

Balistarius, 624 

Ballard, J., 87a 

Balleny Isles, 48a 

Balliol, 4, 117 

Ballymore Fort, 897 

Balmerino, Lord, 324a 

Baltasarini, 620a 

Baltimore, Lord, 544a 

Balue, Cardinal de la, 443 

Bamburg, 93a 

Bampton, 108 

Bampton, Rev. J., 93a 

Banchor, 94 

Banda Oriental, 866 

Banishment, 847a 

Banja, 94 

Bank Annuities, 364a 

Bank Charter Act, 94a 

Banks, Sir Joseph, 408a, 738a 

Banks, Thomas, 766a 

Baptistery, 349a 

Baptisteries, 96a 

Baradasus, Ja,cob, 448a, 915 

Barbary Hill, 115a 

Barberini Vase, 687a 

Barbour, John, 676 

Barcius, 97a 

Bardney, 98 

Bardsey, 262a 

Barefeet Insurrection, 608a 

Barefooted Carmelites, 18oa 

Barentsz, WiUiam, 58a, 803a 

Baiile, 304a 

Barium, 98a 

Barker, Bobert, 639 

Barkers, School of the, 265a 

Barnabas, St:, 427a 

Barnabas. St., Church, Pimlico,502 

Barnard, Sir H., 433 

Barn e veldt, John, 415a 

Barr, St., 247a 

Barrasters, 101a 

Barri, Mde. du, 354a 

Barrow, H., 152 

Barrowists, 151a 

Barry, Sir Chaiies, 422a 

Barsumas, 594 

Bai-tholomew, 63a 

Bashi Islands, 102a 



Basilian Dynasty, 305a 

Basiliarde, 103 

BasUides, 329a, 384 

Basra, 104 

Basileus, 465a 

Bastidas, 40 

Batavi, 415 

Baths and 'Wash-houses Act, 

Bathyany, Count, 424 

Batis, 652a 

Batou Khan, 194a, 386, 741a 

Batties, 105a 

Battle Abbey, 406a 

Battles :— 

Abancay, 1 

Abensberg, 4 

Aboukir, 5a 

Achelons, 155 

Aclea, 9a 

Acz, 11a 

Adda, 12 

Adige, 12a 

jEnophyta, 75a 

Aghrim, 79a 

Agincourt, 21a 

Agnadel, 21a 

Agra, 22 

Aibar, 23 

Ain-Beida, 31a 

Airdsmoss, 172a 

Aix, 23a 

Aiznadin, 24 

Ajnadin, 24 

Akhalzikh, 24a 

Alarcos, 25 

Albans, St., 26 

Albiola, 26a 

Albuera, 26a 

Albufera, '27 

Alcaniz, 797 

Alcazar, 27 

Alcazar do Sal, 689 

Alcoraz, 55a 

Alcoraza, 27a 

Aldenhoven, 27a 

Alderne, 80a 

Alexandria, 29a 

Alford, 30a 

Aliwal, 33 

Aljubarota, 33 

Allia, 33 

Allifse, 34 

Allyghur, 34 

Alma. 34 



Almanza, 34a 
Almenai-a, 35 
Almonacid, 35 
Almorah, 35a 
Alney, 35a 
Alpedrinham, 690 
Alresford, 36a 
Altenkirchen, 37 
Alton, 37 
Amand, St., 37a 
Amberg, 38a 
Amblef, 38a 
Amescoaz, 797a 
Andematuuuum, 492a 
Andemach, 45 
Andredslea, 147 
Angoi-a, 46a 
Angostui'a, 560 
Anjou, 47a 
Annan, 47a 
Anneau, 47a 
Antioch, 49a 
Antoine, St., 50a 
Antrim, 50a 
Aquae Sextise, 23a 
Aragua, 55a 
Aranie, 56 
Arazua, 55a 
Arbela, 56 
Arcis-snr-Aobe, 53 
Areola, 58 



Battle— {continued). 
Ardennes, 610a 
Ardoch, 59 
Argaum, 59a 
Argentaria, 59a 
Argties, 608 
Aricia, 333 
Arikera, 60a 
Arkary, 60a 
Ai-klow, 60a 
Arnee, 56 

Ai-oyo des Molinos, 5.55a 
Arques, 65 
Arretium, 370 
Ascalou, 68a 
Ascoli, 68a 
Asculum, 68a 
Ashdune, 69 
Aspern, 70 
Assandun, 71 
Assaye, 70a 
Assens, 71 
Assingdon,71 
Atherton Moor, 76a 
Auberoche, 79 
Aubin de Cm-mier, St., 79 
Auerstadt, 79a 
Aughrim, 79a 
Auldearn, 80a 
Auray, 80a 
Aussig, 525a 
Austerlitz, 81 
Avaine, 84 
Avein, 84 
Axarquia, 8oa 
Ayacucho, 85a 
Aybar, 23 
Aylesford, 85a 
Azincour, 21a 
Badajos, 88a 



Balaclava, 91 
Balarath, 657a 
Baldon, 148a 
Ballinamuck. 92a 
Ball's Bluff, 863a 
Ballyhoe, 93 
Ballynahinch, 93 
Baltimore, 93a 
1, 93a 



, 433a 
Baunockbum, ! 
Baphaeon, 96a 
~ ■ 3,97 
li,393 



Barletta, 99 
Bamet, 99a 
Barossa, 100a 
Barricades, 101 
Barriers, 101 
Bai-ry, 302 
Basel, 821a 
Basientello, 103 
Basing, 103 



Battiu, 105a 
Battlefield, 106 
Bauge, 47a 
Bautzen, 106 
Bayazid, 107 
Baylen, 107 
Beaver Dam, 109 
Bebriacum, 109a 
Beder, 109 
Bedcanford, 109 
Bedriacum, 109a 
Behmus Heights, 110a 
Belchite, 111 
Belgrade, Ilia 
Bellair, 112 
Beneveuto, 114a 
Beneventum, 114a • 



924 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



B ArrxES — {continued). 
Bennington, 115a 
Bensiiigtoii, 115a 
Beora, 433a 
Beranbirig, 115a 
Beresina, 115a 
Berg, 858 
Bergen, llBa 
Bergerac, 116a 
Bei-sinikia, 155 
Bethshemesh, 453 
Beverwyk, 118tt 
Beylau, 118a 
Beyi-ont, 313a 
Biberach, 119a 
Bicocca, 120a 
Bidasoa, 120a 
Bielawesch, 386 
Birmingham, 121a 
Bitboor. 433 
Bitonto, 125 
Blackheath, 126 
Blackrock, 126a 
Bladensburg, 127 
Blenheim, 127 
Blindheim , 127 
Bloreheath,128a 
Blue Mills, 8B3a 
Bober, 129a 
Boehmischgrod, 825 
Bogesund, 130 
Bojaca, 131a 
Bonna, 133 
Bononia, 133 
Booneville, 863a 
Borodino, 135 
Borough -bridge, 135a 
Borrisow, 135a 
Bosworth Field, 136 
Bothwell Bridge, 137 
Bouvines, 138a 
Bovines, 138a 
Boxtel, 138a 
Boyne, 139 
Bradock Down, 139a 
Brailow, 140 
Bramham Moor, 140 
Brandy-wine, 140 
Brecknock, 886a 
Breed's Hill, 156a 
Breitenfield, 484 
Bremulle, 142 
Brenneville, 142 
Brentford, 142 
Breslau, l42a 
Briar Creek, 143a 
Bridgewater, 174a 
Brienne, 145 
Brieux, St. , 148a 
Brihuega, 145a 



Brunanburg, 152 
Brunswick, 152a 
Bueno Vista, 560 
Buljanak, 155a 
Bull's Run, 535a 
Bunkei-'s Hill, 156a 
Buiford, 156aj 
Burlington Heights, 188a 
Busaco, 161 
Buttington, 162 
Buxar, 162 
Cabira, 163 
Cadesia, 163 
Cadesia, 164a 
Cajazzo, 585a 
Calatanazor, 485 
Caldiero, 167 
Callinicum, 169a 
Cambuskenneth, 172 
Camden, 172 
Camel, 172a 
Camelford, 172a 
Campen, 173a 
CampiUo, 173a 
Campo Malo, 174 



Battles— (con««MU€d). 
Campona, 174 
Cannae, 176a 
Cappel, 182 
Cappiano, 182 
Carabobo, 183 
Carascal, 797a 
Carberry Hill, 183a 
Carcano, 183a 
Cardaden, 797 
Carlow, 185 
Carpenisi, 393 
Carpi, 186a 
Carrhse, 187 
Cai-thage, U.S. 863a 
Casiliuum, 189 



Castel Fidardo,189a 
Castella, 189a 
Castelnaudary, 189a 
CastelnuoTo, 189a 
Castiglione, 189a 
CastUlejos, 190a 
Ciistillon, 190a 
Castlebar, 190a 
Castro d'Airo, 690 
Cawnpore, 433a 
Cephisus, 196 
Cerdicsford, 196 
Cerdicsore, 196 
Ceremola, 196a 
Ceret, 196 
Cerignola, 196 
Cerisoles, 196a 
Cerro Gordo, 560 
Ceutla, 196a 
Chacabuco, 20Ba 
Choeroneia, 197 
Chalgrave, 198 
Chalons-8ui--Mame, 198 
Charmouth, 202 
Chartres. 610a 
Chester, 269a 
Chestei-field, 206a 
Chevy Chase, 628 
Chillianwallah, 207 
Cbippawa, 211 
Choczim, 212 
Chotyn, 212 
Chupas, 214 
Cibalis, 215 
Cidiu, 677 
Citate, 218a 
Ciudad-Real, 797 
Cla<^tidium, '220a 
Clavijo, 220a 
Cleobury, 221 
Clifton Moor, 222 
Clissau, 222 
Clontarf, 222a 
Clyst. St. Mary's, 224a 
Cocherel, 226a 
Coimbra, 229 
Colmar, 896a 
Cologne, 231a 
Comom, 236a 
Concord, 238 
Conjeveram, 240 
Consarbruck, 240 
Cor bach, 245a 
Corbisdale, 245a 
Coroneia, 249a 
Cortenuova, 2.50a 
CorticeUa, 251 
Coruches, 690 
Coninna, 251 
CoiTipedium, 266a 
Corwen, 251 
Corygaum, 251 
Cossova, 251a 
Courtray, 253a 
Coutras, 254 
Coutreras, 560 
Coveripauk, 255 
Cowpens, 860a 
Craney Island, 860a 



Battlbs — {continued), 
Cranon, 255a 
Craon, 255a 
Craonne, 255a 
Ci-avant, 255a 
Crayford, 255a 
Creccanford, 255a 
Crecy, 256 
Cremera, 256a 
Cremona, 257 
Creveldt, 257a 
Crimisus, 258 
Croix de Vie, 480 
Cropredy Bridge, 258(1 
Crosford. 886a 
Crown Point, 259a 
Culloden, 262a 
Culm, 262a 
Cunaxa, 263 
Cunersdorf, 263 
Cirrtatone, 264 
Custoza, 264a 
Custrin, 473 
Cyuo8cephal3B, 265a 
Cyropedium, 266a 
Czaslau, 266a 
Dadar, 267 
Dainstadt, 267a 
Damoko, 63(ki 
Dauesmore, 93a 
Danewirke, 270 
Darik, 629 
Decimus, 273a 
Deeg, 274 
Degstan, 274a 
Delhi, 275a 
Deliuin, 276 
Dembewielkie, 276a 
Demain, 27Ua 
Denis, St., 277 
Deimewitz, 278a 
Deorham, 278a 
Dervenekai, 393 



Dettingen, 280 
Deutschbrod, 425a 
Devizes, 280a 
Diamond, 274a 
Diersheim, 282a 
Dijon, 283 
Dinevawr, 887 
Djevan-Boulak, 283a 
Dobro, 285a 
Dobrynitchi, 285a 
D61. 148a 
Donabew, 159 
Donato, St., 534 
Douauwerth, 288 
Dorogobush, 288a 
Dorylaeum , 288a 
Dresden, 292 
Drevix, 293a 
Drumclog, 294 
Dnffindale, 297a 
Dug Spring, 863a 
Dvmiblane. 298 
Dunbar, 298 
Dunblane, 298 
Dundalk. 298 
Dunes, 298a 
DunganhUl, 298a 
Dunsinane, 299 
Duppt-ln, 299 
Duppliu Moor, 2d9a 
Diiren, 299a 
Durham, 300 
DUi-renstein, 300 
Dutlingen, 300a 
Ealla's HiU, 318 
Ebbsdorf, 610a 
Ebro, 853a 
Ecija, 307 
Eckmuhl, 307 
Eco Caiinians, 862a 



GEIfEEAL INDEX. 



925 



Battles — {con tinued). 
Edgehill, 308« 
El Arish, 314 
Elatea, 525 
Elchingen, 314 
Elizabetpol, 318 
EUandune, 318 
El Mansoorah, 538 
Elster, 318<i 
319a 



Engen, 322a5 
Englefield, 327 
Enkioping, 328 
Escheiiduu, 330a 
Esquiros, 590a 
Essek, 331 
Esaliug, 70 



Eszek, 331 
Etampes, 332 
Ethandune, 332 
Eupatoiia, 333a 
Eurymedon, 333a 
Eustace, St., 333a 
Eutaw Springs, 333a 



Evora, 691 
Exiles, 339 
Eylau, 339 
Fabiano, St., 339 
Fair, the, 491a 
Faventia, 339a 
Falkioping, 340 
Falkirk, 340 
Famars, 340a 
Fano, 341 
Fantanet, 353 
FamhaTO, 341 
Fehrbellin, 342 
F6re-Champenoise, 342 
Ferozeshah, 342a 
Fethanlea, 343 
Fiozenzuola, 344a 
Fladenheim, 346 
Fleuitis, 347 
Flodden Field, 347a 
Foggia, 349 
Fokshaui, 349a 
Fontaine Fi-an(;aise, 349a 
Fontenay, 349a 
Fontenoy, 350 
Fords, 608 
Formigny, 351 
Fort Erie, 3-51a 
Forum Trebonii, 351a 
Fossalta, 351a 
Fossa Nuova, 873 
Fraga, 352a 
FrancavUla, 352a 
Frankenbauseu, 359 
Fraustadt, 361a 
Fredericia, 361a 
Freehold, 860a 
Freiberg, 362 
Frethem, 362a 
Friedlaud, 363 
Fuentes de Onoro, 364 
Fulford, 364a 
Furruckabad, 365 
Futteghur, 4^3a 
Futtehpur, 433a 
Gadebusch, 365a 
Garigliano, 369 
Gateshead Fell, 369a 
Gaugamela, 370 
Gaza, 371 
Geboro, 797 
Gemauers, 371 
Gemblours, 371 
Gerberoi, 376 
Gergovia, 376 
Germane, San, .376a 
Germantown, 376a 
Giessen, 380a 
Giaors, 381 



Battues — ( continued) . 
Giurgevo, 381 
Glenlivat, 353 
Godollo, 384 
Goito, 384a 
(Jolovtchiv, 386a 
Goojftrat, 387 
Goolnabad, 657a 
Gorey, 388 
Gotthard, St., 388a 
Gran, 389a 
Grandella, 446 
Granicus, 390 
Granson, 390 
Graveltnes, 390 
Gravesend, 390a 
Grochow, 396a 
Gross-Beeren, 396a 
Gross-Jagemdorff, 608 
Gualdras, 576 
Guastalla, 397a 
GuUdford, 860a 
Guinegate, 399 
Guyandotte,863a 
Hadrianople, 401 
Haliartus, 402 
Halidon Hill, 402 
Halle, 402a 
Hallelujah, 402a 
Halys, 403 
Hanau, 404 
Harlaw, 405 
Hartlefield, 106 
Hastenbeck, 406 
Hastings, 406 
Hately Field, 406a 
Hebron, 310a 
Hedgeley Jttoor, 408a 
Heiliger Lee, 4u8a 
Helga, 409 
Helsingborg, 409a 
Hems, 824a 



Hengstone Hill, 409a 
Hennersdorf, 699a 
Heracleia, 411 
Hermannstadt, 412 
HermondevUle, 60S 
Herrara, 412 
Herrings, 412a 
Hexham, 413 
Himera, 414 
Hobkirk's HUl, 172a 
Hocbkirchen, 414a 
Hochst, 414a 
Hochstadt, 414a 
Hohenburg, 414a 
Hohenfreiburg, 414a 
Hohenlindeu, 414a 
Holm, 417 
Homildou HUl, 419 
Hondschoote, 419 
Hopton Heath, 804a 
Homcastle, 420 
Huarina, 422a 
Huntly HUl. 425 
Hydaspes, 425a 
Hysise, 42tfa 
Ibral, 140 
Idomene, 8 
Idstedt, 428 
Iganie, 677a 
Igualda, 796a 
ImmsB, 429 
Indore, 434a 
Ingoui-, 436 
Inigo, 797a 
Tnkermann, 436 
Innspriick, 858 
Inverlochy, 438a 
Ipsus, 439a 
Trun, 443a 
Isel, 858 
Isemia, 444 
Isly, 444a 
Issua, 445 



Battles — (continued). 
Ithome, 800 
Ivry, 448 
Jacob, St., 449 
Jaffa, 449 
Jalula, 449 
Janowitz, 450a 
Jaruac, 4.51a 
Jaucoui't, 451a 
Jayca, 630a 
Jean de Luz, 451a 
Jemmapes, 452 
Jena, 452a 
Jergeaux, 452a 
Johnston, 457 
John's Town, St., 4.57 
Juan del Sur, San, 603 
Juterbock, 460 
Kagul, 460 
Kainly, 460 
Kaiserslautem, 460 
Kalderoon, 628a 
Kalisch, 460a 
Kalka, 460a 
Kandsag, 3i8 
Kapolna, 461 
Katzbach, 461a 
Kealis, 440 
Kennet, 462 
Kennyree, 433 
Keresztes, 462a 
Kesseldorf, 69Ba 
Kew-heen-heu Ferry, 209a 
Khargaudede, 628a 
Khart, 463 
Khoi, 463a 
Khooshab, 658 
KilcuUen, 464 
Kildare, 464a 
Killiecrankie, 465 
Kibnalloch, 465 
KUrush, 465 
KUsyth, 465 
Kinbum, 465 
Kintrishi, 468 
Klrchdenkern, 468« 
Kirchholm, 468a 
Klagenfurt, 469 
Kolin, 471 
Koniah, 427a 
Konigshofen, 471a 
Komom, 236a 
Kostainizza, 630a 
Kotara, 433a 
Kotriah, 472 
Kotzim, 677 
Koulawtscha, 630 
Kouleftscha, 472 
Kousadac, 472 
Krajova, 472 
Krasnoi, 472 
Ki-otzka, 472a 
Kudsea, 6.57a 
Kunobitza, 472a 
Kustrin, 473 
La Belle Allian 
Labento, 473 
Laffeldt, 474 
La Fratta, 474a 
Laghonat, 31a 
Lake Regillus, 474a 
La Molinella, 475 
Landen, 476a 
Laudshut, 476a 
Lanfanan. 476a 
Langres, 370a 
Langside, 476a 
Lansdown, 477a 
Laon, 478 
Largs, 478 

La Roche Abeille, 478 
La Roche Darien, 478 
La Rothidre, 478 
Laswaree, 478 
Laiis, 838a 
Lautulse, 479a 



THE MAIiTTJAL OF DATES. 



Battues — {eontin lied) . 
Laval, 480 
Lavis, 480 
Iiazaro,St.,481 
Lechseiun, 482a 
Ledos, 482a 
Leeds, 482a 
Legnano, 483a 
Leipsic, 483a 
Lens, 484a 
Lesno, 488a 
Leucti-a, 486 
Leuthem, 486 
Lewes, 486 
Lexington, 486 
Lhechryd, 886a 
Liege, 488a 
Liegnitz, 488a 
Liesnia, 488a 
Ligny, 489a 
LilybKum, 187a 
Lincelles, 491a 
Lincoln, 491a 
Lingonum Civitas, 492a 
Linlithgow, 492a 
LiopiK), 493 
Lippa\i, 493 
Lissa, 494 
Llandewyer, 496a 
LJanrwst, 886a 
Uanwanoc, 886a 
Llerena, 496a 
Loauo, 496a 
Lobosit, 518 
Lodi, 498 
Lodosa, 797a 
Logiono, 190 
Lonato, 499a 
Long Island, 505a 
Longwood, 174a 
Lorca, 797 
Los Arcos, 797a 
Loudon Hill, 517 
Louvain, 610a 
Lowositz, 518 

Luca, 872a 

Lucania, 518 

Lucena, 518a 
Lucerne, 822 

Lucknow, 519 

Lugdunum, 519a 

Lxma, 519a 

Lunebiirg Heath, 610a 

Lutzen, 521 

Lyons, 522a 

jMacalo, 524 

Maciejovice, 526 

Mfeander, 528 

Maes Garinon, 886a 

Magenta, 529 

3Iaghazul, 529 

Magnesia, 530 

Maharaopore, 531 

Maida, 531a 

Maidstone, 531aJ 

Maipu. 532a 

Malakhoflf, 533a 

Malegnano, 533a 

Malo-Jaroslawitz, 534 

Malplaquet, 534 

Malsheraid, 396 

Mamelon, 535 

Manassas, 535a 

Mam-esa, 538 

Mansurah, 538 

Mantinea, 538 

Mai-acaibo, 232 

Marathon 539 

Marchfield,539a 

Mardia, 540 

Marengo, 540 

Mareshah, 332 

Margus, 540 

Marienwerder, 540a 

Marignan, 67a 

Marignano, 353a 



ATTLES— {continued), 
Maronga, 541a 
Marsaglia, 623 
Marston Moor, 543a 
Martinesti, 543a 
Mary's,St.,ayst. 224a 
Maserfleld, 628 
Masourah, 545 
Matamoras, 546 
Matchin, 546a 
Maxen, 700 
Maypu. 532a 
MedeUin, 797 
Medina de Rio Seco, 550a 
Mediolanum, 550a 
Meeanee, 550a 
Megeddo, 453 
Mehudpore, 551 
Meissen, 551 
Melazzo, 551 
Meldorp, 820 
Melitene, 552 
Mellingen, 552 
Melricbstadt, 552a 
Melton Mowbray, 552a 
Melun, 610a 
Meretun, 556 
Merseburg, 555a 
Merton, 556 
MetaiUTis, 558 
Metidja, 31a 
Mies, 562 
Milazzo, 551 
Milliduse, 564a 
Mill Springs, 863a 

Miucio, 564a 
Minden, 564a 
Minsk, 677a 

Mizpeh, 663a 
Mockern, 568a 

Modena, 569 

Modon, 569 

Mohacz,569a 

M'lhammerah, 658 

Mohilef, 569a 

Mohilow, 569a 

Mohr, 424 

MolinosdelKey, 797 

Molwitz, 570a 

Moucontour, 570a 

Mondovi, 571 

Mons en Puella, 56 

Mout Cenis, 339 

Montebello, 572a 

Monteloro, 572a 

Montenotte, 572a 

Monte Olmo, 572a 

Montereaux. 572a 

Monterey. 572a 

Montes Claros, 689a 

Moutfaucou, 610a 

Montiel, 573 

MontigUo, 573 

Montlhery, 573 

Moiitmirail, 573a 

Mont St. Jean, 893 

Moodkee, 574 

Morat, 575 

Morgarten, 575a 

Morgum, 540 

Moron, 763 

Mortara, 576 

Moi-timei-'s Ci'oss, 576a 

Moskirch, 577 

Motta, 577a 

Mount Gilboa, 321a 

Moimt Ohud, 617 

Mount Seir, 458 

Muhlberg, 578 

Muhldorf, 578 

Munda, 578a 

Murat, 353 

Muret, 580 

Murgum, 540 

Mursa, 580 

Murtem, 573 



BATruiSr— (continued). 

Muta, 580a 

Mutina, 580a 

Mutinum, 580a 

Mycale, 580a 

MylEe, 581 

Myriokephalon, 581 

Mysia, 182 

NacoUa, 582 

Nafels, 585a 

Nagpore, 582a 

Naissus, 583 

Najara, 583 

Namptwich, 683 

Namur, 583a 

Nancy, 158 

Nantes. 584 

Nantwich, 583 

Narva, 587 

Narvesa, 873 

Naseby, 587a 

Neerwinden, 592a 

Neon, 664 

Neresheim, 594 

Newinden, 592a 

Nesbit Moore, 594 

Neva, 595 

Nevahend, 595 

Neville's Cross, 595 

Newbum, 595a 

Newbury, 595a 

New Orleans, 598 

Newtown Butler, 602 

Nezib, 824a 

Nicisea, 603 

Nicopolis, 305a 

Niemen, 604 

Nimeguen, 605 

Nineveh, 605 

Nissa, 628a 
Nive. 606 

Nivelle, 606 

Nocera, 606a 
Norden, 607a 
Nordlingeu, 507a 
Noreia, 607a 
Noreja, 607a 
Norkitten, 608 
NorthiOlerton, 609 
Northampton, 609 
Nottingham, 612a 
Novara. 612a 
Novi, 613 
Noyon, 142 
Obidos, 615a 
Ocana, 616 
Ockley, 616 
Odenburg, 616a 
Oedenburg, 616a 
CEnophyta, 617 
Oglio, 617 
Ohud, Mount, 617 
Olney. 35a 
Olot, 619 
Olpse, 8 
Oltenitza, 619 
Olympia, 619 
Omer, St., 619a 
Opslo, 621a 
Orbazzano, 623 
Orbega, 865 
Orleans, 625a 
Orsova, 626a 
Orthes, 627 
Ostrolenka, 627a 
Otford, 628 
Otterbum, 628 
Oudenarde, 631 
Oulart, 631 
Ourique. 631a 
Pagahinallew, 159 
Pakoza, 424 
Palestro, 636a 
Palmyra, 638 
Palo Alto, 560 
Pandosia, 638a 





GENEEAL INDEX. 




927 


Batuss— (continued). 


Battles— {continued). 


BATfLEs— (continued). 




Paneeput, 638a 


Ravenna, 714a 


Solway Moss, 790a 




Panitun, 638a 


Raygrod, 677a 


Sombrero, 790a 




Panius, 638a 


Redan, 716 


Somma, 791 




Panormus, 317 


Redhina. 716 


Sommershausen, 791 




Parma, 644a 


Reichenberg, 719 


Soncino, 791 




Parret, 645 


Reniega, 72 


Southampton, 269a 




PasargadiB, 64Sa 


Rephidim, 37a 


Spoleto, 804 




Patay, 646 


Rethel, 720a 


Spurs, 253a 




Patna, 646 


Reynosa, 796a 


Stamford, 804a 




Patochin. 646a 


Rheinfield, 722a 


Stamford Bridge, 270 




Pavia, 534 


Rich Mountain, 863a 


Standard, 805 




Pedum, 479 


Rieti, 585 


Stanford Bridge, 805a 




Peiho, 651a 


Rimenaut, 724 


Stangebro, 805a 




Pelakauon, 652 


Eimnik, 543a 


Steenkirk, 808a 




Pemaneon, 652a 


Ringmere, 724 


Steinkirk, 808a 




Pen, 653a 


Rivoli, 726 


Sticklastadt, 809 




Pencadaer, 886a 


Rlvolta,21a , 


Stillwater, 860a 




Pentland HUls, 654 


Roccasecca,727 


Stoke, 810 




Peonna, 653a 


Rocroy, 728 


Stouy Creek, 174a 




Pered, 654a 


Roli?a, 728a 


Stow-on-tbe-Wold, 811 




Perekop, 654a 


Romainville, 729 


Strasburg, 811a 




Petelia, 660 


Romhany, 735 


Stratton, 812 




Peterswalde, 661 


Roncesvalles, 735 


Sturm. 813a 




Peter wardeiu, 661] 


Ronda, 735 


Suck, 269a 




Petherton, 653a 


Rosas, 735a 


Suddoosam, 574a 




Petilia, 660 


Rosbach, 735a 


Sukoro, 424 




Pfaflfendorf, 661a 


Rosebec, 532 


Sultana, 657a 




Pharsalia, 662 


Rosetta, 736 


Summershausen. 815 




Pharsalus, 662 


Ross, 736a 


Summersville, 863a 




Philiphaugh, 662a 


Rothweil, 737 


Sunbury, 815 




PhUippi, 662a 


Roundway Down, 737a 


Sutri,818a 




Piketown, 863a 


Roveredo, 737a 


Szegedin, 424 




Pinchacha, 658a 


Saaz, 745a 


Szenta, 824a 




Pinkie, ,667a 


Sackefs Harbour, 174a 


Szikszo, 424 




Pirmasens, 668 


Sacriportus, 747 


Taafna, 31a 




Pima, 668 


Sagras, 497a 


Tabasco, 825 




Pittsburg, 669a 


Salamanca, 748 


Tagliacozzo, 825a 




Pittsburg Lauding, 864 


Salankemau, 748 


Taglimeuto, 825a 




Plassey, 672a 


Salban,748a 


Tagina, 445a 




Platjea, 673 


Salices, 749 


TaUlebourg, 825a 




Plocsko, 677 


Sallasia, 557 


Talavera, 825a 




Plowcze, 674a 


Salzbm-g, 750a 


Tamanes, 797 




Pocahontas, 863a 


Sambre River, 594 


Tamojauet, 31a 




Poitiers, 676a 


Samos, 751a 


Tamynse, 826 




Pollalore, 679 


Sampford Courtenay, 751a 


Tanagra, 826 




Pollentia, 679 


Sandwich, 752a 


Tangiers, 689 




Poltava, 679 


Saragossa, 754 


Tannenbui-g, 826a 




Pout-a-Chin, 680 


Sardis, 757 


Tara, 827 




Pont-sur-Saithe, 610a 


Sarno, 757a 


Tarablus, 852 




Portland, 269a 


Saulcourt, 610a 


Tarbes, 827 




Port Orewyn, 887a 


Saiimur, 758a 


Tarifa, 827a 




Porto Novo, 688 


Saveuay, 480 


Tarqui, 658a 




Praga, 694 


Savigliano, 750a 


Tauss, 829a 




Prague, 694 


Savona, 759 


Tchernaya, 829a 




Prescott, 695 


Saxa Rubra, 759a 


Tearless Victory, 830 




Preston, 695a 


Schassburg, 762 


Tegyra, 830a 




Preston Pans, 695a 


Schumla, 762 


Telamon, 831 




Pi-inceton, 860a 


Schweidiiitz, 762 


Temeswar, 831a 




Prome, 432a 


Schweiz, 762a 


Teuehebray, 608a 




Pultawa, 679 


Sebastian, St., 767a 


Testry. 833 




Pultusk,702a 


Sebastopolis, 767a 


Tettenhall, 833 




Pydna, 703a 


Sedan, 767a 


Tetuan, 833 




Pyramids, 704 


Sedgemoor, 768 


Teutoburg, 833 




Quatre Bras, 706 


Seidlice, 768 


Tewkesbui-y, 833a 




Quebec, 706 


Selby, 768 


Thames, 861 




Queenstown, 707 


Selgae, 768a 


Thermopylae, 836a 




Quentin, St.,707a 


Sellasia, 768a 


Thorn, 677a 




Quesnoy,707a 


Seminara, 769 


Thrasymene, 838a 




Quiberon, 212a 


Sempach, 769 


Thurles, 839 




Quistello, 709 


Senlis, 353a 


Thymbra, 656a 




Raab, 709a 


aentinum, 77 


Tiberias, 452a 




Radcot Bridge, 710 


Seven Oaks, 772 


Tibeste, 574a 




Eagusa, 710a 


Shaldiran, 773a 


Ticinus, 188 




Rain, 712a 


SherLff-muir, 775 


Tifurnum, 840 




Rakowitz, 712a 


Shlblai, 657a 


Tigranocerta, 840 




Eamillies, 713 


Shrewsbui-y. 106 


Tina, 130a 




Eamnuggur, 713 


Shumla, 630 


Tinchebray, 841 




Ramonde, 433a 


Silistiia, 781a 


Tiugo, 659 




Rampur-Kupia, 433a 


SUoa, 560a 


Tippermuir,841a 




Raphia, 713a 


Singara, 782a 


Tlrlemont, 841a 




Puaszyn, 677a 


, Smolenskow, 786 


Tlemsen, 31a 




Rathenau, 714 


Sobraon, 787 


Tobak, 113 




Rathenow, 714 


Soissons, 789a 


Tokay, 843 




Rathmines, 714 


Solaion, 657 


Tolbiac,843 




Raucoux, 714 


Solferino, 790 


Tolentino, 843a 





THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Battles — {contimied), 
Tolosa, 843a 
Tongi-es, 843« 
Tongus, 262a 
Torgan, 844 
Torres Vedras, 691 
Tortosa, 844a 
Toulouse, 845 
Toumay, 845a 
Touts, 845a 
Towi, 886a 
Towton, 846 
Traeis, 530 
Trebia, 849 
Trenton, 860a 
Trentschin, 849 
Ti-eviso, 849a 
Trifanum, 850 
Tripoli, 852 

Tiocadero Fortress, 797 
Troia, 584a 
Troja, 852a 
Tron, St.,8o2a 
Tschota-UdeypT.ir, 433a 
Tse-kee, 209a 
Tudela, 853a 
Turin, 855 
Tumhout, 855 
TJcles, 796a 
Uddevalla, 858 
Uldecina, 797 
TJmbria, 858a 
ITrbicus, 865 
Vaccoli, 867 
Vadimonian Lake, 867 
VaUa, 867 
Val, 474 
Valencia, 868 
VaUs, 868a 
Valmy, 868a 
Varna, 870 
Vavrio, 870a 
Vassilef, 659a 
Velletri, 871a 
Vellore, 871a 
Vercellse, 875 
Vemeuil. 875a 
Verona, 875a 
Veseris, 876a 
Vesuvius, 877 
Viana, 691 
Viazma, 877a 
Vidasoa, 120a 
Vigenne, 610a 
Villa Franca, 880a 
Villaponca, 691 
VUlingshausen, 880a 
Vimeira, 880a 
Vimori, 880a 
Vincy, 881 
Vindonissa, 370a 
Vinegar Hill, 881 
Vitepsk, 882 
Vittoria, 882a 
Voiron, 882a 
Voltri, 883 
Voltumo, 447a 
Vougie, 884 
Vyseerabad, 433 
Waal, 884 
Wagi-am, 885 
Wahlstatt, 885 
Wakefield, 885a 
Wandewash, 889a 
Warburg, 890a 
Warrington, 890a 
Wan-ington Junction, 864 
Wai-saw. 891 
Water-Kloof Hills, 165a 
Waterloo, 892a 
Wattignies, 894 
Wavre, 894a 
Wawer, 894a 
Wawz, 894a 
Wearmoutlk, 269a 
Weinsberg, 895a 



Battles — {con tinued). 
Weissenberg, 895a 
Weissenburg, 895a 
White Plains, 900a 
Wibbadune, 901 
Wiesloch, 901a 
Wigan, 901a 
WilliamsbuTg, 174ia 
Wihia, 677a 
Wilton, 903 
Wimbledon, 903 
WiQchester, U.S., 864 
Winwidfield, 905a 
Wiijpedsfleet, 905a 



Witepsk, 882 

Wittstock, 907 

Wodensfleld, 269a 

Worcester, 909 

Worms, 909a 

Wronow, 677a 

Wiirtzchen, 910 

WuTz, 677a 

Wurzburg, 910a 

Xeres, 911 

Ximena, 911a 

Yauacocha, 659 

Yermak, 824 

Yermuk, 912a 

Yvres, 914a 

Zab, 915 

Zadock, 915 

Zagi-ab, 915 

Zalacca, 916 

Zama, 915 

Zara, 872a 

Zeiz, 915a 

Zela, 915a 

Zelichow, 677a 

Zendecan, 916 

Zenta, 824a 

Zetunium, 305a 

Zeuta, 629a 

Zohran, 885 

Zomdorf, 916a 

ZUUichau, 917 

Zulpich, 917 

Z\mcli,917 

Zutphen, 917a 

Zyp, 917a 
Bauhin, Casper, 693 
Baumgarten, M., 69a 
Baunugger, 426 
Bawn Fleet, 274a 
Baxter, Mr. George. 697 
Bayle, Peter, 761a 
Beaconites, 705a 
Bean, J. W., 325a 
Bear Garden, 156 
Bear Island, 205a 
Beaton, Cardinal, 764a 
Beauchamp, Sir J., 14 
Beauclerc, Henry, 410 
Beaufort, Duke of, 443 
Beaujoyeux, 620a 
Beaumont, Sir George, 51 
Beau Nash, 543a 
Bebba, 93a 
Beckenham, 109 
Becket, Thomas a, 180, 3 
Beckford, Wm., 350 
Bedcanford,109 
Bedford Level, 290a 
Bedlam, 118 
Bedlam Beggars, 5, 118 
Beefeaters, 912a 
Beetroot, 814 
Beggai-s, 398 

Beggars, League of the, 4 
Begging Friars, 553a 
Beguards, 110 
BeguttK, 110a 
Behar, 90 

Behring, Captain, 58a, 61 
Beighton, Henry, 807 
Belad Walid, 868a 



Belcher, Sir Edward, 360a 
Beled el Sudan, 792 
Belfrey, 111 
Believers, 213 
Belin, 121 

Belisarius, 445a, 733, 869o 
Belize River, 419 
Bell, Andrew, 310a 
Bell, Mr. Henry, 807a 
BeU, John. 863 
Bell, Eev. Mr., 715 
Bellingham, J., 325, 336 
Bellot, Lieut, 360a 
Bellovacum, 108a 
Beloi Gorod, 577 
Belon, Pierre, 626 
Belper, 339 
Belshazzar, 87, 455 
Belvedere Apollo, 51a 
Belzoni, 704 
Bern, General, 424, 630a 
Ben Musa, MohHmmed, 31 
Benalcasar, Sebastian, 709 
Benchor, 94 
Benedict College, 250 
Benedict, St., 2a 
Benezet, Anthony, 784a 
Beunet, St. , 112 
Bentinck, Lord William, 901a 
Bentivenga, Baron, 779a 
Bentley, Eiehard, 393a 
Beranger, 357a 
Berbir, 389 

Berengaria of Navarre, 723a 
Berengarius, 115a 
Berghem, L.,281 
Bergomum, 116 
Berhampore, 433 
Berkeley Castle, 322o 
Berkeley, Dr., 223a 
Berkeley Suit, 200 
Bermudez, J. , 117 
Bemadotte, Marshal, 820a 
Bemardines, 113a 
Bernard, St., 260a 
Bernard, St., & St. Margaret's Col- 
lege, Cambridge, 707 
Bemburg (Auhalt), 47 
Bemicia, 274a 
BernouUli, Daniel, 807a 
Beraea, 29 

Berthelet, Thomas, 696a 
Bertlin, St. , 804a 
Berytus, 118a, 303 
Bessemer, Henry, 442a, 808a 
Bethencourt, John de, 19, 175a 
Betterton, 291a 
Beulah Spa, 612 
Bewick, Thos., 328 
Byzantine, 162 
Bi:is, 392 
Bibasis. 818a 
Bibeny Reservoir, 417 
Bibrax, 478 
Bigastro, 188a 
Bigorra, 827 
Big Ben, 422a 
Bijyanagur, 91 
BUbilis, 166a 
Binnenhof, 401a 
Biorgas, 138 
Birague, C, 281 
Birkbeck, Dr., 549 
Biru, 658a 
Biscay, 103a 

Biscoe, Capt., 12, 48a, 793a 
Biscop, Benedict, 382 
Bishopsgate, 503 
Bishop's Hatfield, 406a 
Bishops in Partibua, 124a 
Bissextile, 482 
Bituriges, 138 

Bivar, Eodrigo Diaz de, 785 
Black, Dr., 408 
Black, George, 497 
Black Amid, 282 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Black Code, 784 

Blackdowu Hill, (Somersetshire), 

895a 
Blacking, 776 
Black Prince, 256, 908 
Black Scribe, 629 
Blaew, William Jansen, 697 
Blagrave, Sir John, 830a 
Blake, Admiral, 324, 829 
Blake, W., 201a 
Blanques, 516a 
Blase, St., 908 
Blazonry, 411a 
Blenheim Palace, 908 
Blenkinsop, Mr., 711 
Blessed Marie of Eton College, 332a 
Bligh, Capt. , 16, 137a, 141a 
Blockheads (Academy), 7a 
Block Machinery, 855a 
Blondin, Mens., 602a 
Blood, Colonel, 674a, 717a, 846 
Bloody Bill, or Statute, 323a, 783 
Bloody Queen Mary, 544 
Blot-monath, 613 
Blucher, Marshal, 700a 
Blue-bottle, 128a 
Blue Cloaks and Gowns, 53 
Blue-coat School, 213a 
Blue Mountains, 81a 
Blue River, 604 
Boarii, 161 

Boar's Head Tavern, 829a 
Bob Booty, 110 
Boccaccio, 446a, 849 
Boccauegro, Simon, 372a 
Bockhold, John, 43 
Bodenstein, Andreas, 716a 
Bodley, Sir T., 129a 
Boeotian Migration, 17, 129 a 
Bogarmitse, 130 
Bogdania, 570 
Bogue Forts, 129a, 209 
Boia, 667a 
Boii, 106, 130, 370 
Bois Viucennes, 410a 
'Bojano, 138a 
Bolan Pass, 112a 
Boleyn, Queen Anne, 323a, 411 
Bolingbroke, 410a 
Bolivar, 232, 874 
Bombazine, 612 
Bona, 31a 

Bonaparte, Joseph, 585 
Bonhomme, Jacques, 449 
Bononia. 131a, 137 
Book, The, 119a 
Book of Mormon, 479 
Book of Torgau, 844 
Boot, B. de, 281 
Bora, Catherine de, 521 
Borbetomagus, 909a 
Bordarii, 880a 
Borde, Andrew, 555a 
Border Marriages, 395a 
Border Service, 263 
Borgo, San-Sepolcro, 303 
Borolawski, 301 
Boscobel, 614a 
Bospor, 462a 
Boston Port BiU, 860 
Botanical Society, 369 
Bottcher, J. F., 292a 
Bottle Kiot, 725a 
Boucan, 153a 
BougainvUle, 217 
Boughaleen Bawins, 899a 
Boughton, 180 
Bouillon, Godfrey de, 452a 
Boulogne. 283a 
Boultou, Matthew, 807 
Bound, Dr., 816 
Bourdeaux, 353 
Bouges les Bains, 137a 
Bom'sa, 153 
Bousfield, Wm., 337 
Bows and Arrows, 57a 



Boydell, Alderman, 150a 

Boy Crusade, 667 

Boyer, 407a 

Boyle, Hon. R., 139, 204a, 315a 

Bozzaris, Marco, 393 

Brahanciones, 139 

Bradbury, Henry, 590 

Bradley, 489 

Brae-mar (Aberdeenshire), 543 

Brahe, Comit, 820a 

Braid wood, Mr., 502a 

Braidwood, Mr. Thomas, 272a 

Bran, or the Sieve (Academy), 7a 

Brancaleoue, 733 

Brandreth, Jeremiah, 336 

Brandt, 664a 

Brand wiue, 140 

Bratuspantium, 108a 

Biay, Dr. Thomas, 789 

Bread Street, 141 

Bread and Cheese Land, 120a 

Bread and Cheese War, 415 

Breaking on the Wheel, 899a 

Breckinridge, John, 863 

Brecon Independent College, 430a 

Bredalbane, 383 

Brendan, St., 222a 

Brennus, 370 

Brentius, 858 

Brescia, Angela da, 865a 

Bretagne, 148a 

Breteuil, 111 

Brethren, 213 

Brethren of the Holy Trinity, 850a 

Brethren of the Redemption of 

Captives, 851 
Breton Club, 224, 448a 
Brett, Jacob, 813 
Bretwalda, 148 
Brewster, Sir David, 149a, 460a, 

622, 809 
Brian Boru, 222a 
Bride-bush, 143a 
Bride-stake, 143a 
Bride-wain, 143a 
Bridget, St., 143a, 145 
Brigantes, 146 
Briggs, Henry, 498 
Bright, Mr., of Essex, 249a 
Brighthelmstone, 145 
Brimstone Hill, 213a 
Brinvilliers, Marchioness of, 676 
Britain, Lesser, 64 
Britain's Burse, 160 
Britannia Metal, 841 
Britannia Septentrionalis, 886 
Britaimicus, 146 
British Columbia, 385a 
British Pompeii, 865a 
British Society of Fisheries, 345a 
Brivates Portus, 142a 
Brixia, 142a 
Broadcloth, 223 
Broadcage, 711 
Brocage, 151a 
Brock, Lieutenant, 402 
Brocour, 151a 
Broggers, 151a 
Broke, Captain, 206 
Bromwycham, 121a 
Brook, Robert, 481a 
Brooke, Sir James, 135, 754a 
Brooks, Preston, 862a 
Brotherhood of God, 853 
Brotherhood of St. George, 440 
Brotherhood of St. Thomas Becket, 

554a 
Brougham, Lord, 275a, 588a 
Broughton, Captain, 869 
Brown Bakers' Company, 91 
Brown, John, Captain, 405a, 784 
Brown, Mr. William, 495a 
Browne, George, 716a 
Browne, R., 151a 
Brownrigg, Mrs., 336 
Bruce, Edwai-d, 440 



Bruchium, 30 

Brue, 19a 

Biueys, Peter de, 660a 

Bi-ugie, 144a 

Brundusium, 145a 

Brun6, 135 

Brunei, Mr. I. K., 711. 834 

Brunei, Sir M. 1 , 855a 

Brunfels, Otto, 589a 

Bruno, Giordano, 639 

Bruno Picus, 152a 

Brunshauseu Tolls, 804a 

Brusola, 153 

Brutus, Lucius Junius, 730 

Brutus, Marcus, 732 

Bucentaur, 15a 

Buchan, Mrs. E.,154 

Buchanan, George, 765 

Buckingham, Duke of, 324, 382a 

Buckingham House, London, 154a 

Buckingham House, Oxford, 528a 

Bucko wina, 267 

Budorum, 748 

Buffalo, 126a 

Buffetiers, 912a 

Buffnn, Count, 374 

Bugia, 31a 

Bularchus, 634 

Bulla, 155a 

Bull- running, 156 

Bunarbashi, 428 

Bunder Abbas, 386a 

Bundschuh, 650 

Bun go, 451 

Bunhill Fields, 195a 

Bunsen, Chevalier, 315a 

Bunyan, John, 109 

Buonaparte Island, 137a 

Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 634a, 

766a 
Buoncompagni, 856 
Buononcini, Giovanni, 620a, 738 
Bura, 8a 

Burckhardt, 285a 
Burdett, Sir Francis, 325, 589a, 

717. 725 
Burdisala, 134a 
Burgh, 135 
Bui-gonet, 409 
Burguudian Faction, 62 
Biiriates, 778 

Burke, Edmund, 325, 738a 
Burke. William, 158a, 337 
Burnel Ai-ton, 11 
Bumey MSS. , 151 
Burns, Rohei-t, 765a 
Burr, Aaron, 861 
BuiTa-Burra Mines, 245, 793 
Busby, Richard, 898 
Buskins 776 
Busra, 104 
Buss, or Box, 161 
Bussorah, 104 
Butis, 776 

Butler, Samuel, 758 
Bwutais, 776 
Bycoket, 1 
Bylot, Capt., 58a 
Byng, Admiral, 324a 
Byrom, Dr., 777 
Byron, Commodore, 217, 686a 
Byron, Lord, 325a, 519a 
Byrsa, 187a 
By town, 628 
Byzas, 162a 

CABALLTtniM, 198 

Cabbala, 163 

Cabillonum, 198 

Cabiri, 581a 

Cabot, John, 7a, 39a, 174, 610a 

Cabot, Sebastian, 58a, 174, 181, 

348, 422a, 672(i, 724a 
Cabval, P. A.,140a 
Cabreus, St.,230a 
Cabriolets, 163, 225 

3 o 



930 



THE MA]S-UAL OF DATES. 



Ca da Mosto, 19a 


Caposecco, 877 


Cathem,165 


Cadmeis, 129a 


Capreae, 182 


Cathom, l»j5 


Cadmus, 391a 


Capsa, 200a 


Cato the Younger, 866a 


Cadoudal, Georges, 374 


CapsiDgmoon, 209 


CatropitsB, 22 


CadwaUader, 886 


Captain General, 571a 


Cattarus, 193 


Caer- Colin, 230 


Captains of Liberty, 372a 


Catti, 361, 412a 


Caer-Gwent, 903a 


Caracciolo, Prince, 585 


Cattle Market (Islington), la, 559 


Caer-lso, 337a 


Caractacus, 146 


Cattle-mills, 564 


Caerleon, 206, 272 


Carafifa,, John Peter, 835 


Caudium, 193 


Caer Meguaid, 531a 


Caralis, 165a 


Cavaignac, General, 356a, 357a 


Caer-Rydh, 337a 


Caramandi, 852 


Cavalcrius, 554 


Cjesar, Julius, 289, 732 


Caranus, 525 


Ca vail OS, 30.3a 


Cfesarean Operation, 562 


Carapanatuba River, 5a 


Cavendish, Captain, 40 


Csesaroburgus, 2lio 


Carbeas, 647 


Cavendish, Henry, 204a, 315a, 426 


Caesareia Augusta, 754 


Carcaso, 183a 


Cavilham, P.,6a 


Csesaromagus, 108a 


Cardan, J., 272a 


Cavoui-, C"unt, 447a, 757 


Cagliari Steamer, 585 


Cardan's rule, 31 


Caxton, William, 696a 


Cahera, 166 


Cardinal abbots, 3 


Ceciliau Society, 238 


Caieta, 365a 


Cardinal College, 213 


Cecropia, 75 


Cainians, 166 


Carding Machine, 908a 


Cecrops, 60, 75, 391a 


Cajetan, Cardinal, 520a 


Carduchi, 472a 


Celestial Empire, 207a 


Calamine, 916 


Caredigion, 184 


Celle, 915a 


Calamis, 400 


Caretta, 225 


Cellier, Mrs., 548 


Calas, Jean, 845 


Carey, Dr. Henry, 588 


Celsus, 44, 494a, 753. 815 


Caluuith, 204 


Cariay, 577 


Centumcellw, 219 


Calderon, 233a 


Caribs, 184a, 395 


Centurioue, 9 


Cale, 621a 


Car^gnan, Prince, 585a 


Cephallenia, 195a 


Calem, 621a 


Carinthia,82a 


Cephrenes, 704 


Caliph, 55 


Carloman, 3a, 107 


Cerasus, 205a 


Calippus of Cyzicus, 169, 265a 


Carlstadt, 300a 


Cercamp,192j 


Cali^thenes, 525 


Carlstadt, Andreas, 716a 


Cerchi. 119 


Calixtus, G., 169a 


Cai-math, 185a 


Cerdagne, 98 


Callicrates, 645 


Carmelitesses, 186 


Cereales,16a 


Callinicus, 393a 


Carnian Festival, 800a 


Cerigo, 266a 


CaUipolis, 366a 


Carnifices, 161 


Cerinthus, 50a, 196 


Calliste, 836 


Caroburgum, 205 


Cervantes, Miguel, 485, 795a 


Caloric, 408 


Carolana, 186 


Ceiynea, 8a 


Calpe, 380, 709a 


Caroline Code, 186a. 437a 


Chadwick, Mr. Edwin, 753 


Calton Hill, 300a 


Caroline Islands, 598 


Chain mail, 64 


Calverley, Walter, 695 


Caroline Matilda of Denmark, 


Chalcean festival, 391a 


Calvin, John. 170, 372, 716a 


915a 


Chaleb, 29 


Calycudnus River, 377 


Caroline, Queen, 275a 


Chalmers, Dr. , 361a 


Cam, Diego, 19a, 915 


Caroline, Steamer, 861a 


Chalouer & Tomkius, 888a 


Camaldolites, 170a 


Cai-pocrates, 186a 


Chalybs, 808 


Camalodunum, 104a, 230 


Carr, Rev. W. HoweU, 589 


Chambers, Sir W., 463, 791a 


Camaxacum, 170a 


Carracks, 775a 


Chambre Ardente, 343a 


Camars, 224a 


Carrier, J. B., 294, 613 


Cliambre de I'Edit, 644 


Camber Castle, 903a 


Carta de Logu. 7.55 


Chambre des Enqufites, 644 


Camboricum, 171a 


Carte the Historian. 481 


Chambre des Plaids, 644 


Cambria, 886 


Carteret, Capt., 81 


Chambre des Refiu6tes,644 


Camden Town, London, 501a 


Carthagh, St., 493a 


Chambre Grande, 644 


Camden, William, 898a 


Carthusians, 113a 


Chambre Royale. 644 


Camelopard, 381 


Cartier, J:iC(iues, 40, 174 


Champagne Wine, 905 


Cameron, John, 173 


Cart Wright, Thomas, 15 


Champ de Mars Parliaments, 343a 


Cameron, Richard, 172a 


Cartwriiht, Dr. Edwax-d, 252a, 


Champerty, 198a 


Camoens, 520a 


807a, 908a 


Champlilte,W.,9 


Campanile, 874 


Cashgar, 461a 


Champs El>s6es, 642 


Campbell, Captain, 3a3 


Caskets, The, 28 


ClianctUor, Richard, .57, 610 


Campbell, Sir Colin, 194a, 433 


Caslon, WUliam, 696a 


Changarnier, General, 356a 


CampbeU, Thomns, 504 


Caspatyrus, 189 


Chang-Rub, 304 


Campian the Jesuit, 323a 


Caspiria, 189 


Chapiueys, 776a 


Campo Malduli, 170a 


Cass, Lewis, 863 


Chapoo, 209a 


Camuloduuum, 533a 


Cassander, 76 


Ch.apter House, We.stminster, 421a 


Cancelll, 199 


Cassian, John, 2a, 769 


Charcoal-burners, 183a 


Cancellieri, 119 


Castegaio, 220a 


Char--gites, 451 


Candace, Queen, 6a, 332 


Cassius, Caius, 732 


Chares, 233 


Candeish, 463 


Cassius, Sp., 22 


Charrord, 196 


Candelabrum, 176 


Cassivelaunus, 851a 


Charlemagne, 23a, 733 


Candiotes, 175a 


Castel Giubileo, 343a 


Charles, Rev. Mr., 310a 


Cangu, 146 


Castrllio, 426a 


Charles V., 3a, 23a. 4.59a 


Cannes, 355a 


Castelneau, Pierre de, 436a 


Charles XU. of Sweden, 361a 


Canniiig, Rt. Hon. George, 176a, 


CastiUos, 190 


Charles et Georges, Slaver, 691, 


325a, 365 


Castle of the Legion, 165 


785 


Canning's Corn BUI, 248a 


Castriot, George, 25a 


Charlesbourg, 174 


Canopy Farthing, 706a 


Castrum Novum, 621a 


Charlestown (Massachusetts), 545 


Canrobert. General, 745 


Castrum Solodui-ense, 790 


Charlotte Dundas, Steamei-, 807a 


Cantaber, 171a 


Casween, 189 


Charlotte, Princess, 325a 


Cantatas, 580 


Catalaui, Madame, 620 


Charlynch, 20a 


Canusium, 179 


Catana, 191a 


Charta Bombycina, 640 


Caoutchouc, 434 


Catawba Wine, 905 


Charta de Fortsta, 350a 


Cape Augustine, 140a 


Catelauni, 198 


Chai-t«r RoUs, 202a 


CapeUa, 200a 


Catesby, Robert, 399a 


Charter, People's, 202a, 325a 


Cape Nothing, 174 


Cathari, 26, 192 


Chartreux, Convent, 66, 188a, 203 


Capitation Tax. 679 


Catherine of Arragon, 411 


Chatham, Lord, 325 


Capitoltaus, Manlius, 730a 


Catherine of Braganza, 324 


Chathuant, 212a 


Capo d'Istrias, Count, 393, 587 


Catherine-wheel, 192a 


Chaturanga, 206 



GENERAL INDEX. 



931 



Chaucer, Geoffrey, 676 

Chauci, 361 

Chauliac, Guy de, 550 

Chazars, 257a 

CheJchey, 204a 

Chelcith, 204a 

Chelc hethe, 204a 

Chemi, 312 

Cheops, 704 

Chequers, Sign of the, 436 

Cherchfelle, 719 

Chereburgum, 205; 

Cherokees, 609 

Cherrits, Dirk, 793a 

Cherusci, 361 

Cheselden, Dr., 817 

Cheshunt Indepeudent College, 

430a 
Chest, The, 203a 
Chester-le-Street, 300 
Chester Mysteries, 291 
Cheth, 4l4a 

Chetham, Humphrey, 487a 
Chevalier de St. George, Gdoa 
Chevreuil, Mofs., 384 
Childersley, 417 
Child Pilgiimages, 667 
Chiliasts, 564 
Chilon, 392 
Chineha Islands, 397 
Chinna-Puttun, 527 
Chioon, 410 
Chiropast, 498 
Chisrum Labyrinth, 473a 
Chinsi, 224a 
Chladni, 10 
Cholin, 472 
Chopines, 776a 
Choral Society, 238 
Chorasmia, 463a 
Chotyn, 212 
Chrestians, 213 
Christina, 3a 
Chi-istodins, 38a, 213 
Christophe, 407a 
Chronoscope, 367a 
Chrysopolis, 766a 
Chulkhurst, E. & M., 121 
Church Discipline Act, 221a 
Churchfield, 719 
Church Rpeves, 214a 
Church Wakes, 321 
Chuttannuttee, 115 
Gibber, CoUey, 676 
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 663, 732, 

776a, 779 
Cid Canjpeador, 157, 795 
Cimabue, Giovanni, 634a 
Ciminus, Lake, 302a 
" Cimmerian Gloom," 215a 
Clncinnatus, L. Quiuctixis, 730a 
Cintra, Pedro de, 19a 
Circassian Dynasty, 134a 
Circeliones, 22 
Circensian Games, 730 
Circumcelliones, 22 
Circutores, 22 
Cirrbsean War, 391a 
Cisalpine Gaul, 370 
City of David, 453 
City of the Tribes, 367a 
Ciudad de los lleyes, 490a 
Civil Club, 224 
Civitas Episcoporum, 631a 
Clapperton, Captain, 604, 746 
Clara montauum, 222 
Clarendon, Lord, b24 
Clari chord, 220a 
Clarken-Well, 221a 
Clark es- Well, 221a 
Clai-kson, Thomas, 784a 
Clarus Mons., 222 
Claudia, 469 
Claudiopolis, 469 
Clausentium, 792a 
Claverhouse, Lord Dundee, 67'la 



Clay, Heniy, 784, 862a 

Clayton Tunnel, 326a 

Clazemona Island, 48a 

" Clear The Causeway " riot, 309 

Cleche, 92 

Cleisthenes, 627a 

Clemeiit, Jacques, 353a 

Cleobulus, 392 

Cleomenes, 766a 

Cleopatra IL, 313 

Cleopatra's Needle, 615a 

Cleostratus, 265a 

Clergy Reserves, 175 

Clerici, 221 

Gierke, Captain, 58a 

Clermont (Count of), 19 

Clerus, 221 

Cletus, St., 259 

Clevum, 383 

Cliff (Kent), 223a 

Clissold, Mr. P., 572 

Clitus, 525 

Clive, Lord, 115, 126. 431a 

Cloaca Maxima, 57 

Clodoald, St., 223 

Clogs, 34a 

Clossynge, 223 

Cloth (Cbippenham) 211 

Clotilde of Savoy, Princess, 357a, 
756 

Clouet, Jeannet, 634a 

Clowns, 453a 

Cluain-fois, 853a 

Club-ball, 2.57a 

Cluniacensians, 224a 

Clymer, Mr. George, 697 

Coal Tar, 827 

Cobbett, William, 341 

Cobbler's Wax, 776 

Cobham, Lord, 323, 499 

Cobler, Captain, 674 

Cocceius, J., 223a 

Cocos Islands, 461a 

Cod and Houk Factions, 460 

Code Civil des Prangais, 228 

Codex Canonum, 177a 

Codicils, 902a 

Codrus, 58 

Ccelestine V., 3 

Coelho, Duarte, 69a, 655a 

Coethen (Anhalt), 47 

Colbert, 354, 384 

Cold-water Ciii-e, 426 

Oolechurch, Peter of, 503 

Colepepijer, William, 462a 

Coles, Capt. Cowper Phipps, 808 

Colet, John, 648 

Coligny, 140a 

Collar (Order of), 48 

College of Justice, 16a 

Collinson, Capt., 360 

Collop Monday, 777a 

CoU> rides, 231a 

Colman, Mrs., 11a 

Colman, St., 223a, 293a 

ColO'Otroni, 393 

Colouia Agrippiua, 231a 

Colonia del Sacramento, 747a 

Colonial Department, 4a 

Colorado River, 40 

Colosvar, 469 

Colt, Colonel Samuel, 722 

Columba, St., 2a, 262, 438a, 763a, 
818a 

Columbia College, 602 

Columbian Archipelago, 897 

Columbian College, 891a 

Columbian Press, 697 

Columbus, Christopher, 39a, 183, 
261a, 271, 395, 397, 398, 407, 
419, 449, 543a, 577, 638, 750a, 
795, 817, 868a, 881, 904 

Combe, George, 665 

Combing Machine, 908a 

Comes, 2.52a 

Comitia Centuriata, 730 



Commendatory Abbots, la 
Commissioners of Woods and 

Forests, 350a 
Committee of Council on Educa- 
tion, 331 

Common Lodging - Houses Act, 

753 
Communal Militia, 435 
Company of the Indies, 480« 
Complutum, 237a 
Comum, 236a 

Comyn, Sir John, 764 
Concert Spirituel, '237a 

Conceptualists, 606a 

Conciliation, Courts of, 56 

Concilium, 252a 

Cond6, 138 

Condenser, 807 

Condivicnum, 583a 

Condiviucum, 583a 

Condor cet, 275 

Conferences, Isle of, 340 

Confession of the Westminster As- 
sembly, 256a 

Confession Tuesday, 777a 

Confessio Tetrapolitana, 833 

Confluentes, 226 

Confrai-ie de la Passion, 291 

Confucius, 208 

Congiaria, 516a 

Congregationalists, 430a 

Congreve, Sir W"., 239a, 727a 

Conimbrica, 228a 

Conlaeth, St., 4t)4 

Couradin of Swabia, 377 

ConscriiJti, 769 

Conseils de Prud'hommes, 56a 

Consentia, 251a 

Consilium Ordinarium, 806 

Constautia, 61 

Constantiua, 31a 

Constantine of Samosata, 647 

Constitutional Information So- 
ciety, 250 

Constitutiouists, 8 

Constructive trea.=;on, 77 

Conte Crayons, 255a 

Conti, Nicolo di, 815 

Continents, 321 

Convent Garden, 254a 

Conventuals, yiSa 

Conversations Lexicon, 321a 

Convocation Book, 285 

Convulsionaiies, 244 

Conwy, 244 

Conyers, 8ir John, 674 

Cooch Behar, 134a 

Cook, Captain, 16, 4Sa, 58a., 81, 217 
628, 632, 687, 7.52«, 79:Ja 

Coojjer, James Feniuiore, 862 

Cooper, Sir Astley, 817 

Coote, Sir Eyre, 432, 527a 

Copernicus, Nicholas, 74, 245, 790 

Coracles, 775 

Coram, Captain, 352 

Corcyra Nigra, 264 

Corday, Charlotte. 355 

Cordova, Hernandez, 914(1 

Corduba, 243 

Cordyeue, 472at 

Curfinium, 652 

Coriueus, 248a 

Corinium, 217a 

Corinth (U.S),864 

Corinthes, 2o3 t 

Corio Harbour, 371 

Coriolanus, 730, 883 

Coriospitum, 708 i 

Cornaro, Lewis, 505 

Cornette, 264 

Cornouailles, 148 * 

Cornwall. See of, 338a 

Comwallis, Lord, 432 

Corps Le^islatif, 279 

Corpus Domini, Feast of, 341a 

Corpus Jiuis Cauonici, i77a 
3 o 2 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Cortereal, Caspar de, 39f/, 174,610a 


Covscu^— {continued). 


Court of Marshalsea, 129 


Cortes, Hernando, 40, 5o9a 


London, 500 


Courvoisier, F. B.. 337 


Corybantes, 581a 


Lyons, 523 


Coutumier de Normaudie, 34;j 


Corythus, 251 


Madrid, 527a 


Couvre-feu, 263 


Cosin's Hall (Durham), SOO 


Mantua, 539 


Cove of Cork, 707a 


Coslin, 472 


Mayence, 547a 


Coventry, Sir J., 255 


Coster, Laixrence, 696 


Meaux, 548a 


Coverdale, MUes, 120, 224a 


Coste, Moas, 633 


Melim, 553 


Covilham, 19a 


Cotereaux, 139 


Mentz, 547a 


Cowel, 8a 


Cothui-iii, 776 


Metz, 559a 


Cowper, Mr. E., 697 


Cotrone, 259 


Milan, 562a 


Cozumel Cross, 555 


Cotta, 197 


MUevis, 52 


Crakeys of War, 67 


Cottari, 880a 


3IoutpelUer, 573a 


Cranauh, Lucas, 697 


Cottiar, 197a 


Mopseustia, 575 


Cranfield, Thomas, 710 


Cotton, Sir B. B., 150a, 252 


Nantes, 584 


Cranion, 170 


Coulan. 708a 


Naples, 587 


Crank Motion, 807a 


Coulomb, 530a 


Narbonne, 587 


Cranmer, Archbishop, 323a, 540. 


Council of Education, Sll 


Nicsea, 603 


632 


CouncU of Ten, 872a 


Orange, 272 


Crassus, Marcus. 645 


Councils :— 


Orleans 272, 625a 


Crediton, See of. 338a 


Agda, 20a 


Osnaburg, 627 


Crenides, 662a 


Aix, 23a 


Paderbom, 633a 


Creole, Brig, 861, 862 


Aix-la-ChapeUe, 24 


Padua, 634 


Ci-escent Water, Harrogate, 406 


Albi, 26 


Palenoia, 636 


Crete, 175a 


AJlbon, 272 


Palermo, 636 


Crete, Labyi-inth of, 473a 


Ancyra, 45 


Pampeluna, 638a 


CrichtoD, James, 477 


Angers, 46 


Paris, 641a 


Crimean Me<ials, 326 


Antioch, 49a 


Pavia, 649 


Ciistofori, Bartolonuneo, 665a 


AquUeia, 54 


Pei-gamus, 252a, 655 


Croinedone. 259a 


Ai-abia, 55 


Perpignan, 656 


Croker, J. W.. 241 


Aries, 61 


Pei-sia, 656a 


Cromford, 808 


Astorga, 73 


Pisa, 668a 


Crompton, Samuel, 252a, 578a 


Autun, 84 


Poitiei-s, 676a 


CromweU, Earl of Essex, 32aa 


Avignon, 85 


Plague. 694 


Cromwell's Bible, 120 


Bamberg, 93 


Quiercy, 157a 


Crouenberg Castle, 318 


BarceJona, 98 


Quiercy-sm--Oise, 464 


Crosby Place, 258a 


Bari, 98a 


Batisbon, 714 


Crosiered Abbots, 3 


Basel, 102a 


Eavenna, 714a 


Cross, St., Hospital, 903a 


Becancelde, 109 


Beading, 715 


Cross TaiTic, 422a 


Benevento, 114a 


Eennes, 720 


Croton Aqueduct, 54 


Berkhamstead, 116a 


Kheims, 722a 


Croton Waterworks, 602a 


Bologna, 132 


Biga, 724 


Crouched Friars, 259 


Bordeaux, 134a 


Eimini, 724 


Crow Street Theatre Eiots, 295a 


Bourges, 138a 


Borne, 729a 


Crustumium, 260 


Bi-aga, 160n, 214a 


Bouen, 737a 


Cryptse, 191 


Breslau, 142a 


Saintes, 748 


Ctesias. 72a 


Brixen, 179a 


Salamanca, 748 


Ctesibicae machinae, 702a 


Buda, 154a 


Salona, 749a 


Ctesibius, 221, 426a, 624a, 702a 


Burgos, 157 


Salzburg. 750a 


Cubitt, Sir William, 848a 


CcBsareia, 165 


Sardica, 754a 


Cugnot, TheophUua, 807 


Caii-o, 166 


Saumur, 758a 


CuirBouUU,409 


Calcuith, 204 


Senlis, 769a 


Cularo, 395 


Cambi-ay, 171 


Sens, 770 


Cuneo, 240 


Cai-thage, 188 


Sirmium, 783 


Cunha, Tristan de, 526a 


Chalcedon, 197a 


Sleswig, 785a 


Cunios, The Two, 328 


Chelsea, 48 


Soissons, 789a 


Curd Dynasty, 912a 


Clermont, 222 


Spalatro, 799a 


Ciire of Souls, 113a 


Cloveshoo, 223a 


Sutri, 818a 


Curetes, 581a 


Cobleutz, 226 


TarragoDa, 828 


Cui-ia MUitaris, 510a 


Cologne, 231a 


Tarsus, 828a 


Cun-, Mr. J..hn, 710a 


Compidgne, 237a 


Tiben, 63a 


Currie, Dr. James, 426 


Constance, 241a 


Toledo, 843a 


Cursus, 143 


Constantinople, 242a 


Toulouse, 845 


Curtius. M., 730a 


Ci-acow, 255 


Trent, 849 


Curules, 16a 


Cyprus, 266 


Treves, 849a 


Cush, 6a, 332 


Diamper, 281a 


Troyes, 853 


Custodes Regni, 515a. 718 


Dijon, 283 


Tuluje, 853 


Cuvier, Baron, 635, 916a 


Ephesus, 329 


Tyre, 857a 


Cuvierian Society of Paxis, 916a 


Ferrara, 342a 


Valence, 868 


Cyaxares, 656a 


Florence, 348 


Yalencia, 868a 


Cycle of the Moon, 386 


Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 359a 


Vannes, 8a. 


Cylon, 75a 


Gangra, 43a, 195 


Venice, 874a 


Cyuosarges, 265a 


Gaza, 371 


Vercelli, 875 


Cypselian Dynasty, 247 


General Councils, 371a 


Vienna, 879 


Cyreian Greeks, Betum of the, 


Gerona, 379a 


Vienne. 372, 880 


720a 


Grado, 389 


Westminster, 897a 


Cyren*, 266a 


Hatfield, 406a 


Winchester, 904 


Cyi-iacus, St., 5a, 259 


Hertford, 412a 


Windsor. 904a 


Cymus, 250a 


Iconium, 427a 


Worcester, 9u9 


Cyi-us, 656a 


Kiersy, 157a, 464 


Woi-ms, 909a 


Czaiina, 266a 


Laou, 478 


Couaterblast to Tobacco, 842a 


Czarowitz, 266a 


Laterau, 478a 


Counters, 126a 


Czeches, 130a 


Lausanne, 479a 


Countess, 301a 


Czernigof, 829a 


Leon, 485 


Coup d'etat, 356a 




Limoges, 491a 


Court de Bone Compagnie, 223a 


Daoiccs, 267 


Lisieux, 493a 


Courtenay, Sir William, 837a 


Dadalua, 759a, 775 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



Dremonologie, 906 

Dagon, 69 

Daguerre, Mons., 267a, 664a 

Daily Courant, 599a 

D'Ait-Gaoua, 916a 

Dale, David, 598 

Dalmatlcus, 268 

D' Almeida, Dr., 400 

Dalton, Dr., 77 

Damianus, 268a, 647a 

Damiens, 354a 

Damocrates, 568 

Dampier, Capt. , 81, 217 

Dampierre, 410a 

Dauaus, 775, 896 

Dance Macabre, 268a 

Dane Money, 269 

Dangerfiekl, 548 

Daniel, 455 

Dante Aligheri, 119, 446a, 849 

Danton, 246, 355 

Danvers, Colonel, 674a 

D'Aquila, Serafino, 430 

D'Argon, Chevalier, 347a 

D'Arezzo, Guido, 368a 

Dargan, W., 296 

Dariorigum, 870 

Darling, Grace, 351 

Darnley, Lord, 309 

D'Aubray, Margaret, 676 

Dauphiny, 271a, 353 

Davenant, Sir W., 291a, 620a, 675a 

David, 118 

David-Gregorians, 271a 

David, St., 272, 886 

Davis, Captain John, 40, 58a, 272, 

705 
Davis, Jefferson, 863 
Davis, Sir- J. F., 208a 
Davis's Quadrant, 88 
Davy, Sir Humphrey, 272, 315a, 

367a, 654, 747, 826a 
Dawson, Jemmy, 462 
Day, Mr., of Wapping, 339a 
Dead Weight Annuity, 364a 
Deane, Mr., 356a 
De Balboa, Vasco Nunez, 40, 271 
Decapitation, 267 
Decebalus, 967 
Deceleian War, 392 
Decennaries, 361 
Decumanorum Colonia, 587 
De Falsa Moneta Statute, 229a 
Defendei-s of the Honour of Divine 

Providence, Order of, 456a 
Defoe, Daniel, 758a 
Deheubarth, 886 
Deists, 5a 

De la Rue, Mr. Warren, 815 
Delia Crusca Academy, 348 
Delmenhorst, 277a 
Delmiuium, 267a 
Demetrias, 780 
Demetrius, 76 
Democritus, 563a 
De Molay, Jacques, 832 
De Montfort, Jane, 409a 
De Montfort, Simon, 334 
Demosthenes, 663 
De Mota, 69a 

Demotic Hieroglyphics, 413a 
Denis, St., 276a, 641a 
Denmark House (London), 790a 
Denys le Petit, 48 
Deoghir, 209a 
Depnldgisticated Muriatic Acid, 

211a 
Depth of the Sea, 792a 
Derby House, 411a 
Derry, 503 
Dertona, 844 
Dertosa, 844a 
De Ruyter, 416 
Derwentwater, Earl of, 324a 
Desaguliers, Dr., 874a 
Descartes, 374, 489, 622 



Desideri, 69a 

Des Marteaux, G., 327o 

Des Moulins, C, 246 

Diaz, Juan, 40, 672a 

De Solis, 724a 

De Sousa, Martin Alfonso, 724a 

Dessalines, 407a 

Dessau (Anhalt), 47 

Deucalion's TJeluge, 276a 

Deus ex Machina, 847 

Deva, 206 

Devonshire, See of, 338a 

De Witt, John, 401a 

Day, 32 

Diabolicum Parliamentum, 253 

Di Borgo, L. P., 31 

Diaper, 914a 

Diaz, Bartholomew, 19a, 181 

Dibio, 28;i 

Dibutades, 568a 

Dicsearchia, 703a 

Dictionnaii-e de la Conversation, 

321a 
Dido, Queen. 187, 664 
Dies Dominica, 815a 
Dies Jovis, 839 
Dies Martis, 854 
Dies Panis, 815a 
Dies Solis, 815a 
Difference Engine, 167 
Dillwyn.William, 784a 
Diocletian, 3a 
Diocletian (sera of), 17 
Diodora, 915 
Diogenes, 265a 
Diogenes Laertius, 7 
Diomedes, 636a 
Dion, 778a 
Dionysia, 391a 
Dioxjysias, 8'23a, 905 
Dioptrics, 622 
Diosoorides, 589a 
Dioscoridis Insula, 789 
Diospolis, 477a 
Diphthevite, 283a 
Dii-ham, Gloucestershire, 278a 
Diruviauus, 382a 
Discus, 709 

Diseases Prevention Act, 753 
Disraeli , Mi-., 717a 
Distaff's, St., Day, 284a 
Divico, 409a 
Divining-rod, 285 
Divio, 283 
Divitiacus, 146 
Divodui-um, 559 
Djeab Ibn-Dirhem, 471a 
Djidda, 452 
D'joun, 780 
Docetes, 285rt 
Dodd, Mr. H., 291a 
Dodd, Rev. Dr., 338 
Dogana, 874 
Doggett, T., 286a 
Doitkin, 286a 
Dola, 287 
Dolciuo, 287 
Dollond, J., 9a 
Dolly's Brae, 725a 
Dolon, 233a, 290a 
Dominica in Albis Sunday, 518 
Domingo, St., 407a 
Dominick, St., 287a, 436a, 735a 
Dominus, Antonio de, 712a 
Domitilla, 656 
Douati, 119 
Donautus, 288 
Don Cossacks, 251a 
Dongo, 46a 
Donizetti, 621 
Don Quixote, 469, 795a 
Dooab, 432 
Dordrecht, 288a 
Doringi, 838a 
Dorpt, 288a 
Doughtie, T., 290a 



Douglas, George, 497 

Douglas, Stephen, 863 

Dove, William, 337 

Draco, 75a, 272a, 391a, 480 

Dracones, 290 

Dragut, 852 

Drake, Sir F., 40, 149, 150, 217, 

290a, 431, 624a, 633a 
Drebbel, Cornelius, 561a 
Drepanum, 330a 
Dripping, 141a 
Droitwich, 750 
Dromores, 366a 

Drummond, Captain Thomas, 490a 
Di-usus, 732 

Dryden, John, 133a, 676, 758 
Duacum, 288a 
Duarchy, 411 
Du Bois, Reymond, 316a 
Dubris, 289 
Ducetius, 778a 
Duckworth, Sir T., 270a 
Dudley, Lord G., 323a 
Dudley, Sir H., 296 
Duke of Exeter's Daughter, 709a 
Duke's Theatre, 492, 90U 
Dulcinus, 51a 
Dum-Dum, 100a 
Dunblane, 298 
Dunces, Parliament of, 255 
Dunium, 288 
Dunleary, 468 
Dims Scotus, 763 
Dunstan, St., 322 
Durer, Albert, 327a, 328, 332 
Durnovaria, 288 
DuroGortorum, 722 
Diu'overuum, 179a 
Durzi, 294a 
Buyfhen, Yacht, 81a 
Dwight, Dr. Timothy, 776a 
Dyme, 8a 

Dymoke, Family of, 199 
Dyrrachium, 299a 

Eauwrbian, 27a, 301 
Eastern Goths, 627a 
Eastern Mark, 82a 
East France, 82 
Eastlake, Sir Charles, 738 
Bastre, 304a 
Eblana, 294a 
Eboracum, 913a 
Ebora Talabriga, 825a 



Sina, 550 
214 

Eckenwald, 173a, 485 
Economy (U.S.), 405a 
Edan, St., 342a 
Eddington, 332 
Edict of Union, 409a 
Edmund, St., 160a 
Edreneh, 401 
Edwin's burgh, 308a 
Egede, Hans, 394 
Egmont, Count, 153a 
Egyptus, 312 
Eichhorn, 714 

Egyptian Hall, Loudon, 501a 
Elagabalus, 319a 
Elcesai, 314a ' 

Elea, 314a 

Eleanor of Provence, 410 
Elect, 213 

E)6mens d'Artillerie, 23a 
Eleusis, 317 
Elicroca, 505a 
Elijah, 444a, 847a 
Elisha, 444a 
EliKsa, Queen, 188, 664 
Elizabeth of York, 410a 
Elizabeth, Madame, 3.95 
Elizabeth Castle (Jersey), 409 
Elliott, Captain, 208a 
ElUpse, 240 



sai 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



El Mebedi. 35 


Evasius, 73 


Ferdinandea, 882a 


Bl Mina, 19« 


Evening Song, 876a 


Ferdusi, 657a 


Elmo, St., Castle, 53.5 


" Ever Joyce," 440a 


Ferentino, 342 


Elphinstoue College, 132a 


Evora, Knights of, a5 


Fermiers G6n6raux, 341 


Else, See of, 413a 


Exaltation of the Cross, 258a 


Fernandez, Diuis, 19, 181a 


Elson's Spital, 782a 


Exceptores, 612 


Fernandez, Juan, 793a 


El-TJxur, 521a 


Exiguus, Dionysius, 48 


Fernandina, 261a 


ELxai, 3Ua 


Exosmose, 321a 


Feroe Islands, 341 


Ely, Isle of, 100a 


Exposition, 338a 


FeiTars, George, 342a 


Eiiiathia, 749a 


Extra vagants, 177a, 274 


Ferrei-8, Lord. 336 


Eniden, 318a 


Eyder, River, 314 


Ferreti, Cardinal. 733a 


Emei-ita Augusta, 555 


Eyoobite Dynasty, 824a 


Ferrum Indicum, 808 


Emigres, 319a 


Ezion-geber, 310a 


Fertile Isle, 213a 


Emissa, 319a 


Ezra, 466 


Fessel, M., 400a 


Emmett. Robert, 295a, 336, 440a 




F6tedelaF6d6ratlon,198a 


Empedocles, 314a, 568 


Fabiola. 405a 


F6te de Rois, 857 


Empson and Dudley, 323a 


Fabiola, St., 421 


F«te de Sans Culotte.s 857 


Encoberto, 767a 


Fabius Pictor, 634a 


FeuiUauts, Qub des, 224, 343a 


Enderby's I^nd, 793a 


FabUaux, 853 


Fibonacci, L., 31, 55 


Enghien, Duke of, 355«, 881 


Faganus, 647a 


Fidei Defensor. 274 


EngUsh Opera House, 521a 


Fairbairn, M.r.,775a 


Field Abbots, 3 


English Ordinal. 236 


Fairfax. Su- Thomas, 338 


Field, Cyrus W., 813 


Ennius, 291, 758, 776a, B47 


Fair Rosamond, 735, 908 


Fielding, Heniy, 493a, 678a 


Enoch, 847a 


Falcom-y, 407 


Field-lane Ragged School, 311 


Ensisheim, 17a 


Falkland, Lord, 595a 


Field of May, 343a 


Eoles, the Jester, 453a 


Famagusta, 340a 


Field of Mourning. 352a 


Eostre, 304a 


Fasilsis : 


Fiery Ci'oss, 422a 


■Rpaoto, 485 


Belgium, Ilia 


Fieschi, 356 


EpaniiDoudas, 392, 538rt 


Bengal, 431a, 671 


Fiesole, 339a 


Ephetes, Coui-t of, 579a 


Bohemia, 131 


Fife, See of, 45a 


Ephraim, St., 421 


Cappadocia, 182 


Figurini, 821a 


Ephrath, 118 


China. 670 


F)gi Islands, 342a 


Ephthalites, 593a 


Denmark, 277 


Filarmonici, 237a 


Ephyre,246a, 391a 


Dresden. 292 


Fill, 665 


Eplcharmus, 290a 


Eastern Empire, 30oa 


FUioque, 99 


Epicurus, 329 


Egypt, 312 


Filles du Saint Sacrament, G88 


Epidamuus, 299a 


England, 269a, 670a 


Filmer, Sir R., 285 


Epipoloe, 705a 


Europe, 670a 


Finian, St., 9a 


Epistola ad Alexandrines, 40S 


France, 353a, 354, 354a 


Finiguerra, Maso, 327a 


Eporedia, 748a 


Goojei-at, 387 


Finubar, 247a 


Ei-asistratus, 44. 550, 817 


India, 433a 


Fii-ando, 451 


Erasmus, 50a 


Khandesh, 463 


Fire -measurer, 704 


Erastus, 330 


London, H70a 


Fire-PhUosophers, 836 


Eratosthenes, 274a, 373a, 479, 802a 


Mexico, 559a 


FiKES :— 


Erebus and Terror, 359a 


Midnapore. 561 


Abo, 5 


Erectheus, 391a 


Pai-is, 641a 


Alcantara, 27 


Eremites, 80 


Persia, 657a 


Aldermanbuiy, London, 502 


Erectria, 333 


Poland, 677a 


Amarapui-a, 859 


Ergocles, 143a 


Rome, 730 


Antwerp, 51 


Eric IX., 5 


Rouen, 737a 


Archangel, 57 


Eric the Red, .58a 


Russia, 671 


Aitley's Amphitheatre, 73 


Ericthouius, 405a 


Sardinia, 755a 


Ashbumham House, 252 


Ei-igena, John Scotus, 639 


Scotland, 704 


Balasore, 91a 


Erin, 439a 


Venice, 497a, 872 


Bamberg, 93a 


Erouad, 330a 


Fanagoria, 745 


Bayeux, 107 


Esau, 45a 


Fan Crests, 409 


Belfast, 111 


Escobai-, 19a 


Fancy Gun, 3i4a 


Bergen, 116a 


Escuage, 766a 


Fanshaw's Rebellion, 331a 


Berne, 117a 


Esdud, 69 


Fanum Fortunae, 341 


Billingsgate, 121 


Esgidiau, 776 


Fanum Voltumna;, 882 


Birmingham, 122 


Esher, 140a 


Faraday, Professor, 5;i0a 


Bishopsgate street, London, 501 


Esopas, 468 


" Farewell to Flesh," 186 


Bloomsbury, 502a 


i^pai-t«ro, Genei-al Baldomero, 


Farno\-ius, 341 


Bombay, 132a 


797a, 798a 


Fas, 343a 


Bordeaux, 134a 


Espoz y Miua, 797 


Famowski, Stanislaus, 341 


Brechin, 141a 


I^enians, 331 


Fasguntide, 777a 


Bridewell, 144 


Esterhazy, Count, 357a 


Fastens, 777a 


Bridgwater House, Barbican, oul 


Esther, 656a 


Fastmass, 777a 


Bruges, 152 


Estland, 331a 


Fastingtide, 777a 


Brussels, 153a 


Eszek, 331 


Father of History, 414 


Buiy St. Edmunds, 161 


Ethelius, 301a 


Fatimite Dynasty, 824 


Cachao, 164 


Euclid, 374, 564. 621a 


FaukeshaU, 870a 


Cairo, 166 


Eudamidas.619a 


Fauutleroy, H., 336 


Calmar, 169a 


Eude Islaud, 348 


Faust, John, 696 


Cauterbui-y, 179a 


Eugenie, Empress, 357 


Faustianum, 340 


Canton, 180a 


Eugubine Tables, 333 


Faventia, 339a 


Capitol, Rome, 181a 


Eumolpias, 663 


Fawkes, Guy, 399a 


Capitol, Washington, 862 


Eumolpus, 391a 


Feast of Asses, 350 


Carlisle, 185 


Eunan, St.,713 


Februa, 342 


Cashel, 189 


Eunomius, 333 


Fehmic Courts, 871 


Cavan, 194 


Euphonia, 84 


FeUcitas, Julia, 493a 


CharlestowD, 202 


Eupolis, 29 


FelsLna, 131a 


Chartres, 203 


Euripides, 291, 847 


Felton, John, 324, 688a 


Chichester, 206a 


Euty^hes, 333a, 571a 


Fenelon, 171, 708 


Christ Church College, 213 


ETander, 445a 


Teuton, Miss, 110 


Christiania, 213 


Evans, Oliver, 807 


Fenwick, 40a 


Columbus, 233 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



935 



FlKES— {continued) 


'Ftb.^— (continued). 


ViRYU— (continued). 


Constantinople, 242 


Mittau. 568 


Tula, 854 


Copenhagen, 244a 


Montreal. Parliament House, 


Uleaborg, 858 


Cordova, 24(j 


573a 


Uuimerapoora, 859 


Cork, 247a 


Moscow, 577 


University Hall, Cambridge, 220 


Coven t Garden Theatre, 254a 


Muiiich, St. Peter's Church, 579 


Venice, 874 


Cracow, 2o5a 


Naas, 582 


Verdun, 875a 


Crediton, 256a 


NautfS. 584 


VictuHlling Office, Deptford, 878a 


Crema, 256a 


Nantucket, 584 


Washington Government Stables, 


Croyland Abbey, 259a 


Naples, 586a 


863a 


Custom -House, Dublin, 264a 


Neisse, 593 


Wareham, 890a 


Custom -House, London, 264a 


New Brunswick, 595a 


Warwick, 891a 


David's, St., 272 


Newcastle, 596a 


Washington, 891 


Delphi (Temple), 276 


Newgate, 596 


Westminster Palace, 897a 


Deptford, 279 


Newmarket, 598 


Westminster Abbey, 898 


Derby TowuhaU, 279 


New York, 602a 


Westminster Hall, 898a 


Dijon, 283 


Northampton, 609a 


Whitehall, 900 


Dizier, St., 28oa 


Norwich, 612 


Windsor Castle, 904a 


Doctors' Commons, 286 


Nottingham Castle, 612 


York Minster, 914 


Dorpat, 288a 


Odeon (Paris), 642 


Fire-Woi-shippers, 397a 


Dort, 288a 


Old Palace of Westminster, 422 


First Covenant, 239a 


Dover, 289 


Omagh, 619a 


Fisher, Bishop, 323a 


Dresden, 292 


Opslo, 213, 621a 


Fitch, R., 159 


Drury Lane Theatre, 294a 


Oviedo, 631a 


Fitz-Arnulph, Constantine, 674 


Dublin, 294a 


Pantheon (London), 630 


Pitz-Elwyne, Henry, .512a 


Eddystone Lighthouse. 308 


Paternoster Row, 502a 


Fitz-empress, 410 


Edinburgh, 309a 


Patrick, St., Cathedral (Dublin), 


Fitzgerald, Lord Edward, 295a 


Eisleben, 3U 


646a 


440rt 


Exeter, 338 


Paul's. St., Cathedral (London), 


Fitzgerald, Lord Thomas. 440 


Fleet Prison, 347 


647a 


" Five Articles, The," 63a 


Frankenhausen, 359 


Paul's, St. Church, Rome, 733a 


Flamborough Head, 147 


Gateshead, 370 


Pera, 694 


Flammock, Thomas, 346a 


Genoa, 373 


Peterborough, 660 


Flamstecd House, 394a 


George Town, 375a 


Petersbm-g (U.S.), 660a 


Flap-dragon, 176 


Glasgow, 381a 


Petersburg, St., 660a 


Flaxman, John, 766a 


Glastonbui-y, 382a 


Philippopolis, 663 


Flemings, 347 


Globe Theatre, 383 


Philip, St., Church, Sydney, 823 


Flibustier, 344 


Gloucester, 383a 


Plymouth Dockyard, 675 


Flint Guns, 344a 


Goodman's Fields Theatre, 387 


Port Louis, 687a 


Floating-mills, .564 


Gordon Riot Incendiary Fires at 


Port Republicain, 688 


Floral (iames, 853 


London, 387 


Portsmouth Dockyard. 688a 


Floralia, 347a 


Goree, 387a 


Portsmouth (U.S.), 689 


Florentia, 347a 


Gottenburg, 388 


Presourg, 694a 


Floriuus, 348 


Gran, 389a 


Quebec, 706 


Flying Coach, 848a 


Gravesend, 390a 


Rajmahal, 712a 


Foix, Cuunts of, 45a 


Great Fire of London, 501 


Rangoon, 713a 


Folk-mote, 234a 


Great Harry, at Woolwich, 592 


Rennes, 720 


Pontes Mattiaci, 901a 


Greenwich Hospital, 394a 


Revel, 721 


Fools' Fair, 350 


Grodno, 396a 


Richmond (U.S.), 724 


Foot Guards, 397a 


Haddington, 401 


Riga, 724 


Foibes. Professor, 635 


Hamburg, 403 


Rome, 732 


Forced Labour, 251 


Harrowon-the-Hill, 406 


Rotherhithe, 737 


Forsyth, Rev. A. J., 344a, 654 


Hatfield, 406a 


Rouen, 737a 


Fort Chipewyan, 359a 


Havana, 407 


Royal Exchange, London, 501a, 


Fort Donnelson, 863a 


Holy Places, 418 


738a 


Fort Dubus, 640a 


Houses of Parliament. 422a 


Royalty Theatre, London. 153 


Fort Du Quesne, 5.51a 


James's, St., Palace. 450 


Russell Institution, London, 741 


Fort Elizabeth, 387a 


Janina, 450a 


Salters' HaU, Loudon. 750 


Fort George, Guernsey, 660 


Jassy, 451a 


Salzburg, 750a 


Fort Louis, 769a 


John's, St., Newfoundland. 457 


Savamiah, 758a 


Fort Marlborough. 113 


King's Bench Prison, 467a 


Serapaeum at Alexandria, 770a 


Fort Penthi6vre, 708 


Kingston (Jamaica), 468 


Sheemess, 774 


Fort Pulaski, 864 


Klagenfm-t, 469 


Sheen Palace, 723a 


Fort Regent, 409 


Konigsberg, 471a 


Smyrna, 786a 


Fort St. Elmo, 585 


Koslin, 472 


Sophia, St. (Constantinople). 


Fort St. George, Madras, 115, 527 


Landau, 476 


791a 


Fort 'Jrinidad, 735a 


Lateran, 478a 


Stationers' Hall, London, 806 


Fortunate Islands, 175a 


Leipsic, 484 


Stephen's, St., Chapel, V/est- 


Fort William, 115, 167 


Liegnitz, 488a 


miuster, 897a 


Foram Julii, 362a 


Lincoln Cathedral, 492 


St. Anne's Church, Limehouse, 


Forum Livii, 351 


Lisburn, 493a 


502 


Foscari. Fi'ancesco, 873 


Liverpool, 4::»5a 


St. Martin's Hall, Long Acre, 


Fosse. 'Jhe, 726a 


London (Canada), 499a 


502a, 544 


Foster, Benjamin, 696a 


London Bridge, 503 


St. Paul's, London, 500 


Foucquet, 443a 


Londondeny Town-haU, 504 


St. Stephen's Chapel, West- 


Four Courts, 295 


Lyceum Theatre, 521a 


minster, 421a, 897a 


Four Hundred, Government of, 76 


Lyons. 522a 


Stockholm, 800a 


Four Tables, S54 


Madras, 527a 


Sydney, St. Philip's Chui'ch. 823 


Fowke, Captain, 438 


Madrid. 528 


Tiverton. 842 


Fox, C. J , 21, 325, 365 


Manchester, Queen's Theatre, 536 


Tobolsk, 842a 


Fox, George, 705a 


Theatre Koyal,o36a 


Tooley Street, London, 502a 


Fox, John U..803a 


Manilla, 537a 


Toronto, St. George's, Cathedral 


Fox, Margaret and Catherine, 825 


Melton-Mowbray, 552a 


844 


Fox, Steam Yacht, 361 


Memel, 553 


Tom-s, 845 


Foxhall. 870a 


Meudoza. 553a 


Tower of Loudon, 502, 846 


Fox-Talbot, Mr..664a,826 


Midhurat, Cowdry House, 562 


Tscherkask, 251a 


Fi-ancis, St., 359 



THE MAmiAIi OF DATES, 



Franco, 494a 


Garde Mobile, 397a 


Glyphography, 316a 


Franciade, 168 


Garibaldi, General, 373, 417a, 585a 


Guosus, 224a 


Francis, J., 325a 


733a, 779a 


Goat's River, 17 


Francisca, 8.9a, 105a 


Garnet, Henry, 399a 


Gobat, Dr., 7 


Fi-anciscopolis, 407 


Garuier, GiUes, 906 


Godama, 154a 


Frank Almoign, 122a 


Gai-rick, David, 294a, 387, 773 


Godfrey of Bouillon, 72, 280 


Franke, A. H., 626 


Gathelus. 763 


Godfrey, Sir Edmoudbmy, 324 


Frankincense, 430 


Gaulos, 389 


Godhaab, 394 


FrankUu College (Pennsylvania), 


Gavay, Blasco de, 807a 


Godoy. Don Manuel, 796a, 798 


476 


Gavazzi, Alessandro, 367a, 72oa 


God's Gift College. 298a 


Franklin, Dr. Benjamin, 315a, 


Gavestone, Piers, 322a 


God's House, 901 


489a 


Gazetta. 599 


God's House College, 213a 


Franklin, Sir Jolm, 359a 


Gebal Tarik. 380 


Godwin, Earl of Kent, 673a 


Frank Pledge, View of, 253a. 361 


Geber, 2-a. 204a 


Goethe. 378 


Fraser, Simon, Lord Lovat, olSa 


Ged, William, 696a 


Goez, Father. 69a 


Fi-atercali, 361o 


Gefirard, President, 408 


Gold Dust, 402 


Frazer River. 150 


6ein•«flei^ch, John. 696 


Golden Bible, 479 


Frea, 363 


Gemai-a, 826 


Golden Chain Tree, 473a 


Frederick's Oord, 64Sa 


Genabum, 625a 


Golden Mind Ship, 279 


Fi-ee British Fishery Corporation, 


General Fund, 241a 


Golgotha, 170 


345a 


General Inclosm-e Act. 892 


Goliath, 64, 785 


Fi-ee Negro Emigration, 785 


Genevidve. St., 641a 


Gomarus, Fi-aucis, 386a 


Free Town, 780a 


Genseric, 19, 733, 869a 


Gomez. Fernando, 19a 


"French Fury." The, 56 


Geutilhomme, 373 


Gomez, Lorenzo de, 135 


Freyburg, 362a 


Gentilis. 373 


Gomorrah, 789 


Friai-s Hermits Minor, 182a 


Gentlemen Pensioners, 373a 


GouQ.'dvez, 19 


Fribm-g, 362a 


Genua, 372a 


"Gone to Jericho," 4.52a 


Fiiends of Liberty and Equality, 


Geomori, 823 


Gonfalone Society, 291 


448a 


Geordy L-imp. 747a 


Gonneville, P. de, 81a 


Friends of the Constitution. 448a 


George III.'s Library, 151 


Gouville HaU (Cambridge), 166 


Friends, Society of, 705a 


George of Cappadocia, 374a 


Gonzaga, House of, 538a 


Friga, 363 




Gonzalvo de Cordora, 795a 


Frigates, 592 


George, St., 374a 


Good Men Friius, 133 


Frobisher, Sir Martin, 40, 58a, 


George's, St., Fields, 387a 


Goodwin, C. W., 331 


363a 


George's. St., Hall, Hverpool, 


Gordium, 387 


Froebel, Frederick, 465 


495a 


Gordon, David. 807 


Frost Fair, 501 


George's, St, in-the-E.ist, 502a, 


Gordon, Lady Catherine, 890 


Frost, John, 598a, 725a 


725a 


Gordon, Lord Geoi-ge, 325, 387, 


Frumentius, 6a 


George Town, 117, 150a 


765a 


Fry, IMi-s. Elizabeth, 597. 697a 


Georgey, General. 424 


Gordyene, 472a 


Fuad Pasha, 824a 


Georgia Augusta, 388a 


Gore, Graham, Lieut., 359a 


Fuage, 408 


Gepidw, 422a 


Gorgades, lusulaj, 181a 


Fuente-rabia, 349a 


6erai-d, Balthazar, 415a 


Gorizia (See of), 54 


Fueros, The, 55a 


Gerai-d the Generous. 674a 


Gortchakotf, Prince, 678 


Fugalia, 718a 


Geroert, 55 


G..th Alania, 191 


Fulton, Mr. Robert, 807a 


Gergoie, 376 


Gotheboi-g, 388 


Fumage, 408 


Gei-man Baptists, 298a 


Gothones, 8l9a 


Funchal, 526a 


German House of the Holy Virgin 


Guttland, 388 


Fungwha, 209a 


of Jerusalem. ^i'Sa 


Gough, Lord, 433 


Furca, 367 


Germanicus, 73 


Gournay, M. de, 307a 


FurculM Caudinse, 193a 


Germanus, 789a 


Governor, Steam, 807a 


Fumeaux, Capt.,J6 


Gei-manus, St., 886 


Govindpore, 115 


FusU, 344a 


Geiy, St., 153 


Gowrie, Earl of, 765 


Fust, John, 696 


Gesuer, 588a 


Gracchus, Caius, 731a 


Fyrd, 563a 


Gesner, Conrad, 626. 916a 


Gracchus. Tiberius, 731a 




Gesoriacum, 137 


Grreca Fides, 655a 


Gaboto, John, 39a 


Ghiljies, 163a 


Grrecia, 391a 


Gades, 164a 


Ghoorkha.s, 839a 


Graham, Mr. George, 626a 


Gadir, 164a 


Ghrennah, 266a 


Graham's Island, 882a 


GagUano. 620a 


Gbuznee, 380 


Graham's Land, 48a, 793a 


Gaian, 365a 


Gianibelli, Federioo, 435a 


Graham, Sir Robert. 674 


Galatz, 365a 


Gibbet, 367 


Granada (AntiUes), 395 


Galego, 68a 


Gibbon, E., 275 


Gr*nd Cairo. 303a 


Galen, Claudius, 44, 365a, 550. 622 


Gideon, 4.54a 


Grand Chambre, 644 


665, 817 


Giffoi-d, WiUiam, 706 


Grand Justiciaries, 4.59a 


Galgacus, 146a 


Gilbert, Dr., 315a 


Grandmontin Limousin, 389a 


Galileo, 74, 76a, 447, 548a, 561a, 


Gilbert, St., 380a 


Grannonum, 390 


671a, 815, 831, 836 


Gilbert, Sir H., 40 


Grantabricsir, 171a 


Gall, Dr., 664a 


GUda Theutonicorum. 398a 


Grantham (Lincolnshire), 314 


Galle, 196a 


Gilianez, 19 


Gratianopolis. 395 


GaUia Cispadana, 644a 


Ginkell, General, 76a 


Gravesham, 390 


GaUo-GKecia, 366 


Gioja, Flavio, 237 


Great Bed of Ware, 109a 


Galvani, Dr., 367 


Giotio di Bondone. 634 


Great Bedwyn, 108 


Gama, Vasco de, 19a, 69a, 181, 431 


6u-genti, 23 


Great Britain, Steamer, 808 


578, 772a 


Girona, 379 


" Great Captain." The. 795 


Gamala, 365a 


Girtin, Thomas, 892a 


Great Eastern, Steamer, 808 


Gamekeepei-s, 368a 


Giulielmini, 426a 


Great Harry, 591a, 775a 


Ga.ming, 368 


Glamoi-gan^hire Canal, 184 


Greathead. General, 433a 


Gammer Gorton's Needle. 233a 


GlanviUe, 761a 


Great Marlow, 752 


Gamori, 823 


Glarus, 381a 


Great Master of the King's Hotise, 


Gangelaud, C. de, 52 


Glas, John, 382 


516 


Ganjain, 212 


Glaziei-s, 382 


Great Marischal, 302 


Gansana, 303 


Glendower, Owen, 323, 526, 674. 


Great Mogul, 571 


Gautama, 154a 


887a 


Great Plague of London. 671 


Gaouaoua, 91ba 


Glevum, 383 


Great Privilege, 389a 


Gardarsholm, 427 


Gloucester, Duchess of, 326 


Great Tom of Lincoln, 492 



GEOTIEAL INDEX. 



937 



Great Wall of China, 208 


Haldanites, 597a 


Hennepin, Father, 602a 


Greater Antilles, 49 


Haleb, 29 


Menry-grace-d-Dieit, 591a 


Greaves, 64 


Hale, Sir Matthew, 906a 


Henry VII [. 's Primer, 494a 


Greenacre, James, 337 


Hales. Dr., 204<s 


Henry of Wois, 52a 


Green Hats, 406a. 


Half-crown, 259a 


Hepburn, James, Earl of Both well. 


Gregoiy of St. Vincent, 705 


Halia, 749a 


764a 


GreneUe, la 


Halifax Gibbet, 402a, 531a 


Heracleon, 411a 


Gresham, Sir Thomas, 160, 395a, 


HaUean Heretics, 808 


Heraclitus, 639 


738a 


Halley. Dr., 74, 285, 403 


Herbert of Cherbury, Lord, 275 


Grenville Library, 151 


Hamadan, 306a, 403 


Herculanus, St., 659 


Greville CoUectiou of Minerals, 


Hamilcar, 794a 


Hercules, 411a, 573a 


151 


Hamilton, James, of Bothwell- 


Herdeby, Lincolnshire, 259 


Grey Friars, 359 


haugh, 765 


HeregUd, 591a 


Grey, Lady Jane, 323a, 450 


Hamilton, Patrick, 716a 


Herges, 406 


Grey League, 164, 396 


Hamilton, Sir W.'s Collection, 


Heriofs Hospital, Edinburgh, 309 


Griffiths, Julius, 807 


150a 


Hermandad, 417a 


Grijalva, 40, 168a 


HamUton, W., 326 


Hermin Street, 726a 


Gi-ime's Dyke, 22a 


Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, 277 


Hermits, 43 


Grinnel, Mr., 360a 


Hampden, John, 198, 324, 775a 


Hei-mits of St. Damien, 228 


Griisi, Giulia, 621 


Hampsicora, 755 


Hernandez, Francesco, 842 


Grocers, 52, 396a 


Hampton Court Labyrinth, 473a 


Hero of Alexandria, 6a, 426a, 807 


Grocyu, William, 393a 


Hamptune, 609a 


Herod the Great, 412, 455a 


Grosvenor, Lord Robert, 816 


Hamstead, A., 15a 


Herodotus, 392, 402 


Grotius, Hugo, 275 


Hand Cannon, 344a 


Herophilus, 550 


Groyne, The, 61a 


Handel, George Frederick, 580a, 


Herreuhausen League, 699 


Grueber, 69a 


620a, 623, 738 


Herrnhut, 575, 859a 


Gruet, James, 487 


Hand Grenades, 395 


Herschel, Sir J., 74a 


Gruithuisen, 494a 


Hand-mills, 564 


Herschel, Su- W., 74a, 376, 408, 


Guadalaruaca, 397 


Hand Tennis, 709a 


592a, 671a, 831 


Guadiana, 299a 


Hanging Gardens, 907a 


Hertsek, 412a 


Guahon, 397 


Hannibal, 125, 603a, 794a 


Hesiod, 391a 


Guanahani, 750a 


Hansards, 405 


Hesperides, 175a 


Guancavelia, 708 


Hanton, 792a 


Heteria Society, 392a 


Guanohes, 175 


Hantune, 792a 


Heth, 414a 


Gudule, St., Cathedral, 153a 


Hanway, Jonas, 858a 


Hexapla, 119a 


Guebriant, Marshalless of, 38a 


Haran, 187 


Hexarchy, 411 


Guenet, 870 


Harchgoun, 31a 


Heyn, Admiral, 41.5a 


Guericke, Otto von, 23a, 315a 


Hardwicke, Captain, 69a 


Heywood, John, 438 


Guesclin, Bertrand du, 361a 


Hardy, Mr., 325 


Hibemia, 439a 


Guidalhichara, 397 


Harefleot, 405 


Hicksites, 705a 


Guict, 901a 


Hargreaves, James, 252a, 802a 


Hidalgo, Miguel, 560 


Guith, 901a 


Harleian Miscellany, 405 


Hidden One, 767a 


Guillotin, Joseph Ignace, 399 


Halley, Right Hon. R., 150a, 405 


Hiel, the Beihelite, 452a 


Guinea Company, 20a, 399, 784a 


Harmeusen, James, 63a 


Hiendelencina Mines, 782 


Guines, 399 


Harmony (U.S.), 405a 


Hieracitaj, 6 


Guion, Madame, 708 


Harmony Hall, 236a 


Hierapolis, 7, 303 


Guipuscoa, 103a 


Harouu-al-Rasbid, 55 


Hieratic Hieroglyi)hics, 413a 


Guisborough, 37 


Harpoon Gun, 344a 


Hierax, 413a 


Guiscard, Boger, 779 


Harquebuss, 65, 244a 


Hieron, 6 


Guiscaid, Robert, 584 


Harrau,187 


Hierosolyma, 453 


Guntoor, 432 


Harriott, J., 31 


Highland Host, 765a 


Gui-g-istan, 375a 


Harris, Sir W. Snow, 489a, 530a 


High Wycombe, 752 


6urj-i-stan, 375a 


Hartstein, Captain, 360a 


Hilarion, 2a 


Gurney, Mr. Golds-worthy, 807 


Harvard University, 172 


Hildenberghausen, 760 


Gurney, Mr. Thomas, 777 


Hai-vey, William, 128, 550, 817 


Hind, Walter, 772a 


Gust, 21a 


Hasdrubal, 794a 


Hindmarsh, Captain, 793 


Gustavus Adolphus, 820 


Hashem, 2 


Hindoo Science, The, 55 


Gustavus Vasa, 820 


Hastings, Warren, 325, 431a, 728 


Hipparchus, 74, 274a, 373a, 392, 


Guthlac, bell, 112 


Hatfield's HaU (Durham), 300 


419, 479, 815 


Guthrum, 269a 


Hathaway, Anne, 773 


Hippias, 392 


Gutenberg, John, 696 


Hats, Faction, 182a 


Hippocras, 905 


Guy, Thomas, 400 


Hatton, Sir C, 269 


Hippocrates, 374, 550,665, 753, 810, 


Guyana, 398 


Hauy, Valentine, 127a, 696a 


817 


Guyenne, 398a 


Havelock, Sir H., 37, 194, 433 


Hippodrome, 217 


Guyon, Madame, 708 


Haver-du-pois weight, 161a 


Hipponax, 876a 


Gwalior, 397 


Hawkabites, 569a 


Hispalis, 772 


Gwynedh, 886 


Hawkins, Sir John, 40, 784a, 


Hispania, 794a 


Gwynedh, Owen, 886a 


842 


Hispaniola, 407a 


Gymuopasdia, 800a 


Haydn, Joseph, 580a, 623 


Histria, 445a 


Gyn, 92 


Haynau, General, 502 


Histrio-Mastix, 291a, 324 




Health of Towns Association, 753 


Hlsef-dig, 474 


Haan, G. a. de, 366 


Hecademus, 7a 


Hlyd Monath, 539 


Hachette, Jeanne, 108a 


Hecatceus of Miletus. 431 


Hoadley, Bt&hop, 94a 


Hackney Independent Seminary, 


Hechingen, 415 


Hobson. Lieut., 361 


430a 


Heinsius, 415 


Hobbes, 275 


Hadfleld, James. 325 


Helen, 391a, 800 


Hochelaga (Canada), 40 


Hadley, George, 904a 


Helice, 9, 302a 


Hodson, Lieut., 433a 


Hadley, John, 705 


Helicore, 603 


Hoeks, 415 


Haerlem, 400a 


Helidorus, 729a 


Hofer, Andrew, 858 


Hahnemann, Samuel, 419 


Heliogabalus, 319a 


Hogenhine. 21 


Haik, 62 


Helladici, 780 


Holagou Khan, 2, 70a, 657a 


Haiti, 407a 


Hellas, 391a, 780 


Holbeach House, 399a 


Hakkadosh. Judah, 826 


HeUen, 391a 


Holbein, Hans, 268a, 328, 634o 


Hakluyt, Richard, 402 


Helos, 409a 


Holbein Gate, 900 


Hakodadi, 452 


Helvetia, 82 


Holcroft, Thomas. 552a 


Haldane, Robert, 597a 


Hems, 319ala 


HoUiar, 432a 



THE MAIfUAL OF DATES. 



Holy Bracelet, 139a 


Hypothetical Universalists, 173 


Isatuian Dynasty, 444 


Holy City, 265 


Hypsipyle, 593a 


Isca Silurum, 165 


Holy Cross, 889a 




Isenberg,Mr.,7 


Holy Island. 300, 398, 418, 739a 


lAGO de la Fega, St., 800 


Iseudone, 444a 


Holy Land of Greece, 318 


latinum, 548a 


Isfahan, 444a 


Holy Office, 436a 


Ibrahimiah, 5a 


Ishmael, 54a 


Holy Saviour, Nuns of, 145 


Ibrahim Pasha, 630, 824a 


Isis, 312 


Holy Sepulchre, Chui-ch of. 418 


Icanhoe Monastery, 136 


Isle of France, 547 


Holy Thursday. 68a 


Ichaboe Island, 397a 


Isle Royale, 181 


Holy Ti-inity, Brethren of. 851 


Ichnusa, 755 


Isles de Loss, 780a 


Holy Trinity, Festival of. Sola 


Ichthyology, 916a 


Ismaelians, 70a 


Holy XJuinn, 482 


IcohnkiU, 3a, 438a 


Ismid, 603a 


Home and Colonial Infant School 


Ictinus, 645 


Isola Fai-nese, 871 


Society. 433a 


Ictis, 561 


Issa, 494 


Homer, 676 


Iculisma, 46a 


Istambul, 242 


Homiliai-ium of Charlemagne, 419 


Icy Cape, 610 


Ist«r, 270 


Homoiousians, 419 


Idsei Dactyli, 391a 


Italia, 445a 


Hompetsch, Ferdinand, 535 


Iden, John, 164a 


Italus, 445a 


Honoruru, 419a 


Identic Note, 744a 


Iturhide, Augustin de. 560 


Honour-, Coui-t of, 296a 


Idomene, 8 


Ivory Bedsteads. 109a 


Honour of the Flag, 346a 


Idria, 708 


Izalco, 882 


Hooghley, 115 


lerlaud, 439a 




Hooke, Dr. Robert, 390a, 766 


lerne, 26a. 145a, 439a 


Jacatra, 104a 


Hooker, Sir W. J., 463 


IkenUd Street. 726a 


Jacca, 448 


Hooper, Bishop, b23a. 540 


11 Borgo. 870 


Jacquy, John, 415a 


Hopkins, Matthew, 906 


Ilerda, 485a 


Jack Cade, 126 


Horace, 676, 732, 758 


Heoscan, 422a 


Jackman, Captain, 58a 


Hore,Mr.,40 


Hia, 25a 


Jacob, 454a. 


Hormuz, 626 


Ilion, 428 


Jacob, General, 433a 


Horn, Baroii, 820a 


nigi-ounded Peace, 505a 


Jacobi, Professor, 316a 


Horn, Count, 153a 


niigagama Mountain, 304 


Jacobins, Qub des, 224, 448a 


Hornemauu, 19a 


"Illusory Science," 73a 


Jacob's Post, 367 


Home Tooke, 250, 325 


niustrissimi, 320 


Jacob's Well, 774 


Horse Grenadier Guai-ds, 397a 


Illyricum, 428a 


Jacopoue, 804 


Horse-litter, 187 


Ilva, 314a 


Jacquard, Joseph Marie, 449 


Hdtel des Invalides, 647 


Image Breakers, 427a 


Jadei-a, 915 


Hotspur, 406a 


Imleach Jubhair, 320 


Jadvingi, 677 


Houghei-s' Outrages, 440a 


Immaculate Conception, Feast of 


Jagepore, 265 


" Houmont," 342 


the, 341a 


Jago, St., 303a 


Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey, 


Imperator, 320 


Jago, St , Isla,nd, 449 


127 


Imperial Institute, 437a 


James, Captain. 58a 


Howard, John, 206, 697a 


Impey, Sir Elijah, 432 


James. St., 418a, 449a 


Howard, Queen Catherine, 323a, 


Impropriator, 53a 


James Town, 40. 97. 149 


411 


Inachidae, 60 


Janissaries, 242a 


Howell, James, 414 


Inachus, 60, 391a 


Januequin. 19a 


Hoyle on Whist, 899a 


Jn Cce)id Domini, 156 


Jausen, Cornelius, 450a 


Hudibras, 179a 


Incorporated Law Society, 480a 


Jauseu, Zacharias, 661a, 831 


Hudson, Captain Henry, 40, 58a, 


Incorruptibles, 250 


Japanese, 16 


422a, 602 


Independent T^trtary, 855 


Jardin des flautes, 136a, 642a 


Hudson, Su' Jeffrey, 301 


Indoctoi-um Parliamentum, 255 


Jarlatto, St., 853a 


Hulks, 847a 


Inez de Castro, 229, 689 


Jason, 59a, 391a 


HuUs, Jonathan, 807a 


Ingena, 85 


Jassiorum Municipium, 451a 


Hulse, Rev. J., 423 


Ingria, 5 


Jaw's Harp, 456a 


Humayun, 431 


Inner Banister, 101a 


Jean d'Acre, St., 10 


Hume, David, 275, 761a 


Innsbruck, 436a 


Jedo, 452 


Hume, Joseph, 326 


Insensate Academy, 7a 


Jetferies' Campaign, 128a, 288 


Hundred Associates, Company of. 


Instance Court, 14a 


Jefferson, Thomas, 861a 


174a 


Instauratio Magna. 613 


Jehan Shah, 657a 


Hundred Days, 12a 


Institute of France, 437a 


Jejunator, John, 653 


Hunniades, J., Ilia, 423a 


Institution of a Christian Man, 


Jekaterinoslav, 314 


Hunt, Heuiy, 786 


837 


Jellachich. Ban of Croatia, 424 


Hunter, John, 817 


Institut National, 437 


Jelum, 154 


Hunters' Lodges, 861a 


Insiu-reotion Act, 86a 


Jenkins, Henry, 505 


Huskissou, Mr. Wm. (M.P.) 325a, 


Interment Act, 195a 


Jenkinson, Captain, 69a 


495a 


Interuation .1 Association, 273a 


Jenner, Dr., 786, 867 


Huss, John, 130a, 241a, 425, 694, 


Inveution of the Cross, 258a 


Jephtha, 454a 


911 


InverleitU. 484 


Jeremiah, 458 


Hutchinson, John, 425a 


Invincible Armada, 61a 


Jeres de la Frontera, 911 


Huy, 2a, 438a 


Ionian War, 392 


Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte. 


Huygheus, Chi'lstopher, 74, 622, 


Ipatskoi Monastery, 252 


Prince, 353 


671a 


Iphitus, 619 


Jerome of Prague. 911 


Hyksos, 425a 


Ipsylanti Alexander, 392a 


Jerome, St., 884 


Hyder Ali, 431a 


Iquon Amlaq, 6a 


Jerusalem Gemara, 826 


Hydemagur, 109 


Ireland, Samuel "William Henry, 


Jessrans, 213 


Hydrocianic Acid, 701a 


773 


Jess..p, Mr.WilUam,710a 


Hydroparastates, 321 


Irenaeus, 51 


Jettcus, 126a 


Hydruutum, 628 


Ireton, 491 


Jeu Trompe, 456a 


Hydrus, 628 


Irish Brigade, 491 


Jezebel, 49 


Hyginus, Bishop, 384 


Irish Fishery Commission. 345a 


Jidd-, 285a 


Hymeneal Hymns, 330 


Irkutsk, 778 


Joachim of Flora, 456a 


Hyons, 900a 


iLviiig, Rev. Edward, 443a 


Joachims-Tbal, 287 


Hypauis, 818a 


IrviuK, Washington, 863 


Joan of Arc, 210a, 237a, 353, 625a, 


Hypapante, 176 


Isaac, 454a 


646, 737 


Hypasis, 818a. 


Isaacs of HoUand, 27a 


Joan Sanderson, Dance, 264 


Hyperbola, 240 


Isabel of Angouldme. 456a 


Joauuina, 329a, 450a 


Hyphasis, 818a 


Isaiah, 458 


Joanpoor. 456a 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



Job. 867 


Kepler, 74, 374, 622, 840 


Lagidae Dynasty. 313a 


JodeUe. 847 


Keresoun, 205a 


La Grande Chartreuse, 203 


John of Austria, Don, 795a 


Kermian, 628a 


La Harpe Island, 138a 


John Lascai-is, 127a 


Ket, Dr., 385a 


Laity, 221 


John Long, St., 704a 


Ket, William, 462a 


La Joliette Harbour, 543 


John of Leyden, 43, 377a 


Ketesh, 4l4a 


Lally, M., 527 


John of NottiiighMiu, 792 


Key, Philip Barton, 863 


Lauiacum, 475 


John, St., 566a, 771a 


Kharazm, 463a 


Lamball., Princesse de, 355 


John, St., of Jerasalem, Knights 


Kharizn, 463a 


Lnmbe. Dr.,724a 


of, 420a 


Khaitani, 31a 


Lambert, D., 249a 


John's. St.. Wood, Independent 


Khartum, 463a 


Lameca, 475 


College. 430a 


Khelat, 461a 


Lamotte, Madame, 281a 


Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 223a, 282, 


Kherson, 205a 


Lamphier, Mr. J. C, 721tt 


408, 810a 


Khozars, 741 


La Navidad, Fort, 39a 


Johnson, Henry, 498a 


Kiaran, St., 627 


Lanparote, 19 


John the Baptist, 331a 


Kidd, Captain, 336 


Lancashire Independent College, 


Jones, luigo, 647a, 900 


Kiel Canal, 314 


430a 


Jones, Sir W., 477, 554 


Kiersy, Charter of, 353 


Lancashire Witches, 906a 


Jonson, Ben, 675a 


Kiev, 464 


Lancaster, Joseph, 310a, 476 


Jopling, Mr., 883a 


Kiliau, St., 910a 


Land and Emigration Board, 319a 


Joppa, 449 


Killigrew, T., 291a, 294a 


Landau, 89a 


Jorullo, Mount, 882a 


Kiimarnock, Lord, 324a 


Landed Estates Court, Ireland, 


Joseph, Father, 164 


Kineton, 308a 


321 


Josephine. Empress, 355a, 534 


King, Dr., 332a 


Lane, Ralph, 842a 


Joseph, St., of Aiimathea, 149a, 


King George Island, 789 


Langford, Captain, 810a 


382a 


King Henry's College, 213 


Laiigone, 492a 


Joufli-oy, Marquis, 807a 


King's HaU, Cambridge, 851 


Langton, Stephen, 529a 


Jouidam, Mai-gery, 786 


King's Islands, 752a 


Langue d'OU, 477a 


Jousts, 840a 


King's Lynn, 522 


Laugue d'Oui, 477a 


Jowett, Beujamin, 331 


King's College (Aberdeen), 4 


Lanii, 161 


Jnana, 261a 


Kiugston-on-Hull, 423 


Lanphananan, 763a 


Juarez, Benito, 560a 


King's Well, 204 


Laufdowne MSS., 151 


Jubal, 405a, 580 


Kiow, 464 


Lansing, 280 


Judas the Gaulonite, 366a 


Kipsale, Plains of, 386 


Lanzkuechte, 477a 


Judas Maccabeus, 445 


Kircher, Athanasius, 9a, 


Laodiceia ad Mare, 478 


Judgment Cap, 125a 


Kirghis, 855 


Laplace, 74a 


Judica Civitatis Londoniee, 236a 


Kirkby, 680 


La Praguerie Insiurectiou, 363a 


Judicium Dei, 623a 


Kitts, St., 213a 


La PuctUe, 656 


Jugurtha, 458a, 614 


Knight Banneret, 95a 


Larochejaquelein, 480 


Juliacum, 458a j 


Knighteu Guild, 398a 


Lartiua, Titus, 282 


Julian Calendar, 167a 


Knights of the Shire, 253a 


Laseriau, St., 483a 


Juliers, 116, 458a 


Knights of the Temple, 832 


La Sorbonne, 641a, 791a 


Juliomagus, 46 


Kniphausen, 617a 


Lasus of Hei-mioue, 580 


Julius Agricola, 146 


Kuippenouhl Rock. 385 


Las Vu-gines Islands. 881a 


Julius Caesar, 289 


Knipperdolling, 377a 


Latimer. Bishop. 323a, 540, 632 


Jung Bahadoor, 433a, 593a 


Knout, Punishment nf the, 741a 


Latin Church, 896a 


Juukseylou Island, 159 


Knox, John, 309, 658a 


Lattnus, 445a, 478a 


Jupur. 431 


Knutson, Chaiies, 819a 


La Trappe, 848 


Justinian, 228, 638a 


Kobold, 226 


Laueuburg, 277a. 404a 


Justiniana, 188 


Koloavar, 469 


Laus Pompeia, 498 


Justinian Code, 228 


Komari, 181 


Liivater. Jean Gaspard, 665a, 917 


Justin Martyr, 51, 774 


Knmom, 236a 


Lavii.ium, 445a 


Juvavum. 750a 


Koniah. 427a 


Lavoisier, 204a 


Juvenal, 615, 758 


Konig. Mous.. 696a 


Lavolta, 678a 




Koorya Moorya Islands, 263a 


Law, John, 354a, 480a 


Kaianite Dynasty, 656a 


Kosciusko, 677a 


Lawrence. Dr.. 328 


Kaiar Dynasty, 658 


Kos.sta, Martin, 862a 


Lawrence, Sir Heury, 433 


Kaifong, 166 


Kossuth, Louis, 424, 630a, 862 


Lawi-ence, Sir Thomas, 738 


Kai-Khosru, 656a 


Ko-tow, 208a 


Lawrence, St., Island, 526a 


Kai Kobad, 656a 


Kremsir, 618al 


Lay Abbots, la 


Kairwan, 166 


Krusenstern, 69a 


Lay Appropriators, 53a 


Kaiumarath, 656a 


Kuban, 261a 


Layer, Christopher, 156a, 48X 


Kaminietz, 460a 


Kuhlmann, F., 892a 


Lazai-us, St., Archipelago of, 663 


Kanagawa, 452 


Kuluri, 748 


Lazica, 481 


Kandsag, 318 


Kumaon, 461a 


Leaden Fanhings, 341 


Kane, Dr., 360a 


Kymmene, River, 5 


Leake, R., 264 


Kapzak, 468a 


Kyrle, 736a 


Leake, Sir- John, 380 


Kara Amid. 282 




Leander, 6a 


Karuali, Tablet of, 605 


Labelyb, Chakles, 898 


Lear (King), 483a 


Kaschau, 303a 


Labom-ers, Statute of, 66a, 473 


Leather Currency, 234a, 482a 


Katte. Lieutenant, 699a 


Labom-ing Classes' Lodging Houses 


Leaven, 912 


Kazan, 194a 


Act, 753 


Le Blond, J. C, 327a 


Keelwa. 708 


La Bruuetta Fortress, 818 


Leda, 800 


Keeper of the Rolls. 264a 


Laconian Confederacy, 392a 


Ledyard, John, 19a, 604 


Keeper of the Peace, 241 


Laconica, 474 


Lee Boo, Pi-ince, 652 


Keepers of the Sea-coast, 14 


Lactora, 482a 


Leeward Isles, 184a 


Keintou, 308a 


Ladikiyeh, 478 


Legio, 485 


Keivin, Sr., 383 


Lady Huntingdon's Connection, 


LeGras,Mdlle.,783 


Kelat, 112a 


900a 


Leibnitz, 167, 349, 622 


KeUett, Captain, 360a 


Lady of England, 491a, 808a 


Leif, 39 


Kellymount Gang, 440a 


Laeuneo, Mons., 809 


Leiuster, See of, 342a 


Kelts, 195 


La Fayette, Marquis, 860a, 861a 


Leipsic Interim, 437a 


Kemp, John. 908a 


La Ploriana Island, 366 


Lekeyo Islands, 506 


Kenmure, Viscount, 324a 


" La France, Rome, et I'ltalie," 


Leleges, 474 


Kentigern, 382 


734a 


Laly, Sir Peter, 789a 


Kent's Dii-ectory, 285a 


Laghouat, 31a 


Lemuos, Labyrinth of, 473a 



940 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Lemovices, 491a 


Lombard League, 481a, 499 


Machico Island, 526a 


Leney, Bishops of, 9a 


Lombe, J., 279 


Machin, Robert, 526a 


Leutia, 493 


Londmium Augusta, 499a 


Machines, or Long Waggons, 187 


Leon, Genei-al Biego, 797a 


Longer Catechism, 192 


Machiavelli, Nicolo. 233a, 446a, 


Leonardo da Vinci, 634a 


Long Waggons, 187, 884a 


526 


Leonard's, St., CoUege, 4oa 


Longovicus, 475a 


Machine Ctesibicse, 702a 


Leonidas, 800a 


Loodiana. 33 


Machpelah, Cave of, 158, 571 


"Le Petit Caporal." 498 


Lopez, General Narciso. 862 


Macintosh Waterproof, 434 


Le Prince, 327a 


Lopez, Rodrigo, 674 


Mackenzie, Sir Alexander, 526, 


Lesbos, 568 


Lord Chamberlain of the House- 


723 


Le Seur, 201 


hold, 193 


Mackenzie, Sir George, 408a 


LesUe, Sir John, 408 


Lord General, 371a 


Mackerel, Br., 674 


Lesser Antilles, 49, 184a 


Lord Marshal, 302 


Miioklin, Charles, 505a 


Lesser Biltain, 64 


Lord of the Isles, 408 


M'Leod, Alexander, 861a 


Lettres de Cachet. 354a 


Lord's Brethren, 179 


Macquarie River, 3&5a 


Leucas, 486 


Lord's Bay, 815rt 


Macready, Mr. William, 602a 


Leucophrys, 832a 


Lords of the Congregation, 239a 


Madayu, 261a 


Lenpold, 807 


Lord Warden of the Marches, 233 


Madiai, Francesco and Rosa, 836 


Lever, Mr. J. O., M.P.. 367a 


Lorenzo, St., 331 


Madiana, 543a 


Lever, Sir Ashton, 486 


Lost-and- Found Office, 401 


Madoc, 887 


Le Verrier, M., 594 


Lothaii--regne, 516a 


Madrigal Society, 237a, 528 


Lex iEmilia, 195a 


Lotharingia, 516a 


MiBcenas, 732 


Lex Canuleia, 730a 


Louisbourg, 181 


M«d monath, 459 


Lex Cassia, 93 


Louis Philippe, 3, 220, 356a 


Maestricht, 523a 


Lex de Marit^ndis Ordinibus, 285 


Loupgarou, 906 


Magaster Island, 526a 


Lex Gabbiana. 93 


Loup, St., 853 


Magalhaens, Ferdinand, 40, 217, 


Lex Julia, 87a, 542 


Lovat, Lord, 324a, 518 


633a, 646, 663 


Lex Julia Agraria, 182a 


Lovers' War, 353a 


MageUan, Straits of, 528 


Lex OguUua, 731 


Love-singers, 565a 


Maghera, 279a 


Lex Oppia, 731 


Low Countries, 594a 


Magmdauao, 564a 


Lex Orchia, 815 


Lower Lorraine, 139 


Magistrato del Proprio, 872 


Lex Papiuia, 93 


Loxa, 498a 


Magnes, 530a 


Lex Pappia-Poppsea, 285, 543 


Loyola, Ignatius, 454 


Magiii, 207a 


Lex PoeteUa Papiria, 95 


Lucan, 732 


Magnus Albertus, 27a 


Lex Porcia, 731a 


Lucas of Leyden, 328, 634a 


Magus, Simon, 383a 


Lex Renimia, 8 


Luceria, 518a 


MahabharaU War, 431 


Lexicon Techuicum, 321a 


Lucilius, 758 


Maharattas, 531 


Lexovii, 493a 


Lucilla, 732a 


Mah6 Island, 772a 


Leybourne, Sir W., 14 


Lucius, St., 146a, 913 


Mahesui-a, 681 


Leyden, John of, 579 


Lucretius, 663a 


Mahmou Canal, 313rt 


Leyden Phial, 315a 


Lucullus. 368a 


Mahmoud of Ghuznee, 431 


Libeny, 83 


Ludd, Captain, 519 


Maia. 547 


Liber Feudoi-um, 343 


Ludgate, 503 


Maillai-d. Madame. 715 


"Liberty, Fratemitfe. Egalitd," 357 


Ludi Scenici, 730a 


Mainland Island, 679a 


Licinia. 876a 


Ludi Trojani, 428a 


Maintenon Aqueduct, 54 


Licinius Stole. C. 22a. 488a 


Lugdunum, 522a 


Maintenon, Madame de, 266, 354 


Lieber,T.,330 


Lugdunum Bativorum, 486a 


Maisoor, 581 


LieouKieou Islands, 506 


L»igny, 9a 


Maitland, Sir F., 208 


Liger, River, 498a 


Luke, St., 11a 


Maitlaud, Sir Richard, 532a 


Ligeris, 498a 


LuUi, Baptist, 620a, 631a 


Majerit, 527a 


Ligures, 372a, 489a 


Lully, Raymond. 27a 


Major, Br. J. B., 238 


Lille, Rouget de, 542a 


Luudreuses, 341 


Major Groecia, 530 


Limonuni, 676a 


Luni, 519a 


Makanua, 165a 


Limpo, 208a 


Lusatia. 130a 


Malacca, 533 


Linacre, Thomas, 550 


Lusitania. 689 


Malathiah. 552 


Liucohi, Abraham, 863 


l.utetia, 641a 


Malebranche, 622 


Linden Tree, 490a 


Luther, Martin, 314, 330, 377a, 484. 


Malediva Islands, 533a 


Lindsey, Rev. Theophilus, 815 


520a, 716a, 909a 


Malli, 574 


Lindum, 492 


Lutterworth, 911 


Malmutius Bunwallo, 480 


Lindum Island, 492a 


Lutwidge, Captain, 58a 


Malpighi, Br.,550 


Lingayets, 280a 


Luxembourg, Palais de, 642 


Malte Brun, 573a 


Lingonum Civitas, 476a 


Luzon Island, 663 


Mamertina, 535a 


Linnwus, 137, 328a, 493 


Lycaon, 391a 


Mamista, 575 


Linne, Charles, 493 


I>ycian Games, 391a 


Manby, CaptMn, 489 


Lintz, 493 


Lycurgus, 391a, 480, 800, 815 


Mancenion, 535a 


Lipaxi, 493 


Lyndwood, W., 177a 


Mancestre, 535a 


Lisle, 490 


Lyons, Sii- Edmund, 744a 


Manco Capac, 265, 658a 


Literary Society of Bombay, 70 


Lysander, 76 


Mancunion, 535a 


Literary Society of Madras, 70 


Lysimachus, 266a, 838 


Manes. 537 


Little Brethren, 361 


Lyttleton, WiUiam, 766 


Manfred, 584 


Little Parliament, 98a 




Mangareva Islands, 368 


Little Russia, Cossacks of, 251a 


Macadam, John London, 524, 


Manhattan Island, 602 


Livingston, Br.. 20, 602a 


648a, 726a 


Mani, 537 


Livius Andronicus, 291 


Macarthy, Sir Charles, 780a 


ManichKUS, 537 


Livy, 732 


Macartin, St., 222a 


Manicola, 534 


Llyn din, 499a 


Macartney, Lord, 208a 


Manigceastre, 535a 


Loando, 46a 


Macaulay, Lord, 326a 


Mauilius, Caius, 537 


Lochabar Axe, 85a 


Macclesfield, Countess of, 285 


Manna of St. Nicholas of Barri, 


Loch Katrine, 382 


M'Cl-Uan, General, 863a 


894 


Logier, John Bernard, 498 


M'Clintock, Captain, 360a 


Manning, Mr. and Mrs., 337 


Logu, Carta de, 755 


M'Clure, Captiin, 360, 610a 


Man of Ross, 736a 


Loidis, 482a 


Macdonalds of Glejucoe, 383 


Mansoui-ah, 260a 


LoUard, Walter, 498a 


Macedon, 524a 


MantaUle, Synod of, 61 


LoUards' Tower, 475 


Macedonian Bynasty, 305a 


Mantegua, Andrea, 327a 


LoUius Urbicus, 22a 


Macedonius, 525a 


Manuzio, Aldo, 28 


Lombard Code, 343 


Macham, Robert, 526a 


Man-wolf, 906 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



941 



Mar, Earl of, 543 


Maui-ice, Prince, 338 


Messolonghi, 556a 


Marac, 107a 


Maurice. William, 273 


Metal wilch, 857a 


Marat, 246, 355 


Mauritania, 546a 


MeteUus,392a 


MarceUus, 823a; 


Mausolus, 402, 547 


Metheglin, 28, 419a 


Mai-ch of Ancona, 45 


Maxima Csesariensis, 898a 


Methuselah, 504a 


Marches, Lord Warden of, '263 


Maximinus, 547 


Metidja, 31a 


Marcianus, 613 


Maybury, 291a 


Metius, Adrian, 831 


Marcion, 539a 


May Fair, 547a 


Meton, 73a, 386, 559 


Marcosians, 48a 


Mayflower, Ship, 667a 


Metropolis, 45 


Marcus Eutilius, 283 


Mayow, Dr., 550 


Metropolis Interments Act, 195a, 


Mareschal, 543 


Maypole in the Strand, 501 


753 


Margaret of Anjou, 410a 


Mazaca, 62a, 165 


Metternich, Prince, 83, 879a 


Maria Louisa, 355a 


Mazanderan, 658 


Mettis, 559 


Maria, St. de la Meljorado, Con- 


Mazarin, Cardinal, 354, 443a, 620a 


Mewar, 620 


vent, 523a 


Mazeppa, 742 


Meyerbeer, 621 


Maria Theresa, 378 


Mead, 28 


Mezzofanti, Joseph Caspar, 477 


Mai-iamne, 4, 55a 


Meagher, 441 


Miami, Great, 617 


Marianne Islands, 474 


Mechlin, 534 


Miba, .562 


Maridunum, 165 


Mecone, 779a 


Michael Angelo, 634a, 76!)a 


Marie Antoinette, 354a 


MedaUions, 549 


Michael House, Cambridge, 851 


Marin, 23a 


Meddestane, 531a 


Michael's, St., Peru, 6.58a 


Marino Faliero, 872a 


Medeah, 31a 


Mida, 562 


Marischal College (Aberdeen), 4, 


Medeltune, 552a 


Middleburg Island, 328a 


302 


Medeshampstede, 660 


Middleton (Kent), 564a 


Marius, Caius, 731a 


Medici, Alexander de, 85.5a 


Middleton, Sir Hugh, 598a 


Mark, St.. 872 


Medici, Cosmo de, 347, 446a. 855a 


MicUetun, 564a 


Markham, Sir Griffin, 713 


Medici, Lorenzo de, 446a 


Mieroslawski. 678 


Marlborough, Duke of, 127, 288 


Medici, Marie de, 354 


Miesrob, 63a 


Mariowe, 291 


Medley Cloths, 223 


Miguel. Don, 690 


Marmion, FamUy of, 199 


Medontidse, 58 


Mildmay, Sir W., 318a 


Maron. John, 541a 


Medschid Ali, 414 


Milevis, CouncU of, -53 


Marquis de Puyseger, 791 


Medwegestan, 531a 


Military Tribunes, 243a 


Marsa AUa, 542a 


Medwig, 531a • 


Militz, 520a 


Marsic War, 543 


Megasthenes, 646 


Mill, John Stuart, 498, 678a 


Mars, St. M. de, 443 


Mehemet Ali, 629a, 824a 


MiUed Money, 230 


Mai-tial, 329 


Mehun, 655 


Milo, 552a 


Martial Dance, 704 


Meilana, 579 


Milton, John, 324, 641, 791a 


MartUmas, 544a 


Melampus, 391a 


Milton Street, London, 397 


Martin, John, 834 


Melancthon, Philip, 377a 


Milyas, 521a, 


Martin, Jonathan. 914a 


Mel Arundinaceum, 814 


Mina, Xavier, 560 


Martin, St. , 2a, 544 


Melchizedek, 453, 695a 


Minas, 141 


Martin's, St., Bird, 561 


Meletins, 552 


Mingrelia, 230a 


Martin's, St., Day, 544 


Melissus, 314a 


Mini6, M., 565a 


Martin's, St., Hood, 200a 


Melita, 534a 


Miningerode, .579 


Martinique, 543a 


MeUittus, 499a 


Ministerial Club, 224 


Martins, 539a 


MeUoone, 159 


Minoa, 411 


Martlemass, 544 


Melodunum, 552a 


Minor, 21 


Martyrs (^ra of). 17, 283a 


Melphi. 552 


Minor Friars, 359 


Mary de Bohtui, 410a 


MelvUle, Lord, 325 


Minos, 224a, 234 


Mary d'Este, 450 


Memlooks, 535 


Minot, Lawi-ence, 676 


Maiy-le-Bow, St., 58 


Menai Bridge, 197a, 553a 


Minotaur, 224a, 391a 


Mary Magdalene, St., Hall, Cam- 


Menander, 233a, 291 


Minucia, 876a 


bridge, 528a 


Meudana, Alvaro, 793a 


Mirabeau, 355, 588 


Mary's, St., CoUege, Winchester, 


Mendana Islands, 541a 


Miramon, General, 560a 


904 


Mendelssohn, Felix Bai-tholdy, 623 


Misericorde, 267 


Mary, St., Spittle Priory, 803a 


Mendoza, Antonio de, 658a 


Misithra, 801 


Mary's, St., College, 45a 


Mendoza, Cardinal, 795 


Misletoe, 568 


Mary Queen of Scots, 309,. 323a, 


Mendoza, Pedro de, 155, 672a 


Misraim, 312 


352, 497 


Menelaus, 391a, 800 


Mississippi Bank, 354a 


Masana, 504 


Menes. 312 


Mistra, 801 


Mascarenhas Island, 137a 


Menezes, 81 


Mitchell, Sir Francis, 571o 


Masinissa, 614 


Menilmontant, la 


Mitchell, John, 441 


Mason and SlideU, Messrs., 863a 


Menno, 554 


Mithridates the Great, 135a, 680a 


Masques, 545 


Menorca, 565a 


Mitred Abbots, 3 


Massacre of the Magi, 529a 


Mensis,575 


Moawiyah, 619a 


Massa Ducale, 545a 


Mentoue. 358 


Model Lodging Houses, 502 


Massalia, 543 


Mercarah, 244a 


Moeris Lake, 312 


Massaniello, 584a 


Mercator, Gerard, 539. 554 


Moesia Inferior, 155 


Massilia, 543 


Merchants' Statute. 11 


Moguls, 571 


Massilians, 769 


Mercurius Brittanicus, 599a 


Moguntiacum, 547a 


Master of Arts, 67a 


Mercurius Caledonius, 599a 


Mohammed, 55, 548a, 550, 569a 


Master of Hungary, 646 


Mercurius Politicus, 16, 599a 


Mohawks. 569a 


Master of the Militia, 872 


Meregate, 540 


MollSre, J. P. de, 233a 


Master of the Revels, 291 


Meretun, 556 


Molina, Louis, 570 


Mastersingers, 551 


Merino, Martin, 798 


Mulinos, Michael, 708 


Masts, 775 


Meritoria, 421 


Momaro, Madame, 715a 


Mathematicians, 73a 


Mermaid Inn, 223a 


Momba?a, 570a 


Mathioli, Count, 443a 


Jllerrimac (Steamer), 864 


Mompesson, Sir Giles, 571a 


Mathiiriui, 546a, 851 


Merulo, Claudio, 620a 


Monatchlans, 647 


Matilda of Dernnark, 915a 


Merv. 556 


Moucada, Castle of, 627 


Matisco, 526 


Mesmer, Friedrich Anton., 556,791 


Mondini, 550 


Matronalia, 459 


Mespilaz, 577a 


Moneyers, 566 


Mattabesick, 562 


Mesr, 312 


Mongwy, 571 


Matthew, Rev. Father, 831a 


Messalina, 732 


Monitor, Steamer, 864 


Matueof. A. A., 38a 


Messana, 557 


Monk, General, 365, 418 


Mauguelonne, 573a 


Messis, 575 


Moukchester, 596 



943 



THE MAI^UAL OF DATES. 



Monkwearmouth, 816 


Mutinum, 569 


New Ilium, 428 


Monmouth, Duke of, 324a, 443, 


Mycerinus, 704 


New Jerusalem Church, 821 


571a 


Mygdonia, 525 


Newman, Rev. John Henry, 703a 


Monocheros, 420 


Myietidce, 823 


New Palace of Westminster, 423 


Mouoeci Portus, 570a 


Myron, 766a 


New Port Glasgow, 687 


Monroe, James, 571a, 861a 


Mytilene, 568 


New Providence, 90 


Mons Sacer, 730 




New Rome, 242 


Mons Vaticauus, 870 


Naasiak. 444a 


New Ross, 736a 


Montague House, ISOa 


Nabis, 801 


New St. Andrew, 271 


Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, 


Nabloos, 592a 


New Sarum, 749 


436a, 786 


Fabulus, 592a 


Newski, 595 


Montaigne, 761a 


Naddodr, 427 


New Spring Gardens, 870a 


Montalembert, Count de, 357a 


Nadir Shah, 431a, 658 


Newton, Sir I«aac, 74, 349, 390a, 


Montanus, Arias, 477, 572 


Ncevius, 291, 847 


480, 554, 601a. 622, 739a, 790, 


Mont d3 Pi 616,649 


Namtow, 210 


802a, 831, 840 


Monteiigle, Lord, 390a 


Nanak, 781 


Newtown, 172 


Monte Cassino, 2a, 113 


Nana Sahib, 194, 433 


Ney, Mai-shal, 356 


Montefiore, Sir Moses, 456 


Nangasaki, 582a 


Ngami, Lake, 20 


Monte Nuovo, 877 


Napier, Baron of Merchiston, 498, 


Nicholas, Henry, 20a 


Monte Sante, 577o 


584 


Nicholas, St., Argonauts of, 60 


Montgolfier, 92a 


Napier, Lord, 208a 


Nicholson, Margaret, 325 


Montgomerie, Dr., 400 


Napier, General Sir Charles, 433 


Nicholson, William, 696a 


Montijo, Eugenie de, 357 


Naplous, 773a 


Nicolas of Antioch, 603a 


Montmartre, la 


Napoleon I., 3, 24a. 355, 408a, 4i7, 


Nicoti, Jean, 842 


Montmorency, Duke of, 845 


727, 782, 824a 


Nicotiana, 842 


Mont Orgeuil Castle, 452a 


Napoleon IIL, 356, 403 


Nidwalden, 865 


MontseiTat, Conrad de, 452a 


Napoleon Island, 137a 


Niebuhr, Bai-thold George. 69a, 


Mooh-aj, 574 


Napoleon, Prince, 357a 


477 


Moore, C, 9a 


Nappai^h Fleet, 274a 


Nightingale, Miss Florence. 604, 


Moore's Almanack, 34a 


Napper Tandy, James, 403, 440a 


766a 


Moorfields, London, 387a 


N arasingha Augjuly, 452 


Nigritia. 792 


Moorgate, London, 503 


Narbo Martins, 587 


Nihilists, 5a 


More, Roger, 858a 


Narvaez, GAeral. 798 


Nikolaiev, 603a 


More, Sir T., 323a 


Nasmyth, Mr. James, 807a 


Nils Sture, 820 


Moreau, General, 374 


Nathy, 9a 


Nimes, 605a 


Morelos, 560 


National Loyal Repeal Associa- 


Nimrod, 72, 605, 784 


Moreonites, 228 


tion, 720a 


Ninus, 73, 605 


Morisooes, 574a 


National Rifle Association, 883a 


Niphon Island, 302a 


Morison, Robert, 589a 


National School Society, 310a 


Nisch, 605a 


Morland, Sir Samuel, 801 


National Vaccine Institution, 452a, 


Nisibin, 605a 


Moron e, Peter, 3a 


867 


Nitiobriges, 21 


Morphia, 576 


National Workshops, 75 


Nitre, 750 


Morris Dance, 575a 


Nations, 284a 


No, 835a 


Moj-se, Professor, 316 


Natural Theology, 836 


Nobla, Leyczon, 867a 


Mortara, Edgar, 576 


Nauplia, 587 


Nocera del Pagftni, 606a 


Mortella Bay, 576 


Naumkeg (Massachusetts), 40a 


Noel's Catechism, 192 


Mortier, Mai-shal, 356 


Navale Thvu-iorum, 740 


Nogtus, 647 


Mortlich, 4 


Naves Libui-nse. 775 


Nogay Tartars, 386, 855 




Naves Longae, 775 


Noli, A. de, 19a, 181a 


Moses, 454a 


Naves Onerariae, 775 


Nollekens, Joseph, 766a 


Mosquitia, 577 


Naxia, 592 


Norba Caesarea, 27 


Mosse, Dr. Bartholomew, 522 


Naxus, 592 


Norberttnes, 693a 


Moultan, 574 


Nebuchadnezzar, 87 


Nordalbingia, 417 


Mowbray, Robert, 673a 


Necker, 354a. 497 


Norfolk House, St. James's, 375 


Mozart, 580a 


Necklace (Order of), 48 


Norham, 763a 


Mozul, 577a 


Nee-e-gata. 452 


Norman, Robert, 530a 


Muckle John, 453a 


Negus, Colonel Francis, 593 


Norsemen, 610 


Muggleton, Ludowicke, 578 


Nehemiah, 4.53 


Worth Autonton, 609a 


Mug-house Riot, 725 


Nellaru, 168a 


North, Sir Dudley, 678a 


Muine.:han, 570a 


Nelson Column, 816a 


Northumberland Fishery Society, 


Mukhli, 852 


Nelson, Lord, 58a, 365, 585, 753, 


345a 


Muksoosabad, 574a 


846a 


Northumberland House (London), 


MtUhau-en, 578a 


Nemausus, 605a 


811 


MuUer, 34a 


Nemetacum, 65 


North West Company. 422a 


Mullins, James. 337 


Nemetocenna, 65 


Notitii. Imperii, 283a 


Multiff rnan, 897 


Neocastro, 590 


Notre Dame, Paris, 641a 


Multiplication, 27a, 578a 


Neokastoro, 590 


Novatian, 613 


Mumruius, L. , 247 


Neoptolemus, 329a 


Novellas, 613 


Muuchin, St., 490a 


Nerbudda Territoiy, 758 


Novidunum, 789a 


Mundinus, 44 


Ncri, PhUip, 623 


Noviomagus, 493a, 605, 613a, 803 


Mungo, St., 382 


Nero, 392a 


Novon, 181a 


MUnzer, 42a 


Neronia, 732 


Novum Sipontum, 537, 782a 


Murat. Joachim, 116, 585, 779 


Neitorius, 594 


Novus Portus, 745 


Murchison, Sir Roderick, 385a 


]Neumark, 607a 


Nuestra Senora de la Paz, 649a 


Murdoch, Mr. William, 369, 807a 


Neustadt, 694 


Nueva Isabella, 287a 


Murena, 732 


Nevers, 158 


Nuisances Removal Act, 613a, 753 


Murray, Matthew, 807a 


Neville, Sir Henry, 859 


Numanticus, 614 


Mursia, 580 


New Albion, 40, 150, 169 


Nun Cape, 606a 


Murviedro,747a 


New Amsterdam (U.S.), 602 


Nuncomar, 431a 


Mus, P. Decius, 877 


New Aquileia, 54 


Nu-pieds Insurrection, 608a 


Mus6e Napoleon, 578a 


New Bordeaux, 641 


Nuremberg, League of, 481a 


Musical Union, 238 


New Carthage, 188 


W urn berg, 614a 


Musqueteers, 578 


Newcastle and Ormond Riots, 725 


Nuyfs Land, 81 


Musr, 166 


Wewcomen, Thomas, 807 


Nymegen, 605 


Musschenbroek, 704 


New Connexion Methodists, 558a 




Mutiua, 569 


New Geneva, 372 


Oak -PLAIN, Surrey, 9a 



ge:n-eeal index. 



943 



Gates, Titus, 324, 682a 

Obeahism, 771 

Ober Neustadt, 189a 

Obligado Poiii^, 673 

O'Brieu, Smith, 222a, 441 

Occnmists, 606a 

Obstinates (Academy), 7a 

ObwaldeD, 865 

Oca (Sea of), 157 

Ockley, 9a 

O'Connell, Daniel, 295a, 441,j717, 

720, 729 
O'Conuoi-, Feargus, 462 
Ocrea Eostrata, 776 
Octapla, 119a 
Octarchy, 411 
Octave of Christmas, 602 
Odenathus, 824 
Odenburg, 616a 
Odin, 611, 819a 
Odoacer, 44oa 
O'Doherty, Sir Cahir, 674a 
O'Donnell, General, 797a, 798a 
CEa, 852 
(Enotria, 445a 
OEnotrus, 56a, 391a 
Ogyges, 391a 
Ogyges' Deluge, 276a 
Oidium Tuckeri, 881 
Oigh-Magh, 619a 
Oil of Flint, 892a 
Ojeda, 39a 
Oland, 616a 
Olbeck, John, 889a 
Oldcastle, Sir John, 499, 726 
Old Melrose, 2a 
Old Prices Riots, 254a, 621a 
Old Sarum, 757a 
Old Spa, 406 
Old Testament, 119a 
Old Town, 219 
Old Traiford, 536a 
Olinda, 141, 655a 
Olisipo, 493a 
Olivarez, Count of, 795a 
Olney, 35a 
Olpse, 8 

Omme Sohanze, 648a 
Omnibus Measure, 784 
O'Neill, Phelim, 674a, 858a 
O'Neill, Shane, 440 
Oniga, 203a 
Onomastikon, 282 
Ootakamund, 593 
Ophelles, 593a 
Ophiolatreia, 771 
Ophii- (Australia), 105a, 385a 
Ophites, 48a 
Oporto Company, 905 
Opportune, St., 192a 
Orcelis, 625 
Order of Christ, 832 
Order of Communiou, 236 
Ordinal, the, 236 
Orellana River, 38 
Oi-fah, 308a 
Orgetorix, 409a 
Oribasius, 550 
Oriental Translation Committee, 

70 
Origen, 625 
Orixa, 625a 
Orloff Diamond, 281 
Orpheu?, 391a, 580, 676 
Orsini, Felici, 357a, 626a 
Ortega, General, 798a 
Orthagoridae, 779a 
Orthodoxy, Feast of, 341 
Osacca, 452 
Osbeck, £89a 
Osca, 422a 

Oscillating Cylinder, 807a 
Osculatoiium, 649a 
Osculum Pacts, 468a 
Osiris, 312 



Osmanli, 855 

Osnabruck, 627 

Ossuna, 584a. 

0.stracology, 238 

Ostreich, 82a 

Oswald's Law, 294a 

Oswald's Tree, 628 

Otchakof, 616 

Othman, 628 

Oudjenar, 661a 

Ouigours, 855 

Outer Barrister, 101a 

Outram, Mr. Benjamin, 710a 

Outram R' ads, 710a 

Outram, Sir James, 37, 433a 

Ouzain, Chateau d', 443 

Overseer, 122a, 631a 

Ovid, 732 

Owen, Professor, 635 

Owen, Robert, 236a, 405o, 597a, 

598, 787 
Oxenham, 40 
Oxford, Edward, 325a 
Oxford Marbles, 68 
Oyster-Point Town, 202 
Ozoana, 620 

Pachomius, St., 2a, 3 

Pack-horsex, 848a 

Pacta Conventa, 284a 

Padan Aram, 556a 

Paganalia, 213 

Paganini, Nicolo, 881a 

Page, Mr. Thomas, 898 

Pagratides, Dynasty of the, 62a 

PaiI6e Maill6, 637 

Paine, Thomas, 275, 807a 

Painted Chamber, Westminster, 

42ia, 422 
Paisiello, 620a 
Palseopolis, 586a 
Palamas, Gregoiy, 635 
Palamedes, 282 
Palestine Association, 373a 
Paley, William, 836 
Palimbothra, 646 
Palissy, Bernard, 302 
Palissy Ware, 302 
Palladius, St., 763a 
Pallantia, 635a 
Pallium, 292a, 637 
Palmer, Mr. E., 316a 
Palmer, Mi-. John, 532 
Palmer, William, 337, 576a, 812a 
Palmyra (North America), 479 
Palus Maeotis, 85a 
Pamplona, 638 
Pansetolicon, 17a 
Pancair, 337a 
Pancakes, 777a 
Pandulph, 322a 
Pangseus, Mount, 386, 638a 
Panormus, 636 
Pantalogla, 321a 
Panticapseum, 462a 
Pantomimic dances, 269, 639a 
Panya, 159 
Paoli, General, 250a 
Papin, Dr. Deuys, 807 
Papineau's Conspii'aey, 174a 
Papirius Cursor, 280a 
Parabola, 240 
Pai'acelsus, Theophrastus, 27a, 

332, 836, 916 
Parian Chronicle, 68 
Parisii, 641a 

Park, Mungo, 19a, 604, 792 
Parke, Sir James, 651 
Parker, Matthew, Archbishop of 

Cauterbuiy, 582a 
Parker, Richard, 607a 
Parkhurst Prison, 902 
Parmegiano, 332 
Parmenio, 525 

Parr, Queen Catherine, 323a, 411 
Parr, Samuel, 393a ^ 



Parr, Thomas, 505 

Parthenope, 086a 

Parus, 644a 

Pascal, Blaise, 76a, 99a, 167, 374 

Paskiewitf^h, Prince, 743a 

Pasquino, 645a 

Passage, Game of, 368 

Passargadoe, 645a 

Passengers' Act, 319a, 645a 

Passion Sunday, 638 

Passir,.135 

Pataliputra, 646 

Patavium, 633a 

Pate, R., 326 

Paterini, 26, 646 

Patersou, W., 94a, 271 

Patmos, rsland of, 51 

Patras, 646a 

Patres, 646a, 

Patriarcha 285 

P.itriarch of Antioch, 541a 

Patrick, St., 294a, 439a, 504a, 566a, 

773a 
Patronymics, 817a 
Pattison, Mark, 331 
Paul of ^gina, 550 
Paul of Samosata, 647 
Paul, St., 149a, 329, 366, 408, 427a, 

534a, 566a, 732, 772, 828a 
Paul, Lewis, 908a. 
Paul, Vincent de, 481, 783 
Paul the Hermit, St. , 6 
Paul's, St., Church, Kuightsbridge, 

502 
Paulinians, 647 
Pauliuus of Nola, 57, 112, 429 
Paulus, ^.mllius, 329a, 487 
Pausauias, 800a 
Pausias of Sicyon, 634a 
Pavilion, 145a 
Pax Julia, 110a 
Paxton, Sir Joseph, 391 
Pazzi, Fianccsco, 649a 
Peace of God, 853 
Peace River, 150 
Pecock, Reginald, 911 
Pecquet, Dr., 550 
Pecuarii, 161 
Pedasus, 558a 
Peel, SirRubert, 326 
Peel, Sir William, 433a 
Peel's Corn Importation Bill, 

248a 
Pelagius, 651a 
Pelissier, Marshal, 357a, 745 
Pellene, 8a 

Pell Mell, 637 

Pelopidas, 265a 
Peloponnesus, 391a 

Pelops, 391a, 779a 

Pembroke Castle, 410a, 652a 

Peuge Park, 261 

Penitentiaries, 847a 

Peim, William, 40a, 653, 662 a 

Penny, Captain, 360a 

Penny Steamboats, 502 

Penruddock, John, 653a 

Pensioners, 10a 

Pensioners, Gentlemen, 373a 

Pentapolis, 266 

Pentarchy, 411 

Pentateuch, 273a 

People's Charter, 202a, 325a 

Pepe, General, 585 

Pepperers' Company, 396 

Pepuza, 191a 

Perceval, Right Hon. Spencer, 325 

Percies, Rebellion of the, 323 

Percussion Cai^s, 344a, 654 

Pergolese, 620a 

Pericles, 75a, 365 

Periwigs, 902 

Perkins, Mr. Jacob, 807a 

Perreau, D. &R.,336 

Perseus, 391a 

Persian Mra, 913 



944 



THE l^IAIfUAL OF DATES. 



Persms, 758 
Pert, Sii-T.. 174 
Perugino, 659 
Perukes, 902 



Peruzzi, Baldassarl, 835 
Pestal, Colonel. 743 
Pestalozzi, Johann Heiniich, 

659a 
Pet, Captain, 58a 
Peterborough, Lord, 796 
Peter House (Cambridge), 660a 
Peter Morone, 3a 
Peter Pence, 660a 
Peter Port, St., 660 
Peter, St., 146, 149a, 732, 897a 
Peter, St. ad Vincula, 475 
Peter's St., Cathedral, 733a 
Peter, St., of Alcantara, Nuns of, 

790 
Peter's, St., Festival Chair, 704a 
Peter the Great, 279 
Peter the Hermit, 260 
Peterwaradin, 661 
Petion, 407a 
Petra Island, 793a 
Petrarch, Francisco, 446a, 733 
Petriburgus, 660 
Petronilla, 55a 
Petrucci, Ottavio de, 696o 
Petty treason, 413a 
Phaeax, 772a 
Phaganus, 382a 
Phaim, 2a 

Phantasmagoria, 529a 
Phantastic System, 285a 
Pharae, 8a 
Pharmacopaia, 662 
Phaulkon, 777a 
Phazania, 343a 
Pheidon, 16a, 229 
Phemonce, 876 

Phidias. 448, 619, 645, 766a, 806a 
Phigalian Marbles, 151 
Philemon, 371 
Philetus of Cos, 300a 
PhUip Neri, St., 851 
Philip EgalitS, 3.55 
Philip of Macedon, o^iSa 
Philipsthal (Hesse), 413 
Philocrates, 143a 
Philopsemeu, 9, 801 
Philtra, 663a 
Phipps, Captain, 58a 
Phipps, Sir W., 174a 
Phippsburg, 532 
Phiswicke'3 Hostle, Cambridge, 

851 
Phloaisticated air, 606 
Phcenix Park, Dublin, 295 
Phoenix Society, 441a 
Phonetic Hieroglyphics, 413a 
Phoroneus, 60, 391a 
Phrynichiis, 290a 
Phtha, 312 
Pia, 665a 
Pianori, 357a 
Piast Dynasty, 676a 
Picard, 12 

Pichegru, General, 374, 666 
Pictavi, 6"6a 
Ketones, 676a 
Picts' Wall, 401a 
Piddingtou, Mr. Henry, 810a 
Pi6-poudre Courts, 339a 
Fieri, 357a, 626a 
Pigott Diamond, 281a 
Pilgrim's Pi-ogress, The, 109 
Pillar Saints, 812a 
PUton, 253 
Pindanies, 432a 
Pintia, 868a 
Pinzon, 39a, 140a 
Pip-corn, 420 
Piplee, 115 
Piciuet, 666 



Piriel, M. , 519a 

Pisani, Vettore, 873 

Pisano, Nicole, 766a 

Pisaui-um, 659 

Pischdadian Dynasty, 565a 

Pisistratus, 75a, 419 

Pistorium, 668a 

Pitman, Mr. Isaac, 777 

Pitt Diamond, 281 

Pitt's Bridge, 125a 

Pitt, William, 325, 365, 717 

Pittacus, 392 

Fix, Trial of the, 805 

Pizarro, Francisco, 40, 265, 367, 

490a. 658a 
Place-men, 10a 
Plaids, 223 
Planetarium, 802a 
Plantations, Board of, 129a 
Plas Newydd, 258a 
Plate Anaour, 64 
Plato, 8, 76 
Piatt, JUr., 794 
Plautus, 233o, 291 
PlaybiUs, 8:J5 
Players' Scourge, 291a 
Plebs Santi Mariui cum CasteUo. 

540a 
PUny, 368a, 589a, 626 
Plotinus, 593a 
PlUcker, Professor. 400a 
Plymouth Dock, 280a, 675 
Poerio, Baron, 441 o, 585a 
Point de GaUe, 828 
Polangen, 253 
Pole Axe. 85a 
Pole, Cardinal, 323a 
Polignac Administration, 356 
Polignac, Cardinal. 811 
Poliorcetes, Demetrius, 525a 
Political.Union. 122 
Polo. Marco, 208, 237, 526a, 567 
Polybius, 831 
Polycarp, 544, 786a 
Polycletes, 8:i5 
Polycletus, 766a 
Polygnotus, 634 
Pomare, Queen, 628 
Pomfret, 680 
Pomfret Marbles, 68 
Pompadour, Madame, 354a 
Pomi>eiopolis, 333a 
Pompeius, Sextus, 779 
Ponce de Leon, John, 40, 186, 

348 
Poneropolis. 663 
Pons JElii. 596 
Pontia, 680a 

Pontine Marshes, 290, 680 
Poor Clares, 220a 
Poor Conrad League, 377a. 650 
Poor of the Holy City, 832 
Pope Alexander, 758 
Pope's Merchants, 193a 
Popham, Sir Home, 831 
PopUia, 365 
Porcaro, Stephen, 733a 
Porcelain Tower, 583tt, 686a 
Porchester. 688a 
Porlier, General, 797 
Porphyry, 593a 
Porsenna, 730 
Poi-son, Richard, 393a, 504 
Porta, Baptista, 622 
Port Adelaide, 12a 
Port-au-Prince, 688 
Port Com-wallis, 45 
Porteous E,iots, 725 
Port Famine, 646 
Portgrave, 51 2a 
Portgreve, 512a 
Poi-tholes, 775a 
Porto d'Ajizo. 50a 
Portreve. 510a 
Port Wine, 905 
Portus Gale, 621a 



Portus Herculis Monaeci, 570a 
Poms, 525. 702a 



Possession Island, 599 

Post Office Directory, 283a 

Potamon of Alexandria, 307 

Poteiukin, Prince, 742tt 

Potidwa. 525 

Pott, Perceval, 817 

Pottiuger, Sir Henry, 683a 

Pouch, Captain, 674a 

Powell, Batleu, M.A., 331 

Power, Tyrone, 695 

Power-loom, 252a 

Powys, 886 

Powys Endowment Fund, 790 

Poynings, Sir Edward, 440, 
693 

Pozzuoli, 703a 

Prseneste, 636a 

Pi-£enestiues, 34 

Praxeas, 647 

Praxiteles, 321, 505, 766a 

Piebendary, 179 

Predial Servitude, 771 

Prescott, WUliam Hickling, 863 

Pressburg, 694a 

Prester John, 462a 

Price, Dr., 27a 

Pride, Colonel, 324, 695a, 740 

Priesnitz, Vincent. 426 

Priestley, Dr., 76o, 204o. 632 

Prim, General, 798 

Prime Minister, 13 

Primstaffs, 34a 

Primstaries, 34a 

Primstocks, 34a 

Prince Abbots, 3 

Prince Charles Edward, 695a 

Prince of the Peace, 796a 

Prince of the Senate, 769 

Prince William's Islaudc, 312 

Principalis et Capitalis Consi- 
liarius, 695 

Principato Citi-a, 748 

Principia, 74, 390a, 602 

Priscllian, 697 

Prize Court, 14a 

Procopius, 582 

Procureurs 66n6raux, 644 

Prodicus, 12 

Proseleui, 56a 

Protagoras. 791a 

Protector of the Realm, 718 

Protestant Association, 387 

Protestant Union, 424 

Proteus, 312 

Front, Samuel, 892a 

Provincial Constitutions, 177a 

Provincial States, 278 

Provisions of Oxford, 527 

Pnid'hommes, Conseils de, 56a 

Prydhain, 145a 

Piynne, WlUiam. 291a, 324, 

486a 
Ptolemais, 10 
Ptolemy, 74. 479. 622. 702 
Public Good, 86a 
Public Health Act. 753 
Pubmia Lex. 730a 
Puente de don Guarray, 613a 
Puerto de Isabel, 342a 
Pugatcheff, 742a 
Pullen. Capt., 360flr 
Pultawa, 679 
PurceU, 620a 
Purification, 341a 
Pusey, Dr. . 285, 703a 
Pnsheng. 163a 
Putrid Sore Throat, 283a 
Pye, Hrnry James, 676 
Pygmalion 187a 
Pyrrho of Elis, 704, 761a 
Pyrrhus, 329a 

Pythagoras, 73a, 374, 408, 558. 639, 
663a, 704, 776a, 789a. 840a 



GENEEAL INDEX. 



945 



Quadra Islastds, 869 
Quadrilateral, 447a 
Quadriviuin. 67a 
Qii^U-fighti..g, 227 
Quartodeciin-riaus, 79 
Quasi-Modo Sum lay, 518' 
Queeuborouali Castle, 774a 
Queen's House, 154a 
Queen's Town, Ireland, 247a 
Quesuay. F., 307a 
Quesnel, 8 

Quiercy-sur-Oise, 464 
QuintUia, 709 
Quintilis, 459 
Quintus Curtius, 302a 
Quinze Viugts Hospital, 127a 
Quirini Tie^jolo Conspiracy, 874 
Quiros, Pedro Fernandez di, 789 

Eaculf Ceastic, 716 

Badagaisus, 897 

Eadbert, Pasohasius, 848 

Radcliflfe, Dr. John, 710 

Rae, Dr., 360 

Kaffles, Sir Stamford, 782a 

Raft (if Tilsit, 840a 

Bagged School Union, 311, 710« 

Eaglan, Lorfl, 326, 745 

Bagotski, Fran, is, 424 

Baikes, Hobert, SlOa, 815 

BainhiU, 711 

Baisins de Corinthe, 263a 

Baisiu Wiue, 905 

Eakos, Field of, 659a 

Bakow, 789 

Raleigh, Su-W., 40, 149, 186,324, 

398a, 532a, 623, 713, 77oa, 817, 

842a, 880a 
Balph Bolster Doister, 233a 
Bameau, 620a 

Ramon CastiUa, General, 659 
Band.lph, Sii- Ihomas, 692 
Bann, John, 336 
Bansome, Fivderick, 810, 892a 
Bantzau, 277a 
Baoul, 608 

Baphael d'Urbino, 188a, 634a 
Raphael of Nunez del Kiego, 797 
Rapp, George and Frederick, 405a 
Ratse, 483a 
Ratalie Wine, 905 
Rathlone, 279a 
Rattler, Steamer, 766 
Raiififiuan, Gerard, 554 
Ravaillac, 354 

Raven, Standard of the Danes, 346 
Ray, b28a, 589a 
Readers, 183 
Recife, 655a 
Beeolleots, 615a 
Bedemption of Captives, Brethren 

of, 851 
Eedfield, William, 810a 
Bedriff, 757 
Beeve, John, 578 
Reformatio Lsgum Ecclesiastica- 

rum, 178 
Reformed Presbytery, 173 
Regency The.tre, 7o7 
Begem Diamond, 281 
Regent Street, 501a 
Regionnintanus, 34a, 84 
Regnier of Anjou, 47 
Regular Caucus of St. Augustine, 

80a 
Regulators, 186a 
Begulbium. 716 
Begulus, 187a 
Beiuhstadt, 356 
Beid, Colonel WiUiam, 810a 
Reid, Dr., 874a 
Beimarus, 714 
Kemi, St., 722 
Renaudot, Thgophraste, 600 
Ren6, "the good king," 47 
Eennie, Mr. Jonn, 503a, 893 



Repeal Agitation, 440a, 720 

Rephidim, 37a 

Re-chid Pasha, 630a 

Return of the Cyreian Greeks, 720a 

Reunion Club, 224 

Reunion Isl tnd, 137a 

Bevels, Master of the, 291 

Beynard the Fox, 551 

Beynolds, Sir Joshua. 223a, 738 

Rhages, 830a 

Bheiufels, 413 

Bhetel, 158 

Bhinocorura, 314 

Bhoai5, 477a 

Bhode, 735a 

Bhodes, Knights of, 420a, 723 

Khoxaui, 741 

Bhoxolani, 741 

Bhyddlan, 723 

Bialto, 26a, 874 

Bice Wine, 904a 

Bich, J., 254a 

Richard I., 10, 198, 260a 

Richardson, Sir John, 360 

Richelieu, Cardinal, 354, 372, 792 

Bichman, Professor, 315a 

Richmond Shilling, 225a 

Bicimer, Count, 897 

Ride of the Six Hundred, 91 

Bidley, Bishop, 323a, 540, 632 

Bieuzi, Cola di, 733a 

Bieti, 715a 

Bingsbroech, John, 581a 

Eiums Gate, 713 

Biver, J., 201 

Bizzio, David, 309,*418a, 764a 

Robert Curthose, 902a 

Roberval, M. de, 174, 727 

Robespierre, 355 

Robinson Crusoe, 4.57a 

Robinson, John, 597a 

Robinson's Act, 248 

Robson's Forgeries, 261 

Bocoha, 37 

Bock Alum, 37 

Bock Day, 284a 

Rocket, Locomotive Engine, 711 

Boebuck, John Arthur, 774 

Koemer, 74, 622 

Bog 'tiones Licinise, 730a 

Bogers, John, 323a, 786 

Rohan, Cardinal de, 281a 

Roland, Madame, 355 

Bolf, 608 

Rollo, 608 

Roma la Chica, 748 

Roman a, 797 

Roman Catholic Association, 729 

Roman Catholic Board, 441 

Roman Catholic Defence Associa- 
tion, 441, 729a 

Roman Church, 896a 

Romandiola, 729 

Romanoff Dynasty, 742 

Roman Notation, 283 

Romania, Johnnnes de, 494a 

Roman Style, 601a 

Bomany Dialect, 400 

Ruine-scot, 660a 

Rom-feoh, 660a 

Riimulus, 730 

Ronge, Johannes, 465a 

Roquebrune, 358 

Bosamond'sPond, 450 

Bosas, General, 673 

Boscelliuus, 606a, 836 

Rosciliona, 7b7a 

Rosenkreuz, Christian, 736 

Rose's Act, 362 

Ross, Alexander M., 878 

Ross, Mr. Edward, 883a 

Ross, Sir James Clarke, 48a, 360, 
793a 

Ross, Sir John, 360a 

Rosse, Lord, 74a, 831 

Rossi, Count, 733a 



ini, 621 
Rotherham Independent College, 

430a 
EotomHgus, 737 
Rottenburg, 413 
Roubillac, 766a 
K mgemout Castle, 337a 
Roule, la 
Roumelia, 838 
Round Down Cliff, 315a 
R .usseau, J. J., 275 
Routiers, 139 
Rowe, Nicholas, 676 
Roxana, 525 

Royal African Company, 20a 
Royal Asiatic Society, 70 
Royal Astronomical Society, 73a 
Royal Bank of Scotland, 95 
Royal Exchangers, 95a 
Royal Fishery of England, 345a 
Royal Gift, 719 
Royal Military Asylum (Chelsea), 

204a 
Royal Naval Coast Volunteers, 

226 
Royal Naval Volunteers, 720a 
Royal Oak, 614a 

Royal Siciety of Musicians, 237a 
Royal Truce, 853a 
Royalty Theatre, 153 
Royal Jenuerian Institution, 867 
Ruoens, P. P., 232 
Rucellai, 847 
Rudio, 357a, 626a 
Ruicou, Autouio del, 634a 
Bumford, Count, 738a 
Runstocks, 34a 
Buric, the Norman, 741 
Busciuo, 737a 

Bush, James Bloomfield, 337 
Bush-lights, 176 
Busicade, 662a 

Eussell, Lord John, 300, 454, 717 
BusfeU, Ljrd W., 324, 492, 745a 
Bussell, Scott, 426a, 894 
Rutherford, Dr., 606 
Buthven Castle, 710a 
Rutilius, M., 282 
Ruzzante, 639a 
Rykuield Street, 726a 

Saavedra, 81 



SabeUius, 746 

Sabria, 759 

Sabooa, 613a 

Sabrate. 852 

Sabriua Island, 893a 

Sabriua Land, 793a 

Sacadina, 813 

Saccas, A.. 307 

Sacheverell, Dr. Henry, 324a, 74i 

Sachs, Hans, 233a, 551 

S-ick, 905 

Sackville, Sir George, 387a 

Snckville's •■ Gorboduc," 847 

Sacramento Biver, 169 

Sacred Harmonic Society, 2.38 

Sacred Stone of Mecca, 162a 

Sadoc, 747 

Ssemund Sigfusson, 303 

Srfety Valve, 807 

Sagas 211a 

Sagtrelli, G., 51a 

Sague, 6a 

Saguntus, 747a 

Saheb ud Deen, 431 

Saida, 780 

S,iis, 775 

Saiute Beuve, Madame de, 865a 

Saladin, 824a 

Salamonica, 262a 

Salang. 159 

SaUr, 658 

Saldanha, Duke of, 691 

Sale, Lady, 18, 163a 

3 p 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Salem, 453 
Salem (U. S.). 545 
Salen tines, 749 



Salisbury Court Theatre, 900 

Salisbury Hoiise, 811 

SalivahHii, iEra of, 431 

Salle, Jean B .ptist de la, 815 

Sallust, Caius Crispus, 614, 732 

Salmautica, 748 

Saloniki, 749 

Salt Fishmongers, 345a 

Salvator's. St.. CoUege, 45a 

Samaria, 445, 751 

Samogitia, 253 

Samson, 370a, 663a 

Samus, 751a 

Saneta Sophia. 214a 

Sandaliotis, 755 

Sandby, Paul, 892a 

Sandeman, Robert, 382 

Sandy Point. 643 

San Felipe de Monte Video, 573 

San Juan de Nicaragua, 396 

San Miguel, 669a 

Santa Anna, General, 560 

Santa Casa, 516 

Santa Hermandad, 417a 

Santa Maria de la Vitoria, 196a 

Santa Maura, 486 

Santa, Port of, 40 

Santarem, 19a 

Sans Souci, Palace of, 693 

Santander, General, 597 

Santa Scholastica, 812a 

Santiago de Leon de Caracas, 183 

Sanutus, Martin, 624a 

Sapaudia, 759 

Saphit, 304 

Sappho, 330.486.754 

Sarazinois, 826a 

Sardanapalus, 73 

Sardes, 757 

Sardus, 755 

Sarmatae, 757 

Sarmaticus, 757a 

SaiTebriick, 74oa 

Sart,757 



Satriano (See of), 173 

Satricum, 883 

Saturn, 445a 

Satumiuus, 384 

Saul of Tarsus, 828a; 

Saunderson, Mrs. M., 11a 

Sauromates, 757 

Saussure, Horace de, 572 

Baut(vrio. 836 

Savery, Captain Thomas, 807 

Savonarola, 716a 

Savoy-Cangnan, Prince, 856 

Sawtre, Wiliiam, 323, 499 

Saxon Chronicle, 327 

Saxon Shore, Count of the, 760a 

Scanderbeg, 25a, 494 

Scandia, 761a 

Scaxabautia, 616a 

Scaurus, Marcus .^milius, 815, 8! 

Scepticism, 704, 761a 

Schamaki, 303a 

Schaiuyl, 743a 

Scharf, George, 589a 

Scheele, 828a 

Scheiner, Christopher, 639 

Schelliug, Frederick, 639 

Schimmelpenniuck, 416a 

Schism of the West, 85 

Schoeffer, Peter, 696 

Scholastic Theology, 836 

Schomburgk, Sir Robert, 878a 

Schonbein, Professor, 399, 633 

Schroeter, C. A., 666 

Schwanhard, H., 332 

Schwaupan, 167 

Schwartz, Baithold, 399a 

Schwyz Confederacy, 762a, 821a 

Scione, 673 



Scorpions, 344a 

Scota, 763 

Scotch Guards, 397a 

Scotch National Convention, 765a 

Scutia, 439a 

Scot' Greys, 290 

Scott, Louis, 173a 

Scott, Major John, 48Ga 

Scott, Sir- W., 3a, 325a 

Scottish Independents, 597a 

Scrivelsby Family, 199 

Scull-cap, 180a 

Scytale, 216 

Sealed Letters, 164 

Seafights : — 

Abydos, 6a 

Aciium, 11 

Agates, 778a 

JEgospotami, 17 

Aland Isles, 24a 

Algeslras, 31a 

Arginusrc, 59a 

Ai-temisium, 66 

Bautry Bay, 96 

Bai-fleur, 98a 

Basque Roads, 103a 

Basseterre, 103a 

Breuta, 872 

Brest, 142a 

Cabrita Point, 163a 

Cagliari, 755 

Camperdown, 173a 

Cape Finistene, 181 

Cape St. Vincent, 181 

Cecryphahe, 194a. 

Chrtmplain, 199 

Chesapeake ajid Shannon, 206 

Chiozza, 210a 

Chumphee, 209 

CoaUoon, 209 

Corfu, 246a 

Copenhagen, 277a 

Curzola, 264 

Curzolari, 485a 

Cynossenia, 265a 

Dardanelles, 270a 

Dogger-bauk, 286a 

Dover, 289a 

Drepanuiu, 292 

Ecnomus, 307a 



Eryx, 330a 
Eurymedon, 333* 
Fenol, 343 
Frejus. 362a 
Gibraltar, 380a 
Grandville, 390 
Graveliues, 61a 
Hafursfiord, 611 
Hango, 404 
Harwich, 406 
Hasunfiord, 406a 
Helder, 408a 
J.-an d'Acre, St.. 872o 
Kiusale, 468 
Kioge, 468 
Laaland, 473 
Lolland, 473 
Lade, 474 
Lagos, 474a 
La Hogue, 474a 
Lepauto, 485 
Linghiera, 492a 
Lissa, 494 
Logera, 498a 
L'lcocistema, 755 
Malaga, 533 
Mclora, 552a 
Meloria, 552a 
Melos, 552a 
Melovia, 372a 
Mitylene. 568 
Mycole, 581 
Mylae, 581 
Naulochus, 779 
Navarino, 590 
Negapatam, 592a 



Seafights — {continued). 

Nile, 604a 

North Foreland, 610 

Notium, 800a 

Olbia, 755 

Ortegal Cape, 626a 

PaUene, 637 

Paros, 873a 

Passaro, Cape, 645o 

Pula, 676a 

Portland, 687 

Porto d'Anzo, 687a 

Portolongo, 68. a 

Portsmouth, 688a 

Quiberon Bay, 707a 

Sagone Bay, 747a 

Salamis, 748 

S Idanha Bay, 748a 

Salboro, 872a 

Santa, Cruz, 753a 

Sapieiiza, 754 

Sette Pozzi, 872a 

Sluys, 40(),785a 

Solebay, 790 

Southwold Bay, 790 

Sphacteria, 754 

Swanwic, 819 

Swenka Sound, 82 

Tchesme, 629a 

Texf 1, 833a 

Trafalgar, 846a 

Trepan i, 872a 

Tyndaris, 187a, 857 

TJshaut, 866 

Viborg, 877a 

Vikia, 611 

Vyborg, 877a 

Winchelsea, 903a 

Wyborg, 877o 

Zenchi •, 873a 

Zuydt-r Zee, 917a 
Sealiug-Wax, 894a 
Seai-esbyi-ig, 757a 
Seator, 758 
Sebaste, 45 

Sebastopol Committee, 326 
Second Rome, 242 
Seffavean Dynasty, 815 
Sefl. 814 
Segautii, 475a 
Segoduuum, 728 
Segi-eve H.ill, 652a 
Segrim Hall, 652o 
Sesjusio, 818 
Seistan, 768 
Sejanus, 732 
Selefkieh, 768a 
Seleucus Nicator, 824 
Selkirk, Alexander, 457a 
Semigallia, 253 
Semirauiis, 419a 
Semp.-r Eadem, 282a 
Sempi-ingbam, Order of, 380a 
Sena Julia, 780 
Seneca, 621a, 732, 847 
Senefelder, Alois, 494 
Sennacherib, 73, 453 
Separatists, 18a 
Septem, 196a 
Septimania, 477 
Sepulchi-e of the Martyrs, 36a 
Serapeon, .550, 770a 
Seraiwum. 30, 770a 
Serene Highness, 413a 
Serapion, 770a 
Serraijo, General, 798 
Sertorius, 195, 794a 
SeiTants of the Poor, 783 
Servetus, Michael, 372, 726a 
Sesostris, 312, 373a, 591 
Sestos and Abydos, 270a 
Setautii, 475a 
Sevajee, 431, 531 
Seven Captains, War of, 391a 
Seven Dials, London, 501 
Seven United Islands, 439 
Seven Wise Men of Greece 392 



GENERAL INDEX. 



947 



Severus, Arch, of, 732a 

Seymour, Lord, 323a 

3eymoiu-, Queen Jame, 323a, 411 
Seymour, Sir Edward, 801a 
Sextile Year, 108 
3extilia, 876ci 
3extus Hmpiricus, 704 
3hadwell, Thomas, 676 
3hah Jehan, 431 
3hah Shooja, J8 

Shakespeare, W., 291a, 324, 383, 772a 
Shakespeare Jubilee, 4-57a, 773 
Shain Abraham, to, 5a 
Shannon, Frigate, 206 
3haparee Island, 159 
3harpe, Granville, 784 
3harpe, James, Archbishop of St. 
I Andrews, 765a 
IShawfield Riot, 725 
Shawi, 916a 

Sheba, Queen of, 420, 454a 
Shee, Sir Martin A., 738 
Sheehy, Rev. Nicholas, 900 
Sheep-hauks, Mr. John, 589, 774 
Sheikh-el-Jebelz, 70a 
Sheil, Rii^hard Lalor, 441 
3hene, 311a, 723a 
Sheppard, Jack, 336 
Sherboro Island, 487 
Shere Thm-sdny, 547a 
Sheridan, R. B., 325a, 365 
Sheriy, 905, 911 
Shillibeer, Mr., 620 
Shire-man, 252a 
Shire-reve, 774a 
Shuiski, Andrew, 741a 
Shomcliffe, 350a 
Short, Dr., 12a 
Shorter Catechism, 192 
Shrewsbury Statute, 11 
Shrove Sunday, 708a 
Shuttlecock, 106 
Sicani, 778a 

Sicoardi Jo.'ieph Count, 786 
Slchem, 773a 
Sickles, D. G., 863 
SicuU, 499, 778a 
Sidney, Cape Breton, 181 
Siegen, Louis von, 560a 
Sieges :— 

Abbassabad, la 

Aberdeen, 4 

Abo, 5 

Acre, 10 

Acropolis, 10 

Aden, 12a 

Msinsi. 16a 

Agen, 21 

Agra, 22 

Agi'igentum, 23 

Ahmedabad, 23 

Ahmednugger, 23 

Ahwaz, 23 

Aire, 23a 

Aix, 23a 

Aix-la-Chapelle, 24 

Akei-mann, 24a 

Akhalzikh, 24a 

Albayda, 26 

Alcantara. 27 

Aleppo, 29 

Alessandria, 29a 

Alexandria, 30 

Alexandria (U.S.), 30 

Algesiras, 31a 

Algiers, 32 

Alh^ma, 32 

Alhambra, 32 

Alkmaar, 33 

Allahabad, 33a 

AllifM, 34 

AUyghur, 34 

Almarez, 34a 

Almeida, 35 

Almeria, 35 

Almorah, 35a 



Simixs—{conthiued). 
Alnwick, 36 
Alost, 36 
Amalphi, 37a 
Amand, St., 37a 
Amid, 41 
Amoy, 42 
Amsterdam, 42a 
Anapa, 43a 
Ancona, 45 
Aucyra, 45 
Angers, 46 
Augoul6tue, 46a 
Aiigar, 47 
Antioch, 49a 
Antium, 50a 
Antwei-p, 51 
Aquileia, 54 
Arcot, 58 
Ardee, 59 
Aries, 61 
Arnheim, 64* 
Arras, 65 q 
Arretium, 65a 
Arzilla, 68 
Asoalon, 68 
Asculum Picentun, 
Ashdod, 69 
Asta, 73 
Astorga, 73 
As+raean. 73a 
Athens, 75a, 76 
Athloue, 76a 
Augsburg, 79 
Auximum, 84 
Ava, 84 
Aversa, 84a 
Azotus, 69 
Baalbec, 86 
Babylon, 87 
Badajos, 88a 
Bagdad, 89a 
Balkb, 92 
Bamberg, 93a 
Bamborough, 93o 



Bangalore, 94 
Barbastro, 97 
Barca, 97a 
Barcelona, 97a 



Barletta, 99a 
Baroach, 99a 
Basel, 102a 
Basing House, 103 
Bassorah, 104 
Bastia, 104 
Batnear, 105a 
Bayonne, 107a 
Baza, 107a 
Beauvais. 108a 
Bedford Cattle, 109 
B.-lgrade, Ilia 
Beutrvento, 114 
Bergen-op-Zoom, 116a 
Berne, 117a 
Beziers, 118a 
Bhurtyore, 118a 
Bielgorod, 659a 
Biriiiingham, 122 
Bois-le-Duc, 131a 
Bologna, 132 
Bombay, 132a 
Bonn, 133 
Bordeaux, 134o 
Bouchan, 137 
Boulogne, 137 
Boviauum, 138a 
Breda, 141a 
Brescia, 142a 
Breslau, 142a 
Biimstone Hill, 213a 
Bruaes, 152 
Briinii, 152a 
Burgos, 157 



SiEaea— (continued). 

Busra. 104 

Byzantium, 162a 

Cadiz, 164tt 

Cahors, 6o9a 

Cai-f.;Eg-fou, 166 

Calais, 166a 

Callao, 169a 

Calvi, 170 

Cambray, 170a 

Caudia, 175a 

Cauosa, 179 

Canton, 180a 

Cai-avaggio, 183 

Carical, 184a 

Caris brook Castle, 184o 

Carlaverock, 185 

Carlisle, 185 

Carthagena, 188 

Casiliuum, 189 

Ca,ssel, 189a 

Cawnpore, 194 

Chalcedoi), 197a 

Chalus, 198 

Charleroi, 201a 

Chepstow Cabtle, 205 

Cherbourg, 205 

Cheater, 206a 

Chiogleput. 210a 

Chios, 787a 

Chittoor, 211 

Choczim, 212 

Chotyn, 212 

Chumpaiieer, 214 

Cirrha, 218 

Ciudad Kodiigo, 218a 

Clermont Ferrand, 222 

Clusium. 224a 

Cobuig Cattle, 226a 

Coiiubatore, 228a 

Colberg, 230 

Colchester Castle, 230 

Colombo, 232a 

Como, 2:j6a 

Compifigue, 237a 

Coni, 240 

Constantinople, 242 

Conway Castle, 244 

Cordova, 246 

Corfu. 246a 

Corinth, 247 

Cork, 247a 

Conrtray, 2.53a 
Covelong, 254 
Cracow, 255 
Cumije, 262a 
Cuneo, 240 
Cust)in, 472a 
Cuttack, 205 
Cuzco, 265 
Damascus, 260tt 
Damietta, 268a 
Dantzic. 270 
Deeg, 274 
Delhi, 275a 
D^mmin, 276a 
DeiTy,504 
Devizes, 280a 
Diarbekir, 281a 
Dizier, St., 285a 
Dole, 287 
Dover Castle, 289 
Dresden, 292 
Dreux, 293a 
Drontheim, 294 
DuWin, 291a, 295 
Dumbarton Castle, 298 
Dundee, 2i18a 
Durazzo, 299a 
Du.en. 2.49a 
Edinburgh, 308 
Edinburgh Ci*s.tle, 309 
Ehrcubreitstein, 313a 
Eryx, 330a 
Exeter, 337a, 338 
Faenza, 339a 

3 P 2 



948 THE MANUAL OF DATES 




Smsss— {continued). 


&TEGTS— (continued). 


Sieges— (cowtinwed). 


Fsesvdse, 3S9a 


Magdeburg, 529 


Phdippsburg, 663 


Florence, 347a 


Malaga, 533 


Pisa. 668a 


FlushiDiT, 885a 


Maugalore, 537 


Pistc.ja, 668a 


Frederickstein Castle, 361a 


Manuheiin, 537a 


Plataea, 673 


Gaeta, :365o 


Mans. Le, 538 


Plymouth. 675 


Gaza, 371 


Mantua, 538a 


Poltava, 679 


Gdow, 678 


Marmande, 541 


Pomfrct Castle, 680 


Geuoa, 373 


Massalia, 543 


Pondicherry, 680 


Geroua, 379 


Maub^uge, 546a 


Potidia, 652a 


Gheut, 379a 


Mayence. 547a 


Prague, 694 


Gibraltar, 380 


Meutz, 547a 


Privas, 697o 


Gliona, 379 


Mediol«num, 550a 


Pskow, 702 


Glatz, 382a 


MegalopoUs, 551 


Pydna, 703a 


Glogaw, 677 


Melos, 552a 


Pylus. 704 


Glouctster, 383a 


Menehould. St., 553a 


Quentia. St.. 707a 


Gluckstadt, 383a 


Wesolonghi, 567a 


Quesnoy, 707a 


Gothenburg, 388 


Metz. 559 


Quimper. 708a 


Gottingen, ::i88a 


Mezidres, 560a 


Kadstadt, 710 


Granada, 389a 


MUan, 5G2a 


Rangoon, 713o 


Grave, 390 


Mirandola, 566a 


Rastadt. 710 


Groninsen, 396a 


Missolonghi, 567a 


Katisbon, 714 


Gross Glotran, 397 


Modena, 569 


Kavenna, 714o 


Gualior, 397 


Monmouth Castle, 571 


Keggio. 718 


Haarlem, 400 


Mons, 572 


Ehegium, 718 


Hadrianople, 401 


Montargis, 572 


Rheims, 722 


Hanau, 403a 


Montauban, 572 


Rhodes, 723 


Harfleur, 403 


Monte Cassino, 572a 


Rhuddlan, 723 


Hatras, 406a 


Monte Video, 573 


Roch.Ue. 727 


Ha-vre de Grace, 407 


Mooltan, 574a 


Rochester Castle, 727 


Henuebon, 409a 


Morella, 575a 


Rome, 733. 734 


Herat, 411a 


Morocco, .576 


Rosas, 735a 


Huningen, 424a 


Moscow. 577 


Rotterdam, 737 


Ilium. 428 


Motya. 636 


Rouen, 737 


lugoldstadt, 435a 


Munster, 579 


Roxhurg Castle, 737a 


Ismail, 444a 


MycenjB, 681 


Ruscia, 740 


Jaen. 449 


Naarden, 582 


Saguntuum, 747a 


Jaffa, 449 


Namur, 583a 


Salamauca, 748 


Jaicza. 448 


Nantes. 583o 


Salerno. 748a 


Jean d'Acre, St.. 10, 260a 


Naples, 586a 


Salona, 749a, 799a 


Jeri. ho, 452 


Narva, 587 


Salonlca, 749a 


Jeinsalem, 2fi0a, 453 


Navaiino, 590 


Saloniki, 749a 


Kaiidahnr, 460a 


Negapatnm, 592a 


Saiigala, 752a 


Kars, 461a 


N^gropont, 593 


Saragossa, 754 


Kel.l. 461a 


Neisse, 593 


Sardica, 754a 


Kenilwo.th Castle. 462 


Newcastle, 596a 


Savandroog, 758a 


Kief. 659a 


Nice, 603 


Scarborough Castle, 751a 


KilmallMck. 465 


Nicsea, 260 


Schweidnitz, 762 


King's Lynn, 522a 


Nimeguen, 605 


Sebastian, St., 767a 


Kinsale, 468 


Nisi bis, 605a 


Sebastopol, 767a 


Koui^stein. 471a 


Nocera. 606 


Selinus, 768a 


Kustrin, 472a 


Noreia, 607a 


Sens, 770 


KweUin, 209a 


Nottingham. 612a 


SeviUe. 772 


Lagosta, 474a 


Oczakow, 616 


Sidon, 780 


Lh, Mothn, 132 


CEuiadae, 616a 


Siena, 780a 


Landau, 476 


Olmutz, 618a 


Silistria, 781a 


Landiecy, 476a 


Oporto, 621a 


Sin. 652a 


Latham House, 478a 


Orleans, 625a 


Sinope, 782a 


Le M«i.s, 538 


Ostend. 627a 


Siimium, 783 


Lepanto, 4&5 


Otchakof. 616 


Skipt n Cattle, 783a 


Leiida, J8oa 


Oudenarde, 631 


Sogdian Rock, 789a 


Leyden, 486a 


Oxford, 632 


Sol^ure, 790 


Liege, 488a 


Padua, 634 


Solothu.n, 790 


Lille, 490 


Palfeopolis, 586a 


Sozopetra, 794 


Limburg,490a 


Palmyra, 638 


SpalHtro, 799a 


Limedck, 491 


Pampehuia, 638 


Stirling Castle, 809 


Lisle, 490 


Paris, 641a 


Stockholm, 809a 


lismore. 494 


Pavia, 648a 


Stockp.)rt, 809a 


Lissa, 494 


Pegu, 651a 


Stralsund, 811 


Locri, 497a 


Pekin, 651a 


Stuttgard, 812a 


Li ja. 498a 


Pelusium, 652a 


Sutri, 818a 


Londonderry/ 504 


Pembroke Castle, 652a 


Sweaborg, 819a 


Longwy,506 


Peromi, 652a 


Syracuse, 823 


Louviers, 517a 


Peniscola. 653 


Taujore, 826a 


Loxa, 498a 


Perekop, Fort, 654a 


Tareutum, 827a 


Lu<-ca, 518a 


Perinthus, 655 


Tarila, 827a 


Lucena. 518a 


Perunne, 655a 


Tarragona, 828 


Luckuow, 519 


Perth, 658 


Taunton. 829 


Luneville, 520 . 


Perugia, 659 


Temeswar, 831a 


Luxemburg, 521 


Pesth, 659a 


Tenby, 832a 


Lux.T, 835a 


Petelia, 660 


Thasos, 834a 


Lynn Regis, 522a 


Peteiwaidein, 661 


Thebes, 835a 


Lyons. .523 


Petra. 661 


Thom, 838 


Maastricht. .523 


Peveusey Castle, 661a 


Thurles Castle 839 


Madras, 527 


Phaisalus, 662 


Thyatira, 839 


Maestricht, 523a 


Philippopolis, 663 


Thymbra, 839 



GENERAL INDEX. 



949 



- {continued). 
Tigraiiocerta, 840 
Toledo, 843 
Tin eh, 652a 
Tortoua, 844a 
Tortosa, 844a 
Touldii, 844tt 
Toulouse, 845 
Ti-eviso, 849a 
Trichiuopoly, 850 
Ti-incomaleH, 850a 
Tripoli, 852a 
Troudjheni, 294 
Troy, 428 
Tunis, 854 
Turin, 855 
Tusculuin, 856a 
Tyre, 857a 
Urbino, 865a 
TJrgel, 865a 
Utica, 188 
UxeUoduuuin, 866a 
Valencia, 868 
Valenciennes, 8S8a 
Vaunes, 870 
Varna, 870 
Veil, 871 • 
VeUetri, 871 
Vellore, 871a 
Venice, 873 
Venlo, 874a 
Verona, 875a 
Viborg, 877a 
Vicenza, 878 
Vienna. 879 
Vieuue, 880 
Viseu, 882 
Vyborg, 877a 
Wacbtendoiik, 132 
Walliugford, 888a 
Waudewash, 889a 
Warrington, 890a 



Waterford, 892a 

Widdiu, 901 

Windsor Castle, 904a 

Wittenberg, »07 

Warzburg, 910a 

Wyborg, 877a 

Xanthus, 911 

York, 9132> 

York Town, 914 

Yaffa, 449 

Ypres, 914a 

Zara, 915a 

Zaiagoza, 754 
Sieland, 915a 
Siemens, Werner, 813 
Sienpi Tartars, 594 
Sigmaringen, 415 
Silicon, 781a 
Silver Brook, tlie, 59a 
Simeon, St., 6, 812a 
Sininel, Lambert, 295, 323, 782 
Simonides, 329 
Simonides the Younger, 568a 
Simon is, 554 
Simon Justus, 178 
Sinioa Magus, 15(1, 782 
Simon Zelotes, 145 
Simpson, Dr., 211a 
Simpson Pdver, 150 
Siuab, 782a 
Sindhu, 430a 
Sinfonia, 631a 
Sinjar, 782a 
Sipatri, 770a 
Sipus, 782a 
Sirnagur, 189 
Sirnames, 817a 
Sisapore, 34a 
Sisyphus, 443 
Sithin, Monastery of, la 
Sitomagus, 837 
Sixteen-string Jack, 336 
Skeattse, 229 



Skelton, John, 524 

Skinners' Well, 221a 

Slaughter-houses, 1 

Sleepy Academy, 7a 

Slevesholm, 224a 

Slidell and Mason, Messrs., 863a 

Slide-valve, 807a 

Sloane, Sir Hans, 150a, 785a 

Sineatou, 285, 308, 807 

Smith, Adam, 678a 

Smith, P. P., 768, 808 

fcsmith, Dr. ftouthwood, 7.53 

Smith, Sir Culling Eai-dley, 334 

Smith, Joseph, 479, 8(52 

Smith, Sir S., 10 

Smith, William, 374 

Smithick, 340a 

Smith O'Brien, 222a 

Smogre, 142a 

Smoke Farthings, 408 

Smutchin, 787 

Suiike Island, 46a 

Snell, Willebrod, 489, 850a 

Snia-Uud, 427 

f^norro Sturleson, 308 

Soane, Sir John, 787 

Soarez, 69a 

Sobieski, John, 677 

Sochajus, Antigonu?, 747 

Society for the Improvement of 

ISaval Architecture, 775a 
Society for tlie Relief of Distressed 

Widows, 901a 
Society for the Support and 
Encouragement of Sunday 
Schools, 815 
Society for the Suppression of the 

Slave Trade, 784a 
Socinus, Lselius, 789, 859a 
Socrates, 76, 276, 392, 761a 
Soho Factory, 122 
Solar Spots, 815 

Solis, Juan Diaz de, 40, 672a, 724a 
Sulomons, Mr. David, 456 
Solon, 75a, 272a, 392, 480 
Somerset, Lord Protector, 323a 
Somer's Town, London, 501a 
Sons of Homer, 418a 
Sous of Liberty, 174a 
Sous of the Phreuix, 338a 
Soodan, 792 

Soofee Dynasty, 814 
Soofite Dynasty, 657a, 814 

Sooloo Pirates, 663, 791a 

Sophia, Prill c-^s^s, 404a 

Sophia, St., 242 

Sophocles, 291, 847 

Sopron, 616a 

Sopronv, 616a 

Sor, 857a 

Sorbiodunum, 757a 

Sorboii, Robert, fi41a, 791a 

Soi viodunum, 757a 

Sostratus of Cnidus, 662 

Sothic cycle, 312 

Soulouque, 407a 

Soult, Marshal, 356a, 797 

Southcott, Joanna, 793 

Southey, Robert, 676 

South Sea, 633a, 917a 

South Sea Fund, 241a, 793a 

South Shetland, 793a 

South Town, 675 

Sovereign of the Seas, 592, 775a 

Spa Fields Riot, 725, 794 

Spalato, 799a 

Spamitres, 656a 

Spaudow,799a 

" Spanish Fury," 51 

Spanish Triumvirate, 446a 

Spanish Wax, 894a 

Spara, 894 

Spartacus, 381, 660, 801 

Speaking Head, 84 

Spear and NaUs, Feast of, 341a 

Speuer, Philip James, 666a 



Spenser, Edmund, 675a 

SlJenst-r, Mr., 316a 

Rpeusippus, 7tt 

Spic> I-lands, .570 

Spielmau, or bpilman. Sir J., 271a, 

640 
Spin-gardas, 56 
Spinning-frame, 252a, 802a 
Spinning Jenny, 252a, R02a 
Spinosa, 6al)riel de, 767 
Spinoza, 639 
Spiritu>.l Libf-rt,i..e, 487 
Spirituals, 487, 803a 
Spitergium, 84'Ja 
Spoletium, 804 
Springhill Diilepeudeut College, 

430a 
Spurgeon, Rev, C. H., 502a, 818 
Spurzeiiu, Dr., 664a 
Squaring the Circle, 705 
Ss., Collar of, 2. a 
t-tabledon HhII, Oxford, 338a 
Stabrock, 150a, 275a 
Stadeford, 804a 
Stadford, 804a 
Stafford, Lonr, 324 
Stage Coaches, 225, 804a 
Stahl, Ernest, 204tt 
Stambul, 242 
Stamenti, 755 
Staiichio, 251a 
Stanhope, Lady Hester, 780 
Stanhope Press, 6i)6a 
Stanislaus, St., 677 
Stanko, 251a 

Stanley, Sir William, 890 
Star- bearers, 118 
fc>tatera. 808a 
Statins, 291 
Statutes: — 
Henry IIL 

5 Hen. III. st. 1, 71a 

9 Hen. III. c. 7. 901 

9 Hen. III. c. 12. 71a 

9 Hen. III. c. 14, 39 880a 

9 Hen. III. c. 15, 144 

9 Hen. IIL 0.25. 161. 895 

9 H™. III. c. 36. 576a 

21 Hen. III., 482 

43 Hen. III., 254 

51 He2i. III. St. 1, 28a 

51 Hen. III. st. 5, c. 6, 908 

51 Hen. III. st. 6, 15a, 71a, 143 

52 Hen. IIL c. 10, 253a, 774a 
52 Hen. III. c. 22, 361a 

55 Hen. IIL st. 1, c. 3, 895 
Edward I. 
3 Edw. L, 264a 
3Eaw. Lc. 13,713a 
3 Edw. I. c. 15, 90a 
3 Edw. I. c. 25, 198» 

3 Edw. L c. 51, 72 

4 Edw. L St. 2, 249a 
7 Edw. I. St. 2, 576a 

11 Edw. I. s. 13, 52a 

12 Edw. I. c. 5, 887a 

13 Edw. I. c. 1, 328a 
13 Edw. I. c. 4, 422a 

13 Edw. I. c. 5, 541, 563a, 829a 

13 Edw. I. c. 6, 39 

13 Edw. I. c. 30, 605a 

13 Edw. L c. 34, 318, 713a 

13 Edw. I. St. 1, c. 19, 13a 

13 Kdw. I. St. 1, c. 29, 633 

13 Edw. I. St. 1, c. 30, 71a 

13 Edw. I. St. 1, c. 34, 614 

13 Edw. I. St. 2,0. 5,726 

13Edw. Lst. 2, c. 6, 241a 

13 Edw. I. St. 5, 342 

25 E<tw. I. c. 1, :»Utt 

25 Edw. I. c. 5. 7(i6a, 829o 

25 Edw. I. c. 6, 766a, 829a 

25 Edw. I. c. 7, 827o 

25 Edw. I. c 9, 216 

25 Edw. I. c. 14, 39 

27 Euw. I.. 22i)a, 258o, 301a, 571 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Statutes— [continued). 

27 Edw. I. St. 1, c. 3, 90a 

28 Edw. I. c. 5, 467 
28 Edw. I. c. 7, 216 
28 Edw. I. c. 11, 198a 

28 Edw. I. St. 3, c. 3, 129 
31 Edw. I. c. 1, 693a, 895 
Edward II. 
12 Edw. n. c. 6, SrSa 
17 Edw. II. c. 10, 520 
17 Edw. II. c. 11, 899 
17 Edw. II. c. 19, 520 
17 Edw. II. St. 1, 739 

17 Edw. II. St. 2, 880a 

18 Edw. II., 361 
Edward in. 

2 Edw. III. c. 2, 633 

2 Edw. III. c. 15, 339a 

5 Edw. III. c. 5, 339a 

9 Edw. III. c. 2, 126a 

9 Edw. III. c. 4, 126a 

9 Edw. in. St. 1, c. 5, 334, 633 

9 Eriw. III. St. 2, c. 1, 673 

10 Edw. III. St. 3, 521a, 815 

11 Edw. III. c. 1, 908a 
14 Edw. III. c. 7, 774a 
14 Edw. III. c. 18, 605a 

14 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 10, 697 
14 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 12, 161 

14 Edw. m. St. 1, c. 20, 813 

15 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 5, 866 
20 Edw. III. c. 3, 633 

23 Edw. III. c. 1, 867 

23 Edw. III. c. 5, 66a 

23 Edw. III. c. 7, 681 

25 Edw. III. c. 3, 3o0a 

25 Edw. III. c. 13, 805 

25 Edw. III. St. 1, 473,589a, 884a 

25 Edw. III. St. 1. c. 3, 66a 

25 Edw. III. St. 5, c. 2, 77, 413a, 

579a, 706, 848a 
25 Edw. III. St. 5, c. 18, 8S0a 
25 Edw. III. ft. 5, c. 23, 499 
25 Edw. in. St 6, 113a, 122a 
27 Edw. III., 554a 
27 Edw. in. c. 13, 910 
27 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 1, 693a 
27 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 3, 436 
27 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 8, 370 
27 Edw. III. St. 2, c. 1, 145a 

27 Edw. III. St. 2, c. 10, 895 

28 Edw. in. c. 2. 887a 
28 Edw. III. c. 5, 442a 
31 Edw. ni. c. 3, 846 
31 Edw. III. c. 10, 878 
31 Edw. III. c. 12, 52 

31 Edw. in. St. 1, c. 11, 13a 

31 Edw. III. St. 1, c. 12, 334, 335 

31 Edw. III. St. 2, 412 

34 Edw. III. c. 1, 241, 459a 

34 Edw. III. c. 10, 66a 

34 Edw. III. c. 20, 248 

36 Edw. III. c. 15, b27a 

37 Edw. III., 407a 

37 Edw. in. c. 8, 293a, 521a, 771 
37 Edw. III. c. 9, 521 a 
37 Edw. lU. c. 10, 521a 
37 Edw. III. c. 11, 521a 
37 Edw. III. c. 12, 521a 
37 Edw. ni. c. 13, 521a 
37 Edw. m. c. 14. 521a 
Eichard II. 
2 Rich. n. c. 4, 696 

2 Rich. II. c. 5, 761a 

3 Ricli. II. c. 3, 113a, 121a 

4 Rich. II. c. 1, 617o 

5 Rich. II., 554a 

5 Rich. n. St. 2, c. 4, 96 
5 Rich. n. St. 2, c. 5, 499 
7 Rich. II. c. 12, 113a 

7 Rich. II. c. 15, 198a 

8 Ricb. II. c. 4, 716 
8 Rich. II. c. 5, 510a 
12 Rich. II. c. 5, 53 
12 Rich. II. c. 6, 103 

12 Rich. U. c. 7, 109a, 648a, 681 



Statutes — {continued). 

12 Rich. II. c. 13. 613a 

13 Rich. II. c. 8, 8S4a 
13 Rich. n. c. 12, 826a 

13 Rich. II. St. 1, c. 2, 211a 
13 Rich. II. St. 1, c. 3, 129 
13 Rich. II. St. 1, c. 8, 66a, 878 
13 Ri'.-h. II. St. 1, c. 13, 368 
15 Rich. n. c. 5, 576a 
15 Rich. II. c. 6, 681 

15 Ricb. II. c. 12, 362 

16 Rich. n. c. 4, 495 

16 Rich. II. c. 5, 693a 

17 Rich. II. c. 8, 72.7a 
20 Rich. II. c. 2, 495 

Heury IV. 
•2 Hen. rV'. c. 15, 499 
2 Hen. IV. c. 23, 129 

4 Hen. IV. c. 18, 77 

5 Hen. IV. c. 4, 27a, 578o, 673a 

6 Hen. IV. c. 1, 47a 

7 Heu. IV. c. 17, .53, 809o 
11 Hen. IV. c. 2, 436 

11 Hen. IV. c. 7, 813 
13 Hen. IV. c. 3. 495 
13 Hen. IV. c. 7, 72da 
Henrj' V. 
2 Hen. V. st. 1, c. 2, 400a 

2 Hen. V. st. 1, c. 8, 72da 

3 Hen. V. c. 1, 286a 

4 Hen. V. c. 7, 485a, 698 
Heni-y VI. 

3 Hen. VI. c. 1, 362 

6 Hen. VI. c. 5, 772a 

8 Hen. VI. 554a 

8 Hen. VI. c. 5. 895 

8 Hen. VI. c. 6, 66, 838o 

8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 314rt, 359, 362, 

471 
8 Hen. VI. c. 11, 53 

10 Hen. VI. c. 2, 4n 

11 Heu. VI. c. 12, 894rt 
15 Hen. VI. c. 2, 248 

18 Hen. VI. c. 16. 543 
20 Hen. VI. c. 5, 436 
20 Hen. VI. c. 9, 651 

23 Hen. VI. c. 12, 473. 884a 
27 Hen. VI. c. 5, :140, 541, 815a 
31 Hen. VI. c. 4, 668 
Edward IV, 
1 Edw. IV. c. 2, 253a, 775 
3 Eiw. IV. c. 2, 248 
3 Edw. IV. c. 4, 3&ia 

3 Edw. rV. 0. 5, 293a 

4 Edw. TV. c. 8, 420 
8 Edw. IV. c. 2, 4!<5 

12 Edw. IV. c. 3, 854a 

17 Edw. IV. c. 2, :m)a, 666a 

17 Edw. IV. c. 8, 223 

22 Edw. IV. c. 1, 293a 

22 Edw. IV. c. 6, 819 
Richard III. 

1 Rich. III. c. 2, 114a 

1 Rich. III. c. 3, 90a 

1 Rich. III. c. 9, 134 

1 Rich. III. c. 12, 442a 
Heni-y ^T;i. 

I Hen. Vn. c. 5, 826a 

3 Hen. VII. c. 1, 8<)6, &16 
3 Hen. VII. c. 3, HOa 

3 Hen. VII. c. 14, 516 

4 Hen. VII. c. 13, 114 
4Hen. vn. c. 24, 344 
4 & 5 Hen. VII. c. 3, 1 

7 Hen. VII. c. 4, 895 
7 Hen. VII. c. 8, 905 

II Heu. VII. c. 2, 28a 

11 Heu. VII. c. 4, 548, 8°i5 
11 Hen. VII. c. 9, a57 
11 Hen. VII. c. 10, ll4a 
11 Hen. VII. c. 12, 351 
11 Hen. VII. c. 17, 819 
11 Heu. VII. c. 22, 473, 884a 

11 Hen. VII. c. 2-5, 6.55a 

12 Hen. VII. c. 5, 161, 548 

19 Hen. VII. c. 7, 579 



Statites— {continued). 

25 Hen. VII. c. 2t). 4J9a 

37 Hen. VIL c. 1. aj4o 
Henrj- VIII. 

3 Hen. VIII. c 2, 52 

3Heii. van. c. 8. 8781 

3 Heu. VIII. c. 11,666a 

4 Heu. VIII. c. 2, 114, S7Qa, 7 17 
5Hen. VIII. c. 1,845 

6 Hen. Vin. c. 6, 40<ta 

7 Hen. VIII. c.*!.. 542 

14 A: 15 Ben. VIII. c. 5, 6C5a 
21 Heu. VIII. c. 2. 762 
21 Hen. VIII. c. 5, 13a 
21 Hen. VIII. c. 13.675 
21 Hen. VIII. c. 20, »« 

21 Hen. VIII. 0. 21, 660a 

22 Hen. VIII. c. .5. 144 

22 Hen. VIII. c. 9. 131, 676 
22 Hen. VIII. c. 10. 400 

22 Hen. VIII. c. )2, 110. 648<» 

23 Hen. VIU. c. 1. 274a 

23 Hen. VIII. c. 4. 28a. 143 
2;lH^n. VIII. c. 5.772a 
24Hen. VIII. c. 3, 161a. 893 

21 Heu. VIII. c. 4, :M5a, 347.4't!)a 

24 Heo. VIII c. 10, 259a 

2 1 Hen. VIII. c. 12. 52a, 241o, 307 

24 Hen. VIII. c. 1«, 1 
2-7 Hen. VIII. c. 1, I6I0 
2.5 Hen. VIII.c. 2. 878a 
2.". Hon. VIII. c. 4. 3l5'i 

25 Hen. VIII.c. 14,412 
25 Hen. VIII. c. 15. 134 

25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. 52a, 68, 177a, 

2.5 Hen. VIII. c. 20, 122a 
2.5 Hen. VIII. c. 21, 214a, 234, 
612a 

25 Hen. VIII. c. 23, 18a 

2"! Hen. VIII. c. 1, 10a, 914". 

26 Hen. VIII. c. 3. 47tt, 7iW<' 
2*! Hen. VIII. c. 13, 328a, 7G2 

26 Hen. VIII. c. 14. 814 

27 Uen. VIII. c. 4, 6(i«, 752 
27 Hen. VIII. c. 6, 42iio 

27 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 161a 

27 Heu. VIII. c. 10, 482 

27 Heu. VIII. c. 11, 767a 

27 Hen. VIII. c. 14. 482o 

27 Heu. VIII. c. 15. 177a 

27 Heu. VIII. c. 16, 718a 

27 Uen. VI H. c. 19, 752 

27 Hen. VIII. c. 24. 301a. 641 

27 Uen. VIII. c. 25, 110. 6.;8a. 

<i81, 909 
27 Hen. VIII. c. 20, 539a, 635a, 

887a 
27 Heu. VIII. c. 27, 79o 
27 Hen. VIII. c. 28. 2a 

27 Hen. VIII. c. 34. 739 

28 Heu. VIU. c. 1. 114 
28 Hen. VIII. c. 15, 668 
31 Hen. VIII. c. 2. 368tt 
31 Hen. VIII. c. 8. 698 

31 Hen. VIII. c. 13. 2a, 429a 

31 Hen. VIII. c. 14, 323o, 78;J. 
837 

32 Hen. VIII. c. 1. 903 
32 Uen. VIII. c. 4, 52 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 198a 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 12, 7-52 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 24, 421 

32 Hen. VIII. c. 39, 516, 738a 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 40, 665a 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 42, 97a 
32 Hen. VIII. c. 43, 44a 

32 Heu. VIII. c. 46, 890a 

33 Hen. VIII. c. 8. 792, 906 

33 Hen. VIII. c. 9. 22:1, 368. 488 
33 Hen. VIII. c. 11, 161a 
3;j Hen. VIII. c. 12. 129, 516 
33 Heu. VIII. c. 15, 75-2 

33 Hen. VIII. c. 25, 589a 

34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 3, 72 
34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 4, 95 



GrE:N'EEAL II^DEX. 



951 



•64 & 

887a 
35 Hen. VIII. c 3, 274 
35 HeD. VIII. c. 12, 497 
35 Hen. VIII. u. 16, 177a 
h7 Hen. VIII. c. 4, 200a 
37 Hen. VIII. c. 8, 420a 
37 Hen. VIII. c. 9. 487a, 866 
37 Hen. VIII. c. 12, SUa 
37 Hen. VEIL c. 16, 475a 
Edward VI. 
1 Edw. VI. c 3, 110, 784 
1 Edw. VI. c. 12, 10a, 66, 131 
1 Edw. VI. c. 14, 208a 

1 & 2 Edw. VI. c. 3, 867 

2 & 3 Edw. VT. c. 1, 10a, 606a 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 3, 692 

2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 10, 236 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 11, 826a 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 12, 841a 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 13, 305 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15, 66a, 473 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 19, 484a 

2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 21, 54-2 

3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 5, 725a 
3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 8, 772a 

3 cS: 4 Edw. VI. c. 10, 429, 545o 
3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 11, 178 

3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 16, 110 

4 & 5 Edw. VI. c. 25, 28a 

5 & 6 Edw. VI. e. 1, 11 

5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 11, 289 
5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 14, 350a 
5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, 617 
5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 20, 4i7a 
5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25. 488 
7 Edw. VI. c. 5, 829a 
7 Edw. Vt. c. 7, 72 

7 Edw. VI. c. 17, 300 
Mary. 

1 Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, 11 

1 Mary, sess. 2, c. 6, 229a 

1 Mary, sess. 2, c. 10, 79a 

1 Mary, sess. 3, c. 1, 706 

1 Mary, sess. 3, c. 3, 300 

1 Mary, sess. 3, c. 4, 516, 738a 

1 Phil. & Mary, c. 8, 177a 

1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 2, 293a 

1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 4, 400 

1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 5, 878a 

1 & 2 Phil. & Maiy, c. 8, 10a, 
52a, 244, 307, 576a, 814 

2 & 3 Phil. iS: Maiy, c. 4, 47a 
2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 8, 726a 
2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 9, 488 
2 & 3 Phil. & Mai-y, c. 11, 223 

2 & 3 Phil. & Maiy, c. 20, 475a 

3 & 4 PhU. & Mary, c. 2, 466a 
Elizabeth. 

1 Eliz. c. 1, 10a, 52a, 177o, 244, 

307, 412, 413a, 576a 
1 Eliz. c. 2, 11, 323a, 716 
1 Eliz. c. 4, 47a, 79a 
5 Eliz. c. 1, 693a 
5 Eliz. c. 4, 55, 66a, 473, 771, 884 
5 Eliz. c. 5, 484a, 591 
5 Eliz. c. 8, 82Sa 
5 Eliz. c. 9, 655a 
5 Eliz. c. 14, 351 
5 Eliz. c. 16, 906 
5 Eliz. c. 18, 391, 508a, 512 
5 Eliz. c. 20, 400 

8 Eliz. c. 13, 108 
8 Eliz. c. 15, 259a 
13 Eliz. c. 2, 22, 156 
13 Eliz. c. 7, 95 

13 Eliz. c. 8, 447a 
13 Eliz. c. 9, 772a 
13 Eliz. c. 19, 293a 

13 Eliz. c. 29, 171a, 632 

14 Eliz. c. 5, 110, 648a 
18 Eliz. c. 5, 43oa 

18 Eliz. c. 8, 713a 
18 Eliz. c. 12, 60.5a 
23 Eliz. c. 1, 729 



Statutes — {continued). 

23 Eliz. c. 5, 442a 

23 Eliz. c. 8, 8a4a 

23 Eliz. c. 9, 498a 

27 Eliz. c. 1, 588a 

27 Eliz. c. 2, 729 

27 Eliz. c. 8, 335 

27 Eliz. c. 10, 435a 

27 Eliz. c. 11, 484a 

27 Eliz. c. 13, 422a 

31 Eliz. c. 1, 335 

31 Eliz. c. 5, 43Sa 

31 Eliz. c. 7, 252 

33 EUz. c. 8, 15a 

35 Eliz. c. 1, 243a 

35 Eliz. c. 2, 729 

35 EUz. c. 6, 548 

35 Eliz. c. 7, 110, 484a 

37 Eliz. c. 8, 52 

39 Eliz. c. 4, 110, 407, 566, 847a 

43 Eliz. c. 1, H31a 

43 Eliz. c. 2, 648a, 681, 909 

43 Eliz. c. 4, 201a 

43 EUz. c. 12, 437a 

43 Eliz. c. 13, 126 

43 Eliz. c. 14, 72 
James I. 

1 James I. c, 2, 859 

1 James I. c. 4, 729 

1 James I, c. 6, 884a 

1 James I. c. 12, 792, 906 

1 James I. c. 18, 15a 

1 James I. c. 25, 420, 621ff., 815 

1 James I. c. 26, 752 

2 James I. c. 14, 240a 

2 James I. c. 31, 670 

3 James I. c. 4, 33a 

3 James I. c. 15, 240a 

3 James I. c. 21, 127 

4 James I. c. 5, 294, 809a 
21 James 1, c. 3, 571a 

21 James I. c. 7, 294, 810 
21 James I. c. 19, 95 
21 James I. c. 20, 819a 
21 James I. c. 27, 435 
21 James I. c. 28, 103, 752 
Charlts I. 
1 Charles I. c. 1. 816 
3 Charles I. c. 1, 121, 543a, 739 
13 Charles I. c. 11, 413a 
16 Charles I. c. 1, 850 
16 Charles I. c. 6, 560a 
16 Charles I. c. 10, 698, 806 
16 Charles I. c. 14, 324, 775a 
16 Charles I. c. 15, 806 
16 Charles I. c. 19, 895 
16 Charles I. c. 20, 469a 
16 Charles I. c. 27, 122a 
Charles II. 
12 Charles II. c. 4, 617a, 908a 
12 Charles II. c. 11, 346 
12 Charlfs II. c. 18, 380a, 591 
12 Charles II. c. 22, 90a 
12 Chailes II. c. 23, 28a, 265a, 830 
12 Charles II. c. 24, 23a, 28a, 228, 

289a, 335a, 343, 469a ,703a, 738a, 

739, 784, 890a 
12 Charles II. c. 25, 488, 905 
12 Charles II. c. 34, 842a 

12 Charles II. c. 35, 692 

13 Charles II. c. 1, 693a 
13 Charles II. c. 3, 615a 
13 Charles II. c. 6, 563a 

13 Charles II. st. 1, c. 2, 122a 
13 Charles II. St. 1, c. 5, 661 
13 Charles II. st. 1, c. 15, 615a 
13 Charles II. st. 2, c. 1, 579, 607 
13 & 14 Charles II. c. 3; 563a 
13 & 14 Charles II. c. 4, 11, 272, 

284a, 324 
13 & 14 Charles 11. c. 10, 207, 408 
13 & 14 Charles II. c. 11, 498a 
13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12, 631a 
13 & 14 Charles II. c. 22, 577a 
13 & 14 Charles II. c. 23, 847a 
15 Charles H. c, 1, 726a, 856a 



Statutes— {continued). 
15 Charles II. c. 4, 563a 
15 Charles II. c. 7, 248 
15 Charles II. c. 9, 813 
15 Charles II. c. 10, 813 
15 Charles II. c. 11, 488 

15 Charles II. c. 15, 32a 

16 Charles II. c. 1, 850 
16 Charles II. c. 4, 243a 
16 Charles II. c. 6, 368 

16 & 17 Charles II. c. 1, 244 

17 Charles II. c. 2, 346 

17 & 18 Charles TI. c. 6, 11 

18 Charles II. c. 3, 577a, 847a 

18 Charles II. c. 4, 158, 908a 

19 Charles II. c. 3, 501 

20 Charles II. c 3, 272a 
22 Charles II. c. 1, 243a 

22 Charles II. c. 8, 161, 248 
22 & 23 Charles II. c. 1, 255, 532 
22 & 23 Charles II. c. 9, 805 
22 & 23 Charles If. c. 10, 901a 
22 & 23 Charles II. c. 25, 368a 
25 Charles n. c. 2, c. 163, 729. 

833 
29 Charles IT. c. 3, 903 
29 Charles II. c. 7, 541, 816 

29 Chai-les II. c. 9, 159a, 412 

30 Charles II. st. 1 c. 3, 158 

30 Charles II. st. 2, c. 1, 346, 643a, 
729 

31 Charles II. c. 2, 90a, 324, 400a, 
693a 

32 Charles II. c. 1, 158a 
35 Charles II. c. 2, 284a 

James II. 

1 James II. c. 4, 814, 842a 
Will in m & Mary. 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 5, 580a 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 6, 249 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 8, 33a 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 12, 248 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 18, 243a, 

284a, 346, 607, 716, 729 
1 WiU. & Mary, c. 21, 264a, 

391 
1 Will. & Maiy, c. 27, 539a 
1 Will. & Mary, c. 30, 565, 678a 
1 Will. & Mary, sess. 1, c. 10, 

207a, 408 
1 WiU. & Mary, sess. 1, c. 18, 

10a 
1 WUl. & Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, 

115, 121a, 284a, 661, 729, 739, 

829a 

1 WiU. & Mary, sess. 2, c. 6, 830 

2 Will. & Mary, c. 6. 2.53a 

2 WUl. & Mary, sef s. 2, c. 4, 617a 

3 WUl & Mary, c. 12, 884a 

3 & 4 WUl. & Mary, c. 9, 114 

4 WiU. & Mary, c. 1, 476a 
4Will. &Mary, c. 5, 905 

4 WUl. & Mary, c. 25, 698 

4 & 5 WUl. & Mary, e. 18, 435a 

4 & 5 WiU. & Mary, c. 24, 114 

5 WUl. & Mary, c. 7, 266a 
5 WUl. & Maiy, c. 21, 805 

5 & 6 Will. & Mary, c. 22, 804a 

6 WiU. & Mary, c. 2, 643a 
William III. 

6 & 7 WiU. III. c. 6, 87a, 122, 

542a, 718a, 805, 901a 
6 & 7 WUl. III. c. 14, 114 

6 & 7 WiU. III. c. 18, 137, 382a, 
904 

7^V]U. III. c. 3, 77 

7 WUl. III. c. 18. 421a 

7 & 8 WiU. III. c. 1, 229a 
7 & 8 WUl. III. c. 3, 413a 
7 & 8 WiU. III. c. 6, 158a 
7 & 8 WiU. III. c. 18, 908a 
7 & 8 WUl. III. c. 25, 21 
7 & 8 Will. III. c. 27, 588a 
7 & 8 WUl. III. c. 34, 18a 

7 & 8 Wm. III. c. 37, 576a 

8 WUl. III. c. 8, 673 



952 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



-{continued). 
' 8 & 9 Wm. III. c. 20, 87a, 122, 
158a. 
8 & 9 wm. III. c. 21, 482a 
8 & 9 Will. III. c. 22, 161 
8 & 9 Will. III. c. 2a, 229a 

8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27, 75, 501, 

9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7, 34.5 
9 & 10 Will. III. c. 15, 56a 
9 & 10 Will. II r. c. 23, 899 
9 & 10 Will. III. c. 27, 407 

9 & 10 Will. III. c. 32, 127, 412, 
851 

9 & 10 Will. Ill c. 45, 137, 382a 

10 & 11 Will. III. c. '4 121 

10 & 11 Will. Ill c. 18, 382a 

11 & 12 Will. III. c. 7, 668 

11 & 12 Will. III. c. 20, 908a 

12 & 13 Will. III. c. 2, 10, 429, 
641 

12 & 13 Will. III. c. 7, 150a 

13 Will. III. c. 5 265a 
13 WiU. in. c. 6, 5, 404a 

Aune. 
1 Anne, c. 3, 229a 
1 Anue, c. 7, 65:5a 

1 Aune, sess. 1, c. 7, 908 

2 & 3 Anne, c. 4, 719 

2 & 3 Anne. c. 11, 706a 

3 & 4 Anne, c. 10, 409a 

4 Anne, c. 6. 26oa 
4 Anne, c. 8, 10a 
4 Anne, c. 14, 145 

4 & 5 Anne, c. 20, 308, 515a 
6 Anne, c. 5, 11 

5 Anne, c. 6, 114 
5 Aune, c. 7, 11 

5 Anne, c. 8, 643a, 644a, 651, 
765a 

5 Anne, c, 30, 150a 

6 Anue, c. 7, lOo, 698 

6 Anne, c. 11, 390a, 859 
6 Anne, c. 26, 334a 
6 Anne, c. 35, 719 
6 Anne, c. 37, 32a 

6 Anne, c. 41, 515o 

7 Anue, c. 12, 38a 
7 Anne, c. 20, 719 

7 Anne, c. 21, 844a 

8 Anne, c. 9. .53, 176, 805 
8 Anne, c. 12, 53 

8 Anne, c. 14, 720 

8 Anne, o. 19, 133a, 245a 

9 Anne, c. 6, 482a, 854a 
9 Anne, c. 10, 692, 692a 
9 Anue, c. 14, 3i;8 

9 Anne. c. 15, 72, 793o 
9 Anne, c. 18, 71a 
9 Anne, c. 21, 53 
9 Aune, c. 23, 34a 

9 Anne, c. 26, 121 

10 Aune, c. 2, 10a 
10 Anne, c. 6, 72 

10 Anne, c. 19, 16, 599o, 638a, 

805 
12 Anne, sess. 2, c. 16, 364a, 

437a, 866 
12 Anne, sess. 2, c. 18, 910 

12 Anne, sess. 2, c. 23, 110 

13 Anne, c. 7, 762 
George I. 

1 Geo. I. c. 12, 854a 

1 Geo. I. c. 14, 563a 

1 Geo. I. Stat. 2, c. 5, 725a 

1 Geo. I. sta,t. 2, c. 25, 592 

1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38, 643a, 

770a 
1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 51, 10a 
1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 54, 765a 
3 Geo. I. c. 7, 854a 

3 Geo. I. c. 9, 793a 

4 Geo. I. c. 2, 847a 

4 Geo. I. c. 11, 835a 

5 Geo. I. c. 4, 762 
5 Geo. I. c. 6, 607 



Stattjtes — {continued). 

5 Geo. I. c. 27, 66a 

6 Geo. I. c. 4, 793a 
6 Geo. I. c. 18, 153a 

6 Geo. I. c. 23, Si7a 

7 Geo. I. c. 1, 793a 

7 Geo. I. c. 2, 793a 

8 Geo. I. c. 6, 18rt, 655a 
8 Geo. I. c. 22, 351 

8 Geo. I. c. 24, 668 

9 Geo. I. c. 18, 607 

9 Geo. I. c. 22, 48a 125, 838a 

10 Geo. I. c. 2, 55 
10 Geo. I. c. 10, 830 
12 Geo. I. c. 29, 429a 
12 Geo. I. c. 30, 125 
12 Geo. I. c. 32, 8 

Geo'ge II. 
2 Geo. II. c. 2-5, 655a 
2 Geo. II. c. 28, 3-51, 488 
4 Geo. II. c. 2H, 327a, 716 
4 Geo. II. c. 28, 720 
6 Geo. II. c. 7, 281a 

6 Geo. II. c. 37, 577a 

7 Geo. II. c. 8, 809a 

8 Geo. II. c. 6, 719 

8 Geo. II. c. 13, 327a 

8 Geo. II. c. 16, 422a 

9 Gro. II. c. 5, 792a, 90Sa 
9 Geo. II. c. 23, 380a, 803a 

9 Geo. II. c. 36, 576a 

10 Geo. II. c. 8, 809a 

10 Geo. II. c. 28, no. 28Ia, 488 

10 (ieo. II. c. 35, 5t)5 

11 Geo. II. c. 22, 389a 

12 Geo. II. c. 26, 805a 
12 Geo. II. c. 27, 633 

12 Geo. II. c. 36, 133a 

13 Geo. II. c. 19, 368 
13 Geo. II. c. 24, 110 

15 Geo. II c. 30, .520 

16 Gro. II. c. 8, 803a 

16 Geo. II. c. 31, 697a 

17 Geo. II. c. 5, no, 351a, 867 

18 Geo. II. » . 15, 97a 
18 Geo. II. c. 17, 610a 

18 Geo. II. c. 26, 830 

19 Geo. II. c. 12, 382a 
19 Geo. II. c. 21, 819a 
19 Geo. II. c. 28, :-'62 
19 Geo. II. c. 34, 786a 

19 Geo. II. c. 39, 765a 

20 Geo. II. c. 3, 904 
20 Geo. II. c. 30, 429a 
20 Geo. II. C. 42, 117a 

20 Geo II. c. 43, 220, 253a, 765a 

20 Geo. II. c. 52, 41a, 125 

21 G-o. II. c. 10, 904 

21 Geo. II. c. 28, 884a 

22 Gf o. II. u. 33, 253a, 592, 819a 
22 (Jeo. II. c. 45, 899a 

22 Geo. II. c. 46, 18a 

23 Geo. TI. c. 11, 655a 

23 Geo. II. c. 13, 66a 

24 Geo. II. c. 23, 617a, 912 
24 Geo. II. c. 48, 560a 

2.5 Geo. II. e. 29, 249a 

26 Geo. II. c. 22, 150a, 403, 785a 

26 Geo. II. 0. 33, 96, 347, 542a 

30 Geo. II. c. 25, 563a 

31 Geo. II. c. 22, 617 
31 Geo. II. c. 26, 563a 
31 Geo. II. c. 42, 125 

George III. 
2 Geo. III. c. 20, 563a 
4 Geo. III. c 18, 201a 

4 Geo. III. c. 21, 359a 

5 Geo. III. c. 12, 41, 805 

6 Geo. III. c. 11, 41, 805 
6 Geo. III. c. 19, 333a 

6 G-o. III. c. 53, 5 

7 Geo. III. c. 7, 3 1 8a 
7 Geo. III. c. 38, 327a 
7 Geo. III. c. 40, 8o5a 
7 Geo. III. c. 43, 171a 
7 Geo. III. c. 46, 860 



Statxjtis — {continued). 

9 Geo. HI. c. 29, 565 

10 Geo. III. c. 18, 286a 
10 Geo. III. c. 39, 548a 

12 Geo. III. c. 2, 324, 542a 
12 Geo. III. c. 11.739 
12 Geo. III. c. 20, 65 

12 Gei.. III. c. 61. 398a 

13 Geo. III. c. 43, 249 

14 G. o. III. c. 19, 860 

14 Geo. III. c. 58, 471 

15 Geo. III. c. 32, 252 

16 Geo. III. c. 6, 610a 

16 Geo. HI. c. 43, 847a 

17 Geo. III. c. 29, 1.5a 
17 Gt-o. III. c. 39, 771 

17 Geo. III. c. 50, 79. 488 
17 Geo. III. c. 57, 327a 
19 Geo. III. c. 35. 842a 
19 Geo. III. c. 44, 563a 
19 Geo. HI. c. 51, 488 
19 Geo. III. c. 56, 79 
19 Geo. Ill c. 70, 429a 
19 Geo. III. c. 74, 847a 

21 Geo. III. c. 49, 816 

22 Geo. HI. c. 33, 805 
22 Geo. III. c. 41, 315 
22 Gc'O. III. c. 45, 243a 
22 Geo. III. c. 63, 76i5a 
22 Geo. III. c. 77, 421 

22 Geo. III. c. 82, 129a, 546, 738a 

23 Geo. III. c. 15, 301 
23 Geo. III. c. 28, 254 
23 Geo. III. c. 49, 715a 
23 Geo. III. c. 51, 400 
23 Geo. III. c. 62, 803 

23 Geo. III. c. 67, 122 
23Geo. HI. c. 82, 826 

24 Geo. HI. c. 7, 71.5a 
24 Geo. HI. c. 24, 143a 

24 Geo. HI. c. -25, 132a 306a, 527a 
24 Geo. HI. c. 31, 420a 
24 Geo. HI. c. 43, 368a 
24 Geo. HI. c. 53, 673 
24 Geo. HI sess. 2, c. 25, 129 
24 Geo. HI. sess. 2, c. 38, 830, 
904 

24 Geo. HI. sess. 2, c. 41, 488 

25 Gi o. HI. c. 30, 776a 
25 Geo. HI. c 4<, 771a 
25 Geo. III. c. 50, 368a 
25 Geo. III. c. .51, 602 

25 G-'O. HI. c. 75, 122a 

26 GdO. HI. c. 9, 776a 
26 Geo. HI. c. 19, 910 
26 Geo. III. c. 2.5, 220 
26 Geo. HI. c. 49, 654a 
26 Geo. III. c. 59, 903 

26 Gho. hi. c. 107, 563a 

27 Geo. HI. c. 13, 264a, 827a 
29 Geo. HI. c. 9, 776a 

29 Geo. III. c. 68, 483 

30 Geo. HI. c. 48, 1.59a 

31 Geo. HI. c. 4, 248 
31 Geo. HI. c. 25, 715a 

31 Geo. HI. c. 32, 5, 729 

32 G.-o. HI. c. 3, 771a 

32 Geo. HI. c. 56, 545a, 771 

33 Geo. III. c. 4. 32 
33 Geo. HI. c 52. 129 
33 (ieo. HI. c. 54, 362 

33 Geo. HI. c. 66, 485a 
34Geo. HI. c. 11, 122a 

34 Ge .. III. c. 82, 32a 

35 Geo. III. c. 13, 830 
35 Geo. III. c. 49, 402 
35 Geo. III. c. 55, 71-55 
35 Geo. HI. c. 102, 89a 

35 >'eo. HI. c. 124, 908a 

36 Geo. HI. c. 7, 365a 
36 Geo. HI. c. 8, 36.5a 
36 tieo. HI. c. 52, 4S3 
36 Geo. HI. c. 123, 905 

36 Geo. HI. c. 124, 286« 

37 Geo. HI. c. 3, .563a 
37 Geo. HI. c. 105, 904 



GENERAL INDEX. 



953 



Stattjtes— {continued) . 


Statutes— ( co ntinued) . 


Statutes— (co?i<iMMet?). 


38 Geo. III. c. 24, 892 


59 Geo. HI. c. 35, 4-59 


10 Geo. IV. c. 50, 908 


38 Geo. III. c. 60, 476a 


59 Geo. HI. c. 46. 71a 


10 Geo. IV. c. 71, 441 


38 Geo. III. c. 69, 805a 


59 Geo. HI. c. 52, 840a 


11 Geo. IV. c. 16, 482a, 826a 


39 Geo. III. c. 13, 430 


59 Geo. III. c. 53, 8:^0 


11 Geo. IV. c. 17, 534a 


39 Geo. III. c. 79, 362 


59 Geo. HI. c. 69, 328. 350 


11 Geo. IV. & 1 WiU. IV. c. 66, 


39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 47, 8.59a 


60 Geo. HI. c. 6, 365a 


351 


39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67, 440a, 643a, 


60 Geo. HI. c. 8, 127 


11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70, 


644, 651 


60 Geo. HI. c. 80, 486a 


335, 467, 887a 


39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 77, .565 


George IV. 


11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 73, 


39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88, 703a, 903 


1 Geo. IV. c. 57. 907a 


487 


39 & 40 Geo. HI. c. 93, 413a 


1 Geo. IV. c. 116, 400 


William rv. 


39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 99, 649a 


1 Geo. IV. c. 119, 437 


1 Will. IV. c. 2, 717a 


40 Geo. III. c. 38, 859a 


1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 2, 610a 


1 Will IV. c. 17, 168a 


41 Geo. III. c. 15, 195a 


1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 23. 892 


1 Will. rv. c. 25, 219 


41 Geo. III. c. 52, 243a 


1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 28, 20a 


1 Will. IV. 51, aSd, 265a 


41 Geo. III. c. 76, 485a 


1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 33, 519a 


1 Will. IV. c. 64 28a 


41 Geo. III. c. 79, 612a 


1 & 2 Geo. rv. c. 37, 840a 


1 Will. rv. c. 66, 673 


41 Geo. III. c. 107, 245a 


3 Geo. IV. c. 18. 534a 


1 WiU. IV. c. 69, 459a 


41 Geo. III. c. 109, 892 


3 Geo. IV. c. 60, 248a 


1 Will. IV. c. 70, 52, 206a, 70G 


42 Geo. HI. c. 34, 904 


3 Geo. IV. c. 75, 542a 


1 & 2 WUl. IV. c. 13, 842a 


42 (Jeo. III. u. 42, 430 


3 Geo. IV. c. 114 368 


1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 17, 512a 


42 Geo. HI. c. 90, 563a 


4 Geo. IV, c, 11, 904 


1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 19, 176 


42 Geo. III. c. 116, 476a 


4 Geo. IV. c. 17. 542a 


1 & 2 Wni. rv. c. 22, 401, 407, 


43 Geo. III. c. 43, 88 


4 Geo. IV. c. 31, 819a 


645a 


43 Geo. HI. u. 58, 435 


4 Geo. IV. c. 50. 503a 


1 & 2 wm. TV. c. 30, 90.5a 


43 Geo. HI. 0. 119, 203a 


4 Geo. IV. c. 52, 320, 814a 


1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32, 368a 


43 Geo. III. c. 122, 430 


4 Geo. IV. c. 54, 838a 


1 & 2 wm. IV. c. 37, 545d, 884a 


44 Geo. HI. c. 43, 782 


4 Geo. IV. c. 64, 697a 


1 & 2 wm IV. c. 41, 241a 


44 Geo. HI. c. 54, 883a 


4 Geo. IV. c. 76. 96, 542a 


1 & 2 wm. IV. c. 56, 77 


44 Geo. III. c. 98, 805 


4 Ge.. IV. c. 94, 803a 


1 & 2 Will. rv. c. 76, 92 ' 


45 Geo. HI. c. 15, 430 


4 & 5 Geo. IV. c. 156, 834a 


2 Will. IV. c. 1, 3o0d, 908 


45 Geo. HI. c. 30, 79 


5 Geo. IV. c. 17, 784a 


2 WiU. IV. c. 34, 229a 


45 Geo. HI. c. 89, 715a 


5 Geo. rv. c. 47, 908a 


2 wm. IV. c. 39, 478a 


45 Geo. HI. c. 101, 576a 


5 Geo. IV. c. 74, 71a, 72, 161, 


2 Will. IV. c. 45, 200, 315, 325a, 


45 Geo. HI. c. 127, 846 


693. 895 


719 


46 Geo. HI. c. 6-5, 430 


5 Geo. IV. c. 83, 110, 351a, 837 


2 Will. IV, c. 49, 698 


46 Geo. HI. c. 142, 908 


5 Geo. IV. c. 97, 66a 


2 Will. IV. c. 53, 698 


47 Geo. HI. c. 36, 784a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 16, 328a 


2 & 3 Will. TV. c. 19, 300 


48 Geo. HI. c. 42, 286a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 49. 668 


2 & 3 V/iU. IV. c. 45, 717a 


48 Geo. III. c. 55, 904 


6 Geo. IV. c. 50, 459 


2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 54, 344a 


48 Geo. HI. c. 96. 519a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 60, 517 


2 & 3 wm. IV. c. 62, 420a 


48 Geo. HI. c. 104, 667a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 78, 481, 705a 


2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 65, 717a 


48 Geo. HI. c. 110, 4l2a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 79. 441 


2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 68, 3G8a 


48 Geo. HI. c. 149, 642a, 805 


6 Geo. IV. c. 80, 803a 


2 & 3 wm. IV. 0. 74, 803a 


49 Geo. HI. c. 120, 563a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 91, 153a 


2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 75, 44a, 580 


50 Geo. HI. c. 41, 407 


6 Geo. IV. c. 104, 905a 


2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 88, 441, 717a 


60 Geo. HI. c. 48, 804a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 105, 383a 


2 & 3 Will. rv. 0. 92, 275, 694a 


50 Geo. III. c. 65, 350a, 008 


6 Geo. IV. c. 108, 78Sa 


2 & 3 WiU. IV. c. 115, 729a 


51 Geo. HI. c. 13, 784a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 125, 667a 


2 & 3 Will. rv. c. 120, 804a 


51 Geo. HI. c. 124, 429a 


6 Geo. IV. c. 129, 846a 


2&3Wm. IV. c. 123,351 


52 Geo. HI. c. 39, 851a 


7 Geo. IV. c. 57, 437 


3 Will. IV. c. 11, 840 


52 Geo. HI. c. 62. 814 


7 (Jeo. IV. c. 64, 90a 


3 wm. IV. c. 15, 291a 


52 Geo. HI. c. 143, 673 


7 Geo. IV. c. 77, 811a 


3 & 4 WUl. IV. c. 9, 58 


52 Geo. HI. c. 146, 718a 


7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 18, 538a 


3 & 4 wm. IV. c. 22, 772a 


52 Geo. HI. c. 1.57, 843 


7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 24 501a, 855a 


3 & 4 wm. IV. c. 23, 16 


53 Geo. HI. c. 24, 507, 877a 


7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 27, 114 125, 423a 


3 & 4 WiU. IV. 0. 27, 253a, 720 


53 Geo. HI. c. 40, 66a. 884a 


838a 


3&4WUI..:. 37, 9a, 59, 123,189, 


53 Geo. HI. c. 102, 437 


7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, 65, 66, 835a 


22.-ia, 247a, 279a, 290, 293, 


53 Geo. HI. c. 115, 344a 


7 & 8 Geo. rv. c. 29, 565, 633, 


296a, 318, 342a, 464, 464a, 465, 


53 Geo. HI. c. 155, 306a, 432a 


726a, 747 


627, 713a, 853a 


53 Geo. HI. c. 160, 10a, 127, 


7 & & Geo. IV. c. 30, 144a, 526 


3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 39, 421a 


851 


7 & 8 Geo. rv. c. 31, 423a 


3 & 4 wm. IV. c. 41, 52, 275, 


54 Geo. III. c. 96. 55 


7 & 8 Geo. rv. c. 55, 805 


458a, 694a, 698 


54 Geo. HI. c. 108. 158a 


7 & 8 Geo. rv. c. 70, 556a 


3 & 4 WUl. IV. c. 42, 5fia, 459 


54 Geo. HI. c. 145, 77 


7 & 8 Geo IV. c. 71, 429a 


3 & 4 WUl. TV. c. 48, 104a 


54 Geo. HI. c. 146, 413a 


9 Geo. rv. 0. 16, 95 


3 & 4 Will. rv. c. 52, 281a 


54 Geo. HI. c. 156, 245a 


9 Geo. rv. c. 17, 284a, 579, 833 


3&4 WiU. IV. c. 53, 783a 


55 Geo. III. c. 26, 248 


9 Geo. IV. c. 18, 282 


3 & 4 WUl. TV. c. 54, 591 


55 Geo. HI. c. 59, 344a 


9 Geo. IV. c. 31, 44d, 129, 221a, 


3 & 4 Will. IV. 0. 57, 34a 


55 Geo. HI. c. 91. 692 


255, 336a, 413a, 579a, 713a, 


3 & 4 wm. IV. c. 73, 318a, 3253, 


55 Geo. HI. c. 159, 401 


848a 


784 


55 Geo. III. c. 184, 52a, 665a, 


9 Geo. rv. c. 32, 18a, 145 


3 & 4 AVill. IV. c. 74, 328a, 344 


805 


9 Geo. rv. c. 41, 519a 


3 & 4 WUl. IV, c. 85, 22, 306a, 


55 Geo. HI. c. 185, 804a 


9 Geo. rv. c. 42, 145 


527a 


56 Geo. HI. c. 98, 241a. 721 


9 Geo. IV. c. 54 114 


3 & 4 WUl. IV. 94, 546 


56 Geo. TIL c. 99, 317a 


9 Geo. rv. c. 59, 315 


3 & 4 WUl. IV. 99, 264 


56 Geo. HI. c. 194, 52 


9 Geo. IV. c. 60, 248a, 785a 


3&4 WiU. rv. 101, 830 


57 Geo. HI. c. 19, 362 


9 Geo. TV. c. 61, 488 


3 & 4 WUl. rv. 103, 339 


57 Geo. HI. c. 75. 907a 


9 Geo. IV. c. 66, 479 


3 & 4 WiU. rv. 105. 289a 


57 Geo. HI. c. 99. 675 


9 Geo. rv. c. 92, 758a 


3 & 4 WUl. IV. c. 106, 77 


57 Geo. HI. c. 105. 758a 


10 Geo. rv. 0. 7, 10a, 325a, 579, 


4 Will. IV. c. 15. 334 826 


57 Geo. HI. c. 130, 758a 


643a, 729 


4 WUl IV. c. 36, 195a 


58 Geo. HI. c. 20, 610a 


10 Geo. IV. c. 8, 362 


4 & 5 WUl. IV. c. 13, 786a 


59 Geo. HI. c. 7. 265 


10 Geo. rv. c. 35, 55fia 


4 & 5 WUl. TV. c. 15, 335 


59 Geo. HI. c. 12, 909 


10 Geo. rv. c. 44, 678a, 892 


4 & 5 WUl. rv. c. 26, 404 580 



95-1 



THE MAIfUAL OF DATES. 



SiATtTTES— {continued) . 

4 & 5 WiU. IV. c. 49, 161, 895 

4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 60, 805 

4 & 5 Will. rv. c. 76, 319a, 681, 

909 
4 & 5 Will. rv. c. 90, 123 

4 & 5 WiU. IV. c. 95, 793 

5 & 6 Will. rv. c. 24, 328, 695 
5 & 6 Will. rv. c. 29, 95 

S & 6 WiU. rv. c. 30, 782 
5 & 6 WiU. rv. c. 32, 830 
5 & 6 wm. rv. c. 37, 758a 
5 & 6 wm. rv. c. 38, 697(1 
5 & 6 wm. rv. c. 4 J, 241a 
5 & 6 wm. IV. c. 53, 319a 
5 & 6 wm. rv. c. 54, 18a 

5 & 6 wm. IV. c. 59, 108a, 156, 
227, 260 

6 & 6 wm. rv. c. 62, 655a 
5 & 6 wm. rv. c. 63, 895 

5 & 6 WiU. IV. c. 65, 482a 

5 & 6 wm. IV. c. 76, 325a, 437, 

579 
5 & 6 wm. rv. c. 81, 747 

5 & 6 WiU. rv. c. 83, 6^6 

6 wm. rv. c. 4, 747 
6 Will. TV. c. 14, 95a 

6 Will. ] V. c. 19, 299a, 635 j 
6 & 7 Will. rv. c. 29, 295a 
6 & 7 wm. rv. c. 30, 336a, 580 
6 & 7 wm. IV. c 37, 15a, 71a, 

816 
6 & 7 wm. rv. c. 59, 327a 
6 & 7 wm. IV. c. 66, 517 
6 & 7 wm. rv. c. 67, 782 
6 & 7 WiU. rv. c. 71, 841a 
6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, 57a, 306rt 
6 & 7 wm. IV c. &5, 284a, 542a 
6 & 7 WUl. rv. c. 86, 121a, 542a, 

718a 
6 & 7 wm. rv. c. 97, 617 
6 4 7 wm. rv. c. 102, 315 

6 & 7 wm. IV. c. 106. 806 

7 wm. IV. & 1 Vict. c. !), 566a 
7 wm. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26. 903 
7 WUL IV. & 1 Vict. c. 69, 841a 
7 wm. rv. & 1 Vict. c. 84, 351 
7 wm. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 87, 727 
7 WiU. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 88, 668 

7 WiU. rv. & 1 Vict. c. 91, 670, 
726 
Victoria. 
1 Vict. 0. 2, 219 
1 Vict, a 22, 542a, 718a 
1 Vict. c. 23, 667 a 
1 Vict. c. 26, 21 
1 Vict. c. 32, 692a 
1 Vict. c. 33, 692a 
1 Vict. c. 34, 692a 
1 Vict. c. S5. 359a, 692a 
1 Vict. c. 36, 692a 
1 Vict. c. 38, 71a 
1 Vict. c. 46, 546 
1 Vict. c. 49, 534a 
1 Vict. c. 66, 227, 260 
1 Vict. c. 71, 782 
1 Vict. c. 76, 692a 
1 Vict. c. 85, 532 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 20, 706a 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 38, 867 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 56. 441, 681 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 59, 4:38 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 64, 841a 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 77, 18a 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 79, 64.5a 
1 & 2 Vict. c. 94, 716 
1 & 2 Vict c. 98, 532, 711 
1 & 2 Vict c. 106, 113a, 675 
1 & 2 Vict c. 110, 429a, 556a 

1 & 2 Vict c. 120, 841 

2 & 3 Vict 0. 24, 143a 
2 & 3 Vict. c. 37, 866" 
2 & 3 Vict. c. 45, 711 

2 & 3 Vict. c. 47. 236a, 368, 678a 
2 & 3 Vict. c. 52, 359a 653a 
2 & 3 Vict c. 58, 806 



Stattjtes — {continiied), 
2 & 3 Vict. c. 62. 841a 
2 & 3 Vict c. 80, 632 

2 & 3 Vict. c. 93, 563a 

3 & 4 Vict c. 15, 841a 
3 & 4 Vict. c. 17, 830 

3 & 4 Vict. c. 29, 436a, 867 
3 & 4 Vict. c. 72, 542a 
3 & 4 Vict. c. 77, 389a 
3 & 4 Vict. c. 85, 207a 
3 & 4 Vict. c. 86, 221a 
3 & 4 Vict c. 97, 711 
3 & 4 Vict. c. 108, 579 

3 & 4 Vict. c. 113. 307 

4 Vict c. 22, 114 

4 & 5 Vict. c. 22, 651 
4*5 Vict, c 24, 867 
4 & 5 Vict. c. 27, 878a 
4 & 5 Vict. c. 39. 307, 706a 
4 & 5 Vi,;t. c. 52, 199a 

4 & 5 Vict. c. 56, 273, 713a, 726 

5 Vict. c. 5, 8, 334, 783a 
5 Vict c. 14, 248a, 785a 
5 Vict. c. 22, 347 

5 Vict, f ess. 2, c. 25, 803a 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 5, 877a 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 22, 467a 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 35, 325a, 430 

5 & 6 Vict c. 38, 459a 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 45, 24.5a, 291a 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 47. 347. 380a. 825 

840a, 842a 
5 & 6 Vict. 0. 54. 841a 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 63, 548a 
5 & 6 Vict c. 79, 804a 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 99, 231a. 365. 

907a 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, 245a 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 403a 
5 & 6 Vict c. 107, 319a 
5 & 6 Vict. c. 116, 437 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 122, 95 

6 Vict. c. 18. 719 

6 & 7 Vict. c. 65, 245a 
6 & 7 Vict c. 68, 835 
6 & 7 Vict. c. 73, 77a 
6&7Vict c. 79, 633 
6 & 7 Vict. c. 83, 249a 
6 & 7 Vict. 0. 85, 906a 
6 & 7 Vict c. 90, 612a 

6 & 7 Vict. c. 96, 274, 487 

7 Vict. c. 2, 14a 

7 & 8 Vict c. 12, 327a 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 15, 339 

7 & 8 Vict c. 124, 350a 

7 & 8 Vict c. 32, 94a 

7 & 8 Vict c. 53, 813a 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, 32a, 589a 

7 & 8 Vict c. 76, 274 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 83, 753a 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, 437 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 97, 201a 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 102, 716, 729a 

7 & 8 Vict c. 110, 457 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 113, 149a 

8 Vict. c. 12, 347, 828 
8 Vict. c. 18, 476 
8*9 Vict. c. 4, 430 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 6, 382a 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 12, 781a, 894a 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 16, 457 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 20, 711 

8 & 9 Vice. c. 25, 547a 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 37, 95 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, 707 

8 & 9 Vict, c. 76, 52a, 483 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 83. 681 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 90, 227 

8 & 9 Vict. 0. 106, 482 

8 & 9 Vict. c. 109, 368 

8 & 9 Vict c. 126, 519a 

9 & 10 Vict. c. 22, 248a, 326, 78 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 25, 532 

9 & 10 Vict. c. 38, 105a 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 48, 67a 
9 & 10 Vict c. 54. 235 



Statutes — {contimied). 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 57. 711 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 59, 456 
9 & 10 Vict c. 02, 278a 
9 & 10 Vict c. 63, 814 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 66, 681 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 71, 391 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 73, 841a 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 74, 105, 753 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 84, .519a 
9 & 10 Vict c. 87, 105a 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 95. 240a, 252a. 

2-53, 2.53a 
9 & 10 Vict c. 96, 753 
9 & 10 Vict. c. 99, 910 

9 & 10 Vict. c. 105, 711 

10 Vict. c. 27, 405 

10 & 11 Vict c. 29, 339a 

10 & 11 Vict. c. 34 753 

10 & 11 Vict c. 37, 328 

10 A 11 Vict c. 43, 519a 

10 & 11 Vict c. 61, 753 

10 & 11 Vict c. 66, 838a 

10 & 11 Vict c. 78, 457 

10 & 11 Vict. c. 83, 32a, 590 

10 & 11 Vict. c. 104, 841a 

10 & 11 Vict c. 108, 94, 123. 53.5a 

10 * 11 Vict c. 109. 681 

11 & 12 Vict. c. 8, 430 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 29, 368a 

11 & 12 Vi. t c. 45, 457, 904 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 49. 816 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 63, 129, 735 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 78, 52 
11 & 12 Vict c. 97, 814 
11 & 12 Vict c. 98, 661 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 102. 105a 
11 « 12 Vict. c. 110, 681 

11 A 12 Vict c. 123, 613a, 753 

12 Vict 0. 1, 335a 

12 & 13 Vict. c. 29, 591 
12 & 13 Vict c. 77. 321 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 101, 252a, 516, 

635 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 103, 681 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 106, 95, 328a, 

884a 
12 & 13 Vict. c. 108, 4.57, 904 

12 & 13 Vict. c. Ill, 613a, 753 

13 Vict c. 2, 441 
13 Vict c. 23, 340 

13 & 14 Vict. 0. 9, 143a 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 21, 807 
13 & 14 Vict c. 26, 668 
13 & 14 Vict c. 52, 195a, 753 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 54, 339a 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 60, 330a 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 61, 2.52a 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 64, 144a 
13 * 14 Vict. c. 65, 487, 488 
13 & 14 Vict. 0. 93, 554 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 97, 805 

13 & 14 Vict c. 98, 113a, 675 
IX & 14 Vict c. 104. 245a 

14 Vict. c. 11, 55 

14 & 15 Vict c. 11, 771a 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 12, 430 
14 & 15 Vict c. 19, 711a 
14 & 15 Vict c. 28, 753 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 34, 753 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 36, 421, 904 
14 & 15 Vict c. 43, 402 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 50, 753 
14 & 15 Vict. 52. 429a 
14 & 15 Vict. 0. 60, 307, 729a 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 61, 559, 786 
14 & 15 Vict c. 62, 840a 
14 & 15 Vict c. &i. 711 
14&15 Vict c.77, 105a 
14 OS: 15 Vict. c. 79, 591 
14&15Vict. c. 83, 52. 516 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 89, 195a 
14 & 15 Vict. c. 96, 554 

14 & 15 Vict. c. 100, 15a, 655a 

15 Vict. c. 12, 327(i 

15 & 16 Vict. c. 12, 438 



GENERAL mDEX. 



955 





^ATVTEs— (continued) . 


STATVTFH—(con tivued) . 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 20, 4:W 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 101, 633 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 125. 3R9a 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 24, 903 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 116, 753 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 146, •.M'>\)a 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 29, 462 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 118. 28a. 816 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 151, .565 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 44. 645a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 120, 290a, 502a, 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 168, 391 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 50, 56aa 


559 


24 Vict. c. 20, 640 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 54, 253 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 121, 753 


24 & 25 Vicf.. c. 14, 692 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 56. 662 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 124, 201a 


24*25 Vict. c.1:H 437 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 72. 602a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 127, 675 


Staunton, Sir G., 208a 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 77, 95 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 128, 753 


Steed, Mr., 807a 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 80, 546 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 132. 473a 


Steele, Sir Richard, 802a 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 85. 753 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 133, 457. 491a 


Steelyard Merchants, 236a, 398a, 


15 & 16 Vict. c. 86, 200 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 2, 678a 


8(i8a 


15 & 16 Vict. 0. 87, 200, 507 


19 cS: 20 Vict. c. 3. 632a 


Steiiko Radzin, 742 


16 Vict. c. 21. 175 


19 & 20 Vict. 0. 47, 457, 491a, 904 


StHUO, Michele, 872a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 2:1, 89ga 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 58, 719 


Sten Sture, 819a, 82(1 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 33, Ida, 401 


19 & 20 Vict. 64. 400. 521a, 815 


Stephenson, George, 497a, 711,747a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 34. 430, 44Ia 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 69. 678a 


Stephenson, Robert, 148. 878 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 39, 787 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 79. 95a 


Stephen. St . 544 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 41, 753 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 83, 226 


Stephen's. St , Chapel, Westmin- 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 46, 898 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 86. 334a 


ster, 421a, 809a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 47. 10.5a 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 107, 786 


Stereochr(jmy, 892a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 48. 229a 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 108. 253 


Stesichorus, 330 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 51, 483. 813a 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 119, 542a 


Stewart, James, Earl of Murray, 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 59. 715a, 805 


19 & 20 Vict. c. 120, 328a, 482 


764a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 63. 16. 599a, 803 


19 & 20 Vict c. 196, 395a 


Stibbs. 19a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 67, :^50 


20 Vict. 6, 430 


Stilicuo, 897 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 70. 520 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 3. 66. 653, 848 


Stillyavd. 808a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 73. 226, 593 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 14, 457, 491a, 904 


Stock Fishmongers, 345a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 83, 906a 


20 & 21 Vict, c, 19, 95a 


St.omoma. 808 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 95, 30aa. 433 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 47. 834 


Stork. 4, 42a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 97, 519a 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 48. 435 


Stormy Cape, 181 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 98, 200 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, 149a, 361a 


Story, Dr., 674 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, 66. 652a, 839a, 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 60, 95a 


Stow's Survey, 500a 


848 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 61, 814, 830 


Strabo, 373a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 100, 867 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 71, 520 


Straburgum, 811a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 102, 229a 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 72, 678a 


Strachan, Sir Richard, 846a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 106, 830 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 73. 786 


Strafford, Earl of, 324 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 107, 264a. 740 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 76. 201a 


Straugways, Major, 695 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 119. 118a. 368 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 77. 13a, 14a 


Street Orderlies, 502 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 127, 401 


307, 698 


Strongoli, 660 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 128. 753, 786 


20 & 21 Vict. c. 84, 298 


Strutt, W. G. & J., 339 


16 & 17 Vic. c. 129, 667a 


20 & 21 Vict. 85, 16, 285a. 351, 


Stuart, Arabella, 162, 532a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 131, 591 


554, 694a 


Stugia, 452a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 133. 563a 


21 Vict. c. 1.5. 803a 


Sturges Bourne's Act, 909 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 134. 753 


21 Vict. c. 16, 740 


Stutchbury, Mr., 385a 


16 & 17 Vict. c. 137, 201a 


21 Vict. c. 20, 205 


Stycas, 229 


17 Vict. c. 16, 253 


21 Vict. c. 26. 326a 


Suav. 916a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 5, 591 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 26, 421a 


Suarii, 161 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 10, 430 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 48, 5, 33a 


Sublaqueum, 812a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 13, 563 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 49, 326a, 454a, 


Sucre, 214 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 31, 711a 


643a 


Sudor Anglicanus, 670a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 33. 806a 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 60, 457, 491a 


Suessa Pometia. 883 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 36, 719 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 72, 321, 476a 


Suetonius Pauliuus. 46, 294. 888 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 38, 368 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 77, 482 


Saindinum. .538 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 59, 765a 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 89, 519a, .520 -^ 


Suliot Rebellion, 392a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 60, 286a 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 90, 300, 549a, 817 


Sullivan, Daniel, 664a 


17 & 18 Vict. 0. 80, 718a 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 96, 321a 


Sumuer, Charles Bird, 862a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 81, 338a, 632a 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 97, 129 


Sunday School Union, 310a, 816 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 83. 805 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 98. 129a. 753 


Sunnan-daeg, 815a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 86, 28a, 716 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 99. 150, 706a 


Sur, 857a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 90, 364a, 437a, 866 


21 & 22 Vict. 101, 363 


Surajah Dowlah, 431a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 95. 129 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 104, 290a, 502a, 


Surrey Music Hall, 502a, 818 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 96. 385, 673. 805a 


559, 834 


Sm-veyor-General of his Majesty's 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 99. 295a 


21 & 22 Vict. 0. 106, 129, 306a, 


Works, 908 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 104. 667a, 910 


326a, 434 


Susarion, 233a, 290a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 112, 788 


21 & 22 Vict. c. 108, 285a 


Suso, Henry, 581a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 117, 321a 


22 Vict. c. 26, 81 6a 


Suter, Captain, 385a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 119, 95 


22 Vict. c. 27, 673a 


Siitrium, 818a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 123, sua 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 18, 430a 


Sutteeism, 432a, 818a 


17 & 18 Vict. c. 12.5, 56a 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 21, 334a 


Sutton, 675 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 9, 830 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 36, 665a 


Sutton, Mr. Samuel, 874a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 20. 430 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 40. 592, 720a 


Suwarrow, Marshal, 447 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 21.814, 830 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, 720a 


Swammerdam, 328a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 27. 599a 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 56, 895a 


Swan's Feather, 107a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 32, 806 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 57. 253 


Swedenborg, Emanuel, 821 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 38, 803a 


22 & 23 Vict. c. 61. 285a 


Swet-t Principle of Oils, 383a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 41. 274 


23 Vict. c. 14. 430a 


Sweyne's Feather, 107a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 43. 21 


23 Vict. c. 18. 705a 


Sweynheym, Courad, 696a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 54, 823 


23 Vict. c. 22. 311a 


Swift, Dean, 291a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 60, 385, 805* 


23 Vict. c. 27, 488, 717a. 90.5a 


Swine's Feather, 107a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 63, 363 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 63, 454a 


Sychem, 773a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 70, 487, 488, 846a 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 77. 753 


Sydney. Algernon, 324p, 745a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 72, 895a 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 107, 717a 


Sydney, Su- PhUip, 415a, 917a 


18 & 19 Vict. c. 96, 264a 


23 & 24 Vict. c. 112,274 


Sylla. 3, 76, 7ala 


18 & 19 Vict. 0. 97, 264a, 617a 


23 cSt 24 Vict. c. 114, 803a 


Symington. William, 807, 807a 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Syncleticji, St., 614 


TeiTa AustraUs Incognita, 793a 


Tongkoo Bay, 209 


Syiidercomb, John, 823 


Terra di Lavoro, 173a 


Tonti, Lorenzo, 844 


Syros, 823 


Tesserae, 282 


To..ke, Home. 2.50. 325 




Tessin, 839a 


Toolooiiidt-s, Dynasty, 313, 824 


Taaksta, 31a 


Testa, Ti-ebatius, 903 


Toprak-Kali, 630 


Tahai-d, 293 


Testone, 833 


Topsham Canal, 338 


Tabarieh, 839a 


Testoon, 775, 833 


Torcellus, 624a 


TabelUones, 612a 


Tetzel, 520a 


Toruacus, 845 


Tabernacles, Feast of, 341a 


Tezcuco, Lake, 86 


Torpedo. 315a. 316a 


Tabreez, 825a 


Thaddeus, 63a 


T.rquatus, Mauliu3,730a 


Tabula Pacis. 649a 


Thadmor, 638 


Torquemada, 436a 


Tae-ping Kebellion, 209a 


Thales of MUetus, 38a, 73a, 315a, 


Torre del Greco, 877 


Taff KaUway, 184 


374, 392, 439a 


TorriceUi, 76a, 99a, 426a 


Tahitiau Islands, 376 


Thanus, 834a 


Tortuga Island, 154 


Taku Foz-ts, 210, 651a 


Thapsacum, 834a 


Toscaua, 855a 


Talleyrand, Prince, 114a, 356 


Themison, 550 


Tnsseter. 845a 


Talus, 282, 7o9a 


Themistocles, 60, 75a 


Totila. 733 


Taman, 74o 


Theophilus, 11a 


Toulouu, 828a 


Tamariz, Haro y, 560 


Theophori, 213 


Tour de RoussiUon, 737a 


Tameorwerth, 675 


Theophrast.us, 136a, 589a 


Toururlle Civile, 644 


Tamerlane, 431 


Theopompus 329 


Tournelle Criminelle, 644 


Tauiesa, 834 


Theruia, 749rt, 836a 


Toussant Louverture. 4o7a 


Tamesis, 834 


Thennus, 836a 


Towuley, Chailes, 846 


TaTnia,this, 268a 


Therviiigi, 882 


Townseiid. Rev. J , 272a 


Tauaite Dynasty, 312 


Thej^eus, 391a 


Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 


Tanatis, 834a 


Thespis, 233a, 290a, 847 


753 


Tanatos, 834a 


Thessalu-s, 550 


Trade Winds, 904 


Tanchelln, 12, 50 


Thiana, 857 


Trajan's Column, 732a, 847a 


Tandemus, 12 


Thiai-, 625 


Trajeclmm, 866a 


Tangchow, 210 


Thibet, 839a 


Tram Roads, 710a 


Tanquelin, 50 


Thiers, M., 356 


Traui. 99 


Tantalum, 233 


Thlmonuier, Mens., 772a 


Transalpine Gaul, 370, 847a 


Tantia Topee, 433a 


Thinite Dynasty, 312 


I'ranstigui-ation, Feast of the. 


Tantun, 829 


Thistlewood, A., 193, 336 


341a 


Tanzimat, 2.'5a 


Th.>aija, 857 


Tran.'jurana, Burgundy, 61 


Taomiina, 829 


Thomas, St., 398, 763 


Transuxiana. 131a 


Tapac Amaru, 658a 


Thompson Kiver. 150 


TrapeziU Maiciauus, 539a 


Taprobaiie, 196a 


Thomson, James, 765a 


Trapezus, fc49 


Tapton, 711a 


Thom, John, 725a, 837a 


Treaties— 


Tarablus, 852 


Thon=ton, 829 


Ad,igau, 1 


Tarentum, 530 


Thor, 839 


AbbevUle, 2a 


Taiif Ibu Malik, 827a 


Thorne, K., 58a 


Abo, 5 


Tarik-ben-Zeyad, 794a 


Thomey Island. 897a 


Abrautes, 5a 


Tarpeia, 828 


Th'iruton, A., 71a 


Aihun, 743a 


Taj-i-aco, 828 


Thorough Bass, 580 


Aix-la-Chapelle, 24 


Tarraconeiisis, o5a 


'1 hrasybulus, 76. 837 


Akermann, 24a 


Tartessus, 828 


Thre^hel•s' Outrages, 440a 


Alkmaar. 33 


Tai-visium, 849a 


Tnrot'le Valve, 807a 


Allahabad, 90 


Tasman, 81, i;(i2a, 828a 


Thu'-govia, 838a 


Almazan, 35 


Ta>so, Tur.iuatu, 446a 


Thurii, 838a 


Alin.aah, 461a 


Tatar Akl.tiar, 767a 


Thurot. 839 


Alt-Ransta ,t. 37 


Tatars, S'lo,, 


1 hwaites, Mr. J,, 559 


Amboise League, 38a 


Tatf, Xalium, 676 


Thyatua, 772 


America, 154 


Tatian, 321 


Tibiscus, 8.11a 


Amiens, 41 


Tatianists, 321 


Tichfieid, 841a 


Amm-ath, 305a 


Tattei-sall's, 501a 


Ticiuuu..648a 


Anceiiis, 44a 


Tauler, John, 581a 


Tiflis, 8Wa 


Andelot, 352a 


Tawell, James, 337 


Tiger, war-steamer, 126rt 


Audrussow, 742 


Tawnton, 829 


Tiilotsou, Archbishop, 402a 


Antalcidas, 48a 


Taxandria, 361 


Tilly, Marshal, 837a 


Antwerp, 51 


Taylor, J., 293a 


Timolrou, 247,823a 


Ar-aiijuez, 56 


Taylors and Linen Armourers, 555 


Timothy, St., 329, 772 


Armed Neutrality, 62 


Tchav, 266a 


Tineh, 652a 


Arras, 65a 


Tchili, 206a 


Tin Farthings, 341 


Ashburton, 69 


TeazUug Machines, 908a 


Tingis.826 


Assieuto, 71 


Tectosages, 45 


Tiii Islands, 762a 


Augsbmg, 79a 


Tecumseh, 861 


Tiphsah. 834a 


Baclajoz, 88a 


Tedmor, 638 


TippooSaib,432,771 


Baden, 89a 


Teheran, 830a 


Tissington, 896 


Bagnalo, 90 


Tela, 550a 


Tithe Commutation Act, 841a 


Balta Liman, 93 


Telegouus, 856a 


Titian. 634a 


Bangkok, 862a 


Telentias. 619a 


Titus Lartius, 282 


Barcelona, 98 


Telford, Mr. Thomas, 553rt, 726a 


Titus Quinctius. 392a 


Barenwald, 102a 


Tell, William, 821a 


Tlemseu, 31a, 842 


BaiTier Treaties, 101 


Telo Martius, 844a 


Tofana, 894 


Bartenstein, 102 


Temple, Frederick, 331 


Toga, 292a 


Barwalde, 102a 


Ten, CouucU of, 872a 


Togarn,ah, 62 


Basel. 102a 


Ten, Government of the, 76 


Tolosa, 844a 


Bassein, 103a 


Ten Jurisdictious, League of, 164 


Toltecs, 559a 


Bayonne, 107a 


Tennjson, Alfred, 676 


Turn of Bedlam's Men, 5a 


Beckascog, 109 


Tenochtitlan, 86 


Tom^k. 778 


Belgrade, 112 


Tenths, 841a 


Tom Thumb, 301 


Bergerac, H6a 


Tephrice, 647a 


Tomkins and Chaloner, 888a 


Berlin, 117 


Terceira, 690a 


Tonbri.'ge Wells. 854 


Berwick-on-Tweed, 117a 


Terence, 233a, 291 


Tone, Theobald Wolf, 440a, 859a 


Bhurtpore, il8a 


Tergeste, 850 


Tongan Islands, 363 


Biagrussa, 119 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Treaties— {continued). 


Treatfes— {continued) . 


Tkv.\nva-icontinucd). 


Blois, 127a 


Iglau, 428 


Pardo, 796a 


Bocca Tigris, 209« 


Ildefeuso, St., 428 


Pans, 642 


Boovhanpoiv, 432a 


Intercm-sus Magnus, 554a 


PHrt.dorf. 64.5 


Boyaoji-Keuy, 138a 


Interim Treaty, 4:i7a 


Partition Treaties, 645a 


Breda, 141rt 


Itfhiogford, 448 


Passarowitz, 645a 


Bretigny, 142 


Jassy, 451a 


Passau, 645rt 


Broemsbro, 151a 


Jecido, 452 


Peace of Clement IX., 451 


Bromsebroe, 151a 


Jonkoping, 4.57 


Peace of R(.ligion, 79a 


Bruges, 152 


Jos6, San, 251a 


Pecquigny, 650 


Brundusium, 145a 


Judeuburg, 458 


Peitang, 863 


Bucharei-t, 154a 


Kainardji, 472 


Pekin,210 


Bulwer-Clayton, 156 


Kalisch, 460a 


Peronne, 6.55a 


Caen, 165 


Kanagawa, 863 


Peter.^lmrg, St., 660a 


Cambray, 171 


Khyrpore, 463a 


Pc.erswHlde, 661 


Campe, 173a 


Kiel, 464 


Poiscliewitz, 743 


Campo-Fortnio, 173a 


Kingston-on-Thames, 849 


Pondicberiy, 431a 


Cardis, 184 


Kuriieuburg, 472 


Poonah, 156a 


Carlowitz, 185 


Koutchouk Kainardji, 472 


Poorundah, 681 


Cateau-Cambresis, 191a 


La .laulnais, 474a 


Prague, 694 


Cavriana, 873 


Layb.ich, 480a 


Presburtr, 694a 


CeUe, 915a 


Leagues, &c., 481a 


Pruth. 340 


Chambord, 198a 


Leipsic, 484 


Pyrenees. 704 


Chaumont, 204 


Leoben, 485 


Quadruple Alliance, 765 


Chierasco, 206a 


Le*-es, 486 


kadstadt. 7i0 


Chuuar, 214 


Liebau, 488a 


Rastadt, 710 


Chunarghur, 214 


Limerick, 491 


Ratisbon, 714 


Cintra, 216 


Lisbon, 493a 


Reciprocity Treaty, 715a 


Clair-sur-Epte, 608 


Litvatorok, 495 


Reicheiibach, 719 


Clarendon-Dallas, 220a 


Lodi, 498 


Roskilfl,7o6a 


Closter-Se^^en, 223 


Loni^on, 503 


Ruel,739a 


Colombo, 197 


Longjuiueau, 505a 


Kyswick, 74.5a 


Conflans, 239a 


Loo, 506 


Saalfel. 1,74.5a 


Constance, 241a 


Luuviers, 517a 


SchiJiibiunn, 762 


Constantinople, 242a 


Lubeck, 518 


Segeden, 768 


Conway, 887 


Lublin, 518 


Segoulee, 432a 


Cracow, 699a 


Lucerne, 518a 


Senlis, 76a 


Crespy, 257a 


Lucon, 519 


Sistova, 783 


Crotoy.239a 


Luud, 820 


Stettin, 809 


Darmstadt, 271 


LuueviUe, 520 


Stockholm, 809a 


Deogaum, 265 


Lyons, g23a 


Stolbova, 810 


Dinapoor, 5y3a 


Madrid, 528 


Suncion, 815a 


Dover, 289a 


Malines, 534 


Susa, 818 


Dresden, 292a 


Malmo, 534 


Taafna, 31a 


Durham, 763a 


Mau galore, 537 


Teflis, 742a 


Edinburgh, 310 


Maur, St., 612 


Teschen, 833 


El Arisii, 314 


Mechlin. 534 


Thoi'n. 838 


Elbiug, 314a 


Memel, 553 


Tien-tsin, 840 


Elsinor, 318a 


Mbthueu, 559 


Tilat, 840a 


Erivan, 629a 


Milan, 562a 


Tolentiuo, 84.9a 


Erzeroum, 330a 


Misenum, 779 


Tordesillas. 844 


Estaples, 331a 


Mongon, 570a 


Tourkmaiitchai, 582 


Falaise, 763a 


Monte KeUo, 490 


Trente, 149 


Falczi, 340 


Moore, 574a 


Tieviso, 849a 


Family Compact, 340a 


Mundesore, 434a 


Triple Alliance, 851a 


Ferrara, 342a 


Munater, 578 


Truyes, 853 


Florence, 348 


Nankin, 583a 


Turin, 759 


Foligno, 349a 


Naples, 587 


Turkmansbai, 743 


Fontaineblean, 349a 


Naumberg, 59 


Uukiar SkHles3i,865 


Frankfort-on-the Maine, 359 


Naupactus, 18 


Utrecht. 866a 


Fi-edeiickshal!, 361a 


Neisse, 700 


Vaucell-s. 870a 


FrttvUle, 362a 


Nerchinsk, 594 


Vehlau. 699a 


Friedwdld, 363 


Neuritzur, 189 


Vercelli, 875 


Fuessen, 364 


Nice, 603 


Verdun, 875 


Fursterhund Alliance, 700 


Nicias, 664 


Ver.-ailles. 876 


Galatz, 629a 


Niemetz, 742 


Vervins, 876a 


Geneva, 372 


Niemeguen, 605 


Viborg, 877a 


Germain, St., 353a 


Nipehoo, 594 


Vienna, 880 


Germane, S.m, 376a 


Nisibis, 605a 


Villa Franca, 880a 


Ghent, 379a 


Nismes, 605a 


Vilna, 880a 


Grand Alliance, 389a 


Northampton, 249a 


Viterbo, 882 


Guadalupe Hidalgo, 560 


Noyon, 6l3a 


Vossem, 884 


Gueraude, 398 


Nuremberg, 614a 


Vyborg, 877a 


Gulistan. 399 


Nvstadt, 614a 


Werela, 742a 


Hadrianople. 401 


Odensee, 796 


Westmiusrer, 897a 


Hague, 401a 


Oleron, 618 


Westphalia, 898a 


Halle, 402a 


01iVi,618a 


Wiasma. 742 


Hanover, 699a 


Olivenza, 618a 


Wilna, 742 


HeUbro. n, 408a 


Olmtitz, 618a 


Winchester. 903a 


Helsingborg, 409a 


Orebro, 624 


Wismar, 905 


HeiTeuhausen, 699a 


Orthes, 627 


Windsor. 152 


Hohenlinoeii, 414a 


Oivieto, 627 


Wursterhansen, 699a 


Holy alliance, 417a 


Osnaburg, 627 


Wyborg, 877a 


Homum-Chae, 209a 


Pacifications, 633 


Yaudabo«. 911a 


Honolulu. 419a 


Paix aux Dames, 171 


Zatmar. 915a 


Hubertsburg, 422a 


Paiana, 701 


Zell, 915a 



958 



THE MANUAL OF DATES. 



Tbeattes — (continued). 

Zurich. 9 17 
Ti-eiiCh, Baron, 529 
Trent, Steamer, 863a 
Tresham, Sir Thomas, 803 
Trevethick, Richard. 497a, 711, 80 
Trevor, Sir John, 801a 
Trial by Combat, 71 
Trial of tht^ Pyx, 805 
Triaugulatiou, 850a 
Triarchy, 411 
Tribonian, 50a 
Tridentiiie Catechism, 192 
Ti-identum, 849 
Triers, 849 
TriUeck's Inns, 597a 
. Tri-MUchi, 547 
Trinacria, 778a 
Trine Immersion, 96a 
Trinitarians, 546a, 850a 
Trlnovantum, 121 
Triple Crown, 839a 
Trissino, 847 
Tristan, Nuno, 181a 
Tritasa, 8a 

Triumvu-ate of the Trecento, 849 
Triumviri Capitales, 731, 852a 
Trivium, 67a 
Trois Echelles, 906 
Troja, 428 

Tron Church, Glasgow, 381a 
Trons, 164 
Troop, 194 

Trough ton, Edward, 579a 
Troy Weight, 895 
Trumpets, Feast of, 341a 
Tsad, 829a 
Tsar, 2G6a 
Tscherkask, 251a 
Tsikee, 209a 
Tsor, 8.57a 
Tubal Cain, 442a 
Tugeubund Society, 378 
Tuisco, 854 
Tulipomania, 415a 
Tumbez (Peru). 40 
Tumbrel, 15a, 90a, 261a 
Tunes, 854 
Tunpta, 854 
Tunkoo, 208a 
Turani Dynasty, 656a 
Turcoman Dynasty. 6-58 
Turenne. Marshal, 750a 
Turge.siu8, 439a 
Turgot, 354a 
Tm-key Red, 301 
Turkomans, 8o5 
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 

589, 892a 
Turner, Richard, 830a 
Turpin. Richard, 336 
Tuscia, 855a 
Two-ford-ton, 842 
Twyford, 842 
Twy-ford-ton, 842 
Tycho Brahe. 74, 815 
Tyers, Jonathan, 870a 
Tyler, Wat. 126, 271a, 323, 786, 

894 
Tyndale, 120 
Tyndareus, 800 
Tyrian Purple, 301 
Tyrnau, 454 
Tyrone, See of, 279a 
Tyrone's Rebellion, 323a 
lYn-el, Walter, ;.96a 
Tyumie District, 165a 

TTBn, 370 

Ubiquitarians, 858 
TJdine, See of, 54 
Ugii, 531 

Dliarus Insula, 618 
"DUoa, 40 
tJlphilas, 59a, 740 
Ulric, St, 177 



triysses, 448, 636a 

Uncuth, 21a 

" Unfoituuate Peace," 192 

Uiigri, 639 

Unhappy Islands, 280 

United Associate Synod, 157 

United Brethren, 575, 859a 

United Kingdom Alliance, 831a 

United Principalities, 270a 

University Hall, 220 

Unlearned Parliament, 643a 

Unleavened Bread. 645a 

Unreason, Abbot of, 3 

Upper Bench, 467 

Upper Louisiana, 567a 

Upsi, Eric, 39a 

Ural Mountains, 281. 386a 

Urbinum, Hurtense, 865a 

Uriah the Hittite, 414a 

Urup Island, 472a 

Usbecks, 8o5 

Utcudama, 401 

U.-her, 15 

Usipi, 866 

Utter Barrister, 101a 

Uxama, 627 

VACTjna Pan, 814a 

Vagabonds 867 

Valdesii, 867a 

Valentine, Basil, 49, 332 

Valentine, St., 868a 

Valentinus, 384, 868a 

Valery, St., 406 

Vallenses, 867a 

Vanbruuh, ?ir John, 621, 908 

Vancouver, Captain, 869 

Vandalucia, 45 

Van der Berg. 86 

Van Eyck, Hubert. 634a 

Van Eyck, John, 617a, 6:Ma 

Van Hattem, Pontiau, 407 

Van Helmont, 27a 

Van Noort, 135 

Van Poelgeest, Alice, 415 

Vans Agnew, Mr., 574 

Van Tromp, Admiral, 408a, 415a 

Varinas, 99 

Vamitza, 112 

Van-o, Marcus, 428a, 758 

Vascones, ;^69a, 5y0a 

Vauban, Mareschal, 3.51a 

Vaucauson. Jacijues, 846a 

Vavassor, 99a, 869 

Vaz. Tristam, 19 

Vecta, 901a 

Vectis, 901a 

Vegii, L'H'e de, ?33a 

Vrhm-Gericht, 871 

Vela, Cape, 40 

Velasquez, 40 

Veliet, 871a 

Venaissim County. 85 

Venerable Bede. 816 

Veneti, 64. 871a 

'• Veni, Vidi, Vici," 915w 

Venlo, 132 

Venner. Thomas, 43. 874a 

Venta Belgarum, 903a 

Venta I -enorum, 611a 

Venusia. 874a 

Veidiugale, 341 

Verge, Court of, 128 

Vej gUia, 57ya 

Verhoeven, Abraham, 600 

Vermandois, 353 

Vermeland, 611 

Vermuyden, 19a 

Veruaudois, Duke of, 443 

Vernon, Admii al, 396a 

Vernon, Mr. Robert, 589, 875a 

Verrazzauo, 40 

Verres, 779 

Verulam, 25a, 146 

Vesalius, 44a 

Vesoutio, 117a 



Vespucci, Amerigo, 39a 

Via iEmilia, 60a 

Via Appia, 726 

Via Flamini*. 60a 

Vicars, Apostolic, 124a 

Vicary, Thomas, 44a 

Vicentia, 877a 

Vicetia, 878 

Vico Eue«s, 614 

VicramadUya .^ra, 17 

Victoria, 545 

Victoria College (Jersey), 452a 

Victoiia Land, 793a 

Victoria Tower, Westminster, 422a 

Vieta, F., 31 

View of Frank-Pledge. 253o, 361 

Villa de la Plata 214 

Villa Nova, A. de, 27a 

Viliehardoin, G., 9 

Villejuif, la 

Ville Marie, 573a 

Vinci, Leonardo da, 550 

Vindelicia, 106 

Vindobona, 879 

Vinegar Bible, 120a 

Vinland 39a 

Virgil, 586a. 676 

Virginia. 730a 

Viscouti Family. 446a, 562a 

Viseo Dynasty, 689a 

Visigoths, 388a 

Visit ttion. Feast of the, 341a 

Vitiges, 733 

Vittoria (^hip),217 

Vitus's Dance, St. . 670a 

Vivian, Andrew, 711 

Viiardingen, 524a 

Vlissingen, 349 

Vogelweide-Walther von der, 565a 

Volaterrse. 883 

VologiBsus, 838 

Volta, A., 315a, 367.883 

Voltaire, 275 

Von Fuchs, Dr. Johann N., 893a 

Von Siegen, Colonel, 327a 

Vortigerju, 248a 

Vriesland, 363a 

Vulgnris Purgatio, 623a 

Vulscinians, 883 

Vultures' Nest Fort, 70a 

Vyborg, 877a 

Wachtentdonk, 132 

Wady Musa. 661 

Wager of Law, 459 

Waggon-Coaoh, 187, 884a 

Waghom. Lieutenant, iSHla 

Waiwodes, 888 

Walingeford, 8-8a 

Walentone, 895a 

Walker, Charles V., 813 

Walker, General, 862a, 863 

Wallace, Sir WiUiaui, 764, 786 

Wallenstein, Albrecht, 377a, 837a 

Waller, Hereward de, 673a 

Waller, Edmund, 674a, 888a 

Wallingford House, 15 

Wallis, Captain, 628, 789, 888 

Wallis. Dr., 272a 

Walpole, Horace, 812 

Waltheof, E»rl, 673a 

Walton, Izaac, 46 

Walton's Polyglott, 133a 

Walworth, William, 736, 894 

Wan, 869 

Wanading, 30a 

Wandeforde, 889a 

Wannating, 30a 

Warbeck, Peikin, 108a, 323, 189a 

Warbois Witches, 906 

Wardens, 241 

r/arrior, Steamer, 808 

Was-hwl, 891a 

Washhouses, 105 

Washington, George, 860, 860a, 861 

Water-aviaiy, 53a 



GENEEAL INDEX, 



959 



Water-clocks, 221 


Widows' Friend Society, 901a 


Wyatt. John, 908a 


Water Jet Propulsion, 808 


Widows' Fund. 901a 


Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 323a 


Water Gueux, :^9S 


Wilberforoe, William, 784, 784a 


Wyborg, 877a 


Waterloo Barracks, 846 


Wilde) spin, Mr. Samuel, 11, 434a 


Wyclifte. John, 241a, 323. 910a 


Water-screw, 766 


Wild Gueux, 398 


Wykeham. William of, 596a, !;0 


AVater-show, 53a 


Wilfred, 57a 


Wyk of Myton, 423 


Watson, Dr., 812ct 


WUkes, Captain, 863a 




Watt. James, 394, 807, 807a 


Wilkes, J.. 324a, 372. 609a, 725 


Xavier, Francis, 452 


Waverley Abbey, 341 


William of Cologne, 634a 


Xenarchus, 768a 


Webb, Lieut.. 69a 


Williams. General, 461a 


Xeiiodochia. 435a 


Weber, Carl von, 620a 


WiHiam.s, Roger, 722a 


Xenojihanes. 314a, 639 


Webster, Daniel. 8t)2a 


Williams, Rowland, 331 


Xenophon. 76, 720a, 776a 


Weced-poort. 892 


Willis. John, 777 


Xerxes, 6. 911 


Weddel, Captain, 4Sa 


Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 58a, 803a 


Ximenes, Cardinal, 795 


Wedgwood, Jusiah, 302a, 332a, 


Wilson, H. B.. 331 




895 


Wiisou. General, 43* 


Yaffa, 449, 


Wedgwood, Thomas, 364a 


Wini:hester Bushel, 161, 548a 


Yakutes. 778. 855 


Weeks, Feast of, 341a, 6o3a 


Windham, General, 194a 


Yale College. 597a 


Weishaupt. Adam, 428a 


Windlefhora. 904a 


Yeh. Commissioner, 180a 


Wellesley, Sir Arthur, 432 


Windsor. Military Knights of, 201 


Yellow Hats. 406a 


Wellington Arcade, 338a 


Windsor, Poor Knights of, 201 


Yeomen Bedgoers and Hangers, 


WcUiutjton, Duke of, 326, 365, 


Windward Islands, 184a 


912a 


432, 797a, 893, 895a 


Wineta, 907 


Yerb, Buena, 752a 


Wellington Equestrian Statue, 


Winfred. 256a 


Yermak Timofeyew, 778 


426 


Winter. Thomas, 399a 


Yezd. 397a 


Welsers, 183 


Winwick. 628 


York Place, 900 


Welsh Calvinistic Methodists, 558 


Wirksworth. 896 


Young, Brigham, 866a 


WendJeforde, 889a 


Wirtz, Andrew, 766 


Young. Robert, 716 


Wenet, 870 


Wisbaden, 901a 


Young Italy Party. 447 


Wensleydale, Lord, 651 


Wiseman, Cardinal. 693a, 897a 


Young Pretender. 325 


Werington. 890a 


Wishart, George. 764a 


Yperen, 914a 


Wesley, John, 558a, 900a 


Witeuagemot, 52 


Yrala, Martinez de, 40 


Wesleyan Methodists, 558a 


Wladimir, 882a 


Yuyao, 209a 


West. Benjamin, 738 


Woad, 292a 




Westeraas, 624 


Wodnes-day, 895 


Zaatcha. 31a 


Westerbech Sloot, 648 


Wolf-monath, 451 


Zaleacus, 815 


Western Australia, 82 


W-olodomir, 818a 


Zamzummims, 41a 


Western Independent CoUege, 430a 


Wolsey, Cardinal, 323a, 403a, 


Zaucle, 557 


Western Islands. 86 


483a 


Zanzalee, Jacob, 915 


Westminster Assembly, Confes- 


Woochaug. 209a 


Znpolya, John, 848 


sion of, 256a 


Wood. Capt.. 58a 


Zaragoza, 754 


Whales' Fins, 899 


Woodcroft. Bennett, 766 


Zarco, 19 


Wharton, Thomas, 676 


Woolsthotpe, 601a 


Zariaspa, 88 


Whately, Archbishop, 498 


Woosung, 20i)a 


Zealous, The, 803a 


Wheatstone, Professor, 316, 400a, 


Woothon, 127a 


Zebu Island, 663 


702, 809 


Wootz, 808 


Zenghis Khan, 431, 571, 657a 


Wheeler, Sir Hugh, 433 


Worcester, Marquis of, 807, 831 


Zeno. 314a, 810 


Whippers, 346 


Wordingborg Castle, 915a 


Ze.io. Carlo. 873 


Whirlicotes, 187 


Wordsworth, William, 676 


Zenobia, 638 


Whitchurch, 214a 


Worsing, Andrew, 590 


Zerbst (Anhalt). 47 


White Bakers' Company, 90a 


Wrecks :— 


Zernagora. 572a 


White Canons, 693a 


Amazon 38 


Zerubbabel. 455 


White Chamber, Westminster, 


Amphiou, 42 


Zeuxis. 634a 


422 


Amphitrite, 42a 


Zhehol, 208a 


White City, Ilia. 903a 


Antelope, 652 


Ziani. S.. 15a 


Whitefriars' Theatre, 900 


Austria, 83a 


Ziegler. John, 807 


White Huns. 593a 


Birkenhead, 121a 


Zimbao. 19a 


White Longtown. 25 


Forfarshire, 350 


Zinzendorf. Count, 575, 859a 


White Biver, 604 


Ktnt. 4;2 


Zipango. 4.31 


Whites and Blocks, 119 


O.jeau Monarch. 616 


Ziska. John, 12a, 130a, 425, 694. 


Wbite Suud.av, 901 


Orion. t)25a 


825 


Whitheld, Bev. George, 55Sa, 


Pacific. 633a 


Zobah, 60ga 


900a 


Presidi-nt, 695 


Zodiacal Light, 916 


Whitgitt, 15 


Queen Victoria, 707a 


Zollern. 415 


Whitingtou, Sir Richard, 481a, 


Rothesay Castle. 737 


Zoroaster. 529a, 656a 


513, 901 


Royal Adelaide. 738 


Zouaouas. 916a 


Whitney, Eli, 2g2a 


Royal Charter. 7:^8 


Zouga river. 20 


Whyda, 267a 


Royal George, 738a 


Zuiiiglius, Ulrich, 716a, 822, 917a 


Wibliagen, 380 


Sarah Sands, 754a 


Zuloaga, 560a 


Wichnor. 299 


William an-^ Mary, 902 


Zumalacarreguy, 797a 


Wicked Bible, 120a 


Wren, Sir Christopher, 403a, 647a 


Zumpanco. 86 


Wicker-work, 103 


Writs. Parliamentary. 643 


Zurbano, 798 


Wicquefort, 38a 


Wultiunes Hampton, 907 


ZwingU, 716a, 822, 917« 



THE END. 



cox AND WXMAN, PEINTEES, GREAT QUJEEX STBEET, I/OlfDOir. 



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